32:
351:
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166:
652:. While his assertion was not initially well-received, later intensive field studies of fossil beds lent weight to his claim. Eventually, most paleontologists began to accept the idea that the mass extinctions at the end of the Cretaceous were largely or at least partly due to a massive Earth impact. However, even Walter Alvarez has acknowledged that there were other major changes on Earth even before the impact, such as a drop in
323:
706:, 450–600 km (280–370 mi) in diameter, would substantially exceed Chicxulub in size and has been estimated to be about 66 mya, an age consistent with the K–Pg boundary. An impact at this site could have been the triggering event for the nearby Deccan Traps. However, this feature has not yet been accepted by the geologic community as an impact crater and may just be a sinkhole depression caused by salt withdrawal.
358:
20:
2542:
387:
850:), which proposes that volcanism might have gotten so intense as to "shoot up" material into a ballistic trajectory into space before it fell down as an impactor. Due to the spectacular nature of this proposed mechanism, the scientific community has largely reacted with skepticism to this hypothesis.
636:
The Deccan Traps could have caused extinction through several mechanisms, including the release of dust and sulfuric aerosols into the air which might have blocked sunlight and thereby reduced photosynthesis in plants. In addition, Deccan Trap volcanism might have resulted in carbon dioxide emissions
1568:
Schulte, Peter; Smit, Jan; Deutsch, Alexander; Salge, Tobias; Friese, Andrea; Beichel, Kilian (April 2012). "Tsunami backwash deposits with
Chicxulub impact ejecta and dinosaur remains from the Cretaceous-Palaeogene boundary in the La Popa Basin, Mexico: Cretaceous-Palaeogene event deposit, La Popa
632:
caused the extinction were usually linked to the view that the extinction was gradual, as the flood basalt events were thought to have started around 68 Ma and lasted for over 2 million years. However, there is evidence that two thirds of the Deccan Traps were created within 1 million years
858:
It is possible that more than one of these hypotheses may be a partial solution to the mystery, and that more than one of these events may have occurred. Both the Deccan Traps and the
Chicxulub impact may have been important contributors. For example, the most recent dating of the Deccan Traps
455:" (as it came to be known) was that no documented crater matched the event. This was not a lethal blow to the theory; while the crater resulting from the impact would have been larger than 250 km (160 mi) in diameter, Earth's geological processes hide or destroy craters over time.
542:, for which evidence has been found all around the coast of the Caribbean and eastern United States—marine sand in locations which were then inland, and vegetation debris and terrestrial rocks in marine sediments dated to the time of the impact.
664:
Several other craters also appear to have been formed about the time of the K–Pg boundary. This suggests the possibility of nearly simultaneous multiple impacts, perhaps from a fragmented asteroidal object, similar to the
725:
rock layers from various parts of the world, the later ones are terrestrial; earlier ones represent shorelines and the earliest represent seabeds. These layers do not show the tilting and distortion associated with
734:, that is, a buildout of sediment, but not necessarily a drop in sea level. No direct evidence exists for the cause of the regression, but the explanation which is currently accepted as the most likely is that the
633:
about 65.5 Ma, so these eruptions would have caused a fairly rapid extinction, possibly a period of thousands of years, but still a longer period than what would be expected from a single impact event.
1657:
Hofman C, Féraud G, Courtillot V (2000). "40Ar/39Ar dating of mineral separates and whole rocks from the
Western Ghats lava pile: further constraints on duration and age of the Deccan traps".
2198:
Richards, Mark A.; Alvarez, Walter; Self, Stephen; Karlstrom, Leif; Renne, Paul R.; Manga, Michael; Sprain, Courtney J.; Smit, Jan; Vanderkluysen, Loÿc; Gibson, Sally A. (November 2015).
27:, Alberta, Canada, where glacial and post-glacial erosion have exposed the K–Pg boundary along with much other sedimentation (the exact boundary is a thin line not obviously visible).
508:
in the Yucatán during the late 1970s. Penfield was initially unable to obtain evidence that the geological feature was a crater and gave up his search. Later, through contact with
538:
The shape and location of the crater indicate further causes of devastation in addition to the dust cloud. The asteroid landed right on the coast and would have caused gigantic
285:
1618:
Ohno, Sohsuke; Kadono, Toshihiko; Kurosawa, Kosuke; Hamura, Taiga; Sakaiya, Tatsuhiro; Shigemori, Keisuke; Hironaka, Yoichiro; Sano, Takayoshi; Watari, Takeshi; Otani, Kazuto;
486:, striking the Earth. The date of the impact coincides precisely with the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (K–Pg boundary), slightly more than 66 million years ago.
494:
138:
The word "Cretaceous" is derived from the Latin "creta" (chalk). It is abbreviated K (as in "K–Pg boundary") for its German translation "Kreide" (chalk).
