Development economics

1727:: that linguistic unity may allow for higher levels of development. While pointing out obvious oversimplifications and the subjectivity of definitions and data collection, Pool suggested that we had yet to see a robust economy emerge from a nation with a high degree of linguistic diversity. In his research Pool used the "size of the largest native-language community as a percentage of the population" as his measure of linguistic diversity. Not much later, however, Horowitz pointed out that both highly diverse and highly homogeneous societies exhibit less conflict than those in between. Similarly, Collier and Hoeffler provided evidence that both highly homogenous and highly heterogeneous societies exhibit lower risk of civil war, while societies that are more polarized are at greater risk. As a matter of fact, their research suggests that a society with only two ethnic groups is about 50% more likely to experience civil war than either of the two extremes. Nonetheless, Mauro points out that ethno-linguistic fractionalization is positively correlated with corruption, which in turn is negatively correlated with economic growth. Moreover, in a study on economic growth in African countries, Easterly and Levine find that linguistic fractionalization plays a significant role in reducing national income growth and in explaining poor policies. In addition, 970: 47: 1051: 1901:. Despite research showing almost no relation between growth and the achievement of the goals 2 to 7 and statistics showing that during periods of growth poverty levels in some cases have actually risen (e.g. Uganda grew by 2.5% annually between 2000 and 2003, yet poverty levels rose by 3.8%), researchers at the ODI suggest growth is necessary, but that it must be equitable. This concept of inclusive growth is shared even by key world leaders such as former Secretary General 1285:. Unlike earlier theories, international dependence theories have their origins in developing countries and view obstacles to development as being primarily external in nature, rather than internal. These theories view developing countries as being economically and politically dependent on more powerful, developed countries that have an interest in maintaining their dominant position. There are three different, major formulations of international dependence theory: 6299: 5115: 1398:, Andrew Mellinger, and John Gallup argue that a nation's geographical location and topography are key determinants and predictors of its economic prosperity. Areas developed along the coast and near "navigable waterways" are far wealthier and more densely populated than those further inland. Furthermore, countries outside the tropic zones, which have more temperate climates, have also developed considerably more than those located within the 2754: 2744: 2734: 874: 4094: 1774:, appears to be leading to the extinction and homogenization of languages. Manuel Castells asserts that the "widespread destructuring of organizations, delegitimation of institutions, fading away of major social movements, and ephemeral cultural expressions" which characterize globalization lead to a renewed search for meaning; one that is based on identity rather than on practices. Barber and Lewis argue that culturally-based 5104: 862: 1406:. These climates outside the tropic zones, described as "temperate-near," hold roughly a quarter of the world's population and produce more than half of the world's GNP, yet account for only 8.4% of the world's inhabited area. Understanding of these different geographies and climates is imperative, they argue, because future aid programs and policies to facilitate economic development must account for these differences. 6287: 6321: 1269:

1950s, has been further criticized for its underlying assumption that predominantly agrarian societies suffer from a surplus of labor. Actual empirical studies have shown that such labor surpluses are only seasonal and drawing such labor to urban areas can result in a collapse of the agricultural sector. The patterns of development approach has been criticized for lacking a theoretical framework.

1422:. While most research looks at empirical economics at both the macro and the micro level, this field of study has a particularly heavy sociological approach. The more conservative branch of research focuses on tests for causality in the relationship between different levels of ethnic diversity and economic performance, while a smaller and more radical branch argues for the role of 1223:

and, thus, development. The linear-stages-of-growth model posits that there are a series of five consecutive stages of development that all countries must go through during the process of development. These stages are "the traditional society, the pre-conditions for take-off, the take-off, the drive to maturity, and the age of high mass-consumption" Simple versions of the

1909:"Sustained and equitable growth based on dynamic structural economic change is necessary for making substantial progress in reducing poverty. It also enables faster progress towards the other Millennium Development Goals. While economic growth is necessary, it is not sufficient for progress on reducing poverty." 1842:

are used by many developmental economists as an approximation of general national well-being. However, these measures are criticized as not measuring economic growth well enough, especially in countries where there is much economic activity that is not part of measured financial transactions (such as

1251:

