Conservative Judaism

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unorthodox in conviction. He maintained that theology was of little importance and it was practice that must be preserved. He aspired to solicit unity in American Judaism, denouncing sectarianism and not perceiving himself as leading a new denomination: "not to create a new party, but to consolidate an old one". The need to raise funds convinced him that a congregational arm for the Rabbinical Assembly and the JTS was required. On 23 February 1913, he founded the United Synagogue of America (since 1991: United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism), which then consisted of 22 communities. He and Mendes first came to major disagreement; Schechter insisted that any alumnus could be appointed to the USoA's managerial board, and not just to serve as communal rabbi, including several the latter did not consider sufficiently devout, or who tolerated mixed seating in their synagogues (though some of those he still regarded as Orthodox). Mendes, president of the Orthodox Union, therefore refused to join. He began to distinguish between the "Modern Orthodoxy" of himself and his peers in the OU, and "Conservatives" who tolerated what was beyond the pale for him. However, this first sign of institutionalization and separation was far from conclusive. Mendes himself could not clearly differentiate between the two groups, and many he viewed as Orthodox were members of the USoA. The epithets "Conservative" and "Orthodox" remained interchangeable for decades to come. JTS graduates served in OU congregations; many students of the Orthodox

4200: 4325:, a staunch opponent, allowed the CJLS to endorse a motion which still banned anal intercourse but not any other physical contact, and allowed the ordination of openly LGBT rabbis, in 2006. Roth and three other supporters resigned from the panel in protest, claiming the responsum was not valid; Masorti affiliates in South America, Israel and Hungary objected severely. The Seminario is yet to accept the resolution, while several Canadian congregations seceded from the United Synagogue in 2008 to form an independent union in protest of the slide to the left. Since the 2013 Pew survey, which assessed that only 18 per cent of American Jews identify with it, Conservative leadership is engaged in attempting to solve Conservative Judaism's demographic crisis. 2903: 2690: 3392: 3538: 4173:

electricity. The driving responsum was later severely criticized by Conservative rabbis, and was charged with imparting that the movement was overly keen to condone the laxity of congregants. It also signified the final break with the Orthodox, who were themselves being bolstered by more strictly observant immigrants from Europe. In 1954, the RCA reversed its 1948 ruling that allowed the use of microphones on Sabbath and festivals and declared that praying without a partition between sexes was banned. Though enforced slowly—in 1997, there were still seven OU congregations with no physical barrier, and so-called "

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to the great alienation of many from received forms, that had to be countered by innovative measures to draw them back. The Conservative rabbinate often vacillated on to which degree may the non-practicing, religiously apathetic strata be included as a factor within Catholic Israel, providing impulse for them in determining religious questions; even avant-garde leaders acquiesced that the majority could not serve that function. Right-wing critics often charged that the movement allowed its uncommitted laity an exaggerated role, conceding to its demands and successively stretching

2749:, which he translated as "Catholic Israel", into a comprehensive worldview. For him, the details of divine Revelation were of secondary significance, as historical change dictated its interpretation through the ages notwithstanding: "The centre of authority is actually removed from the Bible", he surmised, "and placed in some living body... in touch with the ideal aspirations and the religious needs of the age, best able to determine... This living body, however, is not represented by... Priesthood, or Rabbihood, but by the collective conscience of Catholic Israel." 4216:. They were Americanized but still retained traditional sentiments, and Reform Judaism was too radical for most. The United Synagogue of America offered Jewish education for children and a familiar religious environment which was also comfortable and not strict. It expanded from 350 communities by 1945 to 832 by 1971, becoming the largest denomination, with some 350,000 dues-paying member households (1.5 million people) at synagogues and over 40 per cent of American Jewry identifying with it in polls, adding an estimated million more non-registered supporters. 4040: 45: 2706:

between the original meaning implied in traditional sources and the manner they were grasped by successive generations, rejecting belief in an unbroken chain of interpretation from God's original Revelation, immune to any major extraneous effects. This evolutionary perception of religion, while relatively moderate in comparison with more radical modernizers—the scholarship of the Positive-Historical school, for example, sought to demonstrate the continuity and cohesiveness of Judaism over the years—still challenged Conservative leaders.

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had to work until after the Sabbath began, and often mixed-gender seating. Men and women sat separately with no partition, and some houses of prayer already introduced family pews. Motivated by popular pressure and frowned upon by both RA and seminary faculty—in its own synagogue, the institute maintained a partition until 1983—this was becoming common among the OU as well. As both social conditions and apathy turned American Jews away from tradition (barely 20 per cent were attending prayers weekly), a young professor named

3346:, renamed the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism in 1991, was founded as a congregational arm of the RA. The movement established the World Council of Conservative Synagogues in 1957. Offshoots outside North America mostly adopted the Hebrew name "Masorti", traditional', as did the Israeli Masorti Movement, founded in 1979, and the British Assembly of Masorti Synagogues, formed in 1985. The World Council eventually changed its name to "Masorti Olami", Masorti International. Besides the RA, the international 3867:

especially after the Orthodox gained the right to secede in 1876—imposed a rather uniform and mild character on what was known in Germany as "Liberal Judaism". In 1909, 63 rabbis associated with the Breslau approach founded the Freie Jüdische Vereinigung, another brief attempt at institutionalization, but it too failed soon. Only in 1925 did the Religiöse Mittelpartei für Frieden und Einheit succeed in driving the same agenda. It won several seats in communal elections, but was small and of little influence.

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cent of member households had one at the time): 40 per cent of members intermarry. Conservatives are also the most aged group: among those aged under 30 only 11 per cent identified as such, and there are three people over 55 for every single one aged between 35 and 44. As of November 2015, the USCJ had 580 member congregations (a sharp decline from 630 two years prior), 19 in Canada and the remainder in the United States. In 2011 the USCJ initiated a plan to reinvigorate the movement.

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segments. A small majority adopted a resolution stating there were subjective, but no objective, imperatives to keep it as the language of service. Frankel then astounded his peers by vehemently protesting, stating it was a breach with the past and that Hebrew was of dire importance and great sentimental value. The others immediately began quoting all passages in rabbinic literature allowing prayer in the vernacular. Frankel could not contend with the

3200:, and therefore was not a forbidden labour and could be done on the Sabbath. On that basis, while performing banned labours is of course forbidden—for example, video recording is still constituted as writing—switching lights and other functions are allowed, though the RA strongly urges adherents to keep the sanctity of the Sabbath (refraining from doing anything that may imitate the atmosphere of weekdays, like loud noise reminiscent of work). 4119:, a RIETS graduate who joined the body only in 1945, clamored that "we need a law making body, not a law interpreting committee." Agus argued that the breach between the Jewish public and tradition was too wide to be bridged conventionally, and that the RA would always remain inferior to the Orthodox as long as it retained its policy of merely adopting lenient precedents in rabbinic literature. He offered to extensively apply the tool of 4010: 7393: 3876: 4129: 3176: 3667:) to debate and enact thoroughgoing revisions. Frankel was willing to agree only to a meeting without any practical results, and refused the invitation. When the protocols, which contained many radical statements, were published, he denounced the assembly for "applying the scalpel of criticism" and favouring the spirit of the age over tradition. However, he later agreed to attend the second conference, held in 4102:, himself a historicist who argued that the Law evolved much through time, rebuked pulpit clergy who requested lenient or radical rulings, stating he and his peers were content to "progress in inches... Free setting up of new premises and the introduction of novel categories of ritual upon the basis of pure reason and thinking would be perilous, if not fatal, to the principles and continuity of Jewish Law." 3079:

of supreme importance, but not sufficient to uproot the express Biblical prohibition on not to lie with mankind as with womankind (traditionally understood as banning full anal intercourse). All other limitations, including on other forms of sexual relations, were lifted. A similar approach is manifest in the great weight ascribed to sociological changes in deciding religious policy. The CJLS and the

3146:), grounded on the need the avoid a total rift of many nonobservant Jews. Later on, these ordinances became accepted and permanent on the practical level. The Conservative movement issued a wide range of new, thoroughgoing statues, from the famous 1950 responsum that allowed driving to the synagogue on the Sabbath and up to the 2000 decision to ban rabbis from inquiring about whether someone was a 3096:

historicist underpinning stresses that all religious literature has an original meaning relevant in the context of its formulation. This meaning may be analyzed and discerned, and is distinct from the later interpretations ascribed by traditional commentators. Decisors are also far more prone to include references to external scientific sources in relevant fields, like veterinarian publications in

2652:, which has become dominant in the 1970s. This was in sync with the wider trend of lowering rates of Americans who accepted the Bible as the Word of God. Dorff categorized the proponents of this into two schools. One maintains that God projected some form of message which inspired the human authors of the Pentateuch to record what they perceived. The other is often strongly influenced by 3784: 3161: 3681: 3604:. But Frankel was always cautious and deeply reverent towards tradition, privately writing in 1836 that "The means must be applied with such care and discretion... that forward progress will be reached unnoticed, and seem inconsequential to the average spectator." He soon found himself embroiled in the great disputes of the 1840s. In 1842, during the second 3282:'s principally egalitarian argument, according to which equal prayer obligations for women were never banned explicitly and it was only their inferior status that hindered participation. In 2006, openly gay rabbinic candidates were also to be admitted into the JTS. In 2012, a commitment ceremony for same-sex couples was devised, though not defined as 3062:, should supersede the legalistic forms when the two came into conflict and there was a pivotal ethical concern. Rabbi Elliot Dorff concluded that in contrast to the Orthodox, Conservative Judaism maintains that the juridical details and processes mainly serve higher moral purposes and could be modified if they no longer do so: "In other words, the 3728:, the first modern rabbinical seminary in Germany. His opponents on both flanks were incensed. Geiger and the Reform camp long accused him of theological ambiguity, hypocrisy and attachment to stagnant remnants, and now protested the "medieval" atmosphere in the seminary, which was mainly concerned with teaching Jewish Law. The hardline Orthodox 3274:, and was also enacted to allow women rabbinic ordination. Roth noted that some decisors of old acknowledged that women may bless when performing positive time-bound commandments (from which they are exempted, and therefore unable to fulfill the obligation for others), especially citing the manner in which they assumed upon themselves the 4111:

while its fully committed partisans were few, had much influence. The majority among recent alumni eschewed the epithet "Orthodox" and tended to employ "Conservative" exclusively. Succeeding Schechter's direct disciples who headed the RA, JTS and United Synagogue in the interwar period, a new strata of activist leaders was rising. Rabbi

3982:

had arrived, increasing American Jewry tenfold. They came from regions where civil equality or emancipation were never granted, while acculturation and modernization made little headway. Whether devout or irreligious, they mostly retained strong traditional sentiments in matters of faith, accustomed to old-style rabbinate; the hardline

2885:(Lord of the Locality, in traditional terms), enfranchised to adopt either minority or majority opinions from the CJLS or maintain local practice. Thus, on the issue of admitting openly homosexual rabbinic candidates, the Committee approved two resolutions, one in favour and one against; the JTS took the lenient position, while the 2799:, while subject to criticism as disingenuous both from within and without, were and remain a cornerstone doctrine of Conservative Judaism. The movement views the legalistic system as normative and binding, and believes Jews must practically observe its precepts, like Sabbath, dietary ordinances, ritual purity, daily prayer with 4244:, dismissed in 1964 from the British Orthodox rabbinate on the charge of heresy after espousing a non-literal understanding of the Torah, joined with the Conservatives and founded his country's first Masorti community. The new branches were all united within the World Council of Synagogues, later to be named Masorti Olami. 3608:, he opposed the new Reform prayerbook, arguing the elimination of petitions for a future Return to Zion led by the Messiah was a violation of an ancient tenet. But he also opposed the ban placed on the tome by Rabbi Bernays, stating this was a primitive behaviour. In the same year, he and the moderate conservative 2681:, also emphasized the encounter of God with the Jews as a collective and the role of religious authorities through the generations in determining what it implied. The stress on the supremacy of community and tradition, rather than individual consciousness, defines the entire spectrum of Conservative thought. 4028:, or RCA, attended it. In 1926, RIETS and the JTS even negotiated a possible merger, though it was never materialized. Upon Schechter's death in 1915, the first generation of his disciples kept his non-sectarian legacy of striving for a united, traditional American Judaism. He was replaced by Cyrus Adler. 4031:

The USoA grew rapidly as the Eastern European immigrant population slowly integrated. In 1923 it already had 150 affiliated communities, and 229 before 1930. Synagogues offered a more modernized ritual: English sermons, choir singing, late Friday evening services which tacitly acknowledging that most

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The JTS was a small, fledgling institution with financial difficulties, and was ordaining merely a rabbi per year. But soon after Chancellor Morais' death in 1897, its fortunes turned. Since 1881, a wave of Jewish immigration from Eastern Europe was inundating the country—by 1920, 2.5 million of them

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and others published more complaisant tracts, but also requested an explanation. Rapoport marshaled to Frankel's aid, assuring that his words were merely reiterating ben Jehiel's and that he would soon release a statement that will belie Hirsch's accusations. But then the Chancellor of Breslau issued

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calculated that as of 2013, 962,000 U.S. Jewish adults considered themselves Conservative: 570,000 were registered congregants and further 392,000 were not members in a synagogue but identified. In addition, Cohen assumed in 2006 that 57,000 unconverted non-Jewish spouses were also registered (12 per

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are employed; rabbis use comparative compendiums of religious manuscripts, sometimes discerning that sentences were only added later or include spelling, grammar and transcription errors, changing the entire understanding of certain passages. This critical approach is central to the movement, for its

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frequently resort to less canonical sources, isolated responsa or minority opinions. They demonstrate more fluidity in regards to established precedent and continuum in rabbinic literature, mainly those by the later authorities, and lay little stress on the perceived hierarchy between major and minor

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who consider human reason paramount. The second school states that God conferred merely his presence on those he influenced, without any communication, and the experience drove them to spiritual creativity. While they differ in the theoretical level surrounding revelation, both practically regard all

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movement, consisting of nonaligned prayer quorums of young (and frequently, Conservative-raised) worshipers who sought a more intense religious experience, also weakened congregations. In 1972, the liberal wing gained an influential position with the appointment of Gerson D. Cohen as JTS Chancellor.

