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cast doubt on their fidelity, further degradation was added by not only fully exposing them to the beast but using one of their own sex rather than the usual male animal. The implication was that the women were shown as not being women enough to commit adultery. After having all their clothing removed
Perpetua and Felicitas were driven into the arena covered only in see-through netting. Proving too much for the crowd, they were brought back to be clothed in plain loose garments before being sent in again to face the beast.
473:
1089:
1132:
315:
254:, where the punished are both expected and prepared to fight. In addition, there were professional beast fighters trained in special schools, such as the Roman Morning School, which received its name by the timing of the games. These schools taught not only fighting but also the behavior and taming of animals. The fighters were released into the arena dressed in a tunic and armed only with a spear (occasionally with a sword). They were sometimes assisted by
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623:(2nd century AD). He states that the general public blamed Christians for any general misfortune and after natural disasters would cry "Away with them to the lions!" This is the only reference from contemporaries mentioning Christians being thrown specifically to lions. Tertullian also wrote that Christians started avoiding theatres and circuses, which were associated with the place of their torture.
653:
hands behind their backs. Full body exposure of a female to a bull after being entirely stripped of all her clothing was one aspect of her shaming, the implications being that she was not regarded the same as attired male competitors and allowed to fight any "beast" but rendered helpless, and that being denuded in public would be an inference of a charge of adultery on the part of the woman.
97:
648:
At the resistance of
Perpetua, however, the tribune relented and the prisoners were allowed to enter wearing their own clothing. The two young women, Perpetua and a slave girl Felicitas, were reserved as a finale to the executions to face a wild cow. Since it was thought that public nudity would not
652:
This is also not the only instance of such treatment being used on
Christian women, many also customarily subjected to other punishments and harsh tortures beforehand. More generally though in contrast to their clothed male counterparts women were tied fully naked to stakes or pillars with their
353:
in 146 BC. It was originally a military punishment, possibly borrowed from the
Carthaginians. Rome reserved its earliest use for non-Roman military allies found guilty of defection or desertion. The sentenced were tied to columns or thrown to the animals, practically defenseless (i.e.
537:
There is a widespread view among contemporary specialists that the prominence of
Christians among those condemned to death in the Roman arena was greatly exaggerated in earlier times. There is no evidence for Christians being executed at the
464:, were less popular. Local municipalities were ordered to provide food for animals in transit and not delay their stay for more than a week. Some historians believe that the mass export of animals to Rome damaged wildlife in North Africa.
922:'s rule) who was caught after fleeing his master and thrown to a lion. The lion spared him, which Androcles explained by saying that he pulled a thorn from the paw of the very same lion when hiding in Africa, and the lion remembered him.
787:) of AD 61 forbade employers to send their slaves to be eaten by animals without a judicial verdict. Local governors were required to consult a Roman deputy before staging a fight of skilled gladiators against animals.
1440:
Represented by
Siemiradzki is the ancient Roman staging of the myth at the Emperor Nero's wish. He ordered that a young fair Christian woman be put to death in the same way as part of the games at the amphitheatre.
730:
who strangled him. Even though
Narcissus brought the new emperor to power, he committed a crime of murdering the previous one. The same punishment was applied to Mnesteus who organized the assassination of Emperor
1313:Π’ΠΈΡΠ°ΡΠΏΠΎΠ»ΡΡΠΊΠΈΠΉ Π. Π. ΠΠ΅ΡΠ΅Π΄Ρ Ρ ΠΏΠ°Π»Π°ΡΠΎΠΌ. ΠΠ°Π·Π½ΠΈ, ΠΏΡΡΠΊΠΈ ΠΈ ΡΡΡΠΎΠ²ΡΠ΅ Π½Π°ΠΊΠ°Π·Π°Π½ΠΈΡ Π² ΠΡΠ΅Π²Π½Π΅ΠΌ Π ΠΈΠΌΠ΅ (Conversations with an executioner. Executions, torture and harsh punishment in ancient Rome). Moscow, 2003. (in Russian)
155:, but overcame the beast with his bare hands and became one of Alexander's favorites. It is important to note that this has no real proof, and if real was likely a weakened/juvenile
628:
2723:
258:(hunters), who used bows, spears and whips. Such group fights were not human executions but rather staged animal fighting and hunting. Various animals were used, such as
2692:
1713:
116:
existed naturally and were revered by the population, such as Africa, India and other parts of Asia. For example, Egyptian mythology had a chimeric
Underworld demon,
1625:ΠΠ΅ΠΌΠΈΡΠΎΠ²ΡΠΊΠΈΠΉ. ΠΡΡΠΎΡΠΈΡ Π΄ΡΠ΅Π²Π½Π΅Π³ΠΎ ΠΌΠΈΡΠ°. (The history of the ancient world) Ch. 1. p. 86 // Π’ΠΈΡΠ°ΡΠΏΠΎΠ»ΡΡΠΊΠΈΠΉ Π. Π. ΠΠ΅ΡΠ΅Π΄Ρ Ρ ΠΏΠ°Π»Π°ΡΠΎΠΌ (Conversations with an executioner)
2243:
including The Twelve Tables, The
Institutes of Gaius, The Rules of Ulpian, The Opinions of Paulus, The Enactments of Justinian, and The Constitutions of Leo.