2439:
1536:"Coarse-grained, clastic sandstone complex at the K/T boundary around the Gulf of Mexico: Deposition by tsunami waves induced by the Chicxulub impact?"
1772:
753:
extinction. The regression would also have caused climate changes, partly by disrupting winds and ocean currents and partly by reducing the Earth's
868:
535:
samples from the impact itself. The discoveries were widely seen as confirming current theories related to both the crater impact and its effects.
1929:"The Shiva Crater: Implications for Deccan Volcanism, India-Seychelles rifting, dinosaur extinction, and petroleum entrapment at the KT Boundary"
1928:
1859:
1352:
702:
A very large structure in the sea floor off the west coast of India was interpreted in 2006 as a crater by three researchers. The potential
2495:
2104:
Archibald, J. David; Fastovsky, David E. (2004). "Dinosaur
Extinction". In Weishampel, David B.; Dodson, Peter; Osmólska, Halszka (eds.).
959:
2525:
1622:; Sugita, Seiji (April 2014). "Production of sulphate-rich vapour during the Chicxulub impact and implications for ocean acidification".
3003:
2515:
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supports the idea that rapid eruption rates in the Deccan Traps may have been triggered by large seismic waves radiated by the impact.
350:
2372:
780:
environments, since continental runoff now had longer distances to travel before reaching oceans. While this change was favorable to
434:
113:
2053:
Marshall, C. R.; Ward, P.D. (1996). "Sudden and
Gradual Molluscan Extinctions in the Latest Cretaceous of Western European Tethys".
1114:
Renne, P. R.; Deino, A. L.; Hilgen, F. J.; Kuiper, K. F.; Mark, D. F.; Mitchell, W. S.; Morgan, L. E.; Mundil, R.; Smit, J. (2013).
595:. This would have further reduced the sunlight reaching the Earth's surface and then over several days, precipitated planet-wide as
911:
738:
became less active and therefore sank under their own weight as sediment from uplifted orogenic belts filled in structural basins.
512:
in 1990, Penfield obtained samples that suggested it was an impact feature. Evidence for the impact origin of the crater includes
3013:
2490:
2432:
2500:
429:
hundreds of times greater than normal. They suggested that this layer was evidence of an impact event that triggered worldwide
1180:
Alvarez, L.W.; Alvarez, W.; Asaro, F.; Michel, H. V. (1980). "Extraterrestrial cause for the
Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction".
2363:
2245:
Renne, Paul R.; Sprain, Courtney J.; Richards, Mark A.; Self, Stephen; Vanderkluysen, Loÿc; Pande, Kanchan (2 October 2015).
2113:
1755:
1050:
943:
489:
The crater is estimated to be over 150 km (93 mi) in diameter and 20 km (12 mi) in depth, well into the
749:
mass extinction. However, research concludes that this change would have been insufficient to cause the observed level of
644:
In the years when the Deccan Traps theory was linked to a slower extinction, Luis
Alvarez (who died in 1988) replied that
2505:
2485:
656:
and massive volcanic eruptions that produced the Indian Deccan Traps, and these may have contributed to the extinctions.
2520:
2480:
2448:
2425:
1814:
1603:
1452:
714:
Clear evidence exists that sea levels fell in the final stage of the
Cretaceous by more than at any other time in the
811:
at the boundary is consistent with this hypothesis. However, analysis of the boundary layer sediments failed to find
699:
would have been obscured by erosion and tectonic events such as the relentless northward drift of Africa and India.
1085:
2039:
1303:
2998:
1695:
Duncan, RA; Pyle, DG (1988). "Rapid eruption of the Deccan flood basalts at the
Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary".
2970:
2706:
2701:
2606:
1884:
1841:
1799:
1534:
Smit, J.; Roep, T.B.; Alvarez, W.; Montanari, A.; Claeys, P.; Grajales-Nishimura, J.M.; Bermudez, J. (1996).
2913:
2741:
2726:
2646:
2591:
2330:
421:
discovered that sedimentary layers found all over the world at the
Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary contain a
278:
3008:
2862:
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2586:
2571:
1313:
3028:
3018:
2965:
2756:
2751:
2711:
2671:
2308:
666:
990:
Renne; et al. (2013). "Time Scales of Critical Events Around the Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary".
745:
area, which is the most species-rich part of the sea, and therefore could have been enough to cause a
493:
of the region of about 10–30 km (6.2–18.6 mi) depth. It makes the feature the second of the
2746:
2581:
2356:
1115:
772:
that ten million years before had been host to diverse communities such as are found in rocks of the
1202:
2935:
2686:
2556:
1940:
1407:
260:
2247:"State shift in Deccan volcanism at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary, possibly induced by impact"
3023:
2852:
2721:
2651:
773:
765:
649:
135:
and the generally accepted scientific theory is that this impact triggered the extinction event.