4148:, the first clearly Conservative liturgy: references to the sacrificial cult were in the past tense instead of a petition for restoration, and it rephrased blessings such as "who hast made me according to thy will" for women to "who hast made me a woman". During the movement's national conference in 3308:

decisor. Rabbis trained in the reading practices of Conservative Jewish approaches, historical evaluation of Jewish law and interpretation of Biblical and Rabbinic texts may align directly with the CJLS decisions or themselves opine on matters based on precedents or readings of text that shine light

3291:

Conservative Judaism in the United States held a relatively strict policy regarding intermarriage. Propositions for acknowledging Jews by patrilineal descent, as in the Reform movement, were overwhelmingly dismissed. Unconverted spouses were largely barred from community membership and participation

3203:

The need to encourage arrival at synagogue also motivated the CJLS, during the same year, to issue a temporal statue allowing driving on that day, for that purpose alone; it was supported by decreeing that the combustion of fuel did not serve any of the acts prohibited during the construction of the

3078:

and allowing moral priorities an overriding authority at all occasions. This idea became very popular among the young generation, but it was not fully embraced either. In the 2006 resolution on homosexuals, the CJLS chose a middle path: they agreed that the ethical consideration of human dignity was

2823:

The tension between "tradition and change"—which were also the motto adopted by the movement since the 1950s—and the need to balance them were always a topic of intense debate within Conservative Judaism. In its early stages, the leadership opposed pronounced innovation, mostly adopting a relatively

2752:

The scope, limits and role of this corpus were a matter for contention in Conservative ranks. Schechter himself used it to oppose any major break with either traditionalist or progressive elements within American Jewry of his day, while some of his successors argued that the idea became obsolete due

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pioneered this approach; as Michael A. Meyer commented, "the extraordinary status which he ascribed to the ingrained beliefs and practices of the community is probably the most original element of his thought." He turned it into a source of legitimacy for both change and preservation, but mostly the

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under observer status. The double defection narrowed the movement's spectrum of opinions, at a time when large swaths of congregants were abandoning in favour of Reform, which was more tolerant of intermarriage. RA leaders were engaged in introspection through the later 1980s, resulting in the 1988

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The boundaries between Orthodox and Conservative Judaism in America were institutionalized only in the aftermath of World War II. The 1940s saw the younger generation of JTS graduates less patient with the prudence of the CJL and Talmud faculty in face of popular demand. Kaplan's Reconstructionism,

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in New York City. Kohut, professor of Talmud who held to the Positive-Historical ideal, was the main educational influence in the early years, prominent among the founders who encompassed the entire spectrum from progressive Orthodox to the brink of Reform; to describe what the seminary intended to

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The United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism, covering the United States, Canada and Mexico, is by far the largest constituent of Masorti Olami. While most congregations defining themselves as "Conservative" are affiliated with the USCJ, some are independent. While accurate information of Canada is

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The most distinctive feature of Conservative legalistic discourse, in which it is conspicuously and sharply different from Orthodoxy, is the incorporation of critical-scientific methods into the process. Deliberations almost always delineate the historical development of the specific issue at hand,

2705:

The Conservative mainstay was the adoption of the historical-critical method in understanding Judaism and setting its future course. In accepting an evolutionary approach to the religion, as something that developed over time and absorbed considerable external influences, the movement distinguished

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Schechter arrived in 1902, and at once reorganized the faculty, dismissing both Pereira Mendes and Drachman for lack of academic merit. Under his aegis, the institute began to draw famous scholars, becoming a center of learning on par with HUC. Schechter was both traditional in sentiment and quite

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and other issues). Hildesheimer was concerned that Jewish public opinion perceived no practical difference between them; though he cared to distinguish the observant acolytes of Frankel from the Reform camp, he noted in his diary: "How meager is the principal difference between the Breslau School,

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as derived and revealed, applied differently to different circumstances and subject to human judgement and possibly error, yet unchanging and divine in principle—as opposed to an evolutionary, historicist and non-dogmatic approach in which past authorities were not just elaborating but consciously

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may rely on the reasoning found in the majority or minority opinions of the CJLS or have other textual and halakhic grounds, i.e., prioritizing Jewish values or legal concepts, to rule one way or another on matters of ritual, family life or sacred pursuits. This balance between a centralization of

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should be avoided. Another proposal, to ratify them only with a two-thirds majority in the RA, was rejected. New statues require a simple majority, 13 supporters among the 25 members of the CJLS. In the 1950s and 1960s, such drastic measures—as Rabbi Arnold M. Goodman cited in a 1996 writ allowing

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calculated that barely 3 to 4 per cent held to one quite thoroughly. This gap between principle and the public, more pronounced than in any other Jewish movement, is often credited at explaining the decline of the Conservative movement. While some 41 per cent of American Jews identified with it in

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on Mount Sinai. Yet he also vehemently rejected utilizing these disciplines on the Pentateuch, maintaining it was beyond human reach and wholly celestial in origin. Frankel never elucidated his beliefs, and the exact correlation between human and divine in his thought is still subject to scholarly

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maintained very different approaches; but on the communal level, the former's alumni failure to organize or articulate a coherent agenda, coupled with the declining prestige of Breslau and the conservatism of the Hochschule's alumni—a necessity in heterogeneous communities which remained unified,

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A small but influential segment within the JTS and the movement adhered, from the 1930s, to Mordecai Kaplan's philosophy that denied any form of revelation but viewed all scripture as a purely human product. Along with other Reconstructionist tenets, it dwindled as the latter consolidated into a

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by a majority. Membership was conditioned on having experience as a congregational rabbi, and unseasoned JTS faculty were thus denied entrance. While the RA was asserting a Conservative distinctive identity, the seminary remained more cautious. Finkelstein opposed sectarianism and preferred the

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in 17 American states and 2 Canadian provinces serving Jewish children. Many other "community day schools" that are not affiliated with Schechter take a generally Conservative approach, but unlike these, generally have "no barriers to enrollment based on the faith of the parents or on religious

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latter. The basic moderation and traditionalism of the majority among the people were to guarantee a sense of continuity and unity, restraining the guiding rabbis and scholars who at his age were intent on reform but also allowing them manoeuvrability in adopting or discarding certain elements.

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validity of their decision, but he perceived it as a sign of profound differences between them. On the 17th he formally withdrew, publishing a lambasting critique of the procedures. "Opponents of the conference, who feared he went to the other side," noted historian Michael A. Meyer, "now felt

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licitness and indifferent to the pressures exerted on the pulpit rabbis, who had to contend with an Americanized public which cared little for such considerations or for tradition in general. In 1935, the RA almost adopted a groundbreaking motion: Rabbi Louis Epstein offered a solution to the

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and further 11 in the other countries. The British Assembly of Masorti Synagogues has 13 communities and estimates its membership at over 4,000. More than 20 communities are spread across Europe, and there are 3 in Australia and 2 in Africa. The Masorti Movement in Israel incorporates some 70

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on 15 July 1845—in spite of warnings from Rapoport, who cautioned that compromise with Geiger was impossible and he would only damage his reputation among the traditionalists. On the 16th, the issue of Hebrew in the liturgy arose. Most present were inclined to retain it, but with more German

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as the professor at university would, yet observe the smallest detail known to strict Orthodoxy... The sanctity of the Sabbath reposes not upon the fact that it was proclaimed on Sinai, but on the fact that it found for thousands of years its expression in Jewish souls. It is the task of the

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The CJLS now proceeded to demonstrate its independence. Sabbath was widely desecrated by a large majority of Jews, and the board believed attendance at synagogues should be encouraged. They therefore enacted an ordinance that allowed driving on the Sabbath (for worship alone) and the use of

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The Conservative leadership had limited success in imparting their worldview to the general public. While the rabbinate perceived itself as bearing a unique, original conception of Judaism, the masses lacked much interest, regarding it mainly as a compromise offering a channel for religious

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and the early generation of American Conservative Judaism. When JTS faculty began to embrace Biblical criticism in the 1920s, they adapted a theological view consistent with it: an original, verbal revelation did occur at Sinai, but the text itself was composed by later authors. The latter,

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that followed quickly transformed the values and norms of the public. Estrangement and apathy toward Judaism were rampant. The process of communal, educational and civil reform could not be restricted from affecting the core tenets of the faith. The new academic, critical study of Judaism

3183:

The RA and CJLS reached many decisions through the years, shaping a distinctive profile for Conservative practice and worship. In the 1940s, when the public demanded mixed seating of both sexes in synagogue, some rabbis argued there was no precedent but obliged on the ground of dire need

4223:

defined Conservative Judaism as the quintessential American Jewish movement, but stressed the gap between laity and clergy, noting "rabbis now recognize that they are not making decisions or writing responsa, but merely taking a poll of their membership." Most congregants, commented

4068:. Kaplan himself, who rose to become an influential and popular figure within the JTS, concluded that his fellow rabbis' ambiguity in matters of belief and the contradiction between full observance and critical study were untenable and hypocritical. He formulated his own approach of 2819:

in its developing form is an indispensable element of a traditional Judaism which is vital and modern." Conservative Judaism regards itself as the authentic inheritor of a flexible legalistic tradition, charging the Orthodox with petrifying the process and Reform with abandoning it.

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from the earliest known mentions until modern times. This approach enables a thorough analysis of the manner in which it was practiced, accepted, rejected or modified in various periods, not necessarily in sync with the received rabbinic understanding. Archaeology, philology and

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After the issue of egalitarianism for women subsided, LGBT acceptance replaced it as the main source of contention between the declining right wing and the liberal majority. A first attempt was rebuffed in 1992 by a harsh responsum written by Roth. The retirement of Chancellor

2554:

stated that "we affirm our faith in God as the Creator and Governor of the universe. His power called the world into being; His wisdom and goodness guide its destiny." Concurrently, the platform also noted that His nature was "elusive" and subject to many options of belief. A

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was modeled after it, though the assimilationist congregants cared little for rabbinic opinion. In Germany itself, Breslau alumni founded in 1868 a short-lived society, the Jüdisch-Theologische Verein. It was dissolved within a year, boycotted by both Reform and Orthodox.

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devised a solution that entailed women voluntarily accepting the obligation to pray regularly. The leadership passed it not by scholarly consensus but via a popular vote of all JTS faculty, including non-specialists. Two years later, the first JTS-ordained female rabbi,

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scant, it is estimated that some third of religiously affiliated Canadian Jews are Conservative. In 2008, the more traditional Canadian Council of Conservative Synagogues seceded from the parent organization. It numbered seven communities as of 2014. According to the

4161:, who maintained ties with the Orthodox while also viewing them as obstructionist and ossified, dominated the JTS, providing a counterweight to the liberals in the Assembly. Kaplan, meanwhile, spent more time on consolidating his Society for Advancement of Judaism. 2665:

scripture and religious tradition as a human product with certain divine inspiration—providing an understanding that recognizes Biblical Criticism and also justifies major innovation in religious conduct. The first doctrine, advocated by such leaders as rabbis

3638:. In the preamble, he attempted to present his approach to the present plight: "The further development of Judaism cannot be done through Reform that would lead to total dissipation... But must be involved in its study... pursued via scientific research, on a 3220:

were allowed to marry divorcees, conditioned on forfeiture of their privileges, as termination of marriage became widespread and women who underwent it could not be suspected of unsavory acts. In 1967, the ban on priests marrying converts was also lifted.

4177:" remain extant—these two attributes became a demarcation line between Orthodox and Conservative synagogues. RA converts were denied ablution in Orthodox ritual baths, and rabbis from one movement would gradually cease serving in the other's communities. 2844:

espoused a very conservative line. Since the 1970s, with the strengthening of the liberal wing within the movement, the majority in the Rabbinic Assembly opted for quite radical reformulations in religious conduct, but rejected the Reconstructionist

2939:. Another tendency prevalent among the movement's rabbis, yet again not particular to it, is the adoption of the more lenient positions on the matters at question—though this is not universal, and responsa also took stringent ones not infrequently. 2451:

research, rather than only traditional methods and sources, and lends great weight to its constituency, when determining its stance on matters of practice. The movement considers its approach as the authentic and most appropriate continuation of

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in 1985, a right-wing lobby which numbered some 10,000 supporters from the Conservative observant elite. The UTJC withdrew from the movement and erased the word "Conservative" in 1990, attempting to merge with moderate Orthodox organizations.

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Despite the centralization of legal deliberation on matters of Jewish law in the CJLS individual synagogues and communities must, in the end, depend on their local decision-makers. The rabbi in his or her or their community is regarded as the

3990:. The Eastern Europeans were alienated by the local Jews, who were all assimilated in comparison, and especially aghast by the mores of Reform. The need to find a religious framework that would both accommodate and Americanize them motivated 3802:

innovating, as taught by Frankel. Hildesheimer often repeated that this issue utterly overshadowed any specific technical argument with the Breslau School (the students of which were often more lenient on matters of headcovering for women,

4199: 2857:

which seceded in protest of the 1983 resolution to ordain women rabbis—adopted at an open vote, where all JTS faculty regardless of qualification were counted—contested the validity of this description, as well as progressives like Rabbi

2673:, largely imparted that some elements within Judaism are fully divine but determining which would be impractical, and therefore received forms of interpretation should be basically upheld. Exponents of the latter view, among them rabbis 4256:

in 1968 and were slowly coalescing, as well as the growing appeal of Reform, which turned more traditional and threatened to sway congregants. While the rightists opposed further modifications, their left-wing peers demanded them. The

3052:, maintained that such elements are naturally a factor in formulating conclusions, but may not alone serve as a justification for adopting a position. The majority, however, basically subscribed to the opinion evinced already by Rabbi 2467:'s 19th-century positive-historical school in Europe, Conservative Judaism fully institutionalized only in the United States during the mid-20th century. Its largest center is in North America, where its main congregational arm is the 2735:

A key doctrine which was to fulfil this capacity was the collective will of the Jewish people. Conservatives lent great weight in determining religious practice, both in historical precedent and as a means to shape present conduct.

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matters and often adhering to a verbal understanding of revelation, was dismayed by the failure to bolster observance among the laity and the resurgence of Orthodoxy. The left was influenced by the Reconstructionists, who formed

4296:, professor of the Talmud faculty, claimed that Roth's method must have required waiting until a considerable number of women did prove sufficient commitment. He and his sympathizers regarded the vote as belying any claim to 3520:

practices in the home". During the first decade of the 21st century, a number of schools that were part of the Schechter network transformed themselves into non-affiliated community day schools. The USCJ also maintains the

3296:(Kin of Israel) and be more open toward them. The Leadership Council of Conservative Judaism stated in 1995: "we want to encourage the Jewish partner to maintain his/her Jewish identity, and raise their children as Jews." 3292:

in rituals; clergy are banned from any involvement in interfaith marriage on pain of dismissal. However, as the rate of such unions rose dramatically, Conservative congregations began describing gentile family members as

3938:, an adherent of Frankel. He publicly excoriated Reform for disdaining ritual and received forms, triggering a heated polemic with Kohler. The debate was one of the main factors which motivated the latter to compose the 3188:), others noted that archaeological research showed no partitions in ancient synagogues. Mixed seating became commonplace in almost all congregations. In 1950, it was ruled that using electricity (that is, closure of an 4152:, held 13–17 May 1948, the pulpit rabbis in the RA gained the upper hand. Spurred by Gordis, Agus and fellow leaders, they voted to reorganize the CJL into a Committee of Jewish Law and Standards, enfranchised to issue 3885:

Jewish immigration to the United States bred an amalgam of loose communities, lacking strong tradition or stable structures. In this free-spirited environment, a multitude of forces was at work. As early as 1866, Rabbi

2479:. Conservative Judaism is the third-largest Jewish religious movement worldwide, estimated to represent close to 1.1 million people, including over 600,000 registered adult congregants and many non-member identifiers. 3507:

is the Masorti movement's organization for students and young adults, providing activities based on religious pluralism and Jewish content. The Women's League for Conservative Judaism is also active in North America.

3366:

Beyond North America, the movement has little presence—in 2011, Rela Mintz Geffen appraised there were only 100,000 members outside the U.S. (and the former figure including Canada). "Masorti AmLat", the MO branch in

4088:

Tensions within the JTS and RA grew. The Committee of Jewish Law consisted mainly of scholars who had little field experience, almost solely from the seminary's Talmudic department. They were greatly concerned with

4228:, were "Conservative Jews because their rabbi kept kosher and the Sabbath... Not because of their religious behavior." The movement established its presence outside the U.S. and Canada: In 1962, the young Rabbi 4076:

and any supernatural belief in favour of a cultural-ethnic perception. While valuing received mores, he eventually suggested giving the past "a vote, not a veto". Though popular among students, Kaplan's nascent

2877:(Law Committee) of Israel's Masorti Movement. Every responsa must receive a minimum of six voters to be considered an official position of the CJLS. Conservative Judaism explicitly acknowledges the principle of 3929:

at home and attempted to assuage traditionalists. On 11 July 1883, apparently due to negligence by the Jewish caterer, non-kosher dishes were served to UAHC rabbis in Wise's presence. Known to posterity as the

3388:, with a few thousands of adherents and forty partially active synagogues, is not officially affiliated with Masorti Olami, Conservative Judaism regards it as a fraternal, "non-Orthodox but halakhic" movement. 3545:

The rise of modern, centralized states in Europe by the early 19th century heralded the end of Jewish judicial autonomy and social seclusion. Their communal corporate rights were abolished, and the process of

3265:

The 1970s and 1980s saw the emergence of women's rights on the main agenda. Growing pressure led the CJLS to adopt a motion that females may be counted as part of a quorum, based on the argument that only the

4211:

The postwar decades were a time of immense growth for the Conservative movement. Most of the 500,000 decommissioned Jewish GIs left the densely populated immigrant neighbourhoods of the East Coast, moving to

3688:

The rabbi of Saxony had many sympathizers, who supported a similarly moderate approach and change only on the basis of the authority of the Talmud. When Geiger began preparing a third conference in Breslau,

3278:. He suggested that women voluntarily commit to pray thrice a day et cetera, and his responsa was adopted. Since then, female rabbis were ordained at JTS and other seminaries. In 1994, the movement accepted 2520:, but also acknowledged that a variety of positions and convictions existed within its ranks, eschewing strict delineation of principles and often expressing conflicting views. In a 1999 special edition of 4574: 2925:, who attempted to classify its parameters, stressed that quite often rulings merely reiterate conclusions reached in older sources or even Orthodox ones. For example, in the details of preparing Sabbath 2889:

still adheres to the latter. Likewise, while most Conservative synagogues approved of egalitarianism for women in religious life, some still maintain traditional gender roles and do not count females for

3859:, another of the Frankelist party, succeeded Geiger in Breslau. He maintained his predecessor's truncated German translation of the liturgy for the sake of compromise, but restored the full Hebrew text. 2728:

historian to examine the beginnings and developments of customs and observances; practical Judaism, on the other hand, is not concerned with origins but regards the institutions as they have come to be.