964:
rather than a lion be let into the arena. The emperor's herald then proclaimed "he has forged, and was treated the same". The merchant was then released.
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2006:
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appeared there not as a spiritual practice but rather a spectacle. In addition to lions, other animals were used for this purpose, including
2349:
2743:
890:
81:
504:. Tying women to pillars or poles and stripping them of clothing in public was a common practice in the condemnation of Christian women.
656:
Those who survived the first animal attacks were either brought back out for further exposure to the beasts or executed in public by a
530:) and thrown to dogs. This practice was followed by other emperors who moved it into the arena and used larger animals. Application of
960:). A man was caught after selling the emperor's wife glass instead of gems. Gallienus sentenced him to face lions, but ordered that a
333:) shows the punishment of a Roman woman who had converted to Christianity. At the Emperor Nero's wish, the woman, like mythological
1088:
437:
for showcasing battles and, during his second consulate (55 BC), staged a fight between heavily armed gladiators and 18 elephants.
1325:
2697:
291:
124:, who, according to legend, almost devoured all of humanity soon after her birth. There are also accounts of feeding lions and
2748:
2672:
1245:
84:
in AD 80. Between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD, this penalty was also applied to the worst of criminals, runaway slaves, and
2702:
1717:
1527:
1107:
633:, a text which purports to be an eyewitness account, as written by Vibia Perpetua, of a group of Christians condemned to
342:
645:. They were brought back out in separate groups and first the men, then the women, exposed to a variety of wild beasts.
2287:
2085:
1825:
1678:
1215:
112:
is not known and might have been a religious sacrifice rather than a legal punishment, especially in the regions where
493:
2738:
2342:
1953:, ΠΠ»Π°ΡΡΠ΅Π»ΠΈΠ½Ρ Π ΠΈΠΌΠ°. ΠΠΈΠΎΠ³ΡΠ°ΡΠΈΠΈ ΡΠΈΠΌΡΠΊΠΈΡ
ΠΈΠΌΠΏΠ΅ΡΠ°ΡΠΎΡΠΎΠ² ΠΎΡ ΠΠ΄ΡΠΈΠ°Π½Π° Π΄ΠΎ ΠΠΈΠΎΠΊΠ»Π΅ΡΠΈΠ°Π½Π°. Krotov.info. Retrieved 2 February 2011
1941:, ΠΠ»Π°ΡΡΠ΅Π»ΠΈΠ½Ρ Π ΠΈΠΌΠ°. ΠΠΈΠΎΠ³ΡΠ°ΡΠΈΠΈ ΡΠΈΠΌΡΠΊΠΈΡ
ΠΈΠΌΠΏΠ΅ΡΠ°ΡΠΎΡΠΎΠ² ΠΎΡ ΠΠ΄ΡΠΈΠ°Π½Π° Π΄ΠΎ ΠΠΈΠΎΠΊΠ»Π΅ΡΠΈΠ°Π½Π°. Krotov.info. Retrieved 2 February 2011
1644:
1131:
750:
Instigators of uprisings, who were either crucified, thrown to beasts or exiled, depending on their social status.
2677:
1502:
691:
476:
2297:
Boris A. Paschke (2006). "The Roman ad bestias
Execution as a Possible Historical Background for 1 Peter 5.8".
2268:
1433:
1344:
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and the medieval legends, based on his note "when I have fought with beasts at Ephesus", 1 Corinthians, 15:32)
2620:
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1008:
637:
at Carthage in AD 203, states that the men were required to dress in the robes of a priest of the Roman god
2728:
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421:
was indignant that a man was thrown to the beasts to amuse the crowd just because he was considered ugly.
2547:
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607:
534:
to Christians was intended to equate them with the worst criminals, who were usually punished this way.
2733:
2687:
1693:
306:
and other circuses still contain underground hallways that were used to lead the animals to the arena.
2384:
1476:
120:, who devoured the souls of exceptionally sinful humans, as well as other lion-like deities, such as
1964:
973:
1369:
900:
798:: in 1022, when several disgraced generals were arrested for plotting a conspiracy against Emperor
709:
255:
40:
1917:
1896:
683:, defined which criminals could be thrown to beasts (or condemned by other means). They included:
619:
The spread of the practice of throwing Christians to beasts was reflected by the Christian writer
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Saint Thecla and the Wild Beasts, probably from Egypt, 5th century AD, Nelson-Atkins Museum
727:
429:
ordered prisoners, with no discrimination as to their crimes, to be fed to circus animals.
341:
The custom of submitting criminals to lions was brought to ancient Rome by two commanders,
26:
attacking a criminal, Roman floor mosaic, 3rd century AD, Archaeological Museum of Tunisia
8:
2522:
2510:
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992:
823:
140:
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has a song titled "You will know the Lion by his Claw" and uses this line in its lyrics.