2691:
31:
2955:
2832:
2696:
2611:
1241:
Keller G, Adatte T, Stinnesbeck W, Rebolledo-Vieyra, Fucugauchi JU, Kramar U, Stüben D (2004).
1197:
966:
266:
1747:
1740:
497:, and the only one whose peak ring is intact and directly accessible for scientific research.
2976:
2960:
2908:
2018:
Liangquan, Li; Keller, Gerta (1998). "Abrupt deep-sea warming at the end of the Cretaceous".
1899:
1878:
1835:
1819:
1793:
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1535:
1308:
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873:
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in which 75% of plant and animal species on Earth suddenly became extinct, including all non-
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2258:
2211:
2152:
2062:
2027:
1976:
1704:
1666:
1631:
1493:
1367:
1254:
1189:
1130:
999:
722:
803:
Another discredited cause for the K–Pg extinction event is cosmic radiation from a nearby
463:
131:
Strong evidence exists that the extinction coincided with a large meteorite impact at the
8:
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878:
838:
An attempt to link volcanism – like the Deccan Traps – and impact events causally in the
418:
406:
390:
229:
2341:
2262:
2215:
2156:
2066:
2031:
1980:
1708:
1635:
1497:
1433:
1371:
1353:"The Chicxulub Asteroid Impact and Mass Extinction at the Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary"
1258:
1193:
1134:
1003:
178:
reveals part of the 180 km (110 mi) diameter ring of the crater. The numerous
3033:
2872:
2777:
2381:
2284:
2227:
2142:
2086:
2000:
1900:"Shiva structure: a possible K–Pg boundary impact crater on the western shelf of India"
1720:
1586:
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1223:
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1023:
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106:
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2004:
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939:
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35:
Complex Cretaceous-Paleogene clay layer (gray) in the Geulhemmergroeve tunnels near
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2601:
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2406:
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2170:
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1984:
1963:
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381:
132:
117:
87:
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808:
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of North America. The reduction of these seas greatly altered habitats, removing
735:
574:
517:
509:
438:
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of the impact crater, hundreds of meters below the current sea floor, to obtain
2877:
2837:
2812:
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2616:
2576:
2390:
674:
513:
410:
394:
2631:
1960:
2992:
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1996:
1988:
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769:
719:
589:
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430:
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300:
287:
183:
2417:
2304:
2271:
2246:
2199:
2108:(2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 672–684.
1926:
1897:
1453:"Drilling Into the Chicxulub Crater, Ground Zero of the Dinosaur Extinction"
1379:
1267:
1142:
1011:
2945:
2867:
2857:
2464:
2401:
2280:
2184:
1513:
1395:
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1219:
1158:
1019:
703:
696:
645:
629:
626:
620:
71:
2165:
2082:
1314:
Planetary and Space Science Centre University of New Brunswick Fredericton
120:
which destroyed a majority of the world's Mesozoic species, including all
2716:
2621:
2535:
1116:"Time Scales of Critical Events Around the Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary"
1081:"PIA03379: Shaded Relief with Height as Color, Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico"
847:
784:
761:
414:
1043:
Life: A Natural History of the First Four Billion Years of Life on Earth
94:
2882:
2782:
2147:
1240:
781:
777:
501:
235:
83:
24:
338:
165:
2847:
2842:
2827:
2223:
1716:
1643:
843:
827:
823:
804:
689:
653:
599:, killing vegetation, plankton and organisms which build shells from
596:
546:
532:
528:
505:
98:
2200:"Triggering of the largest Deccan eruptions by the Chicxulub impact"
910:), that is now discouraged as a formal geochronological unit by the
405:
In 1980, a team of researchers led by Nobel prize-winning physicist
2131:"Could a Nearby Supernova Explosion have Caused a Mass Extinction?"
903:
750:
715:
608:
475:
445:
179:
121:
102:
91:
2541:
19:
2892:
2887:
2792:
2787:
1338:
934:
Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G.; Smith, Alan G., eds. (2004).
842:
direction compared to the proposed Shiva crater is the so-called
727:
678:
670:
592:
539:
521:
426:
79:
75:
68:
39:, the Netherlands. Finger is just below the actual K–Pg boundary.
36:
2322:"66 million-year-old deathbed linked to dinosaur-killing meteor"
1927:
Chatterjee, S; Guven, N; Yoshinobu, A & Donofrio, R (2003).
1898:
Chatterjee, S; Guven, N; Yoshinobu, A & Donofrio, R (2006).
