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predetermine the roles of their members, in which the commonality of interests and intents due to a shared local identity creates a predictability of discrete intent and therefore a simplification of verbal utterances. Such environments may include military, religious, and legal atmospheres, criminal and prison subcultures, long-term married relationships and friendships between children. Due to the strong bonds between speakers, explicit verbal communication is often rendered unnecessary and individual expression irrelevant. However, simplification is not a sign of a lack of intelligence or complexity within the code; rather, communication is performed more through extraverbal means (facial expression, touch, etc.) in order to affirm the speakers' bond. Bernstein notes the example of a young man asking a stranger to dance: there is an established manner of asking, and yet communication is performed through physical graces and the exchange of glances. As such, implied meaning plays a greater role in this code than in the elaborated code. Restricted code also operates to unify speakers and foster solidarity.
970:: the researcher is trying to elicit the style of speech that would be used if the interviewer were not present. To this end, a variety of techniques may be used to reduce the subject's attention to the formality and artificiality of the interview setting. For example, the researcher may attempt to elicit narratives of memorable events from the subject's life, such as fights or near-death experiences; the subject's emotional involvement in telling the story is thought to distract their attention from the formality of the context. Some researchers interview multiple subjects together, in order to allow them to converse more casually with each other than they would with the interviewer alone. The researcher may then study the effects of
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exposure to both codes. While there is no inherent lack of value to restricted code, a child without exposure to elaborated code may encounter difficulties upon entering formal education, in which standard, clear verbal communication and comprehension is necessary for learning and effective interaction both with instructors and other students from differing backgrounds. As such, it may be beneficial for children who have been exposed solely to restricted code to enter pre-school training in elaborated code in order to acquire a manner of speaking that is considered appropriate and widely comprehensible within the education environment.
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association of this code with upper classes (while restricted code is associated with lower classes), where the abundance of available resources allows persons to choose their social roles, warning, however, that studies associating the codes with separate social classes used small samples and were subject to significant variation. He also asserts that elaborated code originates due to differences in social context rather than intellectual advantages; as such, elaborated code differs from restricted code according to the context-based emphasis on individual advancement over assertion of social/community ties.
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1131:, while the lower, middle, and upper middle class will, in turn, speak closer to the standard. However, the upper class, even members of the upper middle class, may often speak 'less' standard than the middle class. This is because not only class but class aspirations, are important. One may speak differently or cover up an undesirable accent to appear to have a different social status and fit in better with either those around them, or how they wish to be perceived.
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1198:, a well-known British socio-linguist, devised in his book, 'Elaborated and restricted codes: their social origins and some consequences,' a method for categorizing language codes according to variable emphases on verbal and extraverbal communication. He claimed that factors like family orientation, social control, verbal feedback, and possibly social class contributed to the development of the two codes: elaborated and restricted.
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1059:; certain speech habits are assigned a positive or a negative value, which is then applied to the speaker. This can operate on many levels. It can be realized on the level of the individual sound/phoneme, as Labov discovered in investigating pronunciation of the post-vocalic /r/ in the North-Eastern US, or on the macro scale of language choice, as realized in the various
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middle classes (having been exposed to both restricted and elaborated codes). Additionally, studies by
Bernstein, Venables, and Ravenette, as well as a 1958 Education Council report, show a relative lack of success on verbal tasks in comparison to extraverbal in children from lower working classes (having been exposed solely to restricted code).
1075:. There will thus be a considerable difference in use of non-standard varieties when going to the pub or having a neighborhood barbecue compared to going to the bank. One is a relaxed setting, likely with familiar people, and the other has a business aspect to it in which one feels the need to be more professional.
913:. Sociolinguists also study language on a national level among large populations to find out how language is used as a social institution. William Labov, a Harvard and Columbia University graduate, is often regarded as one of the founders of the study of sociolinguistics. He focuses on the quantitative analysis of
1250:, meaning that humans are born with an innate capacity for linguistic skills like sentence-building. This theory has been criticized by several scholars of linguistic backgrounds because of the lack of proven evolutionary feasibility and the fact that different languages do not have universal characteristics.