2516:. The introduction stated that "lack of definition was useful" in the past but a need to articulate one now arose. The platform provided many statements citing key concepts such as God, revelation and 3974:

espouse, he used the term "Conservative Judaism", which had no independent meaning at the time and was only in relation to Reform. In 1898, Pereira Mendes, Schneeberger and Drachman also founded the

2644:

classified by Dorff as a relatively moderate metamorphosis of the old one, is still espoused by few traditionalist right-wing Conservative rabbis, though it is marginalized among senior leadership.

3083:

members frequently state that circumstances were profoundly transformed in modern times, fulfilling the criteria mandating new rulings in various fields (based on general talmudic principles like

3890:

of New York wrote that a Judaism of the "golden middleway, which was termed Orthodox by the left and heterodox or reformer by the right" developed in the new country. The rapid ascendancy of

2732:

This discrepancy between scientific criticism and insistence on heritage had to be compensated by a conviction that would forestall either deviation from accepted norms or laxity and apathy.

3934:", it purportedly made some guests abandon the hall in disgust, but little is factually known about the incident. In 1885, the traditionalist forces were bolstered upon the arrival of Rabbi 4098:

predicament, a clause that would have had husbands appoint wives as their proxies to issue divorce. It was repealed under pressure from the Orthodox Union. As late as 1947, CJL Chair Rabbi

3600:

in 1836, gradually rose to become the leader of those who stood at the middle. Besides working for the civic betterment of local Jews and educational reform, he displayed keen interest in

4262:

During the same year, after Reform began to ordain female rabbis, a strong lobby rose to advocate the same. The CJLS rapidly enacted an ordinance which allowed women to be tallied for a

3942:, which unambiguously declared the principles of Reform Judaism: "to-day we accept as binding only the moral laws, and maintain only such ceremonies as elevate and sanctify our lives." 2496:, considered its intellectual progenitor, believed the very notion of theology was alien to traditional Judaism. He was often accused of obscurity on the subject by his opponents, both 4268:, and by 1976 the percentage of synagogues allowing them to bless during the reading of the Torah grew from 7 per cent to 50 per cent. In 1979, ignoring the denominational leadership, 4846: 4760: 3309:

on congregants' questions. So, for instance, a rabbi may or may not choose to permit video streaming on Shabbat despite a majority ruling that allows for use of electronics. A local

4280:. Pressures to allow women to assume rabbinical positions was mounting from the congregational level, though the RA agreed to delay any action until the JTS scholars would concur. 3270:

explicitly stated that it consist of men. While accepted, this was very controversial in the Committee and heavily disputed. A more complete solution was offered in 1983 by Rabbi

4184:, as well as other features, were emphasized by leaders eager to demonstrate their uniqueness. In their efforts to solidify a coherent identity, Conservative thinkers like 2504:. The American movement largely espoused a similar approach, and its leaders mostly avoided the field. Only in 1985 did a course about Conservative theology open in the 1061: 4157:

neutral epithet "traditional", later commenting that "Conservative Judaism is a gimmick to get Jews back to real Judaism". He and the very right-wing Talmud professor

3142:

structure... thus imposed severe limitations on the conditions and situations where it would be appropriate"—were carefully drafted as temporal, emergency ordinances (

3087:, "Change of Times"). This, along with the ethical aspect, was a main argument for revolutionizing the role of women in religious life and embracing egalitarianism. 3771:

given at Sinai". Hirsch branded Frankel a heretic, demanding he announce whether he believed that both the Oral and Written Torah were of celestial origin. Rabbis

4247:

The movement peaked in numbers in the 1970s. During that decade, the tensions between the various elements within it intensified. The right wing, conservative in

4571: 3242:

and demanded to be allowed ascents to the Torah, the CJLS agreed that the ordinance under which women were banned from this due to respect for the congregation (

3138:

were reluctant to assume such unilateral authority... fear that invoking this principle would create the proverbial slippery slope, thereby weakening the entire

2881:

pluralism, enabling the panel to adopt more than one resolution in any given subject. The final authority in each Conservative community is the local rabbi, the

3740:

system in the Theophany at Sinai, was deeply suspicious of Frankel's beliefs, use of science and constant assertions that Jewish Law was flexible and evolving.

1639: 3585:, and his supporters. They opposed any limit on critical research or its practical application, laying more weight on the need for change than on continuity. 4861: 3818:

The Positive-Historical School was influential, but never institutionalized itself as thoroughly as its opponents. Apart from the many graduates of Breslau,

3456:, in office since 2020. She is the first woman elected to this position in the History of JTS. The current dean of the Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies is 3358:

survey in 2013, 18 per cent of Jews in the United States and in 2020 13 per cent identified with the movement, making it the second largest in the country.

1294: 989: 2626:

as innovators who added their own, original contribution to the canon, not merely as expounders and interpreters of a legal system given in its entirety to

3481: 3414: 2433:

that regards the authority of Jewish law and tradition as emanating primarily from the assent of the people through the generations, more than from divine

3561:) soon became a source of controversy. Rabbis and scholars argued to what degree, if at all, its findings could be used to determine present conduct. The 1181: 2963:

or to wholly disregard it. This is especially expressed in less hesitancy to rule against or notwithstanding the major codifications of Jewish Law, like

2866:

in 2005, stating that after repeated concessions, "Our original claim has died a death by a thousand qualifications... It has lost all factual meaning."

2598:. The 1988 platform announced that "some" believe in classic eschatology, but dogmatism in this matter was "philosophically unjustified". The notions of 3780:

an ambiguous defence, writing that his book was not concerned with theology and avoiding giving any clear answer. Now even Rapoport joined his critics.

2648:

separate group. Kaplan's views and the permeation of Higher Criticism gradually swayed most Conservative thinkers towards a non-verbal understanding of

4876: 3925:, a pragmatist intent on compromise, hoped to forge a broad consensus that would turn a moderate version of Reform to dominant in America. He kept the 2907: 2559:

conception of divinity, regarding it as inseparable from the mundane world, once had an important place within the movement, especially represented by

2389: 5281: 3815:, Hildesheimer immediately seized upon the occasion to prove once more the dogmatic, rather than practical, divide. He denounced Graetz as a heretic. 3485: 153: 6883: 2715:), opposing indiscriminate modification, and emphasized they should be changed only with care and caution and remain observed by the people. Rabbi 1176: 4240:, which would serve as the basis for Conservative expansion in South America. In 1979, four communities formed the Israel Masorti Movement. Rabbi 3863: 7273: 3846:

in Hungary, which formally separated from the Orthodox, was also permeated with the "Breslau spirit". Many of its members studied there, and its

2811:

through the lens of academic criticism, it maintained that these laws were always subject to considerable evolution, and must continue to do so.

2614:

encompasses an extensive spectrum. Zecharias Frankel himself applied critical-scientific methods to analyze the stages in the development of the

2534:

stated that "the great diversity" within the movement "makes the creation of a theological vision shared by all neither possible nor desirable".

1424: 4036:

promoted the idea of transforming the synagogue into a community center, a "Shul with a Pool", a policy which indeed stymied the tide somewhat.

5561: 3234:

under which men had to pay alimony as long as they did not concede. In 1968, this mechanism was replaced by a retroactive expropriation of the

3994:

and other rich philanthropists, all Reform and of German descent, to donate $ 500,000 to the JTS. The contribution was solicited by Professor

5956: 4180:

Rather than a force within American Judaism, the JTS-centered movement emerged as a third movement. The historicist and critical approach to

3074:, along with Gillman and other progressives, supported a far-reaching implementation of this approach, making Conservative Judaism much more 1678: 3767:

that stated several of those were only apocryphally dubbed as such; he applied the latter's conclusion to all, noting they were "so evident

2765:

yet less strict than Orthodoxy. Only a low percentage of Conservative congregants actively pursue an observant lifestyle: in the mid-1980s,

3797:, Hirsch launched a protracted public campaign through the 1860s. They ceaselessly stressed the chasm between an Orthodox understanding of 4893: 3965:. They joined Kohut, Morais and the others in seeking to establish a traditional rabbinic seminary that would serve as a counterweight to 2832:

considerations, but senior rabbis opposed him vigorously. Even in the 1940s and 1950s, when Kaplan's influence grew, his superiors rabbis

7233: 3697:, which was to be held on 21 October 1846. He announced that one measure he was willing to countenance was the possible abolition of the 663: 626: 3684:

Frankel's speech in the protocol of the Frankfurt conference, mentioning "Positive-Historical Judaism" (second row, 2–4 words from left)

5751: 5673: 5600: 4269: 2513: 3701:, though only if a broad consensus will be reached and not before thorough deliberation. Attendants were to include Rapoport, Fassel, 3616:

community's enquiry on whether the deeply unorthodox Geiger could serve there. In 1843, Frankel clashed with the radical Reform rabbi

2853:

commitment of Conservative Judaism has been subject to much criticism, from within and without. Right-wing discontents, including the

4192:, ventured beyond Schechter's conceptions to Rabbi Zecharias Frankel and Breslau, presenting themselves as its direct inheritors via 4021: 3024: 1602: 4058:, who already distinguished himself in 1922, drafting a responsa that allowed the use of grape juice rather than fermented wine for 5780: 5678: 5658: 3512: 3477: 3193: 2468: 1625: 3342:, of which all ordained Conservative clergy in the world are members. As of 2010, there were 1,648 rabbis in the RA. In 1913, the 7279: 4742: 3847: 2709:

They regarded tradition and received mores with reverence, especially the continued adherence to the mechanism of Religious Law (

975: 6379: 5833: 5633: 5620: 5431:

Tabory, Ephraim (2004). "The Israel Reform and Conservative Movements and the Marker for the Liberal Judaism". In Rebhum, Uzi;

3970: 3895: 3787: 3725: 3331: 2694: 2505: 2472: 2382: 1552: 1487: 1369: 5142:

Gays, Lesbians, and the Conservative Movement: The JTS Survey of Conservative Clergy, Students, Professionals, and Lay Leaders

6374: 5653: 5605: 5508: 5169: 5088: 5057: 4785: 3461: 3446: 3426: 2870: 673: 5343:

Profiles in American Judaism: the Reform, Conservative, Orthodox, and Reconstructionist traditions in historical perspective

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authority and maintaining the authority of local rabbis reflects the commitment to pluralism at the heart of the Movement.

1111: 6283: 2492:

Conservative Judaism, from its earliest stages, was marked by ambivalence and ambiguity in all matters theological. Rabbi

7424: 6394: 6389: 5813: 4309: 3855:

led the Berlin congregation in a very conservative style, eventually resigning when an organ was introduced in services.

1379: 1196: 1186: 426: 2475:

operates as its largest rabbinic seminary. Globally, affiliated communities are united within the umbrella organization

7206: 6083: 5638: 5554: 4233: 3406: 3395: 2886: 1775: 1725: 1690: 1384: 1249: 1116: 6234: 6088: 5704: 5484: 5421: 5375: 5263: 5239: 5200: 5019: 4418: 4363: 3573:, were content to cautiously study it while stringently adhering to the sanctity of holy texts and refusing to grant 3433:. A Conservative institution that does not grant rabbinic ordination but which runs along the lines of a traditional 2456:

discourse, maintaining both fealty to received forms and flexibility in their interpretation. It also eschews strict

2375: 1467: 1429: 1404: 1324: 1309: 1156: 1096: 1051: 3499:

The global youth movement is known as NOAM, an acronym for No'ar Masorti; its North American organization is called

3044:

issues, mainly to what degree may modern sensibilities shape the outcome, are subject to much discourse. Right-wing

6143: 6051: 5352: 5324:. Understanding American Judaism: Toward the Description of a Modern Religion, vol. 2. New York: KTAV Publ. House. 4567:

The Birth of Conservative Judaism: Solomon Schechter's Disciples and the Creation of an American Religious Movement

4065: 1760: 1742: 1648: 1542: 1394: 1389: 1314: 1279: 1146: 3793:

Hirsch succeeded, severely tarnishing Frankel's reputation among most concerned. Along with fellow Orthodox Rabbi

2723:

We may now understand the apparent contradiction between theory and practice... One may conceive of the origin of

2508:(JTS). The hitherto sole major attempt to define a clear credo was made in 1988, with the Statement of Principles 7308: 6502: 3986:, founded by emigrant clergy, opposed secular education or vernacular sermons, and its members spoke almost only 3185: 2278: 2177: 1732: 1715: 1668: 1567: 1477: 1414: 1364: 1344: 1339: 1259: 1233: 1208: 1086: 1076: 1066: 1046: 1041: 6184: 5744: 5460: 5394: 5329: 4583: 3807:

who don silk gloves at their work, and Geiger who wields a sledgehammer." In 1863, when Breslau faculty member

3646:

was, along the convictions of its publisher, neither dogmatically orthodox nor overly polemic, wholly opposing

2522: 1751: 1737: 1705: 1685: 1653: 1597: 1572: 1547: 1527: 1517: 1502: 1497: 1492: 1472: 1462: 1457: 1434: 1349: 1334: 1254: 1213: 1166: 1161: 1081: 1026: 32: 7419: 7285: 6606: 5717: 5547: 4301: 4025: 3056:

in the 1960s, that the cultural and ethical norms of the community, the contemporary equivalents of Talmudic

2854: 2172: 1710: 1695: 1658: 1620: 1592: 1582: 1577: 1562: 1557: 1537: 1522: 1507: 1482: 1448: 1419: 1319: 1304: 1228: 1218: 1136: 1106: 1031: 1017: 4873: 7348: 7216: 7211: 6399: 6384: 6148: 6103: 5848: 3894:

by the 1880s left few who opposed it, merely a handful of congregations and ministers remained outside the

3472:

is headed by President Rabbi Debra Newman Kamin, as of 2019, and managed by Chief Executive Officer, Rabbi

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was used, still generically and not yet as a specific label, already in the 1887 dedication speech of the

3129:

argued that since there was no consensus on leadership within Catholic Israel, formulation of significant

2873:(CJLS), a panel with 25 voting legalistic specialists and further 11 observers. There is also the smaller 2828:'s Reconstructionism raised the demand for thoroughgoing modification without much regard for the past or 7313: 7298: 6179: 6039: 3760: 3343: 2989:

themselves, criticize the Orthodox for relatively rarely venturing beyond it and overly canonizing Rabbi

1770: 1765: 1720: 1673: 1359: 1329: 1289: 1284: 1141: 447: 5364: 5008: 7267: 7161: 6812: 6706: 6414: 6347: 5908: 5798: 5625: 5141: 4133: 4043: 3605: 3557: 3410: 3405:

In New York, the JTS serves as the movement's original seminary and legacy institution, along with the

3399: 2942:

A more distinctive characterization is a greater proclivity to base rulings on earlier sources, in the

2689: 2430: 2244: 2089: 1797: 1191: 387: 377: 113: 4600: 3717:

and others. However, the Dresden assembly soon drew heated Orthodox resistance, especially from Rabbi

3693:

convinced Frankel to organize one of his own in protest. Frankel invited colleagues to an assembly in

7383: 7323: 7221: 7201: 7071: 6996: 6856: 6723: 6409: 6369: 5737: 4078: 4069: 3634:) matter and could be subject to the Law of the Land. In December 1843 Frankel launched the magazine 3216:) and be permitted. The validity of this argument was heavily disputed within the movement. In 1952, 2774:

the 1970s, it had shrunk to an estimated 18 per cent (and 11 per cent among those under 30) in 2013.

2570:

A similarly inconclusive position is expressed toward other precepts. Most theologians adhere to the

2564: 2517: 2358: 2051: 1902: 1843: 734: 4847:"Denominational switching among U.S. Jews: Reform Judaism has gained, Conservative Judaism has lost" 3537: 3003:. An important example is the ruling of Rabbi Golinkin—contrary to the majority consensus among the 7303: 7134: 6433: 6308: 3950: 3772: 2661: 2575: 2061: 2041: 1151: 631: 172: 5524: 5121: 4537: 4115:, RA president in 1944–1946, represented the junior members in advocating more flexibility; Rabbi 3391: 3250:, even if derived from unclean animals, was so transformed that it constituted a wholly new item ( 7256: 7245: 6839: 6760: 6465: 6364: 6303: 6189: 6162: 3698: 3197: 3020: 2571: 2556: 2202: 2192: 2157: 2036: 2026: 1809: 980: 922: 756: 435: 392: 107: 7292: 7262: 6325: 5683: 5404:

Tabory, Ephraim (2004) . "Reform and Conservative Judaism in Israel". In Goldscheider, Calvin;

4786:"LEADERSHIP COUNCIL OF CONSERVATIVE JUDAISM, Statement on Intermarriage, Adopted March 7, 1995" 4604: 4388:

Modernists vs. Traditionalists: Competition for Legitimacy within American Conservative Judaism

4162: 3500: 3384:

communities and prayer groups with several thousand full members. In addition, while Hungarian

2419: 2321: 2056: 1970: 1036: 588: 207: 177: 5498: 5221: 5039: 4345: 2582:, it was stated that death is not tantamount to the end of one's personality. Relating to the 7318: 7239: 7021: 6728: 6611: 6352: 6342: 6335: 6320: 6206: 4317:

platform, while Reform slowly bypassed them and became the largest American Jewish movement.