Structural-change theory deals with policies focused on changing the economic structures of developing countries from being composed primarily of subsistence agricultural practices to being a "more modern, more urbanized, and more industrially diverse manufacturing and service economy." There are two

1846:

Even though per-capita GDP as measured can make economic well-being appear smaller than it really is in some developing countries, the discrepancy could be still bigger in a developed country where people may perform outside of financial transactions an even higher-value service than housekeeping or

1818:

Recovery from civil conflict is very uncertain. Countries that maintain stability can experience a "peace dividend," through the rapid re-accumulation of physical capital (investment flows back to the recovering country because of the high return). However, successful recovery depends on the quality

1789:

On a different note, Chua suggests that ethnic conflict often results from the envy of the majority toward a wealthy minority which has benefited from trade in a neoliberal world. She argues that conflict is likely to erupt through political manipulation and the vilification of the minority. Prasch

1301:

First gaining prominence with the rise of several conservative governments in the developed world during the 1980s, neoclassical theories represent a radical shift away from International Dependence Theories. Neoclassical theories argue that governments should not intervene in the economy; in other

1010:

in Britain. Mercantilism held that a nation's prosperity depended on its supply of capital, represented by bullion (gold, silver, and trade value) held by the state. It emphasised the maintenance of a high positive trade balance (maximising exports and minimising imports) as a means of accumulating

1881:

Recent theories revolve around questions about what variables or inputs correlate or affect economic growth the most: elementary, secondary, or higher education, government policy stability, tariffs and subsidies, fair court systems, available infrastructure, availability of medical care, prenatal

1569:

as a percentage of total population. The ELF index is a measure of the probability that two randomly chosen individuals belong to different ethno-linguistic groups. Other researchers have also applied this index to religious rather than ethno-linguistic groups. Though commonly used, Alesina and La

1264:

that a particular country will follow, in this framework, depends on its size and resources, and potentially other factors including its current income level and comparative advantages relative to other nations. Empirical analysis in this framework studies the "sequential process through which the

1268:

Structural-change approaches to development economics have faced criticism for their emphasis on urban development at the expense of rural development which can lead to a substantial rise in inequality between internal regions of a country. The two-sector surplus model, which was developed in the

1222:

following work of Marx and List. This theory modifies Marx's stages theory of development and focuses on the accelerated accumulation of capital, through the utilization of both domestic and international savings as a means of spurring investment, as the primary means of promoting economic growth

951:

Unlike in many other fields of economics, approaches in development economics may incorporate social and political factors to devise particular plans. Also unlike many other fields of economics, there is no consensus on what students should know. Different approaches may consider the factors that

1128:. Such theories proved influential in the United States, with much higher American average tariff rates on manufactured products between 1824 and the WWII period than most other countries, Nationalist policies, including protectionism, were pursued by American politician Henry Clay, and later by 1889:

The cause of limited growth and divergence in economic growth lies in the high rate of acceleration of technological change by a small number of developed countries. These countries' acceleration of technology was due to increased incentive structures for mass education which in turn created a

939:

Development economics involves the creation of theories and methods that aid in the determination of policies and practices and can be implemented at either the domestic or international level. This may involve restructuring market incentives or using mathematical methods such as intertemporal

1814:

Violent conflict and economic development are deeply intertwined. Paul Collier describes how poor countries are more prone to civil conflict. The conflict lowers incomes catching countries in a "conflict trap." Violent conflict destroys physical capital (equipment and infrastructure), diverts

1323:. Of the three, both the free-market approach and public-choice theory contend that the market should be totally free, meaning that any intervention by the government is necessarily bad. Public-choice theory is arguably the more radical of the two with its view, closely associated with 1819:

of legal system and the protection of private property. Investment is more productive in countries with higher quality institutions. Firms that experienced a civil war were more sensitive to the quality of the legal system than similar firms that had never been exposed to conflict.

