1028:) away at the time of the incident, which was one of the last of its kind. In 1918, U-boats attacked convoys escorted by both surface ships and aircraft only six times, sinking three ships in total out of thousands. Because of the decentralised nature of the convoy system, the RNAS had no say in the composition or use of air escorts. The northeast of England led the way in the use of aircraft for short- and long-range escort duty, but shore-based aerial "hunting patrols" were widely considered a superior use of air resources. Subsequent historians have not agreed, although they have tended to overstress the actual use made of aircraft in convoy escort duty. An Admiralty staff study in 1957 concluded that the convoy was the best defence against enemy attacks on shipping, and dismissed shore-based patrols while commending the use of air support in convoying.
19:
954:. The third category is the so-called "ocean convoys" that safeguarded transoceanic commerce. They traversed the Atlantic from the U.S. or Canada in the north, or from British or French colonial Africa or Gibraltar in the south. The fourth category is the "coastal convoys", those protecting trade and ship movements along the coast of Britain and within British home waters. Most coastal and internal sea traffic was not convoyed until mid-1918. These convoys involved the heavy use of aircraft.
888:. The Admiralty also showed a distrust of the merchant skippers: they could not manoeuvre in company, especially considering that the ships would have various top speeds, nor could they be expected to keep station. At a conference in February 1917, some merchant captains raised the same concerns. Finally, the Admiralty suggested that a large number of merchantmen arriving simultaneously would be too much tonnage for the ports to handle, but this, too, was based in part on the miscalculation.
428:." From June 1917 on, the Germans were unable to meet their set objective of sinking 600,000 long tons (610,000 t) of enemy shipping per month. In 1918, they were rarely able to sink more than 300,000 long tons (300,000 t). Between May 1917 and the end of the war on 11 November 1918, only 154 of 16,539 vessels convoyed across the Atlantic had been sunk, of which 16 were lost through the natural perils of sea travel and a further 36 because they were stragglers.
792:
1008:
flares offered better illumination (and were less illuminating of the airships′ positions), but they weighed in at 80 pounds (36 kg) each, making them too costly to drop unless the rough position of the enemy was already known. The
Admiralty restricted the use of lights on airships for recognition, emergencies and under orders from senior naval officers only.
895:, the convoy was also dismissed as "defensive". In fact, it reduced the number of available targets for U-boats, forcing them to attack well-defended positions and usually giving them only a single chance, since the escorting warships would respond with a counterattack. It also "narrowed to the least possible limits ", according to the
933:
Netherlands or Norway are examples, as are the coal convoys between
England and France. The second category consists of the escorts of warships, usually troopships, such as those from the Dominions in the early stages of the war. These formed the earliest convoys, but "probably the most overlooked category". The British
808:(28 April–1 May 1916). The Mediterranean proved a more difficult zone for convoying than the Atlantic, because its routes were more complex and the entire sea was considered a danger zone (like British home waters). There the escorts were not provided only by Britain. The French Navy, U.S. Navy, Imperial Japanese Navy,
1002:
escorted a convoy for 55 hours, including patrols at night both with and without moonlight. In complete darkness the airship had to stay behind the ships and follow their stern lights. The only value in such patrols was in maximising useful daylight hours by having the airships already aloft at dawn.