4050:

In 1927, the RA also established its own Committee of Jewish Law, entrusted with determining

3852: 3819: 3743:

The final schism between Frankel and the Orthodox occurred after the 1859 publication of his

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discourse cannot be sharply distinguished from either the Traditional or Orthodox one. Rabbi

2657: 2212: 2207: 2152: 1940: 855: 583: 570: 465: 182: 5436: 5409: 5157: 7353: 7343: 5818: 5709: 5688: 5648: 5584: 4137: 3966: 3903: 3488:

as president of Masorti AmLat. In Britain, the Masorti Assembly is chaired by Senior Rabbi

3453: 3438: 3275: 2783: 2448: 2283: 2235: 1975: 646: 511: 500: 458: 3690: 8: 7001: 6969: 6895: 6804: 6750: 6357: 6157: 5891: 5856: 5610: 4293: 4003: 3939: 3794: 3621: 3570: 3547: 3489: 3469: 3355: 3339: 3080: 2808: 2591: 2336: 2031: 709: 576: 479: 472: 402: 290: 165: 25: 4039: 3842:

followed Frankel's moderate approach to critical research. The rabbinate of the liberal

3642:

basis." The term Positive-Historical became associated with him and his middle way. The

3230:(women refused divorce by their husbands) was largely settled by adding a clause to the 2815:

titled its chapter on the subject with "The Indispensability of Halakha", stating that "

7333: 7328: 7139: 6861: 6738: 6733: 6718: 6688: 6641: 6564: 6470: 6330: 5903: 5808: 5775: 5321:

The Sectors of American Judaism: Reform, Orthodoxy, Conservatism, and Reconstructionism

4277: 3839: 3812: 3647: 3189: 3165: 2936: 2599: 2583: 2187: 2137: 2084: 2079: 1993: 1863: 1131: 960: 719: 639: 493: 59: 44: 6616: 6492: 4739: 3914:(ordained at Breslau, though he regarded himself as Orthodox) and Henry Schneeberger. 3827: 7117: 7048: 6930: 6915: 6698: 6569: 6534: 5823: 5668: 5504: 5480: 5456: 5417: 5390: 5371: 5348: 5341: 5325: 5259: 5235: 5196: 5165: 5084: 5053: 5015: 4465: 4414: 4359: 4225: 4204: 4082: 4013: 3999: 3983: 3668: 3597: 3593: 2837: 2742: 2737: 2640: 2493: 2464: 2331: 2273: 2253: 2070: 1630: 1269: 729: 600: 530: 407: 320: 187: 4761:"The rabbis of Conservative Judaism pass a resolution supporting transgender rights" 7183: 7151: 7112: 7083: 7066: 7016: 6817: 6626: 6559: 6512: 6460: 6428: 6419: 6404: 6278: 6253: 6229: 6113: 6044: 5961: 5828: 5643: 5615: 5249: 4905: 4404: 4383: 4166: 3946: 3922: 3911: 3764: 3473: 3347: 2971: 2770: 2653: 2632: 2501: 2460:

definitions, lacking a consensus in matters of faith and allowing great pluralism.

2301: 2182: 2142: 2106: 1804: 1354: 865: 621: 525: 440: 330: 122: 5156:, eds. (2017) . "Americans in the Israeli Reform and Conservative Denominations". 4789: 3524:

system, where children and adolescents spend summers in an observant environment.

7093: 7088: 6900: 6827: 6660: 6631: 6554: 6544: 6507: 6482: 6298: 6293: 6288: 6273: 6268: 6258: 6243: 6034: 5951: 5918: 5876: 5866: 5494: 5474: 5470: 5448: 5437: 5432: 5410: 5319: 5253: 5229: 5190: 5164:. Studies of Israeli Society, 7 (Reprint ed.). London; New York: Routledge. 5158: 5149: 5137: 5116: 5078: 5047: 4939: 4880: 4746: 4578: 4457: 4408: 4353: 4220: 4193: 4185: 4046:, a United Synagogue affiliate built in 1926, during the early years of the union 4033: 3935: 3918: 3879: 3808: 3718: 3617: 3465: 3359: 3335: 3279: 2825: 2766: 2666: 2636: 2560: 2527: 2410: 2263: 2222: 2217: 2197: 2119: 2113: 2046: 1998: 1838: 1819: 970: 699: 611: 594: 138: 4054:

issues. Consisting of seven members, it was chaired by the traditionalist Rabbi

3755:, presenting them as bold innovators, but not once affirmed the divinity of the 2590:

into past tense, rejecting a renewal of animal offerings, though not opposing a

7397: 7372: 7193: 7100: 7058: 7038: 7026: 7006: 6920: 6910: 6878: 6871: 6851: 6822: 6794: 6789: 6755: 6665: 6589: 6579: 6517: 6315: 6263: 6174: 6169: 5931: 5926: 5861: 5790: 5297: 4529: 4322: 4229: 4196:

and others. The CJLS continued to issue groundbreaking ordinances and rulings.

4158: 4055: 3975: 3962: 3958: 3891: 3843: 3835: 3823: 3803: 3702: 3582: 3578: 3385: 3092: 3053: 2982: 2977: 2931: 2922: 2841: 2833: 2804: 2762: 2716: 2497: 2363: 2162: 2017: 1897: 1876: 1853: 1848: 1826: 1814: 1409: 890: 824: 789: 767: 704: 542: 520: 382: 361: 337: 103: 85: 4684:, ההלכה הלכה לאיבוד / הכרות עם התנועה הקונסרבטיבית מתוך עיון בכתבי ועד ההלכה, 3856: 3706: 3208:, and could therefore be classified, according to their interpretation of the 2869:

The main body entrusted with formulating rulings, responsa and statues is the

7413: 7166: 7011: 6938: 6745: 6679: 6652: 6601: 6549: 6522: 6497: 6487: 6248: 6194: 6128: 6108: 6098: 6093: 6066: 6012: 5941: 5886: 5405: 5315: 5225: 5217: 5153: 4349: 4341: 4308:

In the very same year, the Reconstructionist also seceded fully, joining the

4112: 3931: 3899: 3776: 3609: 3566: 3551: 3368: 3071: 2985:

and later commentaries. Conservative authorities, while often relying on the

2965: 2698: 2670: 2567:

fully coalesced into an independent movement, these views were marginalized.

2531: 2476: 2311: 2306: 1512: 1439: 965: 814: 809: 804: 794: 772: 724: 486: 325: 230: 192: 143: 7146: 6943: 6905: 6866: 6455: 6199: 6138: 6118: 6078: 6061: 6029: 6017: 5978: 5896: 5871: 5366:

Modern Jewish Religious Movements: A History of Emancipation and Abjustment

5289: 5186: 5074: 5043: 5010:

Modern Jewish Religious Movements: A History of Emancipation and Abjustment

4681: 4549: 4241: 4237: 3991: 3714: 3658: 3654: 3504: 3422: 3169: 2859: 2678: 2674: 2635:, while accepting an evolutionary understanding of Oral Law, defined Rabbi 2595: 2547: 2341: 2167: 2008: 2003: 1961: 1914: 1008: 875: 860: 819: 784: 397: 239: 3107:, often cite the manner in which the sages of old used rabbinic statutes ( 2997:

ruled without firm precedent, sometimes deriving his conclusions from the

2578:

are maintained, English translations of the prayers obscure the issue. In

2443:, as both binding and subject to historical development. The conservative 7156: 6671: 6596: 6574: 6477: 6071: 6000: 5995: 5983: 5973: 5309:

Conservative Judaism in America: A Biographical Dictionary and Sourcebook

5293: 4289: 4174: 3995: 3945:

The explicit wording alienated a handful of conservative UAHC ministers:

3887: 3493: 3288:. In 2016, the rabbis passed a resolution supporting transgender rights. 3255: 3239: 3235: 3126: 3113:) that enabled the bypassing of prohibitions in the Pentateuch, like the 2990: 2457: 2326: 2268: 1933: 839: 834: 829: 799: 5083:(2nd ed.). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. p. 533. 5052:(2nd ed.). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. p. 350. 4964: 4283:

Female ordination was a matter of great friction until 1983, when Rabbi

7250: 6957: 6539: 6133: 5881: 5803: 5663: 5539: 5503:. Princeton, NJ; Oxford: Princeton University Press. pp. 121–142. 5416:(Reprint ed.). Eugene, Or: Wipf and Stock Publ. pp. 240–258. 4116: 4099: 4073: 3954: 3756: 3612:

were the only ones of nineteen respondents who negatively answered the

3521: 3516: 3480:. The current USCJ President is Ned Gladstein. In South America, Rabbi 3205: 3121: 2615: 2611: 2434: 1984: 998: 927: 885: 714: 694: 253: 160: 80: 2993:'s work. In several occasions, Conservative rabbis discerned that the 7171: 6636: 6527: 6438: 6056: 5990: 4626:

Is the “Halakhic Authenticity” of Conservative Judaism a Broken Myth?

4284: 3663: 3442: 3430: 3372: 3271: 3209: 3135: 3103:

Conservative authorities, as part of their promulgation of a dynamic

3049: 3005: 2649: 2147: 2132: 1222: 1170: 932: 880: 870: 551: 547: 537: 452: 212: 6007: 5234:(Reprint ed.). Malden, Mass: Blackwell Publ. pp. 334–353. 5222:"Conservative Judaism: The Struggle between Ideology and Popularity" 4874:

Members and Motives: Who Joins American Jewish Congregations and Why

4699: 4569:, Columbia University Press, 2012. pp. 13-14, 18; Daniel H. Gordis, 4358:(Reprint ed.). Malden, Mass: Blackwell Publ. pp. 334–353. 4346:"Conservative Judaism: The Struggle between Ideology and Popularity" 4009: 3238:, rendering the marriage void. In 1955, more girls were celebrating 900: 6890: 6832: 6777: 6772: 6443: 5729: 4862:

Conservative Jewry’s numbers plummeting, but core engagement steady

4625: 4258: 4213: 4121: 3907: 3109: 3011: 2999: 2944: 2800: 2745:

espoused a similar position. He turned the old rabbinic concept of

2586:, the movement rephrased most petitions for the restoration of the 2543: 2316: 1926: 1858: 689: 197: 148: 21: 5276:

Survey of Conservative Jewish youth from middle school to college.

4894:

Conservative Judaism’s Rebranding Effort Could Signal a Sea Change

4867: 4490:

Response to Modernity: A History of the Reform Movement in Judaism

4140:. The synagogue was built in 1962, after the migration to suburbia 3921:, the UAHC was also home to more conservative elements. President 3875: 2849:

approach, insisting that the legalistic method be maintained. The

7105: 6989: 6984: 6974: 6962: 6782: 6767: 6711: 6646: 6621: 6584: 6448: 6123: 6022: 5946: 5838: 5764: 4149: 4060: 3987: 3917:

While spearheaded by radical and principled Reformers like Rabbi

3783: 3694: 3613: 3434: 3231: 3115: 3058: 3040:

Ethical considerations and the weight due to them in determining

3034: 2795: 2724: 2711: 2619: 2439: 2292: 2258: 2127: 1921: 910: 905: 777: 668: 563: 559: 555: 304: 299: 276: 258: 133: 128: 118: 96: 71: 5500:

The New American Judaism: How Jews Practice Their Religion Today

5370:(3rd rev. ed.). New York: Behrman House. pp. 317–346. 5255:

The Conservative Movement in Judaism: Dilemmas and Opportunities

5014:(3rd rev. ed.). New York: Behrman House. pp. 186–217. 4410:

The Conservative Movement in Judaism: Dilemmas and Opportunities

4128: 3653:

In 1844, Geiger and like-minded allies arranged a conference in

3175: 3160: 7176: 7043: 6979: 4811: 4536:, United Synagogue, 1991. pp. 13–17. See also: S. H. Schwartz, 4264: 4095: 3926: 3831: 3752: 3748: 3589: 3376: 3284: 3259: 3247: 3226: 3148: 2960: 2917:

is defined by several features, though the entire range of its

2891: 2623: 2587: 1952: 1947: 1907: 1892: 1003: 895: 315: 281: 267: 202: 4618:

Doing Jewish Theology: God, Torah and Israel in Modern Judaism

3577:

any say in religious matters. On the other extreme were Rabbi

2953:

legalists of the past. They are far more inclined to contend (

7127: 7122: 7076: 7031: 6952: 6947: 6211: 5966: 5936: 5476:

Jews in the Center: Conservative Synagogues and Their Members

5453:

Tradition and Change: The Development of Conservative Judaism

4599:, pp. 345-248; Geffen, Elazar, pp. 4-5, 73, 105-106; Gordis, 4085:, appointed in 1940, and a large majority among the faculty. 3380: 3217: 3045: 3019:

which is derived from a minority view in the Talmud—that the

2949: 2627: 2444: 915: 344: 248: 217: 4976:

Michael Greenbaum, "Ramah: Paradigm for Conservative Jews",

2602:

and God's covenant with it were basically retained as well.

7226: 5760: 5211:

Halakha For Our Time: A Conservative Approach To Jewish Law

4871:, Jewish Daily Forward, 20 November 2015; Steven M. Cohen, 4534:

Halakha For Our Time: A Conservative Approach To Jewish Law

3680: 2926: 67: 5534: 4624:, Columbia University Press, 2013. p. 123; Leonard Levin, 3492:. In Israel, the Masorti movement's executive director is 3476:. Rabbi Blumenthal holds the joint position as CEO of the 2862:, who exhorted the movement to cease describing itself as 5535:

The Masorti Foundation for Conservative Judaism in Israel

5439:

Jews in Israel: Contemporary Social and Cultural Patterns

4868:

Conservative Judaism Seeks To Rebrand Itself—But as What?

4622:

Contemporary American Judaism: Transformation and Renewal

3125:. In 1948, when employing those was first debated, Rabbi 5347:. San Francisco, Ca: Harper & Row. pp. 79–124. 3636:

Zeitschrift für die Religiösen Interessen des Judenthums

2948:

or before them, as far back as the Talmud. Conservative

5529: 4434:”If you are My witnesses...”: Special Issue on Theology 5455:. New York: United Synagogue of America Book Service. 5180:

Conservative Judaism: Our Ancestors To Our Descendants

4910:

The Cambridge Dictionary of Judaism and Jewish Culture

4462:

Conservative Judaism: Our Ancestors To Our Descendants

4436:. Conservative Judaism 51, no. 2 (Winter 1999). p. 13. 3650:

and arguing for the antiquity of custom and practice.

3449:

also maintains connections with Conservative Judaism.

3246:) was no longer relevant. In 1972 it was decreed that 2701:, the main rabbinical seminary of Conservative Judaism 4836:, Springer Science & Business Media, 2012. p. 75. 4207:(left), the dominant leader of JTS from 1940 to 1972. 4169:, also became an important figure among the faculty. 3724:

In 1854, Frankel was appointed chancellor in the new

3657:

that was to have enough authority (since 1826, Rabbi

3350:

supplies prayer leaders for congregations worldwide.

