908:(2012) contends that Ultan’s generalization is a strong contender for a linguistic universal. Bobaljik formulates the Comparative-Superlative Generalization: With respect to the positive, if any adjective’s comparative degree were suppletive, so would its superlative; vice versa, if any adjective’s superlative degree were suppletive, then so would its comparative.
312:
The structure of the b-sentences involving comparatives is closely similar to the structure of the a-sentences involving coordination. Based on this similarity, many have argued that the syntax of comparatives overlaps with the syntax of coordination at least some of the time. In this regard, the
642:
focuses its counterpart in the main clause. Various arguments are put forth that motivate the existence of this null element. These arguments will not be reproduced here, though. Suffice it to say that the sentences in which subdeletion is supposedly occurring are qualitatively different from
426:
has the status of a subordinator (as in sentences a-d) or of a preposition (as in sentence e). What this means is that the syntax of comparatives is complex because at times an analysis in terms of coordination is warranted, whereas at other times, the analysis must assume subordination.
123:. These uses of the comparative do not mention what it is they are being compared to. In some cases it is easy to infer what the missing element in a null comparative is. In other cases, the speaker or writer has been deliberately vague, for example "
158:, when as is usual, they are cited without their opposite counterpart. It should be apparent, however, that an entirely different variety of animal, scientific, or geographical object is intended. Thus it may be found, for example, that the
815:-clause. One thing is clear, however: the five ellipsis mechanisms illustrated here are distinct from the two ellipsis mechanisms that are unique to comparatives mentioned above (comparative deletion and comparative subdeletion).
1046:
For examples of accounts that argue that the syntax of comparatives overlaps with the syntax of coordination at least some of the time, see
Pinkham (1982), Napoli (1983), McCawley 1988, Lechner (2004), Corver (2006), and Osborne
567:-clause is not deleted because it is distinct from its counterpart in the main clause. In other words, comparative subdeletion occurs when comparative deletion does not because the constituents being compared are distinct, e.g.
459:-clause of a comparative construction. The elided material of comparative deletion is indicated using a blank, and the unacceptable b-sentences show what is construed as having been elided in the a-sentences:
421:
Since the parallel structures associated with coordinate structures, i.e., the conjuncts, cannot be acknowledged in these sentences, the only analysis available is one in terms of subordination, whereby
634:
Accounts that acknowledge comparative subdeletion posit a null measure expression in the position marked by the blank (x-many, x-much). This element serves to focus the expression in the same way that
48:
The syntax of comparative constructions is poorly understood due to the complexity of the data. In particular, the comparative frequently occurs with independent mechanisms of syntax such as
904:
Russell Ultan (1972) surveyed 20 languages and observed that the comparative and superlative are inflected forms of (near-)identical bases with respective to the positive and equative.
447:. The existence of comparative deletion as an ellipsis mechanism is widely acknowledged, whereas the status of comparative subdeletion as an ellipsis mechanism is more controversial.
811:-clauses of comparatives has rendered the study of the syntax of comparatives particularly difficult. One is often not sure which ellipsis mechanisms are involved in a given
325:
Examples of the comparative that do not allow an analysis in terms of coordination (because the necessary parallel structures are not present) are instances of comparative
234:. The similarity in structure across the following a- and b-sentences illustrates this point. The conjuncts of the coordinate structures are enclosed in square brackets:
682:. These mechanisms are independent of comparative clauses because they also occur when the comparative is not involved. The presence of these ellipsis mechanisms in
686:-clauses complicates the analysis considerably, since they render it difficult to discern which aspects of the syntax of comparatives are unique to comparatives.
915:
thus: "The representation of the superlative properly contains that of the comparative (in all languages that have a morphological superlative)". Indeed:
214:, it is not part of the "comparative" in the grammatical sense of this article. A comparative always compares something directly with something else.
174:. It is in the nature of grammatical conventions evolving over time that it is difficult to establish when they first became widely accepted, but both
866:
In recent times, such constructions have been used humorously, or to convey a sense of erudition, in addition to their original purpose of emphasis.