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Variation may also be associated with gender. Men and women, on average, tend to use slightly different language styles. These differences tend to be quantitative rather than qualitative. That is, to say that women use a particular speaking style more than men do is akin to saying that men are taller
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was pioneered through the study of language variation in urban areas. Whereas dialectology studies the geographic distribution of language variation, sociolinguistics focuses on other sources of variation, among them class. Class and occupation are among the most important linguistic markers found in
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Studies, such as those by
William Labov in the 1960s, have shown that social aspirations influence speech patterns. This is also true of class aspirations. In the process of wishing to be associated with a certain class (usually the upper class and upper middle class) people who are moving in that
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on language by comparing a subject's speech style in more vernacular contexts, such as narratives of personal experience or conversation between subjects, with the more careful style produced when the subject is more attentive to the formal interview setting. The correlations of demographic features
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in-group marker. Historically, humans tend to favor those who look and sound like them, and the use of non-standard varieties (even exaggeratedly so) expresses neighborhood pride and group and class solidarity. This desirable social value associated with the use of non-standard language is known as
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depending on how members interact with each other. For instance, an office or factory may be considered a tight community because all members interact with each other. A large course with 100+ students would be a looser community because students may only interact with the instructor and maybe 1–2
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It is generally assumed that non-standard language is low-prestige language. However, in certain groups, such as traditional working-class neighborhoods, standard language may be considered undesirable in many contexts. This is because the working class dialect is generally considered a powerful
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framework states that a linguistically appropriate translation cannot be wholly sufficient to achieve the communicative effect of the source language; the translation must also incorporate the social practices and cultural norms of the target language. To reveal social practices and cultural norms
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The looseness or tightness of a social network may affect speech patterns adopted by a speaker. For instance, Sylvie Dubois and
Barbara Horvath found that speakers in one Cajun Louisiana community were more likely to pronounce English "th" as (or as ) if they participated in a relatively dense
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allows for sociolinguistics to examine the relationship between socialization, competence, and identity. Since identity is a very complex structure, studying language socialization is a means to examine the micro-interactional level of practical activity (everyday activities). The learning of a
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is the term given to the use of different varieties of language depending on the social situation. This is commonly used among the
African-American population in the United States. There are several different types of age-based variation one may see within a population as well such as age range,
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Additionally, Bernstein notes several studies in language development according to social class. In 1963, the
Committee for Higher Education conducted a study on verbal IQ that showed a deterioration in individuals from lower working classes ages 8–11 and 11–15 years in comparison to those from
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Bernstein explains language development according to the two codes in light of their fundamentally different values. For instance, a child exposed solely to restricted code learns extraverbal communication over verbal, and therefore may have a less extensive vocabulary than a child raised with
1215:
Basil
Bernstein defined 'elaborated code' according to its emphasis on verbal communication over extraverbal. This code is typical in environments where a variety of social roles are available to the individual, to be chosen based upon disposition and temperament. Most of the time, speakers of
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and demonstrate less syntactic predictability than speakers of restricted code. The lack of predetermined structure and solidarity requires explicit verbal communication of discrete intent by the individual in order to achieve educational and career success. Bernstein notes, with caution, the
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is the foundational method of collecting data for sociolinguistic studies, allowing the researcher to collect large amounts of speech from speakers of the language or dialect being studied. The interview takes the form of a long, loosely-structured conversation between the researcher and the
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According to Basil
Bernstein, the restricted code exemplified the predominance of extraverbal communication, with an emphasis on interpersonal connection over individual expression. His theory places this code within environments that operate according to established social structures that
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age-graded variation, and indications of linguistic change in progress. The use of slang can be a variation based on age. Younger people are more likely to recognize and use today's slang while older generations may not recognize new slang, but might use slang from when they were younger.
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A social network may apply to the macro level of a country or a city, but also to the interpersonal level of neighborhoods or a single family. Recently, social networks have been formed by the
Internet through online chat rooms, Facebook groups, organizations, and online dating services.
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that exist throughout the world, where Swiss-German/High German is perhaps most well known. An important implication of the sociolinguistic theory is that speakers 'choose' a variety when making a speech act, whether consciously or subconsciously.
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than women (i.e., men are on average taller than women, but some women are taller than some men). Other variations in speech patterns of men and women include differences in pitch, tone, speech fillers, interruptions, use of euphemisms, etc.
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studies variations in language based primarily on geographic distribution and their associated features. Sociolinguists concerned with grammatical and phonological features that correspond to regional areas are often called dialectologists.
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Demographic characteristics such as areas or locations have helped to create speech community boundaries in speech community concept. Those characteristics can assist exact descriptions of specific groups' communication patterns.