5387:

Conservative Judaism: An American Religious Movement

5160:

Israeli Judaism: The Sociology of Religion in Israel

5147: 4464:, United Synagogue New York, 1996. pp. 49 ,201-202; 3834:

along a similar path. In Jellinek's local seminary,

3811:

published an article where he appeared to doubt the

3419:

Seminario Rabínico Latinoamericano Marshall T. Meyer

3415:

Marshall T. Meyer Latin American Rabbinical Seminary

3164:

A mixed-gender, egalitarian Conservative service at

2424: 1931: 1912: 335: 3134:

members of the priestly caste to marry divorcees, "

3023:is not obligatory in present times at all (neither 5363: 5340: 5007: 5001: 4999: 4630:Personal Theology: Essays in Honor of Neil Gillman 4620:, Jewish Lights, 2008. p. 188.; Dana Evan Kaplan, 4144:In 1946, a committee chaired by Gordis issued the 4705:The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Ethics and Morality 4081:was opposed by the new traditionalist Chancellor 4006:was established as the fraternity of JTS alumni. 3978:, which maintained close ties with the seminary. 2512:(Truth and Belief), formulated and issued by the 7411: 3321: 5479:. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. 4996: 3736:and emphasized the divine origin of the entire 3484:serves as chancellor in the Seminary and Rabbi 2908:B'nai Israel Congregation (Rockville, Maryland) 5443:. Brandeis University Press. pp. 285–314. 4959: 4957: 3870: 2761:identification that was more traditional than 2719:, summarizing his movement's position, wrote: 5745: 5555: 4804: 4703:, in: Elliot N. Dorff, Jonathan K. Crane ed. 4700:Ethical Theories in the Conservative Movement 3864:Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judentums 3581:, who would emerge as the founding father of 3532: 2383: 5530:The United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism 5248: 5080:The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion 5049:The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion 4474:The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion 4403: 3629: 2463:While regarding itself as the heir of Rabbi 7234:Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation 4954: 4912:, Cambridge University Press, 2011. p. 355. 4538:"Conservative Judaism's 'Ideology' Problem" 4397: 4394:, Oxford University Press, 2001. pp. 40-43. 3998:. It was conditioned on the appointment of 3152:, de facto abolishing this legal category. 3015:, but based on many opinions of the lesser 2959:) with old rulings, to be flexible towards 2929:, it draws directly on the opinions of the 2631:debate. A similar negative approach toward 627:History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire 48:Morning service in synagogue Adath Israel, 5752: 5738: 5674:Nativ College Leadership Program in Israel 5601:Leadership Council of Conservative Judaism 5562: 5548: 5493: 5469: 4814:. United Synagogue Conservative of Judaism 4392:Studies in Contemporary Jewry, Volume XVII 4302:Union for Traditional Conservative Judaism 4270:Beth Israel Congregation of Chester County 4167:mysticist understanding of Jewish religion 2514:Leadership Council of Conservative Judaism 2390: 2376: 4022:Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary 2542:Conservative Judaism largely upholds the 5781:Index of Jewish history-related articles 5679:United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism 5659:Solomon Schechter Day School Association 5569: 5361: 5033: 5031: 5005: 4865:, JTA, 10 November 2015; Uriel Heilman, 4740:תהליכים בפסיקת ההלכה הקונסרבטיבית בימינו 4597:Struggle between Ideology and Popularity 4198: 4127: 4038: 4008: 3874: 3782: 3679: 3536: 3478:United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism 3390: 3371:, is the largest with 35 communities in 3174: 3159: 2901: 2688: 2526:dedicated to the matter, leading rabbis 2469:United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism 43: 7280:United States Holocaust Memorial Museum 5917: 5338: 5314: 5185: 5182:(Rev. ed.). New York: United Synagogue. 4980:, National Ramah Commission, pp. 53–55. 4476:, Oxford University Press, 2011. p. 624 3848:Jewish Theological Seminary of Budapest 3155: 7412: 5634:Miller Introduction to Judaism Program 5621:Jewish Theological Seminary of America 5447: 5430: 5403: 5384: 5216: 5073:Silvan, Gabriel (2011). "Neology". In 5072: 4965:Will Conservative Day Schools Survive? 4340: 3971:Jewish Theological Seminary of America 3896:Union of American Hebrew Congregations 3788:Jewish Theological Seminary of Breslau 3726:Jewish Theological Seminary of Breslau 3332:Jewish Theological Seminary of America 2803:and the like. Concurrently, examining 2695:Jewish Theological Seminary of America 2537: 2506:Jewish Theological Seminary of America 2473:Jewish Theological Seminary of America 5733: 5654:Schechter Institute of Jewish Studies 5606:Committee on Jewish Law and Standards 5543: 5192:Conservative Judaism: The New Century 5037: 5028: 4572:Positive-Historical Judaism Exhausted 4554:Conservative Judaism: The New Century 4334: 3496:and chair Sophie Fellman Rafalovitz. 3462:Committee on Jewish Law and Standards 3452:The current chancellor of the JTS is 3447:Budapest University of Jewish Studies 3427:Schechter Institute of Jewish Studies 3338:. By 1901, the JTS alumni formed the 2871:Committee on Jewish Law and Standards 5759: 5282:A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice 4993:, National Ramah Commission, p. 174. 4923:The Conservative Movement in Judaism 4728:, pp. 30-41; Dorff, pp. 101-107 etc. 4565:Dorff, pp. 24-25; Michael R. Cohen, 4492:, Wayne State, 1995. pp. 84-89, 414. 4484: 4482: 4379: 4377: 4375: 3862:The Breslau Seminary and the Reform 3661:called for the convocation of a new 2437:. It therefore views Jewish law, or 5304:The Jewish Publication Society, NY. 5125:, Cambridge University Press, 1987. 4310:World Union for Progressive Judaism 4105: 2414: 13: 7227:YIVO Institute for Jewish Research 7207:American Jewish Historical Society 5639:Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies 5231:The Blackwell Companion to Judaism 5131: 4989:Nancy Scheff, "Romance at Ramah", 4355:The Blackwell Companion to Judaism 4234:Seminario Rabinico Latinoamericano 3759:. On the ordinances classified as 3721:, and was postponed indefinitely. 3407:Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies 3396:Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies 3212:' opinion, as "redundant labour" ( 2897: 2887:Seminario Rabinico Latinoamericano 14: 7436: 5705:Criticism of Conservative Judaism 5518: 5105:The Birth of Conservative Judaism 4556:, Behrman House, 1993. pp. 54–56. 4479: 4372: 3910:congregations, along with rabbis 2618:, pioneering modern study of the 418:Historical population comparisons 7391: 7378: 7377: 5628:(formerly University of Judaism) 4896:The Algemeiner, January 15, 2016 3830:led the central congregation in 1062:Democratic Republic of the Congo 976:Historical population by country 5525:The Jewish Theological Seminary 5389:. Glencoe, Il: The Free Press. 5272:Keysar, Ariela; Kosmin, Barry. 5110: 5097: 5066: 4983: 4970: 4928: 4915: 4899: 4887: 4853: 4839: 4834:American Jewish Year, Book 2012 4832:Arnold Dashefsky, Ira Sheskin, 4826: 4778: 4753: 4731: 4718: 4691: 4670: 4657: 4644: 4641:Elazer, Minz-Geffen, pp. 63-65. 4635: 4610: 4601:Conservative Judaism: A Requiem 4589: 4559: 4543: 4522: 4513: 4448:, pp. 41, 59.; Gordis, 353-354. 4146:Sabbath and Festival Prayerbook 3596:, appointed chief rabbi of the 31:For the scholarly journal, see 7299:Relations with other religions 5228:; Avery-Peck, Alan J. (eds.). 4713:Modernists vs. Traditionalists 4504: 4495: 4451: 4439: 4427: 4352:; Avery-Peck, Alan J. (eds.). 3100:matters concerning livestock. 2913:The Conservative treatment of 2574:, but while references to the 16:Movement of Rabbinical Judaism 1: 7286:Encyclopedia of the Holocaust 5412:Social Foundations of Judaism 5302:Etz Hayim: A Torah Commentary 5252:; Geffen, Rela Mintz (2012). 5038:Dorff, Elliot Nelson (2011). 4407:; Geffen, Rela Mintz (2012). 4328: 4026:Rabbinical Council of America 3620:, who argued that the act of 3513:Solomon Schechter Day Schools 3322:Organization and demographics 3218:members of the priestly caste 2855:Union for Traditional Judaism 2777: 2757:boundaries beyond any limit. 2605: 633:Christianity and Judaism 7217:Leo Baeck Institute New York 7212:American Sephardi Federation 5274:Eight Up: The College Years, 4711:, pp. 187-190; Silverstein, 4446:”If you are My witnesses...” 4292:, was admitted into the RA. 4002:as Chancellor. In 1901, the 3969:. In 1886, they founded the 50:Merion Station, Pennsylvania 7: 6040:Constantinopolitan Karaites 5626:American Jewish University 5195:. New York: Behrman House. 4300:integrity. They formed the 4072:, rejecting the concept of 3871:Jewish Theological Seminary 3761:Law given to Moses at Sinai 3751:). He heaved praise on the 3677:reassured of his loyalty". 3630: 3344:United Synagogue of America 3252:Panim Chadashot ba'u l'Khan 2793:Fidelity and commitment to 2684: 2610:Conservative conception of 2487: 2482: 2425: 1932: 1913: 1640:Latin America and Caribbean 336: 10: 7441: 7425:Jewish religious movements 7268:National Library of Israel 5909:Zionism, race and genetics 5339:Raphael, Marc Lee (1984). 5258:. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. 5122:The Conservative Synagogue 4879:December 22, 2015, at the 4472:, in: Adele Berlin (ed.), 4413:. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. 4134:Congregation Shaarey Zedek 4044:East Midwood Jewish Center 3628:) rather than sanctified ( 3606:Hamburg Temple controversy 3558:Wissenschaft des Judentums 3533:Positive-Historical School 3527: 3468:, serving since 2007. The 3411:American Jewish University 3400:American Jewish University 2781: 2660:, but also attracted many 2245:Jewish political movements 1942:Conversion to Judaism 18: 7366: 7222:Yeshiva University Museum 7202:Center for Jewish History 7192: 7057: 6929: 6803: 6697: 6228: 5847: 5789: 5771: 5697: 5593: 5577: 5385:Sklare, Marshall (1955). 5362:Rudavsky, David (1979) . 5307:Nadell Pamela S. (1988). 5178:Dorff, Elliot N. (1996). 5006:Rudavsky, David (1979) . 4632:, Academic Studies Press. 4219:Already in a 1955 study, 4070:Judaism as a Civilization 3196:unto itself, not even in 2471:, and the New York–based 2431:Jewish religious movement 648:Hinduism and Judaism 5814:Ancient Israel and Judah 5209:Golinkin, David (1991). 4745:August 10, 2014, at the 4024:and members of the OU's 3951:Frederick de Sola Mendes 3773:Benjamin Hirsch Auerbach 3565:in Germany, like rabbis 2576:Resurrection of the Dead 474:Temple in Jerusalem 167:Bar and bat mitzvah 20:Not to be confused with 6190:North African Sephardim 6163:Jewish tribes of Arabia 4884:, S3K Report, Fall 2006 4715:, p. 42; Dorff, p. 161. 4628:in: Daniel Plevan ed., 4577:April 10, 2015, at the 3732:, who fiercely opposed 3699:second day of festivals 3541:Rabbi Zecharias Frankel 3511:The USCJ maintains the 3009:and the more prominent 2788: 2572:Immortality of the Soul 436:Twelve Tribes of Israel 7293:Holocaust Encyclopedia 7263:Jewish Virtual Library 5684:United Synagogue Youth 5664:Ramah Camping Movement 5311:, Greenwood Press, NY. 5285:, JTS Press, New York. 4680:, pp. 26-31; See also 4605:Jewish Review of Books 4208: 4163:Abraham Joshua Heschel 4141: 4125:, rabbinic ordinance. 4047: 4016: 3882: 3790: 3685: 3542: 3501:United Synagogue Youth 3402: 3224:In 1954, the issue of 3214:Sh’eina Tzricha L’gufa 3180: 3172: 2910: 2730: 2702: 52: 7240:Encyclopaedia Judaica 7022:Sefer Raziel HaMalakh 6207:Sephardic Bnei Anusim 5957:Udmurt and Tatar Jews 5279:Klein, Isaac (1992). 5040:"Historical Movement" 4709:Doing Jewish Theology 4707:, OUP 2012; Gillman, 4652:Doing Jewish Theology 4202: 4131: 4064:on the background of 4042: 4012: 3878: 3820:Isaac Noah Mannheimer 3786: 3730:Samson Raphael Hirsch 3683: 3540: 3458:Bradley Shavit Artson 3425:, Argentina; and the 3394: 3192:) did not constitute 3178: 3163: 3070:." The liberal Rabbi 2905: 2721: 2692: 1182:São Tomé and Príncipe 1177:Republic of the Congo 571:Second Temple Judaism 442:Kingdom of Judah 413:Modern historiography 47: 7420:Conservative Judaism 5819:Second Temple period 5710:Gladstein Fellowship 5649:Conservative Yeshiva 5585:Conservative halakha 5571:Conservative Judaism 4942:on February 22, 2015 4726:Halakha For Our Time 4678:Halakha For Our Time 4665:Halakha For Our Time 4584:Conservative Judaism 4190:Tradition and Change 4138:Southfield, Michigan 3967:Hebrew Union College 3904:Henry Pereira Mendes 3640:positive, historical 3464:is chaired by Rabbi 3454:Shuly Rubin Schwartz 3439:Conservative Yeshiva 3413:in Los Angeles; the 3328:Conservative Judaism 3276:Counting of the Omer 3258:could be considered 3254:) and therefore all 3179:Women rabbis, Israel 3156:Rulings and policies 2906:Memorial service of 2784:Conservative Halakha 2523:Conservative Judaism 2403:Conservative Judaism 2284:World Agudath Israel 1425:United Arab Emirates 512:Second Temple period 502:Babylonian captivity 34:Conservative Judaism 7257:Jewish Encyclopedia 7002:Hekhalot literature 6813:Religious movements 6348:Judeo-Tripolitanian 5611:Rabbinical Assembly 5213:, United Synagogue. 