965:. International Commission on Stratigraphy. 2012. Archived from
500:
The crater was discovered by Antonio Camargo and Glen Penfield,
386:
182:
clustered around the trough of the crater suggest a prehistoric
754:
562:
467:
398:
328:
175:
1351:
Schulte, P.; Alegret, L.; Arenillas, I.; et al. (2010).
792:
788:
527:
In 2016, a scientific drilling project drilled deep into the
479:
2197:
2103:
1243:"Chicxulub impact predates the K-T boundary mass extinction"
760:
Marine regression also resulted in the reduction in area of
474:, after which the crater is named. It was formed by a large
105:
Era. Its age is usually estimated at 66 million years, with
2040:
10.1130/0091-7613(1998)026<0995:ADSWAT>2.3.CO;2
1907:
Special Publications of the Museum of Texas Tech University
1090:
442:
171:
125:
1350:
688:, a 20 km (12 mi) diameter impact crater in the
2371:
2314:
2052:
1179:
82:
than other bands. The K–Pg boundary marks the end of the
1617:
1533:
641:
when the dust and aerosols cleared from the atmosphere.
2244:
1567:
482:
about 10–15 km (6.2–9.3 mi) in diameter, the
1656:
1113:
677:, a 24 km (15 mi) diameter impact crater in
1933:
Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs
1605:
Dinosaur-Killing Asteroid Triggered Lethal Acid Rain,
902:
This former designation has as a part of it a term, '
451:
When it was originally proposed, one issue with the "
2128:
1450:
822:, a supernova byproduct which is the longest-lived
741:A severe regression would have greatly reduced the
1962:
1739:
1694:
709:
573:O)), which would have ejected large quantities of
109:yielding a more precise age of 66.043 ± 0.011 Ma.
933:
2990:
1109:
1107:
695:Any other craters that might have formed in the
2135:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2017:
1961:MacLeod, N.; Rawson, P.F.; et al. (1997).
1853:
1851:
1434:"Dinosaur asteroid hit 'worst possible place'"
757:and therefore increasing global temperatures.
2447:
2433:
2357:
1104:
938:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
1848:
1543:Geological Society of America Special Papers
1073:
869:Climate across Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary
730:; therefore, the likeliest explanation is a
495:largest confirmed impact structures on Earth
1964:"The Cretaceous–Tertiary biotic transition"
2440:
2426:
2364:
2350:
1866:. Archived from the original on 2011-08-04
1823:. Archived from the original on 2008-07-09
1781:. Archived from the original on 2011-06-03
1737:
1470:
776:. Another consequence was an expansion of
164:
2270:
2174:
2164:
2146:
1857:
1812:
1770:
1690:
1688:
1276:
1266:
1201:
1040:
960:"International Chronostratigraphic Chart"
470:. Its center is located near the town of
112:The K–Pg boundary is associated with the
2046:
1451:St. Fleur, Nicholas (17 November 2016).
1327:
912:International Commission on Stratigraphy
659:
385:
357:
30:
18:
16:Geological boundary between time periods
2328:
2319:
1954:
1746:. Princeton University Press. pp.
1344:
884:
798:
2991:
2204:Geological Society of America Bulletin
1685:
1476:
1298:
1296:
1234:
1173:
588:that combined with water to produce a
2421:
2373:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event
2345:
1034:
989:
435:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event
186:in the depression left by the impact.
114:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event
2097:
1444:
1431:
1335:The Dinosaurs: Death of the Dinosaur
889:
174:'s Shuttle Radar Topography Mission
1659:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
1293:
146:
13:
2329:Preston, Douglas (29 March 2019).
1773:"Debating the Dinosaur Extinction"
853:
141:
14:
3045:
2320:Sanders, Robert (29 March 2019).
2298:
1969:Journal of the Geological Society
1506:10.1038/scientificamerican0302-76
983:
97:, and marks the beginning of the
2540:
2534:
1583:10.1111/j.1365-3091.2011.01274.x
1086:Shuttle Radar Topography Mission
625:Before 2000, arguments that the
545:The asteroid landed in a bed of
397:(right) at the K-Pg Boundary in
356:
349:
321:
101:Period, the first period of the
2238:
2191:
2122:
2011:
1920:
1891:
1806:
1764:
1731:
1650:
1611:
1597:
1561:
1527:
1432:Amos, Jonathan (May 15, 2017).
1425:
710:Maastrichtian marine regression
637:which would have increased the
614:
224:10–15 km (6.2–9.3 mi)
3014:Events that forced the climate
2129:Ellis, J; Schramm, DN (1995).
1858:Mullen, L (November 3, 2004).
1813:Mullen, L (October 20, 2004).
1771:Mullen, L (October 13, 2004).
1059:
952:
927:
896:
1:
3004:Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary
2971:Lunar and Planetary Institute
2803:Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary
2075:10.1126/science.274.5291.1360
1742:T. rex and the Crater of Doom
1679:10.1016/S0012-821X(00)00159-X
1212:10.1126/science.208.4448.1095
1045:. Vintage. pp. 238–260.