1766:. Critics of earlier development theories, mentioned above, point out that "ethnicity" and ethnic conflict cannot be treated as exogenous variables. There is a body of literature that discusses how economic growth and development, particularly in the context of a 1570:

Ferrara point out that the ELF index fails to account for the possibility that fewer large ethnic groups may result in greater inter-ethnic conflict than many small ethnic groups. More recently, researchers such as Montalvo and Reynal-Querol, have put forward the

1747:. Finally, more recent research would propose that ethno-linguistic fractionalization is indeed negatively correlated with economic growth while more polarized societies exhibit greater public consumption, lower levels of investment and more frequent civil wars. 1310:

There are several different approaches within the realm of neoclassical theory, each with subtle, but important, differences in their views regarding the extent to which the market should be left unregulated. These different takes on neoclassical theory are the

1704: 1234:

is not a sufficient condition for development. That is to say that this early and simplistic theory failed to account for political, social, and institutional obstacles to development. Furthermore, this theory was developed in the early years of the

1489:

for "ethnic heterogeneity". Several indices have been proposed in order to model ethnic diversity (with regards to conflict). Easterly and Levine have proposed an ethno-linguistic fractionalization index defined as FRAC or ELF defined by:

1357:. This approach still advocates free markets but recognizes that there are many imperfections in the markets of many developing nations and thus argues that some government intervention is an effective means of fixing such imperfections. 1843:

housekeeping and self-homebuilding), or where funding is not available for accurate measurements to be made publicly available for other economists to use in their studies (including private and institutional fraud, in some countries).

1854:

More recent theories of Human Development have begun to see beyond purely financial measures of development, for example with measures such as medical care available, education, equality, and political freedom. One measure used is the

1890:

framework for the population to create and adapt new innovations and methods. Furthermore, the content of their education was composed of secular schooling that resulted in higher productivity levels and modern economic growth.

1377:. In fact, the majority of development economists are employed by, do consulting with, or receive funding from institutions like the IMF and the World Bank. Many such economists are interested in ways of promoting stable and 1886:), and how to advise governments about macroeconomic policies, which include all policies that affect the economy. Education enables countries to adapt the latest technology and creates an environment for new innovations. 1306:

unrestrained by excessive government regulation are seen as being able to naturally ensure that the allocation of resources occurs with the greatest efficiency possible and that economic growth is raised and stabilized.

3170: 1381:

in poor countries and areas, by promoting domestic self-reliance and education in some of the lowest income countries in the world. Where economic issues merge with social and political ones, it is referred to as

1794:, ethnic or religious organizations may be seen as both assistance and an outlet for the disadvantaged. However, empirical research by Piazza argues that economics and unequal development have little to do with 1026:

of 1684 gave the only comprehensive statement of mercantilist theory, emphasizing production and an export-led economy. In France, mercantilist policy is most associated with 17th-century finance minister

1265:

economic, industrial, and institutional structure of an underdeveloped economy is transformed over time to permit new industries to replace traditional agriculture as the engine of economic growth."

3945: 1176:

The origins of modern development economics are often traced to the need for, and likely problems with the industrialization of eastern Europe in the aftermath of World War II. The key authors are

4395: 1867:

and more accurate measurements in many countries are creating new knowledge by compensating for the effects of variables to determine probable causes out of merely correlational statistics.

2503: 1851:, a more valuable home décor service, and time management. Even free choice can be considered to add value to lifestyles without necessarily increasing the financial transaction amounts. 1806:, and political systems with large, complex, multiparty systems were more likely to experience terrorism than were more homogeneous states with few or no parties at the national level". 1553: 1011:

this bullion. To achieve a positive trade balance, protectionist measures such as tariffs and subsidies to home industries were advocated. Mercantilist development theory also advocated

3098: 1256:, which views agrarian societies as consisting of large amounts of surplus labor which can be utilized to spur the development of an urbanized industrial sector, and Hollis Chenery's 4089: 1587: 4426: 1434:(endogenicity) into questions. This remains a highly contested and uncertain field of research, as well as politically sensitive, largely due to its possible policy implications. 1289:

theory, the false-paradigm model, and the dualistic-dependence model. The first formulation of international dependence theory, neocolonial dependence theory, has its origins in

936:

but also on improving the potential for the mass of the population, for example, through health, education and workplace conditions, whether through public or private channels.

1350:

noted in 1996 that success and failure of policy recommendations worldwide had not consistently been incorporated into prevailing academic writings on trade and development.