19:
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2314:
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Those who kidnapped children for ransom, according to the law of AD 315 by the Emperor
676:
638:
386:
322:
85:
765:
Beast fighters and criminals being executed, the Zliten leopard, mosaic from c. AD 200
151:, who spoke before Alexander for a person condemned to death, was himself thrown to a
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2081:
1821:
1674:
1429:
1241:
1211:
1163:
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878:
680:
642:
563:
482:
410:
346:
282:, bears, lions, tigers, leopards, hyenas, and wolves. The first such staged hunting (
1910:"ΠΠΠΠΠ 1. ΠΠ‘Π’ΠΠ ΠΠ― Π ΠΠ ΠΠΠΠΠ‘Π«ΠΠΠ ΠΠΠΠΠΠΠΠΠΠΠΠΠ― Π€ΠΠΠ¬Π¨ΠΠΠΠΠΠΠΠ’ΠΠΠ§ΠΠ‘Π’ΠΠ // ΠΡΠ°Π²ΠΎ Π ΠΎΡΡΠΈΠΈ"
234:
72:
was considered a common form of entertainment for the lower class citizens of Rome (
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Fights against wild animals in the arena of the Roman Colosseum were displayed in
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2147:
2108:
St. Glyceria, Virginmartyr, at Heraclea|Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese
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1950:
1938:
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Roman laws, which are known to us through the Byzantine collections, such as the
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was crucified and then devoured by an eagle and a bear, as described by the poet
271:
23:
2599:
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2465:
2401:
1524:
904:
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747:), but could be thrown to beasts if a suitable body of water was not available.
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526:
295:
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183:
164:
125:
52:
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An early description of escape from the death by devouring is in the story of
773:; he could not write a will, and his property was confiscated. Exception from
314:
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2186:"Harloch β Damnatio ad Bestias β Encyclopaedia Metallum: The Metal Archives"
1978:
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Political criminals. For example, after the overthrow and assassination of
554:
521:
461:
275:
223:
152:
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56:
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516:
states that during the first persecution of Christians under the reign of
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2480:
2455:
2445:
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1571:
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Suetonius. Lives of the Twelve Caesars. p. 118 (IV Gaius Caligula, 27, 1)
1158:
770:
219:
218:. It was combined with gladiatorial combat and was first featured at the
1341:
182:
Lions were rare in Ancient Rome and human sacrifice was banned there by
2604:
2568:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2542:
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1543:
Cicero. Letters. Vol. 3. p. 461. Letter (Ad) Fam., VII, 1. (DCCCXCV, 3)
1153:
620:
449:
263:
246:
is usually used in a broad sense, historians distinguish two subtypes:
172:
148:
1552:
Cicero. Letters. Vol. 1. p. 258. Letter (Ad) Fam., VII, 1. (CXXVII, 3)
444:, which were imported to Rome in significant numbers specifically for
2662:
2635:
2537:
2327:
1210:. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group. pp. 17β21.
951:
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For their worship Christians gathered in secret and at night, making
546:
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303:
267:
215:
73:
61:
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has a song titled "Pollice Verso (Damnatio ad Bestia)" on the album
794:
was abolished in Rome in AD 681. It was used once after that in the
777:
was given to military servants and their children. Also, the law of
2667:
2579:
1585:
1280:
1063:
919:
858:
835:
799:
732:
726:, the new emperor threw to lions both the servants of Commodus and
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394:
350:
259:
176:
168:
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2416:
2374:
1867:
761:
741:, who were normally drowned in a leather bag filled with snakes (
513:
378:
299:
279:
203:
121:
48:
802:, they were imprisoned and their property seized, but the royal
663:
The persecution of Christians ceased by the 4th century AD. The
629:
The Passion of St. Perpetua, St. Felicitas, and their Companions
1058:
941:
848:
803:
430:
418:
366:
330:
43:
where the condemned person was killed by wild animals, usually
2074:
Frank Northen Magill; Christina J. Moose; Alison Aves (1998).
2630:
2023:. Vol. 7β2. Moscow. 2005. p. 191, fragment 31.
1995:. Vol. 7β2. Moscow. 2005. p. 191, fragment 29.
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911:
441:
334:
211:
207:
117:
55:
around the 2nd century BC, had been part of a wider class of
36:
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An anecdotal escape is reported in the biography of Emperor
175:
to fight each other, and the survivors had to stand against
96:
1452:
1395:. History of Rome from the founding of the city XXXIX 22, 2
1391:
517:
453:
250:(to throw to beasts) where the humans are defenseless, and
199:
195:
156:
113:
44:
2693:
Resolutions concerning death penalty at the United Nations
2280:
The Roman Amphitheatre β From its Origins to the Colosseum
1456:. Epitoma. "History of Rome from the founding of the city"
810:
Notable victims, according to various Christian traditions
51:. This form of execution, which first appeared during the
885:
191:
485:, depicts two naked Christian women on the eve of their
524:
in AD 64), people were wrapped in animal skins (called
337:, was tied to a wild bull and dragged around the arena.