37:
is a syntactic construction that serves to express a comparison between two (or more) entities or groups of entities in quality or degree - see also
563:
Comparative subdeletion is a second type of ellipsis in comparatives that some accounts acknowledge. It occurs when the focused constituent in the
222:
At times the syntax of comparatives matches the syntax of coordination, and at other times, it must be characterized in terms of subordination.
1136:
1283:
317:
in the b-sentences should be viewed as a coordinator (coordinate conjunction), not as a subordinator (subordinate conjunction).
1248:
Osborne, T. 2009. Comparative coordination vs. comparative subordination. Natural
Language and Linguistic Theory 27, 427-454.
1264:
Ultan, Russell. 1972. Some features of basic comparative constructions. Working Papers in
Language Universals 9, 117-132.
1229:
Corver, N. 2006. Comparative deletion and subdeletion. Volume 1, The
Blackwell companion to syntax, eds. M. Everaert and
844:
1251:
Pinkham, J. 1982. The formation of comparative clauses in French and
English. Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University.
1083:
Osborne (2009:447), for instance, rejects the ellipsis analysis of structure assumed to involve comparative subdeletion.
1056:
The distinction between comparative coordination and comparative subordination is discussed at length by
Osborne (2009).
198:
are intended. Although it implies a comparison with a narrower definition that refers to a central city only, such as
1190:
19:
This article is about the syntax of comparative forms. For general information about comparison in language, see
1165:
1092:
For analyses of comparative subdeletion, see for instance
Bresnan (1973), Grimshaw (1987), and Corver (2006).
1258:
as a coordination. Papers from the nineteenth regional meeting of the
Chicago Linguistics Society. 353-361.
1223:
Bresnan, J. 1973. Syntax of the comparative clause construction in
English. Linguistic Inquiry 35, 275-343.
130:
Scientific classification, taxonomy, and geographical categorization conventionally include the adjectives
24:
1013:
326:
969:, etc. the superlatives are derived from the comparatives by means of the addition of definite articles.
1101:
See
Bresnan (1973) and Corver (2006) for the arguments in favor of an ellipsis analysis of subdeletion.
983:
890:
231:
207:
49:
886:
124:
182:
in these instances have over time become mere adjectives (or adverbial constructs), so losing their
80:
A number of fixed expressions use a comparative form where no comparison is being asserted, such as
1245:
Napoli D.J. 1983. Comparative ellisis: A phrase structure analysis. Linguistic Inquiry 14, 675-694.
1008:
675:
65:
993:
912:
659:
53:
1074:
The classic work that explores comparative deletion is Bresnan (1973). See Corver (2006) also.
807:
The fact that the five independent ellipsis mechanisms (and possibly others) can occur in the
1226:
Bresnan, J. 1976. On the form and functioning of transformations. Linguistic Inquiry 7, 3-40.
1169:
1018:
905:
873:
848:
679:
100:
69:
38:
20:
8:
840:
1230:
988:
829:
If an adjective has two comparative markers, it is known as a double comparative (e.g.
824:
1111:
973:
Additionally, Bobaljik asserts that Universal Grammar lacks the superlative morpheme.
958:
928:
857:"The Duke of Milan / and his more braver daughter could controul thee."—Shakespeare,
191:
147:
1112:"Double comparatives | Yale Grammatical Diversity Project: English in North America"
1278:
1161:
966:
951:
939:
932:
920:
171:
151:
1239:
Huddleston, R. and G. Pullum. 2002. The Cambridge grammar of the English Language.
333:
has the status of a preposition or a subordinator (subordinate conjunction), e.g.
1195:
943:
881:
167:
962:
924:
203:
199:
1272:
1003:
947:
671:
211:
61:
879:"World must prepare for disease more deadlier than Covid, WHO chief warns",
455:
Comparative deletion is an obligatory ellipsis mechanism that occurs in the
159:
1191:"World must prepare for disease more deadlier than Covid, WHO chief warns"
1261:
Stassen, Leon. 1985. Comparison and universal grammar. Oxford: Blackwell.