921:
239:Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary
78:of rock containing much more
2331:"The day the dinosaurs died"
1860:"Shiva: Another K–T impact?"
833:
370:Location of Chicxulub crater
7:
2863:Planar deformation features
1607:Livescience, March 09, 2014
1333:Penfield, Glen. Interview:
862:
458:The Chicxulub crater is an
10:
3050:
2966:Impact Field Studies Group
936:A geologic time scale 2004
618:
379:
159:Chicxulub impact structure
2901:
2770:
2549:
2532:
2473:
2455:
2449:Impact cratering on Earth
2379:
1883:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
1840:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
1798:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
504:who had been looking for
344:
334:
316:
277:
272:
259:
251:
243:
228:
220:
212:
204:
196:
191:
163:
158:
153:
2936:William Kenneth Hartmann
2602:Clearwater East and West
2550:Confirmed≥20 km diameter
1989:10.1144/gsjgs.154.2.0265
1939:(6): 168. Archived from
208:150 km (93 mi)
55:, formerly known as the
2853:Ordovician meteor event
2272:10.1126/science.aac7549
1671:2000E&PSL.180...13H
1380:10.1126/science.1177265
1268:10.1073/pnas.0400396101
1143:10.1126/science.1230492
1012:10.1126/science.1230492
774:Dinosaur Park Formation
766:Western Interior Seaway
682:(65.17 ± 0.64 Ma);
216:20 km (12 mi)
192:Impact crater/structure
2956:Eugene Merle Shoemaker
2833:Late Heavy Bombardment
1477:Becker, Luann (2002).
846:hypothesis (named for
791:environments, such as
673:. Among these are the
524:in surrounding areas.
462:buried underneath the
402:
267:Carbonaceous chondrite
40:
28:
2999:Earth Impact Database
2977:Traces of Catastrophe
2961:Earth Impact Database
2909:Ralph Belknap Baldwin
2166:10.1073/pnas.92.1.235
1864:Astrobiology Magazine
1820:Astrobiology Magazine
1778:Astrobiology Magazine
1309:Earth Impact Database
874:Sub-Paleogene surface
830:of 81 million years.
669:cometary impact with
660:Multiple impact event
648:were being misled by
409:, his son, geologist
389:
301:21.40000°N 89.51667°W
45:Cretaceous–Paleogene
34:
22:
2210:(11–12): 1507–1520.
885:References and notes
799:Supernova hypothesis
787:, those that prefer
57:Cretaceous–Tertiary
2263:2015Sci...350...76R
2216:2015GSAB..127.1507R
2157:1995PNAS...92..235E
2067:1996Sci...274.1360M
2061:(5291): 1360–1363.
2032:1998Geo....26..995L
1981:1997JGSoc.154..265M
1738:Alvarez, W (1997).
1709:1988Natur.333..841D
1636:2014NatGe...7..279O
1498:2002SciAm.286c..76B
1486:Scientific American
1413:on December 9, 2011
1372:2010Sci...327.1214S
1259:2004PNAS..101.3753K
1194:1980Sci...208.1095A
1188:(4448): 1095–1108.
1135:2013Sci...339..684R
1067:"Cretaceous Period"
1004:2013Sci...339..684R
879:Tanis (fossil site)
419:Helen Vaughn Michel
393:(left) and his son
306:21.40000; -89.51667
297: /
3009:Cretaceous geology
2873:Shock metamorphism
2778:Alvarez hypothesis
2382:Alvarez hypothesis
1815:"Multiple impacts"
1457:The New York Times
1041:Fortey, R (1999).
906:' (abbreviated as
484:Chicxulub impactor
453:Alvarez hypothesis
431:climate disruption
403:
107:radiometric dating
41:
29:
3029:Paleogene geology
3019:Extinction events
2986:
2985:
2926:Edward C. T. Chao
2415:
2414:
2115:978-0-520-24209-8
1757:978-0-691-01630-6
1703:(6176): 841–843.
1624:Nature Geoscience
1366:(5970): 1214–18.
1253:(11): 3753–3758.
1129:(6120): 684–687.
1052:978-0-375-70261-7
945:978-0-521-78142-8
890:Explanatory notes
743:continental shelf
728:mountain building
639:greenhouse effect
605:coccolithophorids
601:calcium carbonate
491:continental crust
464:Yucatán Peninsula
378:
377:
221:Impactor diameter
86:Period, the last
74:, usually a thin
3041:
2951:Peter H. Schultz
2914:Daniel Barringer
2823:Impact structure
2544:
2538:
2442:
2435:
2428:
2419:
2418:
2407:Silverpit crater
2396:Chicxulub crater
2366:
2359:
2352:
2343:
2342:
2338:
2325:
2324:. Berkeley News.