2161:"Harloch β Encyclopaedia Metallum: The Metal Archives"
1951:
XXVI: Π€Π»Π°Π²ΠΈΠΉ ΠΠΎΠΏΠΈΡΠΊ Π‘ΠΈΡΠ°ΠΊΡΠ·ΡΠ½ΠΈΠ½. ΠΠΠΠΠ‘Π’ΠΠΠΠΠ«Π ΠΠΠ ΠΠΠΠΠ
345:, who defeated the Macedonians in 167 BC, and his son
1204:
Wild Cats: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan
1077:
The Hungarian black metal band Harloch: has an album
139:
Similar condemnations are described by historians of
1113:
Martyrdom of Saint Marcienne, 15th-century miniature
577:
For their refusal to honor images of the emperor by
369:
witnessed the execution of the rebel slaves' leader
2724:
2nd-century BC establishments in the Roman Republic
1939:
VI: Π‘Π²Π΅ΡΠ»Π΅ΠΉΡΠΈΠΉ ΠΌΡΠΆ ΠΡΠ»ΠΊΠ°ΡΠΈΠΉ ΠΠ°Π»Π»ΠΈΠΊΠ°Π½. ΠΠΠΠΠΠ ΠΠΠ‘Π‘ΠΠ
290:) featured lions and panthers, and was arranged by
2277:
844:, Saturus and others (AD 203, presumably Carthage)
604:Confessors of a religion unauthorized by the law (
968:
2715:
2296:
2077:Dictionary of World Biography: The ancient world
1237:Blood in the Arena: The Spectacle of Roman Power
512:against Christians began in the 1st century AD.
425:wrote that when the price of meat was too high,
1423:
1197:Nowell, K.; Jackson, P. (1996). "African lion,
2258:
1233:
719:Counterfeiters, who could also be burned alive
2343:
1196:
1174:Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire
977:Androcles pulling a thorn from the lion's paw
871:, (AD 303, Caesarea, Mauretania Caesariensis)
2237:
1270:. Infoliolib.info. Retrieved 2 February 2011
914:(1st century AD) tells the story of a slave
847:Germanicus, second half of the 2nd century,
186:in the 7th century BC, according to legend.
39:for "condemnation to beasts") was a form of
2110:. Antiochian.org. Retrieved 2 February 2011
1428:. Muzeum Narodowe w Warzawie. p. 151.
757:, were either thrown to beasts or beheaded.
698:. This law was re-established in AD 357 by
670:
82:inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre
2350:
2336:
2299:Journal for the Study of the New Testament
2033:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2005:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1815:
1809:
1607:Pliny the Elder. Natural history. VIII, 53
1534:. Martialis.net. Retrieved 2 February 2011
1332:. Invictory.org. Retrieved 2 February 2011
1240:. University of Texas Press. p. 177.
716:thrown to lions, and slaves were crucified
467:
385:. Such executions were also documented by
309:
1751:
1749:
1598:Pliny the Elder. Natural History VIII, 64
298:on the occasion of the Greek conquest of
2150:. Krotov.info. Retrieved 2 February 2011
2138:. Krotov.info. Retrieved 2 February 2011
1899:. www.diet.ru. Retrieved 2 February 2011
1845:
1843:
1841:
1839:
1837:
1703:. Ateismy.net. Retrieved 2 February 2011
1414:. Krotov.info. Retrieved 2 February 2011
1292:
1290:
972:
889:
813:
760:
667:(AD 313) gave them freedom of religion.
492:
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313:
233:
95:
18:
2698:Capital punishment for drug trafficking
1878:
1876:
1668:
1662:
1407:
1405:
1403:
1401:
1351:. 4ygeca.com. Retrieved 2 February 2011
1125:Bear devouring a criminal. Roman mosaic
806:who assisted them was thrown to lions.
365:in Ancient Rome include the following:
167:threw prisoners to the beasts, whereas
2716:
2357:
1746:
886:Survived, according to various legends
597:Followers of magic prohibited by law (
2331:
2080:. Taylor & Francis. p. 587.
1971:
1834:
1694:ΠΠΎΠ½Π΅Π½ΠΈΡ Π½Π° Ρ
ΡΠΈΡΡΠΈΠ°Π½ Π² Π ΠΈΠΌΡΠΊΠΎΠΉ ΠΈΠΌΠΏΠ΅ΡΠΈΠΈ
1500:
1309:
1307:
1287:
1229:
1227:
128:with humans, both dead and alive, in
2703:Capital punishment for homosexuality
1873:
1816:Bomgardner, D.L. (10 October 2002).
1687:
1398:
944:, according to the apocryphal story
694:to harm others, during the reign of
349:, who conquered the African city of
76:). Killing by wild animals, such as
2261:Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome
2049:"ΠΡΡΠΎΡΠΈΡ ΠΠΈΠ·Π°Π½ΡΠΈΠΈ. Π’ΠΎΠΌ 2 (Π‘Π±ΠΎΡΠ½ΠΈΠΊ)"
1962:
1818:The Story of the Roman Amphitheatre
343:Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus
13:
2744:Capital punishment in ancient Rome
2252:
1965:"General History of Law and State"
1474:
1304:
1301:. Natural history. VIII, Sec. VII.
1268:ΠΠ°ΡΠΏΠ°ΡΠΎΠ² Π.Π. ΠΠ°Π½ΠΈΠΌΠ°ΡΠ΅Π»ΡΠ½Π°Ρ ΠΡΠ΅ΡΠΈΡ
1224:
1190:
14:
2760:
2626:Most recent executions by country
1575:. Roman history XXXIX in 1938, 2.
1525:Martialis.net, Π. ΠΠ°Π»Π΅ΡΠΈΠΉ ΠΠ°ΡΡΠΈΠ°Π»
1137:Ignatius of Antioch torn by lions
159:. In northern Africa, during the
1800:
1785:
1770:
1755:
1737:
1234:Alison Futrell (November 2000).