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society. One of the fundamental findings of sociolinguistics, which has been hard to disprove, is that class and language variety are related. Members of the working class tend to speak less of what is deemed
1041:
language is greatly influenced by family, but it is supported by the larger local surroundings, such as school, sports teams, or religion. Speech communities may exist within a larger community of practice.
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community is one in which members have multiple relationships with each other. For instance, in some neighborhoods, members may live on the same street, work for the same employer and even intermarry.
1011:. That is, the speaker has the ability to use language in a way that is appropriate in the given situation. It is possible for a speaker to be communicatively competent in more than one language.
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method: an acronym for setting, participants, ends, act sequence, keys, instrumentalities, norms, and genres that is widely recognized as a tool to analyze speech events in their cultural context.
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A sociolinguist might study how social attitudes determine what is considered appropriate language use or inappropriate language use in a particular setting. Sociolinguists might also study the
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in which language is embedded. A social network is another way of describing a particular speech community in terms of relations between individual members in a community. A network could be
1147:
In any contact situation, there is a power dynamic, be it a teacher-student or employee-customer situation. This power dynamic results in a hierarchical differentiation between languages.
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is a concept in sociolinguistics that describes a distinct group of people who use language in a unique and mutually accepted way among themselves. This is sometimes referred to as a
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Studies in the field of sociolinguistics typically collect data through conversational interviews with members of a population of interest; researchers then assess the realization of
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social network (i.e. had strong local ties and interacted with many other speakers in the community), and less likely if their networks were looser (i.e. fewer local ties).
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1568:(1976). "Abstandsprachen und Ausbausprachen" [Abstand-languages and Ausbau-languages]. In Göschel, Joachim; Nail, Norbert; van der Elst, Gaston (eds.).
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1144:, which involves overcorrecting their speech to the point of introducing new errors. The same is true for individuals moving down in socio-economic status.
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Intelligence, personality and social class: an investigation into the patterns of intelligence and personality of working-class secondary school children
2013:
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875:, one of the founders of linguistic anthropology, is credited with developing an ethnography-based sociolinguistics and is the founder of the journal
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1280:. The variations will determine some of the aspects of language like the sound, grammar, and tone in which people speak, and even non-verbal cues.
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direction socio-economically may adjust their speech patterns to sound like them. However, not being native upper-class speakers, they often
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The terms acrolectal (high) and basilectal (low) are also used to distinguish between a more standard dialect and a dialect of less prestige.
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While the study of sociolinguistics is very broad, there are a few fundamental concepts on which many sociolinguistic inquiries depend.
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in
Switzerland in the early 1900s, but none received much attention in the West until much later. The study of the social motivation of
2324:. In: Ginsburgh, V., Weber, S. (Eds.). The Palgrave Handbook of Economics and Language. London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 538–580.
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Gumperz, John J.; Cook-Gumperz, Jenny (2008). "Studying language, culture, and society: Sociolinguistics or linguistic anthropology?".
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or specialized jargon to serve the group's special purposes and priorities. This is evident in the use of lingo within sports teams.
766:(in which listeners share their evaluations of linguistic features they hear), dialect surveys, and analysis of preexisting corpora.
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The social aspects of language were in the modern sense first studied by Indian and
Japanese linguists in the 1930s, and also by
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barriers (a mountain range, a desert, a river, etc.). Such studies also examine how such differences in usage and differences in
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such as age, gender, and ethnicity with speech behavior may be studied by comparing the speech of different interview subjects.
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745:. As the usage of a language varies from place to place, language usage also varies among social classes, and it is these
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Deckert, Sharon K. and Caroline H. Vikers. (2011). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics: Society and Identity. Page 44
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beyond lexical and syntactic levels, the framework includes empirical testing of the translation using methods such as
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Bernstein, Basil (1958). "Some sociological determinants of perception: An enquiry into sub-cultural differences".
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1572:. Zeitschrift fĂĽr Dialektologie and Linguistik, Beihefte, n.F., Heft 16. Wiesbaden: F. Steiner. p. 310.
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The idea of these social language codes from Bernstein contrast with famous linguist Noam Chomsky's ideas.
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Sociolinguistics' historical interrelation with anthropology can be observed in studies of how language
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Die deutsche Sprache in Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz: das Problem der nationalen Varietäten
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1820:"Adapting and Improving Methods to Manage Cognitive Pretesting of Multilingual Survey Instruments"
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Variation in language can also come from ethnicity, economic status, level of education, etc.