2293:
2292:
2274:
2242:
2236:
2235:
2224:10.1130/B31167.1
2195:
2189:
2188:
2178:
2168:
2150:
2126:
2120:
2119:
2101:
2095:
2094:
2050:
2044:
2043:
2015:
2009:
2008:
1966:
1958:
1952:
1951:
1949:
1948:
1924:
1918:
1917:
1915:
1914:
1904:
1895:
1889:
1888:
1882:
1874:
1872:
1871:
1855:
1846:
1845:
1839:
1831:
1829:
1828:
1810:
1804:
1803:
1797:
1789:
1787:
1786:
1768:
1762:
1761:
1745:
1735:
1729:
1728:
1717:10.1038/333841a0
1692:
1683:
1682:
1654:
1648:
1647:
1644:10.1038/ngeo2095
1620:Matsui, Takafumi
1615:
1609:
1601:
1595:
1594:
1569:Basin, Mexico".
1565:
1559:
1558:
1556:
1554:
1540:
1531:
1525:
1524:
1522:
1520:
1483:
1479:"Repeated Blows"
1474:
1468:
1467:
1465:
1463:
1448:
1442:
1441:
1429:
1423:
1422:
1420:
1418:
1412:
1406:. Archived from
1357:
1348:
1342:
1331:
1325:
1324:
1322:
1320:
1300:
1291:
1290:
1280:
1270:
1238:
1232:
1231:
1205:
1177:
1171:
1170:
1120:
1111:
1102:
1101:
1099:
1097:
1077:
1071:
1070:
1069:. 15 April 2014.
1063:
1057:
1056:
1038:
1032:
1031:
987:
981:
980:
978:
977:
971:
964:
956:
950:
949:
931:
915:
900:
826:isotope, with a
821:
819:
818:
736:mid-ocean ridges
694:
693:(60–65 Ma).
686:Silverpit crater
683:
667:Shoemaker–Levy 9
587:
586:
585:
560:
559:
558:
382:Chicxulub crater
364:Chicxulub crater
360:
359:
353:
327:
325:
324:
312:
311:
309:
308:
307:
302:
298:
295:
294:
293:
290:
168:
154:Chicxulub crater
151:
150:
147:Chicxulub crater
133:Chicxulub crater
3049:
3048:
3044:
3043:
3042:
3040:
3039:
3038:
2989:
2988:
2987:
2982:
2931:Robert S. Dietz
2919:Barringer Medal
2897:
2808:Cryptoexplosion
2766:
2697:Puchezh-Katunki
2677:Nördlinger Ries
2545:
2539:
2530:
2496:Asia and Russia
2469:
2451:
2446:
2416:
2411:
2375:
2370:
2305:The KT Boundary
2301:
2296:
2257:(6256): 76–78.
2243:
2239:
2196:
2192:
2127:
2123:
2116:
2102:
2098:
2051:
2047:
2016:
2012:
1959:
1955:
1946:
1944:
1925:
1921:
1912:
1910:
1902:
1896:
1892:
1876:
1875:
1869:
1867:
1856:
1849:
1833:
1832:
1826:
1824:
1811:
1807:
1791:
1790:
1784:
1782:
1769:
1765:
1758:
1736:
1732:
1693:
1686:
1655:
1651:
1616:
1612:
1602:
1598:
1566:
1562:
1552:
1550:
1538:
1532:
1528:
1518:
1516:
1481:
1475:
1471:
1461:
1459:
1449:
1445:
1430:
1426:
1416:
1414:
1410:
1355:
1349:
1345:
1332:
1328:
1318:
1316:
1302:
1301:
1294:
1239:
1235:
1203:10.1.1.126.8496
1178:
1174:
1118:
1112:
1105:
1095:
1093:
1079:
1078:
1074:
1065:
1064:
1060:
1053:
1039:
1035:
998:(6120): 684–7.