1130:
1118:
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1087:
238:Gladiators fighting Barbary Lion
100:Gladiators in the circus arena,
2678:Religion and capital punishment
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2203:
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2153:
2148:ΠΠΠ ΠΠ Π‘ΠΠΠΠ¦Π Π’ΠΎΠΌΠΌΠ°Π·ΠΎ ΠΠ°ΠΌΠΏΠ°Π½Π΅Π»Π»Π°
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2129:
2113:
2101:
2067:
2041:
2013:
1985:
1956:
1944:
1932:
1902:
1890:
1857:
1820:. Routledge. pp. 141β143.
1794:
1779:
1764:
1731:
1714:"Π ΠΏΡΠ΅ΡΠΊΡΠΈΠΏΡΠΈΠΈ ΠΏΡΠΎΡΠΈΠ² Π΅ΡΠ΅ΡΠΈΠΊΠΎΠ²"
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1477:"Geography: Book VI, Chapter 2"
1468:
1459:
1445:
1417:
1384:
928:, according to Christian legend
489:with animals in the background.
108:The exact purpose of the early
2282:. Cambridge University Press.
1673:. Profile Books. p. 103.
1354:
1335:
1316:
1273:
1261:
1057:The Canadian death metal band
969:Description in popular culture
832:(AD 141, Trayanopolis, Thrace)
641:, the women as priestesses of
440:The most popular animals were
229:
171:forced Romans captured in the
1:
2621:Enforcement or use by country
1424:Micke-Broniarek, Ewa (2006).
1184:
1070:The British Black Metal band
981:
818:The Martyrdom of St. Euphemia
2749:Deaths due to animal attacks
1916:(in Russian). Archived from
1616:Cod. Theod. XV; tit. XI. 1β2
1284:. General History of I 82, 2
566:, and participation in such
361:Some documented examples of
222:and then transferred to the
7:
2548:Hanged, drawn and quartered
2278:Katherine E. Welch (2007).
1142:
606:religio nova, peregrina et
10:
2765:
1645:"Secrets of the Colosseum"
1426:Gallery of Polish painting
1095:Martyr in the Circus Arena
91:
2613:
2425:
2365:
704:Poisoners; by the law of
2367:Current judicial methods
2311:10.1177/0142064x06065696
2247:. Central Trust Company.
1412:ΠΠ°ΡΠΈΡ ΠΡΠΈΠΌΠΎΠ²Π½Π° Π‘Π΅ΡΠ³Π΅Π΅Π½ΠΊΠΎ
1051:
1000:as a form of punishment.
771:deprived of civil rights
671:Penalty for other crimes
574:was equated with a riot.
41:Roman capital punishment
2739:Latin words and phrases
2259:Donald G. Kyle (1998).
1803:The Passion of Perpetua
1788:The Passion of Perpetua
1773:The Passion of Perpetua
1758:The Passion of Perpetua
1740:The Passion of Perpetua
1669:Hopkins, Keith (2011).
1634:Tacitus. Annals, XV, 44
1047:(2000) and other films.
1035:
946:Acts of Paul and Thecla
861:, (AD 303, probably at
687:Deserters from the army
468:Execution of Christians
407:On the Nature of things
310:History and description
292:Marcus Fulvius Nobilior
163:, Carthaginian general
1009:Androcles and the Lion
978:
895:
869:Marciana of Mauretania
819:
766:
505:
490:
338:
287:
239:
105:
27:
16:Roman execution method
2238:Scott, S. P. (1932).
2211:"Damnatio ad Bestias"
1481:penelope.uchicago.edu
1169:Execution by elephant
976:
893:
853:Martyrdom of Polycarp
842:Perpetua and Felicity
817:
764:
755:Constantine the Great
496:
475:
403:Titus Lucretius Carus
317:
237:
147:. A Macedonian named
99:
80:, formed part of the
22:
2021:Digests of Justinian
1993:Digests of Justinian
1920:on 27 September 2008
907:(c. 2nd century BC).
851:, (mentioned in the
611:), according to the
586:Dissenters from the
478:The Victory of Faith
2729:Gladiatorial combat
2511:Republican marriage
2440:Damnatio ad bestias
1504:Liber spectaculorum
1201:(Linnaeus, 1758)".