995:, the dominant school of thought during medieval feudalism, emphasized reconciliation with Christian theology and ethics, rather than development. The 16th- and 17th-century 1293:

and views the failure of many developing nations to undergo successful development as being the result of the historical development of the international capitalist system.

1917:

is extended to allow universal access and that active policy measures are introduced to encourage the private sector to create new jobs as the economy grows (as opposed to

1002:

Major European nations in the 17th and 18th centuries all adopted mercantilist ideals to varying degrees, the influence only ebbing with the 18th-century development of

4388: 4337: 4331: 4325: 4321: 4315: 4311: 4295: 4031: 4072: 1139:

Forms of economic nationalism and neomercantilism have also been key in Japan's development in the 19th and 20th centuries, and the more recent development of the

4446: 1243:. This has led to the major criticism that the theory assumes that the conditions found in developing countries are the same as those found in post-WWII Europe. 4381: 4246:, Princeton University Press, . Other editions: Spanish, Antoni Bosch. 2002 Chinese edition, Beijing University Press. 2002, Indian edition, Oxford, 1998. 3942: 1108:, is the founding text of the American System, and drew from the mercantilist economies of Britain under Elizabeth I and France under Colbert. List's 1841 3258: 944:

for project analysis, or it may involve a mixture of quantitative and qualitative methods. Common topics include growth theory, poverty and inequality,

3030: 3004: 1079:(customs union) in Germany. A significant difference from mercantilism was the de-emphasis on colonies, in favor of a focus on domestic production. 1071:, promulgated in the 19th century related to the development and industrialization of the United States and Germany, notably in the policies of the 4441: 4057: 3990: 2779: 1577:

index as a more appropriate measure of ethnic division. Based on a simplified adaptation of a polarization index developed by Esteban and Ray, the

1192:. Only after the war did economists turn their concerns towards Asia, Africa, and Latin America. At the heart of these studies, by authors such as 4218: 2749: 6131: 1302:

words, these theories are claiming that an unobstructed free market is the best means of inducing rapid and successful development. Competitive

1112:(translated into English as The National System of Political Economy), which emphasized stages of growth. Hamilton professed that developing an 924:

that deals with economic aspects of the development process in low- and middle- income countries. Its focus is not only on methods of promoting

2434: 1466:

of these different ethnic variables tends to vary over time and across geography, research methodologies should vary according to the context.

3278:

Sachs, Jeffrey D.; Mellinger, Andrew; Gallup, John L. (2008). Chari, Sharad; Corbridge, Stuart (eds.). "The Geography of Poverty and Wealth".

5787: 2844: 1827: 2175:

which attempts to tie together a series of traps to explain the self-fulfilling nature of poverty at the lower end of the development scale.

1414:

A growing body of research has been emerging among development economists since the very late 20th century focusing on interactions between

2794: 2774: 4102: 2909: 2879: 904: 836: 2739: 1897:

also highlight the importance of using economic growth to improve the human condition, raising people out of poverty and achieving the

1839: 3884: 2729: 6078: 4985: 4431: 4014: 2386: 2270: 2034: 1171: 5359: 5151: 4484: 3025: 2591: 1720:

as a percentage of total population, and is intended to capture the social distance between existing ethnic groups within an area.

1151: 3085: 1083: 4451: 2526: 1882:

care and clean water, ease of entry and exit into trade, and equality of income distribution (for example, as indicated by the

6178: 4278: 4200: 4082: 4067: 3051: 2661: 2454: 2254: 2250: 2198: 2030: 2026: 1962: 4255: 6111: 2924:"What Is Considered Development Economics? Commonalities and Differences in University Courses around the Developing World" 2859: 2540: 2508: 2478: 2400: 5430: 4180:, Zed Books – the contributions of economists such as Marshall and Keynes, not normally considered development economists 4351: 4251: 3765: 5575: 3735: 2091: 2044: 1227:

provide a mathematical illustration of the argument that improved capital investment leads to greater economic growth.

4128: 3483: 3295: 3075:

Paul Bairoch, "Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes," (1995: University of Chicago Press, Chicago) p. 40.

3066:

Paul Bairoch, "Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes," (1995: University of Chicago Press, Chicago) p. 33.