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German Language in Germany, Austria and Switzerland: The Problem of National Varieties
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1520:(1968). "A Sociolinguistic Typology for Describing National Multilingualism". In
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associated with everyday, casual conversation. This goal is complicated by the
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The study of sociolinguistics in the West was pioneered by linguists such as
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is concerned with social constraints determining language in its contextual
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Understanding language in society means that one also has to understand the
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Elaborated and restricted codes: their social origins and some consequences
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T. C. Hodson and the Origins of British Socio-linguistics by John E. Joseph
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like high school students or hip hop fans, or even tight-knit groups like
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in the title of his 1939 article "Sociolinguistics in India" published in
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Speech communities can be members of a profession with a specialized
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1246:, deemed the "father of modern linguistics", argues that there is a
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within languages, making sociolinguistics a scientific discipline.
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introduced the basic concepts for the sociolinguistic theory of
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is the descriptive study of the effect of any or all aspects of
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Languages, Regional Conflicts and Economic Development: Russia
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Sociolinguistics Symposium 15, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, April 2004
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and friends. Members of speech communities will often develop
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Report of the Central Advisory Council for Education (1958).
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1964:
Let's tink about dat: Interdental Fricatives in Cajun English
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To be considered part of a speech community, one must have a
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A commonly studied source of variation is regional dialects.
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of the late 19th century. The first attested use of the term
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The Early Days of Sociolinguistics: Memories and Reflections
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differ between groups separated by social variables (e.g.,
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An Introduction to Sociolinguistics: Society and Identity
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interview subject; the researcher's primary goal is to
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Paulston, Christine Bratt and G. Richard Tucker, eds.
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Crucial to sociolinguistic analysis is the concept of
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The Social Stratification of English in New York City
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Annals of the International Communication Association
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Deckert, Sharon K. and Caroline H. Vikers. (2011).
762:. Other research methods in sociolinguistics include
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1873:"Speech Community: Reflections Upon Communication"
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690:and the ways it is used. It can overlap with the
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787:, on the other hand, has its foundation in the
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1045:High prestige and low prestige varieties
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978:
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1216:elaborated code utilize a broader
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25:
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2494:
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1297:Complimentary language and gender
1237:
1184:You have to do it the right way.
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1864:
1811:
1225:The codes and child development
1155:(associated with lower classes)
909:, and other aspects of various
892:
881:. His focus on ethnography and
751:that sociolinguistics studies.
743:social or socioeconomic classes
2479:. Cambridge University Press.
2438:. Cambridge University Press.
2354:Lakoff, Robin Tolmach (2000).
1889:10.1080/23808985.2004.11679041
1726:
1702:
1611:
1584:
1558:
1510:
1491:
1478:
1451:
1349:Interactional sociolinguistics
1112:Differences according to class
329:Functional theories of grammar
13:
1:
2419:. Dallas: SIL International.
2080:Higher Education Appendix One
1871:Milburn, Trudy (2004-01-01).
1445:
1176:You gave it to me yesterday.
837:regional varieties of English
774:
2773:Text and conversation theory
2520:Resources in other libraries
2379:Introducing Sociolinguistics
2131:British Journal of Sociology
2096:British Journal of Sociology
2061:Bernstein, Basil B. (1967).
1181:Y'gotta do it the right way.
1173:You give it to me yesterday.
845:regional standards of German
7:
2320:Kadochnikov, Denis (2016).
2270:. Malden: Wiley Blackwell.
1952:, New York: Wiley-Blackwell
1460:Journal of Sociolinguistics
1414:Sociohistorical linguistics
1309:Anthropological linguistics
1301:
1051:Prestige (sociolinguistics)
770:Sociolinguistics in history
10:
3184:
2565:ReVEL, vol. 5, n. 9, 2007.
2475:Watts, Richard J. (2003).
2434:Tagliamonte, Sali (2006).
2377:Meyerhoff, Miriam (2011).
2223:"Gender and Communication"
1948:Wardhaugh, Ronald (2006),
1921:A Dictionary of Psychology
1404:Real-time sociolinguistics
1294:
1257:
1115:
1048:
990:
962:style of speech—i.e., the
933:with a sample population.
698:and is closely related to
663:
3127:
2916:
2795:
2784:
2624:
2606:
2515:Resources in your library
2400:. John Wiley & Sons.