1079:Damnatio ad bestias
1004:George Bernard Shaw
998:damnatio ad bestias
993:The City of the Sun
824:Ignatius of Antioch
792:damnatio ad bestias
775:damnatio ad bestias
690:Those who employed
635:damnatio ad bestias
568:collegium illicitum
549:, Christians were:
532:damnatio ad bestias
510:damnatio ad bestias
498:Faithful Unto Death
487:damnatio ad bestias
446:damnatio ad bestias
435:damnatio ad bestias
363:damnatio ad bestias
252:damnatio ad bestias
244:damnatio ad bestias
188:Damnatio ad bestias
141:Alexander the Great
110:damnatio ad bestias
70:damnatio ad bestias
32:Damnatio ad bestias
2683:Wrongful execution
2595:Suffocation in ash
2451:Blowing from a gun
2359:Capital punishment
2190:metal-archives.com
2165:metal-archives.com
1699:2008-09-28 at the
1649:smithsonianmag.com
1530:2011-07-23 at the
1347:2008-09-16 at the
1328:2004-09-02 at the
1015:Henryk Sienkiewicz
988:Tommaso Campanella
979:
926:Mammes of Caesarea
896:
820:
769:The sentenced was
767:
677:Code of Theodosius
506:
491:
387:Seneca the Younger
383:Book of Spectacles
339:
323:Henryk Siemiradzki
240:
106:
28:
2734:Execution methods
2711:
2710:
2688:Botched execution
2244:
1465:Strabo, VI, II, 6
1247:978-0-292-72523-2
1164:Damnatio memoriae
1030:Two for the Lions
910:The Greek writer
681:Code of Justinian
564:unlawful assembly
483:Saint George Hare
411:Petronius Arbiter
347:Scipio Aemilianus
294:in 186 BC at the
242:Whereas the term
2756:
2397:Nitrogen hypoxia
2392:Lethal injection
2352:
2345:
2338:
2329:
2328:
2322:
2293:
2274:
2248:
2242:
2226:
2225:
2223:
2221:
2207:
2201:
2200:
2198:
2196:
2182:
2176:
2175:
2173:
2171:
2157:
2151:
2145:
2139:
2133:
2127:
2117:
2111:
2105:
2099:
2098:
2096:
2094:
2071:
2065:
2064:
2062:
2060:
2045:
2039:
2038:
2032:
2024:
2017:
2011:
2010:
2004:
1996:
1989:
1983:
1982:
1975:
1969:
1968:
1960:
1954:
1948:
1942:
1936:
1930:
1929:
1927:
1925:
1906:
1900:
1894:
1888:
1887:
1880:
1871:
1861:
1855:
1854:
1847:
1832:
1831:
1813:
1807:
1806:
1798:
1792:
1791:
1783:
1777:
1776:
1768:
1762:
1761:
1753:
1744:
1743:
1735:
1729:
1728:
1726:
1725:
1716:. Archived from
1710:
1704:
1691:
1685:
1684:
1666:
1660:
1659:
1657:
1655:
1641:
1635:
1632:
1626:
1623:
1617:
1614:
1608:
1605:
1599:
1596:
1590:
1582:
1576:
1568:
1562:
1559:
1553:
1550:
1544:
1541:
1535:
1522:
1516:
1515:
1513:
1511:
1498:
1492:
1491:
1489:
1487:
1472:
1466:
1463:
1457:
1449:
1443:
1442:
1421:
1415:
1409:
1396:
1388:
1382:
1381:
1379:
1377:
1368:. Archived from
1358:
1352:
1339:
1333:
1320:
1314:
1311:
1302:
1294:
1285:
1277:
1271:
1265:
1259:
1258:
1256:
1254:
1231:
1222:
1221:
1209:
1194:
1179:Public execution
1134:
1122:
1110:
1099:Fyodor Bronnikov
1091:
957:Augustan History
796:Byzantine Empire
790:The practice of
558:(majestatis rei)
143:'s campaigns in
104:, 1st century AD
2764:
2763:
2759:
2758:
2757:
2755:
2754:
2753:
2714:
2713:
2712:
2707:
2673:List of methods
2658:Final statement
2609:
2430:
2428:
2421:
2361:
2356:
2290:
2271:
2255:
2253:Further reading
2241:The Civil Law,
2234:
2229:
2219:
2217:
2209:
2208:
2204:
2194:
2192:
2184:
2183:
2179:
2169:
2167:
2159:
2158:
2154:
2146:
2142:
2136:ΠΠ»Π°ΡΡΠ΅Π»ΠΈΠ½Ρ Π ΠΈΠΌΠ°
2134:
2130:
2122:(2nd century),
2118:
2114:
2106:
2102:
2092:
2090:
2088:
2072:
2068:
2058:
2056:
2047:
2046:
2042:
2026:
2025:
2019:
2018:
2014:
1998:
1997:
1991:
1990:
1986:
1979:"The Civil Law"
1977:
1976:
1972:
1963:Grafsky, V. G.
1961:
1957:
1949:
1945:
1937:
1933:
1923:
1921:
1908:
1907:
1903:
1895:
1891:
1884:"The Civil Law"
1882:
1881:
1874:
1862:
1858:
1851:"The Civil Law"
1849:
1848:
1835:
1828:
1814:
1810:
1801:Shaw, Brent D.
1799:
1795:
1786:Shaw, Brent D.
1784:
1780:
1771:Shaw, Brent D.
1769:
1765:
1756:Shaw, Brent D.
1754:
1747:
1738:Shaw, Brent D.