1175:
217:
163:
104:
42:
835:
730:- Pseudogapping with the comparative; comparative deletion also present
72:). The interaction of the various mechanisms complicates the analysis.
1242:
Lechner, W. 2004. Ellipsis in comparatives. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
1220:
Bobaljik, J. D. 2012. Universals in Comparative Morphology. MIT Press.
110:
954:, etc. the comparatives and the superlatives are formally similar;
649:
998:
667:
57:
551:- Sentence is bad because comparative deletion has not occurred.
524:- Sentence is bad because comparative deletion has not occurred.
490:- Sentence is bad because comparative deletion has not occurred.
935:, etc.) the superlative transparently contains the comparative;
839:). The use of double comparatives is generally associated with
692:
a. You should visit me on Tuesday, and I ___ you on Wednesday.
195:
1236:
Grimshaw, J. 1987. Subdeletion. Linguistic Inquiry, 659-669.
230:
The syntax of comparatives can closely mirror the syntax of
190:
indicates the inclusion of adjacent areas when referring to
166:
variety, and a gazetteer would establish that there are the
872:"The female of the species is more deadlier than the male"—
899:
154:. These adjectives may at first sight appear as a kind of
16:
Syntactic construction that serves to express a comparison
103:
is not stated. These comparisons are frequently found in
1159:
381:
the airline had issued tickets tried to board the plane.
435:
There are two types of ellipsis that are unique to the
430:
41:
for an overview of comparison, as well as positive and
643:
sentences in which comparative deletion occurs, e.g.,
218:
Comparative coordination vs. comparative subordination
1137:"Is 'more better' a mistake if Shakespeare said it?"
742:- Null complement anaphora without the comparative
714:a. He will say it twice before she has ___ once.
1270:
1037:The examples are taken from Osborne (2009:428).
752:- Null complement anaphora with the comparative
790:- Verb phrase ellipsis without the comparative
107:, for example, in typical assertions such as
1065:The example is taken from Pinkham (1982:50).
320:
800:- Verb phrase ellipsis with the comparative
225:
558:
75:
1188:
788:a. Susan has helped when you have ___ .
1141:Encyclopaedia of Shakespeare's Language
900:Universals of comparative constructions
716:- Pseudogapping without the comparative
450:
146:variety of an item is meant, as in the
99:is one in which the starting point for
1271:
1134:
818:
666:clauses of comparative constructions:
645:He has more cats than you have ___ .
431:Comparative deletion and subdeletion
845:African American Vernacular English
764:- Stripping without the comparative
650:Independent ellipsis mechanisms in
240:a. and sent flowers to him today.
88:. These comparatives can be called
30:
13:
778:- Stripping analysis possible here
762:a. Men did it, and women ___ too.
658:There are a number of independent
14:
1295:
740:a. He did it as I expected ___ .
694:- Gapping without the comparative
1182:
1153:
1128:
876:, "Female of the Species", 1996
259:a. and flowers for him today.
1284:Grammatical construction types
1189:Middleton, Joe (23 May 2023).
1104:
1095:
1086:
1077:
1068:
1059:
1050:
1040:
1031:
851:and were used by Shakespeare.
704:- Gapping with the comparative
698:b. You visited me on Tuesdays
1:
1233:, 582-637. Malden: Blackwell.
1213:
847:, though they were common in
662:mechanisms that occur in the
360:striker was playing for them
275:a. The boys sent and today.
674:, null complement anaphora,
64:, null complement anaphora,
25:Comparative (disambiguation)
7:
1135:Murphy, Sean (2016-11-08).
976:
10:
1300:
891:Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus
822:
439:-clauses of comparatives:
250:sent flowers to him today.
18:
887:World Health Organization
724:people will say it twice
702:I ___ you on Wednesdays.
321:Comparative subordination
33:general linguistics, the
1025:
885:, describing remarks by
728:___ will ___ just once.
398:we had chairs showed up.
226:Comparative coordination
45:degrees of comparison.
598:__ men wanted to dance.
559:Comparative subdeletion
445:comparative subdeletion
295:a. The boys sent and .