988:
984:
975:
973:
969:
962:
958:
957:
953:
946:
932:
928:
924:
919:
918:
901:
897:
892:
887:
865:
856:
854:Multiple causes
836:
817:
815:
814:
813:
812:
809:iridium anomaly
801:
712:
692:
681:
662:
646:paleontologists
623:
617:
584:
581:
580:
579:
577:
575:sulfur trioxide
572:
568:
557:
554:
553:
552:
550:
518:gravity anomaly
510:Alan Hildebrand
439:mass extinction
433:and caused the
413:, and chemists
384:
374:
373:
372:
371:
368:
367:
366:
365:
361:
322:
320:
305:
303:
299:
296:
291:
288:
286:
284:
283:
238:
234:66.043 ± 0.011
187:
149:
144:
142:Proposed causes
118:mass extinction
17:
12:
11:
5:
3047:
3037:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3024:Impact geology
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2984:
2983:
2981:
2980:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2922:
2921:
2911:
2905:
2903:
2899:
2898:
2896:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2878:Shocked quartz
2875:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2845:
2840:
2838:Lechatelierite
2835:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2813:Ejecta blanket
2810:
2805:
2800:
2798:Complex crater
2795:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2774:
2772:
2768:
2767:
2765:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2749:
2744:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2599:
2594:
2592:Chesapeake Bay
2589:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2553:
2551:
2547:
2546:
2533:
2531:
2529:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2488:
2483:
2477:
2475:
2471:
2470:
2468:
2467:
2462:
2456:
2453:
2452:
2445:
2444:
2437:
2430:
2422:
2413:
2412:
2410:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2393:
2391:Boltysh crater
2387:
2385:
2377:
2376:
2369:
2368:
2361:
2354:
2346:
2340:
2339:
2326:
2317:
2300:
2299:External links
2297:
2295:
2294:
2237:
2190:
2148:hep-ph/9303206
2141:(1): 235–238.
2121:
2114:
2106:The Dinosauria
2096:
2045:
2010:
1975:(2): 265–292.
1953:
1919:
1890:
1847:
1805:
1763:
1756:
1730:
1684:
1665:(1–2): 13–27.
1649:
1630:(4): 279–282.
1610:
1596:
1577:(3): 737–765.
1560:
1526:
1469:
1443:
1424:
1343:
1326:
1292:
1233:
1172:
1103:
1072:
1058:
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951:
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923:
920:
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894:
893:
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888:
886:
883:
882:
881:
876:
871:
864:
861:
855:
852:
835:
832:
816:
807:explosion. An
800:
797:
770:coastal plains
764:, such as the
711:
708:
675:Boltysh crater
661:
658:
619:Main article:
616:
613:
582:
570:
566:
555:
514:shocked quartz
411:Walter Alvarez
395:Walter Alvarez
380:Main article:
376:
375:
369:
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362:
355:
354:
348:
347:
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23:Badlands near
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3046:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3020:
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3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
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2979:
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2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2941:H. Jay Melosh
2939:
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2934:
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2927:
2924:
2920:
2917:
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2912:
2910:
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2859:
2856:
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2846:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2818:Impact crater
2816:
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2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
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2796:
2794:
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2789:
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2748:
2745:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2723:
2722:Slate Islands
2720:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2690:
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2680:
2678:
2675:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2554:
2552:
2548:
2543:
2537:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2516:South America
2514:
2512:
2511:North America
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2478:
2476:
2472:
2466:
2463:
2461:
2460:Impact crater
2458:
2457:
2454:
2450:
2443:
2438:
2436:
2431:
2429:
2424:
2423:
2420:
2408:
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2403:
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2374:
2367:
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2316:
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2302:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2273:
2268:
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2256:
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2248:
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2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2194:
2186:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2125:
2117:
2111:
2107:
2100:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2049:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2026:(11): 995–8.
2025:
2021:
2014:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1965:
1957:
1943:on 2008-10-12
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1923:
1908:
1901:
1894:
1886:
1880:
1865:
1861:
1854:
1852:
1843:
1837:
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1795:
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1774:
1767:
1759:
1753:
1749:
1744:
1743:
1734:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1691:
1689:
1680:
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1668:
1664:
1660:
1653:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1614:
1608:
1606:
1600:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1571:Sedimentology
1564:
1548:
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1530:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
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1495:
1491:
1487:
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1315:
1311:
1310:
1305:
1299:
1297:
1288:
1284:
1279:
1274:
1269:
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1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1237:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1204:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1176:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1117:
1110:
1108:
1092:
1088:
1087:
1082:
1076:
1068:
1062:
1054:
1048:
1044:
1037:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
986:
972:on 2013-07-17
968:
961:
955:
947:
941:
937:
930:
926:
913:
909:
905:
899:
895:
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875:
872:
870:
867:
866:
860:
851:
849:
845:
841:
831:
829:
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810:
806:
796:
794:
790:
786:
783:
779:
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771:
767:
763:
758:
756:
752:
748:
744:
739:
737:
733:
729:
724:
721:
720:Maastrichtian
718:era. In some
717:
707:
705:
700:
698:
691:
687:
680:
676:
672:
668:
657:
655:
651:
647:
642:
640:
634:
631:
630:flood basalts
628:
622:
612:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
591:
590:sulfuric acid
576:
564:
548:
543:
541:
536:
534:
530:
525:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
502:geophysicists
498:
496:
492:
487:
485:
481:
477:
473:
469:
465:
461:
460:impact crater
456:
454:
449:
447:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
424:
423:concentration
420:
416:
412:
408:
401:, Italy, 1981
400:
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184:oceanic basin
181:
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170:Imaging from
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62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
38:
33:
26:
21:
2975:
2946:Graham Ryder
2868:Shatter cone
2858:Philippinite
2802:
2707:Saint Martin
2702:Rochechouart
2607:Gosses Bluff
2562:Amelia Creek
2465:Impact event
2402:Shiva crater
2334:
2309:
2254:
2250:
2240:
2207:
2203:
2193:
2138:
2134:
2124:
2105:
2099:
2058:
2054:
2048:
2023:
2019:
2013:
1972:
1968:
1956:
1945:. Retrieved
1941:the original
1936:
1932:
1922:
1911:. Retrieved
1906:
1893:
1879:cite journal
1868:. Retrieved
1863:
1836:cite journal
1825:. Retrieved
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1492:(3): 76–83.