883:
It alleged that convoys presented larger and easier targets to U-boats, and harder object to defend by the Navy, raising the danger of the submarine threat rather than lowering it. It cited the difficulty of coordinating a rendezvous, which would lead to vulnerability while the merchant ships were in
879:
of the
Ministry of Shipping, who showed that the Admiralty was relying on customs statistics that counted each arrival and departure, concluding that 2,400 vessels a week, translating into 300 ships a day, required an escort. In fact, there were only 140 ships per week, or 20 per day, on transoceanic
771:
Losses in convoy dropped to ten percent of those suffered by independent ships. Confidence in the convoy system grew rapidly in the summer of 1917, especially as it was realised that the ratio of merchant vessels to warship could be higher than previously thought. While the first convoys comprised 12
970:
to organise convoys, routings and schedules. Before this, the
Norwegian convoys, coal convoys and Beef Trip convoys had often been arranged by local commanders. The Admiralty arranged the rendezvous, decided which ships would be escorted and in what order they would sail, but it left the composition
787:
to divert their attention from inbound shipping to outbound. In response, the first outbound convoy left for
Hampton Roads on 11 August 1917. It was followed by matching outbound convoys for each regular route. These were escorted by destroyers as they left Britain and were taken over by the typical
853:
With the gradual success of the
Mediterranean convoys, the Germans began to concentrate on attacking shipping in Britain's coastal waters, as convoyed vessels dispersed to their individual ports. Coastal convoy routes were only added gradually due to the limited availability of escorts, but by the
1007:
of the
Admiralty considered and rejected the use of searchlights during night, believing the airships would render themselves vulnerable to surfaced U-boats. Testing of searchlights on aircraft revealed that the bomb payload needed to be much reduced to accommodate searchlight systems. Parachute
870:
The main objection of the
Admiralty to providing escorts for merchant shipping (as opposed to troop transits) was that it did not have sufficient forces. In large part, this was based on miscalculation. The Admiralty's estimates of the number of vessels requiring escort and the number of escorts
932:
According to John
Abbatiello, there were four categories of convoy used during World War I. The first category consists of the short-distance convoys, such as those between Britain and its European allies, and between Britain and neutral countries. The commercial convoys between England and the
412:
to cover their own troop movements for overseas service, they were not systematically employed by any belligerent navy until 1916. The Royal Navy was the major user and developer of the modern convoy system, and regular transoceanic convoying began in June 1917. They made heavy use of
639:, they were declined. After the German proclamation, the Norwegians accepted British demands and informal convoying began in late January or February 1917, but regular convoys did not begin until 29 April. That same day, the first coastal convoy left
626:
on 10 February. These convoys were more weakly escorted, and contained a mixture of both steam-powered ships and sailing ships, as well as escorting aircraft based on the coast. In all, only 53 ships were lost in 39,352 sailings. When shippers from
780:—were both strong supporters of convoying and opponents of Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare. Shortly after the U.S. entered the war, Sims brought over 30 destroyers to the waters around Britain to make up the Royal Navy's deficit.
598:
on 1 February 1917, and only six after that before the war's end despite 1,861 sailings. The
Holland convoys were sometimes referred to as the "Beef Trip" on account of the large proportion of food transported. They were escorted by
543:—approved regular scheduled escorts for German ships to Sweden. Losses to enemy submarines were drastically cut from the level of the previous year, and only five freighters were lost before the war's end. In June 1916, the
502:(9 November), but the Japanese-escorted convoy reached Aden on 25 November. The Japanese continued to escort ANZAC convoys throughout the war. The convoys of Dominion troops were, weather permitting, escorted into port by
795:
Tonnage of British and neutral shipping lost in 1917 and 1918, showing failure of unrestricted U-boat warfare. The German admiralty's target was only reached in the first few months, although it grossly overestimated its
1015:
for their rendezvous with a convoy, they were attacked three times in the space of 90 minutes, torpedoing and sinking two of the vessels and narrowly missing the third before escaping. The airship had been
1044:
By "convoy system" is meant the systematic employment of convoys for all shipping or all shipping of a certain kind, such as transatlantic shipping, with naval escorts working on set schedules and routes.
1011:
Of the 257 ships sunk by submarines from World War I convoys, only five were lost while aircraft assisted the surface escort. On 26 December 1917, as an airship was escorting three merchantmen out of
854:
end of the war almost all sea traffic in the war zones was convoyed. The coastal convoys relied heavily on air support. After June 1918, almost all convoys were escorted in part by land-based
846:
to Britain in mid-October 1917. Calthorpe remained short of escorts and was unable to cover all Mediterranean trade, but his request to divert warships from convoy duty to the less effective
233:
706:
not then being developed. During discussions in March, it was determined that 75 destroyers were needed, but only 43 were available. The first experimental convoy of merchant vessels left
744:
on 6 June, and brought all its ships save one straggler that was torpedoed, into their respective ports by 10 June. The first regular convoy left Hampton Roads on 15 June, the next left
979:
also received notification of the Admiralty's convoys, and provided air cover as they approached their ports. The Enemy Submarine and Direction Finding Section and the code-breakers of
531:, at the insistence of Germany, that first used a convoy system in early November 1915 to protect its own merchant shipping after the British and the Russians attacked its
58:
226:
658:
proposed convoys in March 1917, the Admiralty still refused. It was not until 860,334 long tons (874,140 t) of shipping were lost to U-boats in April (and
1419:
662:
grain reserves had dropped to a six-week supply) that the Admiralty approved convoying all shipments coming through the north and south Atlantic. Rear Admiral
1181:, Volume 1, Spencer C. Tucker, ed. (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2005), 1122–24. The author refers to a five-ship Turkish "convoy" driven ashore by the submarine
976:
243:
348:
219:
987:
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With the success of the convoy system, the Royal Navy created a new Convoy Section and a Mercantile Movements Division at the Admiralty to work with the
651:. This was to become a regular route. The Norwegian and coastal convoys included airships based out of Scotland (and in the latter case also Yorkshire).