5150:Liebman, Charles S. 4936:"About the Network" 4750:, Akdamot 27, 2012. 4519:Dorff, pp. 107-114. 4510:Dorff, pp. 107-108. 4294:David Weiss Halivni 4004:Rabbinical Assembly 3940:Pittsburgh Platform 3795:Azriel Hildesheimer 3622:marriage in Judaism 3571:Azriel Hildesheimer 3563:modernized Orthodox 3490:Jonathan Wittenberg 3470:Rabbinical Assembly 3356:Pew Research Center 3340:Rabbinical Assembly 3232:prenuptial contract 3081:Rabbinical Assembly 3066:should control the 2975:and especially the 2809:rabbinic literature 2538:God and eschatology 2449:historical-critical 577:Hellenistic Judaism 155:Land of Israel 114:Principles of faith 26:Jewish conservatism 7398:Judaism portal 7334:Jews and Halloween 7329:Jews and Christmas 6719:Rabbinic authority 6471:Judaeo-Piedmontese 5904:Xueta Christianity 5809:Origins of Judaism 5776:Outline of Judaism 4528:Dorff, pp. 20-23; 4501:Dorff, pp. 103–105 4278:Linda Joy Holtzman 4254:their own seminary 4209: 4142: 4048: 4017: 3883: 3840:Isaac Hirsch Weiss 3791: 3686: 3648:Biblical criticism 3543: 3482:Ariel Stofenmacher 3403: 3198:incandescent bulbs 3190:electrical circuit 3181: 3173: 2937:Hayim David HaLevi 2911: 2703: 2622:. He regarded the 2600:Election of Israel 2138:Jewish Koine Greek 1680:Dominican Republic 961:Judaism by country 640:Jews and Christmas 495:Assyrian captivity 53: 7407: 7406: 7373:extinct languages 7274:YIVO Encyclopedia 7049:Hebrew literature 7017:Sefer HaEtz Chaim 6857:Reconstructionist 6535:Judaeo-Portuguese 6224: 6223: 6180:Eastern Sephardim 5824:Synagogal Judaism 5727: 5726: 5669:Masorti on Campus 5510:978-0-691-18129-5 5250:Elazar, Daniel J. 5171:978-1-56000-178-2 5140:(January 2007). " 5090:978-0-19-975927-9 5059:978-0-19-975927-9 4963:Jennifer Siegel, 4859:Steven M. Cohen, 4466:Martha Himmelfarb 4405:Elazar, Daniel J. 4226:Edward S. Shapiro 4205:Louis Finkelstein 4165:, who espoused a 4132:The Conservative 4083:Louis Finkelstein 4079:Reconstructionism 4014:Solomon Schechter 4000:Solomon Schechter 3984:Agudas HaRabbanim 3898:. These included 3691:Hirsch Bär Fassel 3669:Frankfurt am Main 3598:Kingdom of Saxony 3594:Zecharias Frankel 3136:Later authorities 2927:ritual enclosures 2838:Louis Finkelstein 2743:Solomon Schechter 2738:Zecharias Frankel 2641:Solomon Schechter 2565:Reconstructionism 2563:. After Kaplan's 2494:Zecharias Frankel 2465:Zecharias Frankel 2423: 2400: 2399: 2349: 2348: 2097: 2096: 1844:Reconstructionist 1788: 1787: 940: 939: 747: 746: 584:Jewish–Roman wars 532:Hasmonean dynasty 448:Kingdom of Israel 352: 351: 7432: 7396: 7395: 7394: 7381: 7380: 6513:Judeo-Golpaygani 6114:Palestinian Jews 6089:Alexandrian Jews 6045:Crimean Karaites 5962:Unterlander Jews 5915: 5914: 5829:Rabbinic Judaism 5754: 5747: 5740: 5731: 5730: 5644:Fuchsberg Center 5629: 5616:Cantors Assembly 5564: 5557: 5550: 5541: 5540: 5514: 5495:Wertheimer, Jack 5490: 5471:Wertheimer, Jack 5466: 5449:Waxman, Mordecai 5444: 5442: 5433:Waxman, Chaim I. 5427: 5415: 5400: 5381: 5369: 5358: 5346: 5335: 5269: 5245: 5206: 5175: 5163: 5148:Deshen, Shlomo; 5138:Cohen, Steven M. 5126: 5114: 5108: 5101: 5095: 5094: 5070: 5064: 5063: 5035: 5026: 5025: 5013: 5003: 4994: 4987: 4981: 4974: 4968: 4961: 4952: 4951: 4949: 4947: 4938:. Archived from 4932: 4926: 4921:Elazar, Geffen. 4919: 4913: 4906:Judith R. Baskin 4903: 4897: 4891: 4885: 4857: 4851: 4850: 4843: 4837: 4830: 4824: 4823: 4821: 4819: 4808: 4802: 4801: 4799: 4797: 4792:on April 6, 2016 4788:. Archived from 4782: 4776: 4775: 4773: 4771: 4757: 4751: 4735: 4729: 4722: 4716: 4695: 4689: 4688:, December 1999. 4674: 4668: 4661: 4655: 4648: 4642: 4639: 4633: 4614: 4608: 4593: 4587: 4563: 4557: 4547: 4541: 4526: 4520: 4517: 4511: 4508: 4502: 4499: 4493: 4486: 4477: 4455: 4449: 4443: 4437: 4431: 4425: 4424: 4401: 4395: 4384:Alan Silverstein 4381: 4370: 4369: 4338: 4276:-ordained Rabbi 4106:A third movement 3947:Henry Hochheimer 3923:Isaac Meyer Wise 3912:Bernard Drachman 3813:Messianic belief 3765:Asher ben Jehiel 3633: 3515:, comprising 76 3474:Jacob Blumenthal 3348:Cantors Assembly 3085:Shinui ha-I'ttim 3033:) but rather an 2875:Va'ad ha-Halakha 2824:rigid position. 2771:Daniel J. Elazar 2654:Franz Rosenzweig 2633:Higher Criticism 2428: 2426:Yahadut Masortit 2418: 2416: 2405:, also known as 2392: 2385: 2378: 2241: 2240: 2122: 1943: 1937: 1918: 1882: 1881: 1829: 1776:New Zealand 1728: 1691:El Salvador 1681: 1613:Northern America 1605: 1199: 955: 954: 866:Crimean Karaites 762: 761: 740: 738: 659: 657: 649: 643: 634: 622:Rabbinic Judaism 603: 597: 591: 579: 567: 533: 526:Maccabean Revolt 503: 496: 490: 482: 475: 469: 461: 443: 367: 366: 341: 236: 235: 168: 156: 55: 54: 39: 29: 7440: 7439: 7435: 7434: 7433: 7431: 7430: 7429: 7410: 7409: 7408: 7403: 7392: 7390: 7362: 7188: 7053: 6925: 6799: 6693: 6508:Judeo-Borujerdi 6483:Judeo-Malayalam 6429:Judeo-Aragonese 6400:Lishanid Noshan 6232: 6220: 5952:Oberlander Jews 5913: 5843: 5785: 5767: 5758: 5728: 5723: 5693: 5627: 5589: 5573: 5568: 5521: 5511: 5487: 5463: 5424: 5397: 5378: 5355: 5332: 5300:, eds. (2001). 5288:Lieber. David; 5266: 5242: 5203: 5172: 5134: 5132:Further reading 5129: 5117:Jack Wertheimer 5115: 5111: 5102: 5098: 5091: 5071: 5067: 5060: 5036: 5029: 5022: 5004: 4997: 4988: 4984: 4975: 4971: 4962: 4955: 4945: 4943: 4934: 4933: 4929: 4925:. pp. 133, 174. 4920: 4916: 4904: 4900: 4892: 4888: 4881:Wayback Machine 4858: 4854: 4845: 4844: 4840: 4831: 4827: 4817: 4815: 4810: 4809: 4805: 4795: 4793: 4784: 4783: 4779: 4769: 4767: 4765:Washington Post 4759: 4758: 4754: 4747:Wayback Machine 4736: 4732: 4723: 4719: 4696: 4692: 4675: 4671: 4667:, pp. 5, 9, 13. 4662: 4658: 4649: 4645: 4640: 4636: 4615: 4611: 4594: 4590: 4579:Wayback Machine 4564: 4560: 4548: 4544: 4527: 4523: 4518: 4514: 4509: 4505: 4500: 4496: 4488:Michael Meyer, 4487: 4480: 4458:Elliot N. Dorff 4456: 4452: 4444: 4440: 4432: 4428: 4421: 4402: 4398: 4382: 4373: 4366: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4221:Marshall Sklare 4194:Alexander Kohut 4186:Mordecai Waxman 4108: 4034:Mordecai Kaplan 3936:Alexander Kohut 3919:Kaufmann Kohler 3906:of the elitist 3880:Alexander Kohut 3873: 3828:Moritz Güdemann 3809:Heinrich Graetz 3753:Beatified Sages 3745:Darke ha-Mishna 3719:Jacob Ettlinger 3618:Samuel Holdheim 3535: 3530: 3486:Marcelo Rittner 3466:Elliot N. Dorff 3360:Steven M. Cohen 3336:Alexander Kohut 3324: 3304:, or the local 3280:Judith Hauptman 3194:kindling a fire 3166:Robinson's Arch 3158: 3021:Sabbatical Year 2900: 2898:Characteristics 2826:Mordecai Kaplan 2791: 2786: 2780: 2767:Charles Liebman 2687: 2667:Ben-Zion Bokser 2658:existentialists 2637:Alexander Kohut 2624:Beatified Sages 2608: 2584:Messianic ideal 2561:Mordecai Kaplan 2540: 2528:Elliot N. Dorff 2490: 2485: 2447:employs modern 2407:Masorti Judaism 2396: 2351: 2350: 2238: 2228: 2227: 2218:Judeo-Malayalam 2198:Judaeo-Georgian 2118: 2109: 2099: 2098: 1999:Yiddish theatre 1941: 1879: 1869: 1868: 1827: 1800: 1790: 1789: 1726: 1679: 1603: 1197: 981:Genetic studies 952: 942: 941: 759: 749: 748: 736: 735: 655: 654: 647: 637: 632: 614:and Middle Ages 612:Rabbinic period 599: 593: 586: 574: 545: 531: 501: 494: 485: 477: 473: 464: 459:in Judaism 456: 441: 364: 354: 353: 233: 223: 222: 166: 154: 99: 40: 30: 19: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7438: 7428: 7427: 7422: 7405: 7404: 7402: 7401: 7387: 7367: 7364: 7363: 7361: 7360: 7359: 7358: 7357: 7356: 7351: 7346: 7340:non-Christian 7338: 7337: 7336: 7331: 7326: 7321: 7316: 7311: 7296: 7289: 7282: 7277: 7270: 7265: 7260: 7253: 7248: 7243: 7236: 7231: 7230: 7229: 7224: 7219: 7214: 7209: 7198: 7196: 7190: 7189: 7187: 7186: 7181: 7180: 7179: 7174: 7164: 7159: 7154: 7149: 7144: 7143: 7142: 7132: 7131: 7130: 7125: 7115: 7110: 7109: 7108: 7098: 7097: 7096: 7086: 7081: 7080: 7079: 7074: 7063: 7061: 7055: 7054: 7052: 7051: 7046: 7041: 7039:Shulchan Aruch 7036: 7035: 7034: 7029: 7027:Sefer Yetzirah 7024: 7019: 7014: 7009: 7007:Pardes Rimonim 7004: 6997:Kabbalah texts 6994: 6993: 6992: 6987: 6982: 6977: 6967: 6966: 6965: 6960: 6955: 6941: 6935: 6933: 6927: 6926: 6924: 6923: 6918: 6913: 6908: 6903: 6898: 6893: 6888: 6887: 6886: 6881: 6876: 6875: 6874: 6864: 6859: 6854: 6849: 6844: 6843: 6842: 6837: 6836: 6835: 6830: 6809: 6807: 6801: 6800: 6798: 6797: 6792: 6790:Land of Israel 6787: 6786: 6785: 6775: 6770: 6765: 6764: 6763: 6753: 6748: 6743: 6742: 6741: 6731: 6726: 6721: 6716: 6715: 6714: 6703: 6701: 6695: 6694: 6692: 6691: 6686: 6685: 6684: 6683: 6682: 6677: 6676: 6675: 6668: 6666:Judeo-Alsatian 6658: 6657: 6656: 6649: 6644: 6639: 6619: 6614: 6609: 6604: 6599: 6594: 6593: 6592: 6587: 6577: 6572: 6567: 6562: 6557: 6552: 6547: 6542: 6537: 6532: 6531: 6530: 6525: 6520: 6518:Judeo-Hamedani 6515: 6510: 6505: 6495: 6493:Judaeo-Occitan 6490: 6485: 6480: 6475: 6474: 6473: 6463: 6458: 6453: 6452: 6451: 6446: 6441: 6434:Jewish English 6431: 6426: 6425: 6424: 6423: 6422: 6412: 6407: 6402: 6397: 6392: 6387: 6382: 6377: 6372: 6365:Judaeo-Aramaic 6362: 6361: 6360: 6355: 6353:Judeo-Tunisian 6350: 6345: 6343:Judeo-Moroccan 6340: 6339: 6338: 6336:Judeo-Baghdadi 6323: 6318: 6313: 6312: 6311: 6306: 6301: 6296: 6291: 6286: 6281: 6276: 6271: 6266: 6261: 6256: 6251: 6240: 6238: 6226: 6225: 6222: 6221: 6219: 6218: 6217: 6216: 6215: 6214: 6204: 6203: 6202: 6192: 6187: 6185:Livornese Jews 6182: 6172: 6167: 6166: 6165: 6155: 6154: 6153: 6152: 6151: 6146: 6141: 6136: 6126: 6121: 6116: 6111: 6106: 6101: 6096: 6091: 6086: 6076: 6075: 6074: 6064: 6059: 6054: 6049: 6048: 6047: 6042: 6032: 6027: 6026: 6025: 6015: 6010: 6005: 6004: 6003: 5998: 5988: 5987: 5986: 5981: 5971: 5970: 5969: 5964: 5959: 5954: 5949: 5944: 5939: 5934: 5932:Afrikaner-Jode 5923: 5921: 5912: 5911: 5906: 5901: 5900: 5899: 5889: 5884: 5879: 5874: 5869: 5864: 5859: 5853: 5851: 5845: 5844: 5842: 5841: 5836: 5831: 5826: 5821: 5816: 5811: 5806: 5801: 5795: 5793: 5787: 5786: 5784: 5783: 5778: 5772: 5769: 5768: 5757: 5756: 5749: 5742: 5734: 5725: 5724: 5722: 5721: 5713: 5712: 5707: 5701: 5699: 5698:Related topics 5695: 5694: 5692: 5691: 5686: 5681: 5676: 5671: 5666: 5661: 5656: 5651: 5646: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5623: 5618: 5613: 5608: 5603: 5597: 5595: 5591: 5590: 5588: 5587: 5581: 5579: 5575: 5574: 5567: 5566: 5559: 5552: 5544: 5538: 5537: 5532: 5527: 5520: 5519:External links 5517: 5516: 5515: 5509: 5491: 5485: 5473:, ed. (2002). 5467: 5461: 5451:, ed. (1958). 5445: 5428: 5422: 5406:Neusner, Jacob 5401: 5395: 5382: 5376: 5359: 5353: 5336: 5330: 5318:, ed. (1975). 5316:Neusner, Jacob 5312: 5305: 5298:Harold Kushner 5286: 5277: 5270: 5264: 5246: 5240: 5226:Neusner, Jacob 5218:Gordis, Daniel 5214: 5207: 5201: 5183: 5176: 5170: 5154:Shokeid, Moshe 5145: 5133: 5130: 5128: 5127: 5109: 5096: 5089: 5065: 5058: 5027: 5020: 4995: 4982: 4969: 4967:, June 5, 2008 4953: 4927: 4914: 4898: 4886: 4852: 4838: 4825: 4803: 4777: 4752: 4730: 4717: 4690: 4669: 4656: 4643: 4634: 4616:Neil Gillman, 4609: 4607:, Winter 2014. 