3965: 2371:(IPA), a New Haven, Connecticut, based research outfit dedicated to creating and evaluating solutions to social and 5181: 4133: 2049: 1281:

gained prominence in the 1970s as a reaction to the failure of earlier theories to lead to widespread successes in

3099:'The End of Globalization? Economic Policy in the Post-Neocon Age', Revue Analyse Financière, Q3 2016 – Issue N°60 1353:

The market-friendly approach, unlike the other two, is a more recent development and is often associated with the

6357: 6324: 6188: 5956: 5827: 5382: 3524: 2128: 2114: 1496: 1214:

An early theory of development economics, the linear-stages-of-growth model was first formulated in the 1950s by

897: 3782: 6347: 6183: 6071: 5453: 5232: 3952: 2637: 2498: 2368: 2332: 1894: 1699:{\displaystyle Q=1-\sum _{i=1}^{N}\left({\frac {{\tfrac {1}{2}}-s_{i}}{\tfrac {1}{2}}}\right)^{2}\times s_{i},} 3251: 5916: 4436: 2714: 2522: 2110: 1330:

Academic economists have given varied policy advice to governments of developing countries. See for example,

235: 497: 6352: 6066: 5532: 5425: 5387: 5144: 4676: 4477: 4291: 3901: 2681: 1934: 1898: 1366: 1209: 4373: 3802:

Piazza, James A (2006). "Rooted in Poverty?: Terrorism, Poor Economic Development, and Social Cleavages".

999:, credited as the earliest modern school of economics, likewise did not address development specifically. 6147: 6126: 6101: 4970: 4922: 4610: 4119: 2784: 2546: 2152: 2016: 1370: 1072: 846: 66: 56: 3994: 1470:

provides an interesting example. Due to the fact that about 85% of its population defined themselves as

6152: 6121: 5552: 5435: 5410: 5176: 4632: 4620: 4615: 4605: 4192: 2809: 2627: 2603: 2595: 2318: 2299: 2240: 2194: 2162: 2148: 2087: 2073: 2012: 2002: 1976: 1856: 1442:

Much discussion among researchers centers around defining and measuring two key but related variables:

1339: 941: 890: 840: 370: 360: 4357: 4059:

Development Economics through the Decades: A Critical Look at 30 Years of the World Development Report

2367:; co-director of the Global Poverty Research Lab at the Buffett Institute for Global Studies; founded 6314: 5283: 5186: 5171: 5050: 4575: 4526: 2849: 2804: 2789: 2769: 2372: 2258: 2138: 1952: 1282: 250: 6173: 6157: 6116: 6061: 5991: 5936: 5762: 5340: 5330: 5325: 4716: 4585: 3206: 2641: 2512: 2406: 2324: 2285:

White Man's Burden: How the West's Efforts to Aid the Rest Have Done So Much Ill and So Little Good

1992: 1431: 1197: 1158:

could have a considerable impact on cross-border investment flows and long-term capital allocation

1121: 819: 557: 512: 365: 134: 78: 4225:

Dwight H. Perkins, Steven Radelet, Donald R. Snodgrass, Malcolm Gillis and Michael Roemer (2001).

3321:"Ethno-Religious Conflicts in Nigeria: Casual Analysis and Proposal for New Management Strategies" 572: 6303: 6265: 6250: 6106: 5996: 5605: 5492: 5420: 5402: 5392: 5137: 5118: 5015: 5010: 4960: 4833: 4711: 4470: 2854: 2839: 2709: 2651: 2623: 2488: 2364: 2354: 2188: 1744: 1723:

Early researchers, such as Jonathan Pool, considered a concept dating back to the account of the

1574: 953: 522: 330: 320: 280: 270: 177: 100: 2134: 1462:

is thought to be – at least to some degree – religiously based. Some have proposed that, as the

6309: 6245: 6001: 5723: 5560: 5369: 5277: 5035: 4995: 4990: 4772: 4743: 4600: 4522: 4239: 3462:

Pool, Jonathan (1972). Fishman, Joshua A (ed.). "National Development and Language Diversity".