805:
871:
required per convoy—it mistakenly assumed a 1:1 ratio between escorts and merchant vessels—were both wrong. The former error was exposed by Commander
328:
51:
1255:
The Kaiser and his court : the diaries, notebooks, and letters of Admiral Georg Alexander von Muller, chief of the naval cabinet, 1914-1918
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1414:
772:
ships, by June they contained 20, which was increased to 26 in September and 36 in October. The U.S. Navy's liaison to Britain—Rear Admiral
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967:
535:
shipments to Germany. The German merchant fleet proposed a similar expedient, but the navy refused. However, in April 1916, Admiral Prince
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268:
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44:
540:
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323:
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838:, and increasingly for most of the eastern Mediterranean. The commander-in-chief of the Royal Navy in the Mediterranean,
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The first convoys to sail after the German announcement were requested by the French Navy, desirous of defending British
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82:
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during winter months. The first regular convoy from the south Atlantic commenced on 31 July. Fast convoys embarked from
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397:
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635:) requested convoys in 1916 after a year of very serious losses, but refused to accept the routes chosen by the
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1364:(Aldershot: Ashgate for The Navy Records Society, 1997). Barley and Waters conclusions about hunting patrols
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itself could be included in this category, since it was always escorted by a destroyer screen in the
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127:
862:. The organisation of these convoys had also been delegated by the Admiralty to local commanders.
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for escorts, especially in coastal waters, an obvious departure from the convoy practices of the
176:
1272:
William P. McEvoy and Spencer C. Tucker, "Mediterranean Theater, Naval Operations (1914–1918)",
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With the advent of coastal convoys, escort composition and technique fell into the hands of the
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on 22 May, having been accompanied by the last leg of its journey by a flying boat from the
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Anti-submarine Warfare in World War I: British Naval Aviation and the Defeat of the U-boats
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and some Swedish merchantmen, before mistakes by the commander of the Destroyer Division—
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all contributed. The first routes to receive convoy protection were the coal route from
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872:
839:
819:
809:
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523:
468:
298:
293:
141:
1393:
1376:, 5 vols. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961–70), quoted in Abbatiello (2006), 82.
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For a revised edition of the staff study, cf. Freddie Barley and David Waters (eds.),
1233:
1198:
Claude R. Sasso and Spencer C. Tucker, "Kolchak, Aleksandr Vasiliyevich (1874–1920)",
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Raymond Westphal Jr. and Spencer C. Tucker, "Geddes, Sir Eric Campbell (1875–1937)",
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voyages. But the manageability of the task was not the Admiralty's only objection.
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for the oceanic portion of the routes, while in the more dangerous waters around
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because of the latter's opposition to the convoy system, which Prime Minister
578:, the British instituted their first regular convoy on 26 July 1916, from the
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604:
465:
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23:
563:
1311:, Volume 1, Spencer C. Tucker, ed. (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2005), 468–69.
1289:, Volume 1, Spencer C. Tucker, ed. (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2005), 249–50.
1276:, Volume 1, Spencer C. Tucker, ed. (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2005), 774–77.
1202:, Volume 1, Spencer C. Tucker, ed. (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2005), 642–43.
773:
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461:, New Zealand, with 10 troopships. They joined 28 Australian ships and the
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The Germans again responded by changing strategy and concentrating on the
1309:
The Encyclopedia of World War I: A Political, Social and Military History
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The Encyclopedia of World War I: A Political, Social and Military History
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The Encyclopedia of World War I: A Political, Social and Military History
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The Encyclopedia of World War I: A Political, Social and Military History
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The Encyclopedia of World War I: A Political, Social and Military History
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The Encyclopedia of World War I: A Political, Social and Military History
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The Encyclopedia of World War I: A Political, Social and Military History
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1130:, Volume 1, Spencer C. Tucker, ed. (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2005), 114.