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762:epeiric seas
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704:Shiva crater
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627:Deccan Traps
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2742:Tookoonooka
2727:Steen River
2717:Siljan Ring
2647:Manicouagan
2632:Keurusselkä
2310:In Our Time
1519:January 28,
1304:"Chicxulub"
1096:October 28,
848:Jules Verne
785:vertebrates
650:sparse data
415:Frank Asaro
304: /
279:Coordinates
124:except for
2993:Categories
2883:Stishovite
2783:Australite
2762:Yarrabubba
2732:Strangways
2692:Presqu'île
2667:Montagnais
2637:Lappajärvi
2587:Charlevoix
2572:Beaverhead
2567:Araguainha
2521:By country
2491:Antarctica
2335:New Yorker
1947:2007-08-02
1913:2007-06-15
1870:2007-07-11
1827:2007-07-11
1785:2007-07-11
1462:4 November
1417:9 December
976:2013-12-18
922:References
782:freshwater
778:freshwater
732:regression
197:Confidence
84:Cretaceous
69:geological
25:Drumheller
3034:Volcanism
2848:Moldavite
2843:Meteorite
2828:Impactite
2757:Woodleigh
2752:Vredefort
2712:Shoemaker
2672:Morokweng
2657:Mistastin
2597:Chicxulub
2501:Australia
2481:Worldwide
2398:(primary)
2380:Proposed
2005:129654916
1997:0016-7649
1591:131038473
1553:19 August
1549:: 151–182
1388:0036-8075
1198:CiteSeerX
1151:0036-8075
844:Verneshot
834:Verneshot
828:half-life
824:plutonium
805:supernova
690:North Sea
654:sea level
597:acid rain
547:anhydrite
533:rock core
529:peak ring
506:petroleum
472:Chicxulub
446:dinosaurs
292:89°31′0″W
289:21°24′0″N
200:Confirmed
180:sinkholes
122:dinosaurs
99:Paleogene
72:signature
2902:Research
2747:Tunnunik
2642:Logancha
2612:Haughton
2582:Carswell
2526:Possible
2289:30612906
2281:26430116
2185:11607506
1514:11857903
1438:BBC News
1396:20203042
1337:. 1992,
1287:15004276
1228:16017767
1220:17783054
1159:23393261
1020:23393261
904:Tertiary
863:See also
751:ammonite
716:Mesozoic
684:and the
609:molluscs
540:tsunamis
522:tektites
476:asteroid
273:Location
205:Diameter
103:Cenozoic
92:Mesozoic
65:boundary
53:boundary
2893:Tektite
2888:Suevite
2793:Coesite
2788:Breccia
2737:Sudbury
2687:Popigai
2682:Obolon'
2662:Mjølnir
2627:Karakul
2617:Kamensk
2577:Boltysh
2557:Acraman
2384:craters
2313:at the
2259:Bibcode
2251:Science
2232:3463018
2212:Bibcode
2153:Bibcode
2091:1837900
2083:8910273
2063:Bibcode
2055:Science
2028:Bibcode
2020:Geology
1977:Bibcode
1748:130–146
1725:4351454
1705:Bibcode
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1494:Bibcode
1404:2659741
1368:Bibcode
1360:Science
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1190:Bibcode
1182:Science
1167:6112274
1131:Bibcode
1123:Science
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1000:Bibcode
992:Science
679:Ukraine
671:Jupiter
593:aerosol
427:iridium
339:Yucatán
317:Country
252:Drilled
244:Exposed
90:of the
80:iridium
67:, is a
37:Geulhem
2771:Topics
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2506:Europe
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326:
261:Bolide
176:STS-99
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2474:Lists
2285:S2CID
2228:S2CID
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2143:arXiv
2087:S2CID
2001:S2CID
1903:(PDF)
1721:S2CID
1587:S2CID
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1024:S2CID
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