1736:
1732:
1723:
1721:
1712:
1711:
1707:
1701:Wayback Machine
1692:
1688:
1681:
1667:
1663:
1653:
1651:
1643:
1642:
1638:
1633:
1629:
1624:
1620:
1615:
1611:
1606:
1602:
1597:
1593:
1583:
1579:
1569:
1565:
1560:
1556:
1551:
1547:
1542:
1538:
1532:Wayback Machine
1523:
1519:
1509:
1507:
1499:
1495:
1485:
1483:
1473:
1469:
1464:
1460:
1450:
1446:
1436:
1422:
1418:
1410:
1399:
1389:
1385:
1375:
1373:
1372:on 5 March 2011
1360:
1359:
1355:
1349:Wayback Machine
1340:
1336:
1330:Wayback Machine
1321:
1317:
1312:
1305:
1298:Pliny the Elder
1295:
1288:
1278:
1274:
1266:
1262:
1252:
1250:
1248:
1232:
1225:
1218:
1207:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1145:
1138:
1135:
1126:
1123:
1114:
1111:
1102:
1092:
1072:Cradle of Filth
1054:
1038:
996:suggests using
984:
971:
888:
812:
712:were beheaded,
673:
572:coetus nocturni
502:Herbert Schmalz
470:
452:, brought from
399:The Golden Ass,
356:obicΔre bestiis
327:National Museum
319:Christian Dirce
312:
248:obicΔre bestiis
232:
94:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2762:
2752:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2709:
2708:
2706:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2654:
2653:
2648:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2617:
2615:
2614:Related topics
2611:
2610:
2608:
2607:
2602:
2600:Upright jerker
2597:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2514:
2513:
2503:
2498:
2496:Disembowelment
2493:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2466:Breaking wheel
2463:
2458:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2435:
2433:
2429:post-classical
2423:
2422:
2420:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2388:
2387:
2377:
2371:
2369:
2363:
2362:
2355:
2354:
2347:
2340:
2332:
2324:
2323:
2305:(4): 489β500.
2294:
2289:978-0521809443
2288:
2275:
2269:
2254:
2251:
2250:
2249:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2227:
2202:
2177:
2152:
2140:
2128:
2112:
2100:
2087:978-0893563134
2086:
2066:
2040:
2012:
1984:
1970:
1955:
1943:
1931:
1901:
1889:
1872:
1870:) (in Russian)
1856:
1833:
1827:978-0415301855
1826:
1808:
1793:
1778:
1763:
1745:
1730:
1705:
1686:
1680:978-1846684708
1679:
1661:
1636:
1627:
1618:
1609:
1600:
1591:
1577:
1563:
1554:
1545:
1536:
1517:
1493:
1467:
1458:
1444:
1434:
1416:
1397:
1383:
1353:
1334:
1315:
1303:
1286:
1272:
1260:
1246:
1223:
1217:978-2831700458
1216:
1188:
1186:
1183:
1182:
1181:
1176:
1171:
1166:
1161:
1156:
1151:
1144:
1141:
1140:
1139:
1136:
1129:
1127:
1124:
1117:
1115:
1112:
1105:
1103:
1093:
1086:
1083:
1082:
1075:
1068:
1053:
1050:
1049:
1048:
1037:
1034:
1033:
1032:
1023:
1012:
1001:
990:in his utopia
983:
980:
970:
967:
966:
965:
948:
939:
934:(according to
929:
923:
908:
905:Book of Daniel
887:
884:
883:
882:
872:
866:
856:
845:
839:
838:(AD 177, Lyon)
833:
827:
826:(AD 107, Rome)
811:
808:
759:
758:
751:
748:
736:
720:
717:
702:
700:Constantius II
688:
672:
669:
665:Edict of Milan
617:
616:
602:
599:magi, malefici
595:
584:
583:
582:
575:
527:tunica molesta
469:
466:
311:
308:
296:Circus Maximus
276:hippopotamuses
231:
228:
184:Numa Pompilius
165:Hamilcar Barca
93:
90:
53:Roman Republic
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2761:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2721:
2719:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2652:
2651:Scharfrichter
2649:
2647:
2644:
2643:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2618:
2616:
2612:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2570:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2512:
2509:
2508:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2501:Dismemberment
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2469:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2441:
2437:
2436:
2434:
2432:
2424:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2402:Electrocution
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2386:
2383:
2382:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2372:
2370:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2353:
2348:
2346:
2341:
2339:
2334:
2333:
2330:
2326:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2295:
2291:
2285:
2281:
2276:
2272:
2266:
2263:. Routledge.
2262:
2257:
2256:
2246:
2245:
2236:
2235:
2216:
2212:
2206:
2191:
2187:
2181:
2166:
2162:
2156:
2149:
2144:
2137:
2132:
2125:
2121:
2120:Aulus Gellius
2116:
2109:
2104:
2089:
2083:
2079:
2078:
2070:
2055:. 2 June 2005
2054:
2050:
2044:
2036:
2030:
2022:
2016:
2008:
2002:
1994:
1988:
1980:
1974:
1967:(in Russian).
1966:
1959:
1952:
1947:
1940:
1935:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1905:
1898:
1893:
1885:
1879:
1877:
1869:
1865:
1860:
1852:
1846:
1844:
1842:
1840:
1838:
1829:
1823:
1819:
1812:
1804:
1797:
1790:. p. 18.