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cooperated to give the convoy planners knowledge of U-boat movements.
804:, where the extremely limited use of convoys had been approved at the
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for the first time on 6 July. The Sydney convoy had to be diverted to
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As historian Paul E. Fontenoy put it, "he convoy system defeated the
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678:, approved it the next day. Escorts were to be composed of obsolete
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1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War
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702:, were used to help spot submarines beneath the surface, the
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66:
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619:
594:. Only one straggler was lost before the Germans announced
491:
490:
to patrol the Indian Ocean during the convoy's crossing to
396:(1914–18), after having been discarded at the start of the
622:
shipments. The Royal Navy's first coal convoy crossed the
1285:
Patricia Roberts, "Calthorpe, Sir Somerset (1864–1937)",
842:, began introducing the convoy system for the route from
834:. The U.S. took responsibility for the ingoing routes to
1189:
on 5 September 1915, where it was shelled by destroyers.
768:. Gibraltar convoys became regular starting on 26 July.
1221:. Princeton NJ: D. Van Nostrand Company. pp. 6–8.
1177:
Paul E. Fontenoy, "Submarine Warfare, Allied Powers",
865:
562:—allowed the majority of the convoy to escape back to
241:
830:, and that between southern metropolitan France and
647:, the destination of the Norwegian convoys, for the
1362:
The Defeat of the Enemy Attack of Shipping, 1939–45
788:cruiser flotillas as they entered the open ocean.
760:—a British protectorate—while slow ones left from
884:the process of assembling, and a greater risk of
26:on 1 November 1918. Photograph taken from aboard
1401:
1338:
1336:
1334:
1126:Hirama Yoichi, "Anzac Convoy (October 1914)",
1117:, ed. (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2005), 312–14.
1420:Mediterranean naval operations of World War I
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1136:
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903:(RNAS) of December 1917. In that month, the
1331:
1232:Sims, Rear-Admiral William Snowden (1920).
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445:(ANZAC) convoy. On 18 October 1914, the
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484:. The Japanese also sent the cruiser
443:Australian and New Zealand Army Corps
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40:
1415:Baltic Sea operations of World War I
1253:von Muller, Georg Alexander (1961).
1231:
740:, met up with eight destroyers from
726:The first transatlantic convoy left
670:, suggested it on 26 April, and the
400:. Although convoys were used by the
1425:North Sea operations of World War I
1261:
1109:Paul E. Fontenoy, "Convoy System",
919:had appointed Geddes to implement.
866:Admiralty resistance and objections
22:A transatlantic convoy approaching
13:
1410:Atlantic operations of World War I
1205:
1168:(Oxford: Routledge, 2006), 109–11.
993:
927:
875:of the Antisubmarine Division and
694:they were composed of destroyers.
245:Mediterranean Operations 1914–1918
14:
1441:
1382:
1324:(London: Collins, 1970), Vol. I,
586:, a route targeted by the German
408:, and in 1915 by both it and the
574:To cover trade with the neutral
547:attacked a German convoy in the
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1238:. London: John Murray. p.
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527:(Imperial German Navy), it was
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785:German U-boats in the Atlantic
710:on 10 May 1917 and arrived at
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560:Aleksandr Vasiliyevich Kolchak
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1:
1430:U-boat Campaign (World War I)
941:and frequently by long-range
850:was denied by the Admiralty.
748:on 22 June, and another left
721:
1217:Waters, John M. Jr. (1967).
988:district commanders-in-chief
973:Commander-in-Chief, Plymouth
971:of the escort itself to the
494:. During the crossing, HMAS
7:
998:In April 1918, the airship
968:Naval Intelligence Division
905:First Lord of the Admiralty
688:pre-dreadnought battleships
539:—commander-in-chief in the
10:
1446:
975:. The wing captain of the
730:on 24 May escorted by the
607:and, later in the war, by
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390:escort—was revived during
386:traveling together with a
1368:convoys were followed by
1351:Abbatiello (2006), 28–29.
858:and airships, as well as
814:(Royal Italian Navy) and
482:Albany, Western Australia
426:German submarine campaign
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115:Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse
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1342:Abbatiello (2006), 108.
1298:Abbatiello (2006), 111.
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802:Mediterranean theater
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654:Although the British
519:Imperial Russian Navy
498:was caught up in the
319:Eastern Mediterranean
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1388:Miller B., Michael:
1257:. London: Macdonald.