1534:10.1515/9783110805376.531
1409:Sociocultural linguistics
1254:Sociolinguistic variation
951:sociolinguistic interview
945:Sociolinguistic interview
819:in the UK. In the 1960s,
212:Sociocultural linguistics
2731:Nonviolent communication
2661:History of communication
2381:. Taylor & Francis.
2266:Chambers, J. K. (2009).
2212:Cited in Bernstein 1967.
2084:Cited in Bernstein 1967.
2012:Trudgill, Peter (1974).
1629:Language and Nationalism
1009:communicative competence
883:communicative competence
664:Not to be confused with
3168:Linguistics terminology
2726:Nonverbal communication
2716:Models of communication
2335:Labov, William (2010).
2285:Darnell, Regna (1971).
2039:Labov, William (1966).
1987:American Anthropologist
1439:Category:Sociolinguists
1260:Variation (linguistics)
700:linguistic anthropology
611:Linguistic prescription
571:Linguistic anthropology
423:Descriptive linguistics
294:Theoretical linguistics
207:Linguistic anthropology
124:Phono-semantic matching
2304:Sociolinguistic Styles
2191:Ravenette, T. (1963).
1993:(6, part 2): 137–153.
1591:Ammon, Ulrich (1995).
1394:Mutual intelligibility
1384:Linguistic marketplace
1272:The study of language
931:cognitive interviewing
841:pluricentric "English"
831:, which describes how
829:pluricentric languages
606:History of linguistics
601:Ethnolinguistic groups
202:Historical linguistics
144:Linguistic description
114:Homophonic translation
2878:Mediated cross-border
2600:Communication studies
1837:10.29115/SP-2013-0024
1795:10.4324/9780429294914
1714:linguisticsociety.org
1424:Sociology of language
1374:Language secessionism
1334:Discursive psychology
1324:Axiom of categoricity
1295:Further information:
1191:Social language codes
1118:Linguistic insecurity
1116:Further information:
1038:Community of Practice
867:versus pluricentric "
849:pluricentric "German"
807:Western contributions
692:sociology of language
678:, including cultural
666:Sociology of language
217:Sociology of language
2813:Communication theory
2808:Communication design
2538:at Wikimedia Commons
2166:University Quarterly
1641:10.2139/ssrn.3467646
1624:Jezik i nacionalizam
1379:Linguistic landscape
1153:Non-standard dialect
979:Fundamental concepts
797:Thomas Callan Hodson
756:linguistic variables
741:produce and reflect
682:, expectations, and
561:Language development
544:Language acquisition
2542:Applied Linguistics
2306:. Wiley-Blackwell.
2208:Fifteen to Eighteen
1268:Language and gender
878:Language in Society
764:matched-guise tests
739:beliefs about usage
556:Language assessment
197:Applied linguistics
2843:Discourse analysis
2768:Telecommunications
2711:Meta-communication
2082:. London: H.M.S.O.
1518:Stewart, William A
1503:2009-02-10 at the
1329:Discourse analysis
1096:other students. A
968:Observer's Paradox
628:Linguistics portal
566:Language education
243:Linguistics portal
139:Language varieties
134:Discourse analysis
119:Macaronic language
3145:
3144:
2534:Media related to
2501:Library resources
2486:978-0-521-79406-0
2467:978-0-14-192630-8
2445:978-0-521-77818-3
2426:978-1-55671-253-1
2407:978-0-470-75820-5
2388:978-1-135-28443-5
2369:978-0-520-92807-7
2346:978-1-4443-2788-5
2330:978-1-137-32505-1
2313:978-1-118-73764-4
2277:978-1-4051-5246-4
2260:978-84-9168-316-2
1804:978-0-429-29491-4
1756:978-0-19-938465-5
1650:978-953-188-311-5
1543:978-3-11-080537-6
1522:Fishman, Joshua A
1364:Language planning
1359:Language ideology
1248:universal grammar
1188:
1187:
1129:standard language
833:standard language
758:in the resulting
662:
661:
616:List of linguists
581:Psycholinguistics
279:
278:
63:Language planning
58:Language ideology
16:(Redirected from
3175:
3158:Sociolinguistics
3135:
3134:
2790:
2741:Public relations
2636:Biocommunication
2593:
2586:
2579:
2570:
2569:
2559:
2536:Sociolinguistics
2533:
2506:Sociolinguistics
2490:
2471:
2456:, Peter (2000).