4588: 4558: 4542: 4530:David Golinkin 4521: 4512: 4503: 4494: 4478: 4450: 4438: 4426: 4419: 4396: 4371: 4364: 4350:Neusner, Jacob 4342:Gordis, Daniel 4332: 4330: 4327: 4323:Ismar Schorsch 4315:Emet ve-Emunah 4230:Marshall Meyer 4159:Saul Lieberman 4107: 4104: 4056:Louis Ginzberg 3976:Orthodox Union 3963:Benjamin Szold 3959:Marcus Jastrow 3892:Reform Judaism 3872: 3869: 3836:Meir Friedmann 3824:Adolf Jellinek 3804:Chalav Yisrael 3703:Adolf Jellinek 3583:Reform Judaism 3579:Abraham Geiger 3534: 3531: 3529: 3526: 3386:Neolog Judaism 3323: 3320: 3268:Shulchan Aruch 3244:Kvod ha'Tzibur 3157: 3154: 3093:Judaic Studies 3054:Seymour Siegel 2995:Shulchan Aruch 2987:Shulchan Aruch 2983:Isserles Gloss 2978:Shulchan Aruch 2932:Shulchan Aruch 2923:David Golinkin 2899: 2896: 2892:prayer quorums 2842:Saul Lieberman 2834:Louis Ginzberg 2813:Emet ve-Emunah 2805:Jewish history 2790: 2787: 2782:Main article: 2779: 2776: 2763:Reform Judaism 2717:Louis Ginzberg 2686: 2683: 2607: 2604: 2592:Return to Zion 2552:Emet ve-Emunah 2539: 2536: 2510:Emet ve-Emunah 2489: 2486: 2484: 2481: 2398: 2397: 2395: 2394: 2387: 2380: 2372: 2369: 2368: 2367: 2366: 2361: 2353: 2352: 2347: 2346: 2345: 2344: 2339: 2334: 2329: 2324: 2319: 2314: 2309: 2304: 2296: 2295: 2289: 2288: 2287: 2286: 2281: 2279:Territorialism 2276: 2271: 2266: 2261: 2256: 2248: 2247: 2239: 2234: 2233: 2230: 2229: 2226: 2225: 2220: 2215: 2210: 2205: 2200: 2195: 2190: 2185: 2180: 2175: 2170: 2165: 2163:Judaeo-Spanish 2160: 2158:Judaeo-Iranian 2155: 2150: 2145: 2140: 2135: 2130: 2125: 2124: 2123: 2110: 2105: 2104: 2101: 2100: 2095: 2094: 2093: 2092: 2087: 2082: 2074: 2073: 2067: 2066: 2065: 2064: 2059: 2054: 2049: 2044: 2039: 2034: 2029: 2021: 2020: 2014: 2013: 2012: 2011: 2006: 2001: 1996: 1988: 1987: 1981: 1980: 1979: 1978: 1973: 1965: 1964: 1958: 1957: 1956: 1955: 1950: 1945: 1938: 1929: 1924: 1919: 1910: 1905: 1900: 1895: 1887: 1886: 1880: 1875: 1874: 1871: 1870: 1867: 1866: 1861: 1856: 1851: 1846: 1841: 1836: 1831: 1824: 1823: 1822: 1817: 1812: 1801: 1796: 1795: 1792: 1791: 1786: 1785: 1784: 1783: 1778: 1773: 1768: 1763: 1755: 1754: 1748: 1747: 1746: 1745: 1740: 1735: 1730: 1723: 1718: 1713: 1708: 1703: 1698: 1693: 1688: 1683: 1676: 1671: 1666: 1661: 1656: 1651: 1643: 1642: 1636: 1635: 1634: 1633: 1628: 1623: 1615: 1614: 1610: 1609: 1608: 1607: 1604:United Kingdom 1600: 1595: 1590: 1585: 1580: 1575: 1570: 1565: 1560: 1555: 1550: 1545: 1540: 1535: 1530: 1525: 1520: 1515: 1510: 1505: 1500: 1495: 1490: 1485: 1480: 1475: 1470: 1465: 1460: 1452: 1451: 1445: 1444: 1443: 1442: 1437: 1432: 1427: 1422: 1417: 1412: 1407: 1402: 1397: 1392: 1387: 1382: 1377: 1372: 1367: 1362: 1357: 1352: 1347: 1342: 1337: 1332: 1327: 1322: 1317: 1312: 1307: 1302: 1297: 1292: 1287: 1282: 1277: 1272: 1267: 1262: 1257: 1252: 1244: 1243: 1239: 1238: 1237: 1236: 1231: 1226: 1216: 1211: 1206: 1201: 1194: 1189: 1184: 1179: 1174: 1164: 1159: 1154: 1149: 1144: 1139: 1134: 1129: 1124: 1119: 1114: 1109: 1104: 1099: 1094: 1089: 1084: 1079: 1074: 1069: 1064: 1059: 1054: 1049: 1044: 1039: 1037:Bilad-el-Sudan 1034: 1029: 1021: 1020: 1014: 1013: 1012: 1011: 1006: 1001: 993: 992: 990:Land of Israel 986: 985: 984: 983: 978: 973: 968: 963: 953: 948: 947: 944: 943: 938: 937: 936: 935: 930: 925: 920: 919: 918: 913: 908: 903: 898: 888: 883: 878: 873: 868: 863: 858: 850: 849: 848:Related groups 845: 844: 843: 842: 837: 832: 827: 822: 817: 812: 807: 802: 797: 792: 787: 782: 781: 780: 775: 760: 755: 754: 751: 750: 745: 744: 743: 742: 732: 727: 722: 717: 712: 707: 705:Jewish atheism 702: 697: 692: 684: 683: 679: 678: 677: 676: 671: 666: 661: 656:Islamic–Jewish 651: 644: 629: 624: 616: 615: 608: 607: 606: 605: 581: 568: 540: 535: 528: 523: 521:Yehud Medinata 515: 514: 508: 507: 506: 505: 498: 491: 483: 470: 462: 450: 445: 438: 430: 429: 427:Ancient Israel 423: 422: 421: 420: 415: 410: 405: 400: 395: 390: 385: 383:Land of Israel 380: 372: 371: 365: 360: 359: 356: 355: 350: 349: 348: 347: 342: 338:Shulchan Aruch 333: 328: 323: 318: 310: 309: 308: 307: 302: 294: 293: 287: 286: 285: 284: 279: 271: 270: 264: 263: 262: 261: 256: 251: 243: 242: 234: 229: 228: 225: 224: 221: 220: 215: 210: 205: 200: 195: 190: 185: 180: 175: 170: 163: 158: 151: 146: 141: 136: 131: 126: 116: 111: 104:God in Judaism 100: 95: 94: 91: 90: 89: 88: 83: 75: 74: 64: 63: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7437: 7426: 7423: 7421: 7418: 7417: 7415: 7400: 7399: 7388: 7386: 7385: 7376: 7375: 7374: 7370: 7365: 7355: 7352: 7350: 7347: 7345: 7342: 7341: 7339: 7335: 7332: 7330: 7327: 7325: 7324:Protestantism 7322: 7320: 7317: 7315: 7312: 7310: 7307: 7306: 7305: 7302: 7301: 7300: 7297: 7295: 7294: 7290: 7288: 7287: 7283: 7281: 7278: 7276: 7275: 7271: 7269: 7266: 7264: 7261: 7259: 7258: 7254: 7252: 7249: 7247: 7244: 7242: 7241: 7237: 7235: 7232: 7228: 7225: 7223: 7220: 7218: 7215: 7213: 7210: 7208: 7205: 7204: 7203: 7200: 7199: 7197: 7195: 7191: 7185: 7182: 7178: 7175: 7173: 7170: 7169: 7168: 7165: 7163: 7160: 7158: 7155: 7153: 7150: 7148: 7145: 7141: 7138: 7137: 7136: 7133: 7129: 7126: 7124: 7121: 7120: 7119: 7116: 7114: 7111: 7107: 7104: 7103: 7102: 7099: 7095: 7092: 7091: 7090: 7087: 7085: 7082: 7078: 7075: 7073: 7070: 7069: 7068: 7065: 7064: 7062: 7060: 7056: 7050: 7047: 7045: 7042: 7040: 7037: 7033: 7030: 7028: 7025: 7023: 7020: 7018: 7015: 7013: 7012:Sefer HaBahir 7010: 7008: 7005: 7003: 7000: 6999: 6998: 6995: 6991: 6988: 6986: 6983: 6981: 6978: 6976: 6973: 6972: 6971: 6968: 6964: 6961: 6959: 6956: 6954: 6951: 6950: 6949: 6945: 6942: 6940: 6939:Sifrei Kodesh 6937: 6936: 6934: 6932: 6928: 6922: 6919: 6917: 6914: 6912: 6909: 6907: 6904: 6902: 6899: 6897: 6894: 6892: 6889: 6885: 6882: 6880: 6877: 6873: 6870: 6869: 6868: 6865: 6863: 6860: 6858: 6855: 6853: 6850: 6848: 6845: 6841: 6838: 6834: 6831: 6829: 6826: 6825: 6824: 6821: 6820: 6819: 6816: 6815: 6814: 6811: 6810: 6808: 6806: 6802: 6796: 6795:Who is a Jew? 6793: 6791: 6788: 6784: 6781: 6780: 6779: 6776: 6774: 6771: 6769: 6766: 6762: 6759: 6758: 6757: 6754: 6752: 6749: 6747: 6744: 6740: 6737: 6736: 6735: 6732: 6730: 6727: 6725: 6724:Chosen people 6722: 6720: 6717: 6713: 6710: 6709: 6708: 6705: 6704: 6702: 6700: 6696: 6690: 6687: 6681: 6680:Scots-Yiddish 6678: 6674: 6673: 6669: 6667: 6664: 6663: 6662: 6659: 6655: 6654: 6653:Klezmer-loshn 6650: 6648: 6645: 6643: 6640: 6638: 6635: 6634: 6633: 6630: 6629: 6628: 6625: 6624: 6623: 6620: 6618: 6615: 6613: 6610: 6608: 6605: 6603: 6600: 6598: 6595: 6591: 6588: 6586: 6583: 6582: 6581: 6578: 6576: 6573: 6571: 6568: 6566: 6563: 6561: 6558: 6556: 6553: 6551: 6548: 6546: 6543: 6541: 6538: 6536: 6533: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6523:Judeo-Shirazi 6521: 6519: 6516: 6514: 6511: 6509: 6506: 6504: 6501: 6500: 6499: 6498:Judeo-Persian 6496: 6494: 6491: 6489: 6488:Judeo-Marathi 6486: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6476: 6472: 6469: 6468: 6467: 6466:Judeo-Italian 6464: 6462: 6459: 6457: 6454: 6450: 6447: 6445: 6442: 6440: 6437: 6436: 6435: 6432: 6430: 6427: 6421: 6418: 6417: 6416: 6413: 6411: 6408: 6406: 6403: 6401: 6398: 6396: 6393: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6383: 6381: 6378: 6376: 6373: 6371: 6368: 6367: 6366: 6363: 6359: 6356: 6354: 6351: 6349: 6346: 6344: 6341: 6337: 6334: 6333: 6332: 6329: 6328: 6327: 6324: 6322: 6321:Judeo-Amazigh 6319: 6317: 6314: 6310: 6307: 6305: 6302: 6300: 6297: 6295: 6292: 6290: 6287: 6285: 6282: 6280: 6277: 6275: 6272: 6270: 6267: 6265: 6262: 6260: 6257: 6255: 6252: 6250: 6247: 6246: 6245: 6242: 6241: 6239: 6236: 6231: 6227: 6213: 6210: 6209: 6208: 6205: 6201: 6198: 6197: 6196: 6193: 6191: 6188: 6186: 6183: 6181: 6178: 6177: 6176: 6173: 6171: 6168: 6164: 6161: 6160: 6159: 6156: 6150: 6147: 6145: 6144:Hadhrami Jews 6142: 6140: 6137: 6135: 6132: 6131: 6130: 6127: 6125: 6122: 6120: 6117: 6115: 6112: 6110: 6109:Mountain Jews 6107: 6105: 6104:Egyptian Jews 6102: 6100: 6099:Bukharan Jews 6097: 6095: 6092: 6090: 6087: 6085: 6082: 6081: 6080: 6077: 6073: 6070: 6069: 6068: 6065: 6063: 6060: 6058: 6055: 6053: 6050: 6046: 6043: 6041: 6038: 6037: 6036: 6033: 6031: 6028: 6024: 6021: 6020: 6019: 6016: 6014: 6011: 6009: 6006: 6002: 5999: 5997: 5994: 5993: 5992: 5989: 5985: 5982: 5980: 5977: 5976: 5975: 5972: 5968: 5965: 5963: 5960: 5958: 5955: 5953: 5950: 5948: 5945: 5943: 5940: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5930: 5929: 5928: 5925: 5924: 5922: 5920: 5916: 5910: 5907: 5905: 5902: 5898: 5895: 5894: 5893: 5890: 5888: 5887:Lists of Jews 5885: 5883: 5880: 5878: 5875: 5873: 5870: 5868: 5865: 5863: 5860: 5858: 5855: 5854: 5852: 5850: 5846: 5840: 5837: 5835: 5832: 5830: 5827: 5825: 5822: 5820: 5817: 5815: 5812: 5810: 5807: 5805: 5802: 5800: 5797: 5796: 5794: 5792: 5788: 5782: 5779: 5777: 5774: 5773: 5770: 5766: 5762: 5755: 5750: 5748: 5743: 5741: 5736: 5735: 5732: 5720: 5719: 5715: 5714: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5703: 5702: 5700: 5696: 5690: 5687: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5624: 5622: 5619: 5617: 5614: 5612: 5609: 5607: 5604: 5602: 5599: 5598: 5596: 5594:Organizations 5592: 5586: 5583: 5582: 5580: 5578:Core articles 5576: 5572: 5565: 5560: 5558: 5553: 5551: 5546: 5545: 5542: 5536: 5533: 5531: 5528: 5526: 5523: 5522: 5512: 5506: 5502: 5501: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5486:0-8135-2821-6 5482: 5478: 5477: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5458: 5454: 5450: 5446: 5441: 5440: 5434: 5429: 5425: 5423:1-59244-943-3 5419: 5414: 5413: 5407: 5402: 5398: 5392: 5388: 5383: 5379: 5377:0-87441-286-2 5373: 5368: 5367: 5360: 5356: 5350: 5345: 5344: 5337: 5333: 5327: 5323: 5322: 5317: 5313: 5310: 5306: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5291: 5287: 5284: 5283: 5278: 5275: 5271: 5267: 5265:9780791492024 5261: 5257: 5256: 5251: 5247: 5243: 5241:1-57718-058-5 5237: 5233: 5232: 5227: 5223: 5219: 5215: 5212: 5208: 5204: 5202:0-87441-547-0 5198: 5194: 5193: 5188: 5187:Gillman, Neil 5184: 5181: 5177: 5173: 5167: 5162: 5161: 5155: 5151: 5146: 5143: 5139: 5136: 5135: 5124: 5123: 5118: 5113: 5106: 5100: 5092: 5086: 5082: 5081: 5076: 5075:Berlin, Adele 5069: 5061: 5055: 5051: 5050: 5045: 5044:Berlin, Adele 5041: 5034: 5032: 5023: 5021:0-87441-286-2 5017: 5012: 5011: 5002: 5000: 4992: 4986: 4979: 4973: 4966: 4960: 4958: 4941: 4937: 4931: 4924: 4918: 4911: 4907: 4902: 4895: 4890: 4883: 4882: 4878: 4875: 4870: 4869: 4864: 4863: 4856: 4848: 4842: 4835: 4829: 4813: 4807: 4791: 4787: 4781: 4766: 4762: 4756: 4749: 4748: 4744: 4741: 4737:Diana Villa, 4734: 4727: 4721: 4714: 4710: 4706: 4702: 4701: 4697:Shai Cherry, 4694: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4673: 4666: 4660: 4653: 4647: 4638: 4631: 4627: 4623: 4619: 4613: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4592: 4585: 4581: 4580: 4576: 4573: 4568: 4562: 4555: 4551: 4546: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4525: 4516: 4507: 4498: 4491: 4485: 4483: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4454: 4447: 4442: 4435: 4430: 4422: 4420:9780791492024 4416: 4412: 4411: 4406: 4400: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4380: 4378: 4376: 4367: 4365:1-57718-058-5 4361: 4357: 4356: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4337: 4333: 4326: 4324: 4318: 4316: 4311: 4306: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4286: 4281: 4279: 4275: 4272:accepted the 4271: 4267: 4266: 4260: 4255: 4250: 4245: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4222: 4217: 4215: 4206: 4201: 4197: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4178: 4176: 4170: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4155: 4151: 4147: 4139: 4135: 4130: 4126: 4124: 4123: 4118: 4114: 4113:Robert Gordis 4103: 4101: 4097: 4092: 4086: 4084: 4080: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4062: 4057: 4053: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4035: 4029: 4027: 4023: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3979: 3977: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3943: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3932:trefa banquet 3928: 3924: 3920: 3915: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3900:Sabato Morais 3897: 3893: 3889: 3881: 3877: 3868: 3865: 3860: 3858: 3854: 3853:Michael Sachs 3849: 3845: 3844:Neolog public 3841: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3816: 3814: 3810: 3805: 3800: 3796: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3778: 3777:Solomon Klein 3774: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3747:(Ways of the 3746: 3741: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3722: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3711:Michael Sachs 3708: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3682: 3678: 3675: 3670: 3666: 3665: 3660: 3656: 3651: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3632: 3627: 3624:was a civic ( 3623: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3610:S.L. Rapoport 3607: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3586: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3567:Isaac Bernays 3564: 3560: 3559: 3553: 3552:acculturation 3549: 3539: 3525: 3523: 3518: 3514: 3509: 3506: 3502: 3497: 3495: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3450: 3448: 3445:. The Neolog 3444: 3441:, located in 3440: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3387: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3369:Latin America 3364: 3361: 3357: 3351: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3319: 3317: 3312: 3307: 3303: 3297: 3295: 3294:K'rov Yisrael 3289: 3287: 3286: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3263: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3228: 3222: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3201: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3177: 3171: 3167: 3162: 3153: 3151: 3150: 3145: 3144:Horaat Sha'ah 3141: 3137: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3123: 