76:Absolute and null forms
913:Containment Hypothesis
266:flowers for him today.
186:connotation. Further,
125:Glasgow's miles better
117:Our picture is sharper
23:. For other uses, see
1171:Female of the Species
911:Bobaljik phrases the
1019:Verb phrase ellipsis
906:Jonathan D. Bobaljik
849:Early Modern English
794:b. Susan has helped
680:verb phrase ellipsis
451:Comparative deletion
441:comparative deletion
70:verb phrase ellipsis
39:comparison (grammar)
21:Comparison (grammar)
919:in many languages (
841:Appalachian English
819:Double comparatives
989:Double comparative
825:Double comparative
407:e. Who did he eat
192:metropolitan areas
150:as opposed to the
86:younger generation
1162:Griffiths, Franny
959:Romance languages
889:Director-General
801:
791:
779:
765:
753:
750:I expected ___ .
743:
731:
717:
705:
695:
607:c. You were happi
552:
541:b. *She was happi
525:
491:
329:. In such cases,
148:greater celandine
1291:
1231:H. van Riemsdijk
1208:
1207:
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1203:
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940:Celtic languages
799:
789:
777:
763:
751:
741:
729:
715:
703:
693:
620:b. The table is
594:women showed up
550:
534:a. She was happi
523:
489:
473:Susan reads ___.
208:Greater New York
172:Greater Antilles
156:null comparative
152:lesser celandine
113:have more flavor
97:null comparative
82:higher education
32:
1299:
1298:
1294:
1293:
1292:
1290:
1289:
1288:
1269:
1268:
1267:
1254:Ryan, K. 1983.
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1196:The Independent
1187:
1183:
1168:(27 May 1996).
1164:; Parle, Andy;
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1023:
979:
902:
882:The Independent
827:
821:
798:you have ___ .
656:
581:he has __ dogs.
561:
511:b. *We invited
476:b. *Fred reads
453:
433:
347:wanted to come.
323:
228:
220:
194:, such as when
170:as well as the
168:Lesser Antilles
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1160:Fagan, James;
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823:Main article:
820:
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629:
628:it is __ tall.
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465:a. Fred reads
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204:City of London
200:Greater London
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1014:Subordination
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746:b. He did it
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712:
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672:pseudogapping
669:
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627:
623:
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611:I was __ sad.
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95:Similarly, a
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63:
62:pseudogapping
59:
55:
52:and forms of
51:
46:
44:
40:
36:
26:
22:
1255:
1200:. Retrieved
1194:
1184:
1170:
1166:Scott, Tommy
1155:
1144:. Retrieved
1140:
1130:
1119:. Retrieved
1115:
1106:
1097:
1088:
1079:
1070:
1061:
1052:
1042:
1033:
984:Coordination
972:
910:
903:
880:
865:
858:
834:
830:
828:
812:
808:
806:
795:
776:women ___ .
773:
769:
747:
725:
721:
699:
683:
663:
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644:
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564:
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519:
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484:Susan reads
481:
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232:coordination
229:
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160:lesser panda
155:
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120:
116:
108:
96:
94:
89:
85:
81:
79:
50:coordination
47:
34:
29:
1202:11 November
1176:Gut Records
859:The Tempest
831:more louder
772:men did it
377:passengers
302:boys sent
282:boys sent
202:versus the
184:comparative
164:giant panda
105:advertising
43:superlative
35:comparative
1273:Categories
1214:References
1146:2019-04-01
1121:2019-04-01
573:a. He has
538:I was ___.
162:entails a
101:comparison
1009:Stripping
796:more than
748:more than
700:more than
676:stripping
508:___ came.
138:, when a
66:stripping
994:Ellipsis
977:See also
929:Cherokee
660:ellipsis
654:-clauses
411:hotdogs
364:we have.
121:50% more
90:absolute
54:ellipsis
1279:Grammar
1047:(2009).
999:Gapping
967:Maltese
952:Totonac
933:Chukchi
921:Persian
668:gapping
609:er than
543:er than
536:er than
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