1164:John J. Abbatiello,
964:Ministry of Shipping
958:Structure of command
776:—and its ambassador—
696:Observation balloons
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537:Heinrich of Prussia
509:With the advent of
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917:David Lloyd George
873:R. G. H. Henderson
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1371:
1370:Arthur Marder
1367:
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1219:Bloody Winter
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877:Norman Leslie
874:
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849:
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841:
837:
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829:
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822:to Italy via
821:
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769:
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763:
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729:
728:Hampton Roads
719:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
698:, especially
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
676:John Jellicoe
673:
669:
665:
661:
660:British Isles
657:
652:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
630:
625:
621:
616:
614:
611:based out of
610:
606:
605:Harwich Force
602:
597:
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590:based out of
589:
585:
581:
577:
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565:
561:
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473:
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467:
464:
460:
456:
455:
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450:battlecruiser
448:
444:
429:
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416:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
394:
389:
385:
381:
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225:
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198:
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178:
177:10 March 1917
175:
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138:
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126:
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122:Cap Trafalgar
119:
117:
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109:
105:
104:
99:
96:
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73:
62:
57:
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43:
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32:
31:
25:
20:
16:
1373:
1365:
1361:
1356:
1347:
1321:
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1234:
1227:
1218:
1199:
1194:
1182:
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1165:
1127:
1122:
1113:, Volume 1,
1110:
1040:
1010:
999:
997:
985:
961:
949:
943:
931:
923:Organisation
896:
890:
882:
869:
852:
811:Regia Marina
810:
799:
782:
774:William Sims
770:
758:Sierra Leone
736:
725:
653:
617:
573:
545:Baltic Fleet
522:
508:
495:
486:
475:
470:
453:
440:
423:
398:Age of Steam
391:
378:—a group of
373:
371:
278:
262:
258:
192:21 July 1918
149:
142:
135:
128:
121:
114:
92:
29:
15:
1326:pp. 442–443
935:Grand Fleet
909:Eric Geddes
656:War Cabinet
576:Netherlands
432:Development
419:Age of Sail
410:French Navy
393:World War I
380:merchantmen
352: [
344:2nd Durazzo
314:1st Durazzo
269:Dardanelles
1404:Categories
1024:; 11
1020:(6.1
860:sea planes
796:successes.
722:Maturation
674:, Admiral
613:Felixstowe
601:destroyers
564:Norrköping
521:, and the
515:submarines
469:HMAS
463:Australian
459:Wellington
402:Royal Navy
384:troopships
1366:vis-Ă -vis
950:North Sea
939:North Sea
856:airplanes
844:Port Said
836:Gibraltar
742:Devonport
735:HMS
712:the Downs
708:Gibraltar
637:Admiralty
477:Melbourne
406:Dominions
136:Lusitania
129:Gulflight
28:USS
1013:Falmouth
966:and the
750:New York
737:Roxburgh
716:Scillies
680:cruisers
592:Flanders
556:Schiff H
549:BrĂĄviken
533:iron ore
504:airships
447:Japanese
415:aircraft
294:Antivari
150:Carolina
143:Baralong
83:Blockade
1016:7
981:Room 40
944:Coastal
899:of the
824:Bizerte
754:Halifax
700:kytoons
692:Britain
643:in the
641:Lerwick
624:Channel
603:of the
588:U-boats
584:Harwich
570:Revival
513:by the
487:Chikuma
437:Origins
349:Premuda
263:Breslau
159:Actions
106:Attacks
93:Convoys
30:Rambler
1392:, in:
649:Humber
629:Norway
553:Q-ship
496:Sydney
471:Sydney
375:convoy
334:Imbros
309:Vieste
304:Ancona
259:Goeben
1183:Nerpa
1032:Notes
886:mines
820:Egypt
762:Dakar
631:(the
454:Ibuki
388:naval
356:]
339:Bakar
24:Brest
1000:NS-3
947:and
686:and
620:coal
492:Aden
474:and
372:The
361:Pula
261:and
1240:344
1022:nmi
764:in
582:to
480:at
382:or
1406::
1372:,
1333:^
1263:^
1207:^
1135:^
1054:^
1026:km
1018:mi
990:.
826:,
718:.
682:,
615:.
566:.
506:.
421:.
354:fr
1396:.
1328:.
1242:.
907:—
235:e
228:t
221:v
60:e
53:t
46:v
33:.
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