3118: 3117: 3112: 3111: 3106: 3101: 3099: 3094: 3088: 3086: 3082: 3077: 3073: 3072:Gordon Tucker 3069: 3065: 3061: 3060: 3055: 3051: 3048:, like Rabbi 3047: 3043: 3038: 3036: 3032: 3031: 3027: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3013: 3008: 3007: 3002: 3001: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2979: 2974: 2973: 2972:Arba'ah Turim 2968: 2967: 2966:Mishneh Torah 2962: 2958: 2957: 2951: 2947: 2946: 2940: 2938: 2934: 2933: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2909: 2904: 2895: 2893: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2867: 2865: 2861: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2821: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2797: 2785: 2775: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2758: 2756: 2750: 2748: 2747:K'lal Yisrael 2744: 2739: 2733: 2729: 2726: 2720: 2718: 2714: 2713: 2707: 2700: 2699:New York City 2696: 2691: 2682: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2671:Robert Gordis 2668: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2645: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2603: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2568: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2535: 2533: 2532:Gordon Tucker 2529: 2525: 2524: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2480: 2478: 2477:Masorti Olami 2474: 2470: 2466: 2461: 2459: 2455: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2441: 2436: 2432: 2427: 2421: 2415:יהדות מסורתית 2412: 2408: 2404: 2393: 2388: 2386: 2381: 2379: 2374: 2373: 2371: 2370: 2365: 2362: 2360: 2357: 2356: 2355: 2354: 2343: 2340: 2338: 2335: 2333: 2330: 2328: 2325: 2323: 2320: 2318: 2315: 2313: 2310: 2308: 2305: 2303: 2300: 2299: 2298: 2297: 2294: 2291: 2290: 2285: 2282: 2280: 2277: 2275: 2272: 2270: 2267: 2265: 2262: 2260: 2257: 2255: 2252: 2251: 2250: 2249: 2246: 2243: 2242: 2237: 2232: 2231: 2224: 2221: 2219: 2216: 2214: 2211: 2209: 2206: 2204: 2203:Judeo-Aramaic 2201: 2199: 2196: 2194: 2193:Judeo-Italian 2191: 2189: 2186: 2184: 2181: 2179: 2176: 2174: 2173:Ghardaïa Sign 2171: 2169: 2166: 2164: 2161: 2159: 2156: 2154: 2151: 2149: 2146: 2144: 2141: 2139: 2136: 2134: 2131: 2129: 2126: 2121: 2117: 2116: 2115: 2112: 2111: 2108: 2103: 2102: 2091: 2088: 2086: 2083: 2081: 2078: 2077: 2076: 2075: 2072: 2069: 2068: 2063: 2060: 2058: 2055: 2053: 2050: 2048: 2045: 2043: 2040: 2038: 2035: 2033: 2030: 2028: 2025: 2024: 2023: 2022: 2019: 2016: 2015: 2010: 2007: 2005: 2002: 2000: 1997: 1995: 1992: 1991: 1990: 1989: 1986: 1983: 1982: 1977: 1974: 1972: 1969: 1968: 1967: 1966: 1963: 1960: 1959: 1954: 1951: 1949: 1946: 1944: 1939: 1936: 1935: 1930: 1928: 1925: 1923: 1920: 1917: 1916: 1911: 1909: 1906: 1904: 1901: 1899: 1896: 1894: 1891: 1890: 1889: 1888: 1884: 1883: 1878: 1873: 1872: 1865: 1862: 1860: 1857: 1855: 1852: 1850: 1847: 1845: 1842: 1840: 1837: 1835: 1832: 1830: 1825: 1821: 1818: 1816: 1813: 1811: 1808: 1807: 1806: 1803: 1802: 1799: 1798:Denominations 1794: 1793: 1782: 1779: 1777: 1774: 1772: 1769: 1767: 1764: 1762: 1759: 1758: 1757: 1756: 1753: 1750: 1749: 1744: 1741: 1739: 1736: 1734: 1731: 1729: 1724: 1722: 1719: 1717: 1714: 1712: 1709: 1707: 1704: 1702: 1699: 1697: 1694: 1692: 1689: 1687: 1684: 1682: 1677: 1675: 1672: 1670: 1667: 1665: 1662: 1660: 1657: 1655: 1652: 1650: 1647: 1646: 1645: 1644: 1641: 1638: 1637: 1632: 1629: 1627: 1626:United States 1624: 1622: 1619: 1618: 1617: 1616: 1612: 1611: 1606: 1601: 1599: 1596: 1594: 1591: 1589: 1586: 1584: 1581: 1579: 1576: 1574: 1571: 1569: 1566: 1564: 1561: 1559: 1556: 1554: 1551: 1549: 1546: 1544: 1541: 1539: 1536: 1534: 1531: 1529: 1526: 1524: 1521: 1519: 1516: 1514: 1511: 1509: 1506: 1504: 1501: 1499: 1496: 1494: 1491: 1489: 1486: 1484: 1481: 1479: 1476: 1474: 1471: 1469: 1466: 1464: 1461: 1459: 1456: 1455: 1454: 1453: 1450: 1447: 1446: 1441: 1438: 1436: 1433: 1431: 1428: 1426: 1423: 1421: 1418: 1416: 1413: 1411: 1408: 1406: 1403: 1401: 1398: 1396: 1393: 1391: 1388: 1386: 1383: 1381: 1378: 1376: 1373: 1371: 1368: 1366: 1363: 1361: 1358: 1356: 1353: 1351: 1348: 1346: 1343: 1341: 1338: 1336: 1333: 1331: 1328: 1326: 1323: 1321: 1318: 1316: 1313: 1311: 1308: 1306: 1303: 1301: 1298: 1296: 1293: 1291: 1288: 1286: 1283: 1281: 1278: 1276: 1273: 1271: 1268: 1266: 1263: 1261: 1258: 1256: 1253: 1251: 1248: 1247: 1246: 1245: 1241: 1240: 1235: 1232: 1230: 1227: 1224: 1220: 1217: 1215: 1212: 1210: 1207: 1205: 1202: 1200: 1195: 1193: 1190: 1188: 1185: 1183: 1180: 1178: 1175: 1172: 1168: 1165: 1163: 1160: 1158: 1155: 1153: 1150: 1148: 1145: 1143: 1140: 1138: 1135: 1133: 1130: 1128: 1125: 1123: 1120: 1118: 1115: 1113: 1112:Guinea-Bissau 1110: 1108: 1105: 1103: 1100: 1098: 1095: 1093: 1090: 1088: 1085: 1083: 1080: 1078: 1075: 1073: 1070: 1068: 1065: 1063: 1060: 1058: 1055: 1053: 1050: 1048: 1045: 1043: 1040: 1038: 1035: 1033: 1030: 1028: 1025: 1024: 1023: 1022: 1019: 1016: 1015: 1010: 1007: 1005: 1002: 1000: 997: 996: 995: 994: 991: 988: 987: 982: 979: 977: 974: 972: 969: 967: 966:Lists of Jews 964: 962: 959: 958: 957: 956: 951: 946: 945: 934: 931: 929: 926: 924: 921: 917: 914: 912: 909: 907: 904: 902: 899: 897: 894: 893: 892: 889: 887: 884: 882: 879: 877: 874: 872: 869: 867: 864: 862: 859: 857: 854: 853: 852: 851: 847: 846: 841: 838: 836: 833: 831: 828: 826: 823: 821: 818: 816: 813: 811: 808: 806: 803: 801: 798: 796: 793: 791: 788: 786: 783: 779: 776: 774: 771: 770: 769: 766: 765: 764: 763: 758: 753: 752: 741: 733: 731: 728: 726: 725:The Holocaust 723: 721: 718: 716: 713: 711: 708: 706: 703: 701: 698: 696: 693: 691: 688: 687: 686: 685: 681: 680: 675: 672: 670: 667: 665: 662: 660: 652: 650: 645: 641: 635: 630: 628: 625: 623: 620: 619: 618: 617: 613: 610: 609: 602: 596: 590: 585: 582: 578: 572: 569: 565: 561: 557: 553: 549: 544: 541: 539: 536: 534: 529: 527: 524: 522: 519: 518: 517: 516: 513: 510: 509: 504: 499: 497: 492: 488: 484: 481: 476: 471: 467: 463: 460: 454: 451: 449: 446: 444: 439: 437: 434: 433: 432: 431: 428: 425: 424: 419: 416: 414: 411: 409: 406: 404: 401: 399: 396: 394: 391: 389: 386: 384: 381: 379: 376: 375: 374: 373: 369: 368: 363: 358: 357: 346: 343: 340: 339: 334: 332: 329: 327: 326:Mishneh Torah 324: 322: 319: 317: 314: 313: 312: 311: 306: 303: 301: 298: 297: 296: 295: 292: 289: 288: 283: 280: 278: 275: 274: 273: 272: 269: 266: 265: 260: 257: 255: 252: 250: 247: 246: 245: 244: 241: 238: 237: 232: 227: 226: 219: 216: 214: 211: 209: 206: 204: 201: 199: 196: 194: 191: 189: 186: 184: 181: 179: 176: 174: 171: 169: 164: 162: 159: 157: 152: 150: 147: 145: 142: 140: 137: 135: 132: 130: 127: 124: 120: 117: 115: 112: 109: 105: 102: 101: 98: 93: 92: 87: 86:Who is a Jew? 84: 82: 79: 78: 77: 76: 73: 69: 66: 65: 61: 57: 56: 51: 46: 42: 37: 35: 27: 23: 7389: 7382: 7368: 7291: 7284: 7272: 7255: 7238: 7072:perspectives 6906:Samaritanism 6867:Neo-Hasidism 6847:Conservative 6846: 6761:Names of God 6670: 6651: 6461:Judaeo-Greek 6456:Judeo-Gascon 6395:Lishán Didán 6390:Lishana Deni 6358:Judeo-Yemeni 6326:Judeo-Arabic 6200:Meshuchrarim 6119:Persian Jews 6052:Kurdish Jews 6030:Kaifeng Jews 5979:Beta Abraham 5942:Galitzianers 5897:Antisemitism 5872:Israeli Jews 5857:Assimilation 5716: 5570: 5499: 5475: 5452: 5438: 5411: 5386: 5365: 5354:0-06066801-6 5342: 5320: 5308: 5301: 5290:Jules Harlow 5280: 5273: 5254: 5230: 5210: 5191: 5179: 5159: 5120: 5112: 5107:, pp. 80–82. 5104: 5099: 5079: 5068: 5048: 5009: 4990: 4985: 4977: 4972: 4944:. Retrieved 4940:the original 4930: 4922: 4917: 4909: 4901: 4889: 4872: 4866: 4860: 4855: 4841: 4833: 4828: 4816:. Retrieved 4812:"About USCJ" 4806: 4794:. Retrieved 4790:the original 4780: 4768:. Retrieved 4764: 4755: 4738: 4733: 4725: 4720: 4712: 4708: 4704: 4698: 4693: 4685: 4682:Binyamin Lau 4677: 4672: 4664: 4659: 4651: 4646: 4637: 4629: 4621: 4617: 4612: 4596: 4591: 4570: 4566: 4561: 4553: 4550:Neil Gillman 4545: 4533: 4524: 4515: 4506: 4497: 4489: 4473: 4470:Resurrection 4469: 4461: 4453: 4445: 4441: 4433: 4429: 4409: 4399: 4391: 4387: 4354: 4336: 4319: 4314: 4307: 4297: 4282: 4263: 4248: 4246: 4242:Louis Jacobs 4238:Buenos Aires 4232:founded the 4218: 4210: 4189: 4188:in his 1957 4181: 4179: 4171: 4153: 4145: 4143: 4120: 4109: 4090: 4087: 4059: 4051: 4049: 4030: 4018: 3992:Jacob Schiff 3980: 3944: 3927:dietary laws 3916: 3884: 3861: 3817: 3798: 3792: 3768: 3763:, he quoted 3744: 3742: 3737: 3734:Wissenschaft 3733: 3723: 3715:Abraham Kohn 3687: 3673: 3662: 3659:Aaron Chorin 3655:Braunschweig 3652: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3625: 3602:Wissenschaft 3601: 3592:-born Rabbi 3587: 3575:Wissenschaft 3574: 3556: 3548:emancipation 3544: 3510: 3505:Marom Israel 3498: 3451: 3423:Buenos Aires 3418: 3404: 3365: 3352: 3327: 3325: 3315: 3310: 3305: 3301: 3298: 3293: 3290: 3283: 3267: 3264: 3251: 3243: 3225: 3223: 3213: 3202: 3182: 3170:Western Wall 3147: 3143: 3139: 3130: 3120: 3114: 3108: 3104: 3102: 3097: 3089: 3084: 3075: 3067: 3063: 3057: 3041: 3039: 3035:act of piety 3029: 3025: 3016: 3010: 3004: 2998: 2994: 2986: 2976: 2970: 2964: 2954: 2943: 2941: 2930: 2918: 2914: 2912: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2868: 2863: 2860:Neil Gillman 2850: 2847:Non-Halakhic 2846: 2829: 2822: 2816: 2812: 2801:phylacteries 2794: 2792: 2759: 2754: 2751: 2746: 2734: 2731: 2722: 2710: 2708: 2704: 2679:Neil Gillman 2675:Louis Jacobs 2662:Objectivists 2646: 2609: 2579: 2569: 2557:naturalistic 2551: 2548:personal God 2546:notion of a 2541: 2521: 2509: 2491: 2462: 2453: 2438: 2406: 2402: 2401: 2342:Post-Zionism 2213:Judeo-Berber 2208:Judeo-Arabic 2168:Judeo-Gascon 1915:Pidyon haben 1834:Conservative 1833: 1380:Saudi Arabia 1198:South Africa 1187:Sierra Leone 1009:Israeli Jews 923:Mosaic Arabs 876:Kaifeng Jews 737:Arab–Israeli 710:Emancipation 589:Great Revolt 398:Anti-Judaism 393:Antisemitism 388:Name "Judea" 183:Baal teshuva 41: 33: 7314:Catholicism 6896:Hellenistic 6734:Eschatology 6672:Lachoudisch 6597:Lotegorisch 6575:Lachoudisch 6565:Koiné Greek 6478:Judeo-Latin 6415:Palestinian 6309:Palestinian 6158:Mustaʿravim 6084:Afghan Jews 6072:Berber Jews 5996:Bene Israel 5984:Falash Mura 5974:Beta Israel 5892:Persecution 5834:Middle Ages 5294:Chaim Potok 4991:Ramah at 60 4978:Ramah at 60 4290:Amy Eilberg 4203:Chancellor 4175:Conservadox 4066:Prohibition 3996:Cyrus Adler 3888:Jonas Bondi 3857:Manuel Joël 3707:Leopold Löw 3644:Zeitschrift 3517:day schools 3494:Yizhar Hess 3311:Mara D'Atra 3302:Mara D'Atra 3256:hard cheese 3240:Bat Mitzvah 3236:bride price 3186:Eth la'asot 3127:Isaac Klein 3122:Heter I'ska 2991:Joseph Karo 2883:Mara D'Atra 2594:and even a 2458:theological 2337:Revisionist 2327:Neo-Zionism 1934:Zeved habat 1727:Puerto Rico 1553:Netherlands 1385:South Korea 1370:Philippines 1250:Afghanistan 1117:Ivory Coast 891:Crypto-Jews 856:Bnei Anusim 835:Bene Israel 800:Beta Israel 757:Communities 664:Middle Ages 403:Persecution 178:Bereavement 7414:Categories 7309:Anabaptism 7251:Jew (word) 7118:Leadership 6931:Literature 6916:Secularism 6862:Humanistic 6729:Conversion 6699:Philosophy 6540:Judeo-Urdu 6304:Babylonian 6149:Saada Jews 6134:Adeni Jews 5927:Ashkenazim 5882:Samaritans 5849:Population 5804:Israelites 5462:0838131042 5396:0819144800 5331:0870682792 4724:Golinkin, 4676:Golinkin, 4663:Golinkin, 4329:References 4117:Jacob Agus 4100:Boaz Cohen 4074:Revelation 3955:Aaron Wise 3902:and Rabbi 3826:and Rabbi 3757:Oral Torah 3522:Camp Ramah 3417:(Spanish: 3206:Tabernacle 3030:de'Rabanan 2935:and Rabbi 2778:Jewish law 2656:and other 2616:Oral Torah 2612:Revelation 2606:Revelation 2596:New Temple 2588:Sacrifices 2435:revelation 2322:Maximalism 2274:Secularism 2254:Autonomism 2071:Literature 1864:Humanistic 1468:Azerbaijan 1430:Uzbekistan 1405:Tajikistan 1325:Kyrgyzstan 1310:Kazakhstan 1157:Mozambique 1132:Madagascar 1052:Cape Verde 1004:New Yishuv 999:Old Yishuv 950:Population 928:Subbotniks 886:Samaritans 825:Romanyotim 768:Ashkenazim 715:Old Yishuv 695:Sabbateans 682:Modern era 674:Golden Age 601:Bar Kokhba 321:Beit Yosef 188:Philosophy 7371:indicate 7319:Mormonism 7304:Christian 7184:Symbolism 7172:Synagogue 7152:Mythology 7113:Education 7084:Astronomy 7067:Astrology 6884:relations 6689:Zarphatic 6637:Galitzish 6439:Yeshivish 6316:Catalanic 6279:Samaritan 6254:Ashkenazi 6235:Diasporic 6230:Languages 6175:Sephardim 6170:Romaniote 6057:Krymchaks 5991:Desi Jews 5867:Buddhists 5220:(2003) . 4818:April 30, 4654:, p. 190. 4650:Gillman, 4344:(2003) . 4285:Joel Roth 3664:Sanhedrin 3443:Jerusalem 3431:Jerusalem 3373:Argentina 3334:by Rabbi 3326:The term 3285:kiddushin 3272:Joel Roth 3210:Tosafists 3050:Joel Roth 3026:de'Oraita 3006:Acharonim 2981:with its 2956:machloket 2650:theophany 2445:rabbinate 2420:romanized 2332:Religious 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