3020: 2824: 2262: 2230: 2202: 1966: 1286: 1224: 1167: 1099: 692: 537: 275: 215: 172: 119: 1739:

level, has revealed that ethnic fractionalization (based on race) may be correlated with poor

1327:, that governments themselves are rarely good and therefore should be as minimal as possible. 1260:

approach, which holds that different countries become wealthy via different trajectories. The

1019: 6031: 5837: 5777: 5672: 4980: 4681: 2923: 2719: 2695: 2382: 2304: 1863:. Actual knowledge about what creates growth is largely unproven; however recent advances in 1177: 1028: 826: 507: 482: 467: 325: 265: 240: 4074:

The Complete World Development Report, 1978–2009 (Single User DVD): 30th Anniversary Edition

3234:

Chenery, H.B. and Taylor, L. (1968). "Development Patterns: Among Countries and Over Time,"

2640:

poverty measure who also played a significant role in the development and popularization of

5782: 5772: 5718: 5502: 5445: 5377: 5030: 4950: 4882: 4797: 4691: 4627: 3881: 2799: 2675: 2430: 2340: 2336: 2212: 1988: 1984: 1860: 1231: 1068: 1062: 1035: 925: 577: 399: 350: 315: 255: 220: 124: 114: 61: 20: 3602: 3440: 3126:

Rosenstein-Rodan, P. "Problems of Industrialization in Eastern and South Eastern Europe."

2688:

and The Mystery of Capital: Why Capitalism Triumphs in the West and Fails Everywhere Else.

1980: 8: 5802: 5739: 5713: 5522: 5507: 5045: 4872: 4721: 4664: 4507: 4266: 2759: 2613: 2556: 2178: 2101: 1876: 1791: 1775: 1463: 1403: 1383: 1215: 1133: 1007: 996: 803: 612: 434: 375: 300: 290: 260: 187: 95: 3115: 472: 6021: 5703: 5242: 4955: 4901: 4828: 4738: 4696: 4686: 4654: 4649: 4595: 4590: 4123: 3837: 3819: 3652: 3635:

Dincer, Oguzhan C.; Wang, Fan (2011). "Ethnic Diversity and Economic Growth in China".

3580: 3489: 3419: 3384: 2657: 2567: 2561: 2536: 2474: 2444: 2396: 2350: 2226: 2069: 2060: 1848: 1815:

valuable resources to military spending, discourages investment and disrupts exchange.

1728: 1459: 1378: 1125: 1086: 1054: 831: 787: 592: 429: 424: 404: 355: 295: 285: 230: 225: 197: 192: 162: 30: 3287: 1154:, some experts have argued a new kind of "self-seeking capitalism" popularly known as 6215: 6041: 5846: 5666: 5497: 5487: 5415: 5351: 5304: 5272: 5247: 5237: 5212: 5088: 5076: 5055: 5025: 4887: 4811: 4767: 4416: 4274: 4196: 4138: 4078: 4063: 3671: 3479: 3423: 3357: 3320: 3301: 3291: 3047: 2953: 2724: 2420: 2392: 2308: 2281:

The Elusive Quest for Growth: Economists' Adventures and Misadventures in the Tropics

2158: 1914: 1486: 1278: 1140: 1113: 933: 722: 697: 607: 487: 444: 380: 345: 335: 167: 129: 85: 3823: 3656: 1155: 647: 6240: 5926: 5637: 5590: 5537: 5288: 5040: 5020: 4927: 4877: 4848: 4706: 4671: 4568: 4546: 4307: 3863: 3811: 3691: 3683: 3644: 3617: 3570: 3539: 3493: 3471: 3411: 3388: 3376: 3283: 3185: 2943: 2935: 2814: 2764: 2753: 2743: 2733: 2671: 2328: 2314: 2294: 2276: 2266: 2097: 2022: 1883: 1475: 1455: 1415: 1399: 1343: 1335: 1331: 772: 717: 702: 687: 672: 602: 582: 562: 517: 390: 340: 310: 305: 3621: 3086:'Country Risk Review: Populism Is Risky', Euromoney Global Capital, January 6 2017 2668:, a model for many other applied and theoretical projects in economic development. 652: 6270: 6230: 5976: 5931: 5861: 5585: 5580: 5108: 4580: 4517: 4261:

World Institute for Development Economics Research Publications/Discussion Papers