1789:
1782:
1774:
1767:
1759:
1752:
1750:
1741:
1734:
1720:on 2016-03-04
1719:
1715:
1709:
1702:
1698:
1695:
1690:
1682:
1676:
1672:
1671:The Colosseum
1665:
1650:
1646:
1640:
1631:
1622:
1613:
1604:
1595:
1588:
1587:
1581:
1574:
1573:
1567:
1558:
1549:
1540:
1533:
1529:
1526:
1521:
1506:
1505:
1497:
1482:
1478:
1471:
1462:
1455:
1454:
1448:
1441:
1437:
1431:
1427:
1420:
1413:
1408:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1394:
1393:
1387:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1357:
1350:
1346:
1343:
1338:
1331:
1327:
1324:
1319:
1310:
1308:
1300:
1299:
1293:
1291:
1283:
1282:
1276:
1269:
1264:
1249:
1243:
1239:
1238:
1230:
1228:
1219:
1213:
1206:
1205:
1200:
1193:
1189:
1180:
1177:
1175:
1172:
1170:
1167:
1165:
1162:
1160:
1157:
1155:
1152:
1150:
1147:
1146:
1133:
1128:
1121:
1116:
1109:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1090:
1085:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1073:
1069:
1066:
1065:
1060:
1056:
1055:
1046:
1045:
1040:
1039:
1031:
1027:
1026:Lindsey Davis
1024:
1022:
1021:
1016:
1013:
1011:
1010:
1005:
1002:
999:
995:
994:
989:
986:
985:
975:
963:
959:
958:
953:
949:
947:
943:
940:
937:
933:
930:
927:
924:
921:
917:
913:
909:
906:
902:
898:
897:
892:
880:
876:
873:
870:
867:
864:
860:
857:
854:
850:
846:
843:
840:
837:
834:
831:
828:
825:
822:
821:
816:
807:
805:
801:
797:
793:
788:
786:
785:
780:
776:
772:
763:
756:
752:
749:
746:
745:
740:
737:
734:
729:
725:
721:
718:
715:
711:
707:
703:
701:
697:
693:
689:
686:
685:
684:
682:
678:
668:
666:
661:
659:
654:
650:
646:
644:
640:
636:
632:
630:
624:
622:
614:
613:Twelve Tables
610:
609:
603:
600:
596:
593:
589:
585:
580:
576:
573:
569:
565:
561:
560:
559:
556:
552:
551:
550:
548:
545:According to
543:
541:
535:
533:
529:
528:
523:
519:
515:
511:
503:
499:
495:
488:
484:
480:
479:
474:
465:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
438:
436:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
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2232:Bibliography
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1199:Panthera leo
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2641:Executioner
2481:Crucifixion
2456:Brazen bull
2446:Blood eagle
2427:Ancient and
2407:Gas chamber
2053:Historic.ru
1914:Allpravo.ru
1572:Dio Cassius
1501:Martialis.
1362:"Venatio I"
1159:Blood sport
581:and incense
520:(after the
508:The use of
450:Brown bears
230:Terminology
220:Roman Forum
68:The act of
2718:Categories
2605:Waist chop
2569:Mazzatello
2563:Ishikozume
2558:Impalement
2553:Immurement
2543:Guillotine
2491:Decimation
2270:0415096782
2215:harloch.hu
2093:2 February
2059:2 February
1924:2 February
1724:2011-02-02
1435:8371003277
1342:ΠΠ»Π°Π΄ΠΈΠ°ΡΠΎΡΡ
1323:ΠΠΈΠ±Π»ΠΈΠΎΡΠ΅ΠΊΠ°
1253:29 January
1185:References
1154:Atlas bear
982:Literature
855:of Smyrna)
739:Patricides
710:patricians
621:Tertullian
588:state gods
553:Guilty of
547:Roman laws
268:wild boars
216:crocodiles
173:Punic Wars
149:Lysimachus
126:crocodiles
86:Christians
2663:Last meal
2636:Death row
2538:Gibbeting
2412:Beheading
2319:170597982
2220:25 August
2195:25 August
2170:25 August
2126:, Vol. 14
2029:cite book
2001:cite book
1897:(ΠΈΡΡΠΎΡΠΈΠΈ)
1044:Gladiator
1020:Quo Vadis
952:Gallienus
936:apocrypha
916:Androcles
877:(AD 306,
863:Chalcedon
779:Petronius
728:Narcissus
714:plebeians
706:Cornelius
696:Caracalla
692:sorcerers
658:gladiator
592:sacrilegi
579:libations
542:in Rome.
540:Colosseum
460:and even
423:Suetonius
415:Satyricon
401:IV, 13),
391:On anger,
375:Laureolus
304:Colosseum
272:buffaloes
260:elephants
177:elephants
74:plebeians
62:Bestiarii
47:or other
2668:Penology
2580:Scaphism
2518:Elephant
2506:Drowning
2486:Crushing
2380:Shooting
1886:. sps15.
1853:. sps11.
1697:Archived
1654:17 April
1586:Plutarch
1528:Archived
1510:7 August
1486:10 April
1475:Strabo.
1376:17 April
1366:cuny.edu
1345:Archived
1326:Archived
1281:Polybius
1143:See also
1064:Caligvla
954:(in the
920:Caligula
918:(during
879:Caesarea
859:Euphemia
836:Blandina
830:Glyceria
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733:Aurelian
724:Commodus
608:illicita
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395:Apuleius
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351:Carthage
256:venators
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169:Hannibal
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2523:Falling
2476:Burning
2461:Boiling
2431:methods
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903:in the
875:Agapius
514:Tacitus
458:Germany
381:in his
379:Martial
371:Selurus
300:Aetolia
288:venatio
280:aurochs
122:Sekhmet
92:History
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431:Pompey
419:Cicero
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367:Strabo
331:Warsaw
302:. The
214:, and
212:hyenas
208:tigers
196:wolves
2631:Crime
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1208:(PDF)
1052:Music
962:capon
912:Apion
643:Ceres
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433:used
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284:Latin
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2646:list
2284:ISBN
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