2449:
2430:
2411:
2392:
2373:
2361:
2358:The Language War
2350:
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1619:Kordić, Snježana
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1399:Raciolinguistics
1339:Folk linguistics
1158:Standard dialect
1150:
1149:
1135:Class aspiration
998:Speech community
993:Speech community
987:Speech community
793:sociolinguistics
672:Sociolinguistics
654:
647:
640:
594:Related articles
576:Neurolinguistics
496:and experimental
479:Sociolinguistics
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1505:Wayback Machine
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1434:T–V distinction
1369:Language policy
1314:Audience design
1304:
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1258:Main articles:
1256:
1240:
1227:
1213:
1211:Elaborated code
1204:
1202:Restricted code
1196:Basil Bernstein
1193:
1159:
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1085:social networks
1081:
1073:covert prestige
1053:
1047:
995:
989:
981:
947:
895:
821:William Stewart
817:Basil Bernstein
809:
785:language change
777:
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733:, etc.) and/or
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356:Morphophonology
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68:Multilingualism
53:Language change
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2227:ResearchGate
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520:Evolutionary
478:
318:Quantitative
40:Key concepts
33:
2803:Closed-loop
2666:Information
2628:terminology
2460:. Penguin.
1278:environment
1022:, distinct
926:translation
861:Montenegrin
825:Heinz Kloss
725:, level of
515:Contrastive
442:Comparative
404:Orthography
285:Linguistics
3152:Categories
3119:Wertheimer
2999:Horkheimer
2736:Propaganda
2691:Mass media
2686:Journalism
2626:Topics and
2477:Politeness
2232:2021-04-23
1785:. London:
1762:2021-04-19
1719:2021-04-19
1659:2011520778
1446:References
1002:Sprechbund
960:vernacular
911:sociolects
907:vocabulary
873:Dell Hymes
789:wave model
775:Beginnings
748:sociolects
696:pragmatics
463:Graphetics
447:Historical
393:Graphemics
388:Pragmatics
345:Morphology
307:Generative
154:Pragmatics
2903:Technical
2888:Political
2796:Subfields
2721:New media
2172:: 60–75.
1905:151534135
1897:2380-8985
1861:. Page 59
1787:Routledge
1675:15270636W
1667:729837512
1274:variation
1098:multiplex
1061:diglossia
915:variation
903:phonetics
727:education
711:ethnicity
707:varieties
474:Phonetics
458:Etymology
409:Semiotics
377:Semantics
340:Phonology
302:Cognitive
109:Diglossia
78:Variation
3137:Category
3089:Richards
3014:Jakobson
2994:Habermas
2949:Castells
2939:Benjamin
2917:Scholars
2454:Trudgill
1842:Archived
1685:Archived
1621:(2010).
1605:33981055
1501:Archived
1344:In-group
1302:See also
1057:prestige
1028:families
964:register
887:SPEAKING
857:Croatian
715:religion
688:language
536:Internet
531:Forensic
233:Category
164:Soramimi
149:Loanword
129:Register
73:Prestige
3109:Tankard
3104:Shannon
3099:Schramm
3084:Quebral
3079:Postman
3069:Packard
3049:McLuhan
3044:Marcuse
3039:Luhmann
3034:Lippman
3029:Kincaid
3024:Johnson
2989:Goffman
2984:Gerbner
2974:Flusser
2954:Chomsky
2934:Bateson
2929:Barthes
2898:Science
2828:Climate
2778:Writing
2746:Reading
2696:Meaning
2616:Outline
2611:History
1578:2598722
1524:(ed.).
1244:Chomsky
1218:lexicon
899:grammar
865:Serbian
853:Bosnian
847:versus
839:versus
795:was by
684:context
676:society
494:Applied
104:Dialect
3114:Tannen
3094:Rogers
3074:Peirce
3059:Morgan
3004:Huxley
2979:Gasset
2969:Fisher
2924:Adorno
2908:Visual
2858:Health
2853:Global
2823:Crisis
2756:Symbol
2751:Speech
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863:, and
723:gender
719:status
361:Syntax
172:People
159:Pidgin
94:Accent
3019:Janis
3009:Innis
2964:Ellul
2959:Craig
2944:Burke
2701:Media
2147:JSTOR
2112:JSTOR
1901:S2CID
1830:(4).
1688:(PDF)
1633:(PDF)
1627:[
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1093:tight
1089:loose
1032:slang
686:, on
680:norms
372:Lexis
3054:Mead
2893:Risk
2868:Mass
2761:list
2481:ISBN
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