4184: 4157:

Elusive Quest for Growth: Economists' Adventures and Misadventures in the Tropics

4018: 3949: 3888: 3648: 3262: 3205:. 3rd ed. pp. 123–31. Eds. Seligson, Mitchell and John Passe-Smith. Boulder, CO: 2609: 2599: 2464: 2416: 2344: 2184: 2008: 1972: 1427: 1181: 1143:(Hong Kong, South Korea, Taiwan, and Singapore), and, most significantly, China. 1129: 1039: 929: 866: 777: 742: 707: 642: 567: 552: 439: 414: 409: 385: 157: 152: 5901: 3696: 1474:, Somalia was considered to be a rather ethnically homogeneous nation. However, 1200:

was an analysis of not only economic growth but also structural transformation.

969: 5981: 5961: 5941: 5921: 5911: 5906: 5851: 5748: 5744: 5733: 5565: 5542: 5482: 5160: 5083: 4823: 4782: 4701: 4493: 4421: 4287: 3380: 3181: 2834: 2691: 2685: 2647: 2633: 2549:, a professor at Yale University and director of Economic Growth Center at Yale 2470: 2450: 2378: 2236: 2120: 2106: 2040: 1958: 1944: 1918: 1724: 1324: 1090: 1082:

The names most associated with 19th-century economic nationalism are the first

797: 782: 747: 732: 712: 682: 502: 419: 109: 105: 4247: 3475: 3415: 1230:

Such theories have been criticized for not recognizing that, while necessary,

532: 6341: 6291: 6260: 6255: 6225: 6036: 5986: 5891: 5822: 5812: 5797: 5728: 5682: 5661: 5622: 5595: 5335: 5294: 5005: 4905: 4896: 4867: 4853: 4843: 4787: 4551: 4541: 4531: 4032:"Tracing Amartya Sen's journey from colonial India to Nobel Prize and beyond" 3167:

Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labour. The Manchester School

2957: 2552: 2144: 2047:, author of texts in both trade and development economics, and editor of the 1930: 1835: 1783: 1779: 1767: 1740: 1732: 1471: 1423: 1395: 1240: 1193: 1185: 1117: 992: 945: 762: 752: 727: 667: 662: 657: 637: 627: 597: 587: 492: 395: 4164:

The New Development Economics: Post Washington Consensus Neoliberal Thinking

3815: 3687: 3203:

Development and Underdevelopment: The Political Economy of Global Inequality

1050: 46: 6210: 5971: 5966: 5856: 5842: 5807: 5758: 5654: 5613: 5527: 5517: 5299: 4975: 4807: 4802: 4536: 4403: 4370:, a list of research institutions specialized in Development at Ideas.Repec 4367: 3867: 3543: 3305: 2819: 2494: 2460: 2246: 2222: 2208: 2168: 2056: 1948: 1864: 1736: 1451: 1430:. Moreover, comparing these two theoretical approaches brings the issue of 1419: 1347: 1303: 991:. Earlier theories had given little attention to development. For example, 988: 984: 978: 878: 792: 737: 632: 622: 617: 542: 90: 4150: 4142: 3718: 2939: 1790:

points out that, as economic growth often occurs in tandem with increased

6026: 5951: 5832: 5817: 5792: 5642: 5632: 5000: 4912: 4792: 4644: 4558: 4260: 4146: 4115: 3969: 3282:. Vol. 284, no. 3. London; New York: Routledge. pp. 9–13. 2829: 2617: 2581: 2577: 2532: 2440: 2410: 2360: 2216: 2113:(CGD) in Washington, DC, USA, and former executive vice-president of the 1998: 1902: 1831: 1750: 1189: 1012: 1003: 767: 757: 547: 182: 3361: 1485:

There is also much discussion in academia concerning the creation of an

1454:

should be defined by culture, language, or religion. While conflicts in

5946: 5627: 5202: 4760: 4512: 4171:

The Economist's Tale: A Consultant Encounters Hunger and the World Bank

3584: 3235: 3219: 3041: 2948: 2484: 2424: 2290: 2124: 2083: 1803: 1771: 1374: 1354: 1094: 1076: 677: 477: 19:

This article is about the academic field. For the broader context, see

2588:

known for incorporating philosophical components into economic models.

2481:, and has held several prominent research positions at the World Bank. 1847:

homebuilding as gifts or in their own households, such as counseling,

1478:

caused ethnicity (or ethnic affiliation) to be redefined according to

6235: 5865: 5708: 5071: 4838: 4755: 4750: 4563: 2504:

Doughnut Economics: Seven Ways to Think Like a 21st-Century Economist

1799: 1795: 921: 527: 458: 38: 3918: 3575: 3558: 3402:

Fearon, James D (2003). "Ethnic and Cultural Diversity by Country".

2896: 1802:. Rather, "more diverse societies, in terms of ethnic and religious 5687: 5677: 5649: 5617: 5570: 5309: 5227: 5222: 4863: 4858: 4733: 1755:

Increasingly, attention is being drawn to the role of economics in

1236: 1031:, whose policies proved influential in later American development. 987:, which developed in the 17th century, paralleling the rise of the 4178:

Pioneers of Development Economics: Great Economists on Development

4090:

International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences

3891:" Working Paper. Centre for the Study of African Economies (1995). 5767: 5129: 4917: 4816: 4728: 4462: 2891:

Arndt, H. W. (1981). "Economic Development: A Semantic History,"

2698:

and author of The Great Surge-The Ascent of the Developing World.

1467: 1290: 1437: 5870: 5753: 5217: 5103: 4892: 4189:

The Quest for Prosperity: How Developing Economies Can Take Off

3742:(January 2006). Working Paper. Web. Retrieved February 1, 2013. 1147: 861: 956:

or non-convergence across households, regions, and countries.

5512: 4777: 4659: 4639: 4211:

Biography of a Subject: An Evolution of Development Economics

2516: 2303:, the principal journal in economic growth. Developer of the 2665: 5207: 4934: 1938: 1479: 1418:

and economic development, particularly at the level of the

3854:

Collier, Paul (1999). "On the consequences of civil war".

2433:, professor of computation and behavioural science at the 3755:. Vol. 1. Malden: Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1996. Print. 3670:

Alesina, Alberto; Baqir, Reza; Easterly, William (1999).

3154:

Problems of Capital Formation in Underdeveloped Countries

1913:

Researchers at the ODI thus emphasise the need to ensure

1120:

because import duties are necessary to shelter domestic "

983:

The earliest Western theory of development economics was

4294:, Economic Development, 10th Ed., Addison-Wesley, 2008. 4030:

Writer, Christina Pazzanese Harvard Staff (2021-06-03).

3797: 3795: 3435: 3433: 3114:. New York: Oxford University Press for the World Bank. 2239:, research fellow at the Financial Markets Group of the 4234:

The End of Poverty: Economic Possibilities for Our Time

3902:"Investment and Institutions in Post Civil War Recovery 3218:

Chenery, H.B. (1960). "Patterns of Industrial Growth,"

2987: 1921:) and seek to employ people from disadvantaged groups. 3919:

Firm Investment Decisions in the Post Conflict Context

3725:

44.3 (2012): 298–304. Web. Retrieved February 1, 2013.

3510:

Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985. Print.

3457: 3455: 3453: 2985: 2983: 2981: 2979: 2977: 2975: 2973: 2971: 2969: 2967: 2525:, professor of economics at the University of Chicago 1751:

Economic development and its impact on ethnic conflict

1658: 1633: 4336:

Dani Rodrik and Mark R. Rosenzweig, eds. (2009). Vol

3792: 3751:

Castells, Manuel. "The Rise of the Network Society".

3600: 3430: 1983:, co-authored textbook in economic growth, forwarded 1809: 1590: 1499: 1409: 3941:

Claire Melamed, Kate Higgins and Andy Sumner (2010)

3669: 3277: 2654:

of migration and urbanization; Economic Development.

2620:

winner and former chief economist at the World Bank.

1018:

Theorists most associated with mercantilism include

959: 4330:T. Paul Schultz and John Strauss, eds. (2008). Vol 4320:Jere Behrman and T.N. Srinivasan, eds. (1995). Vol 4087:Behrman, J.R. (2001). "Development, Economics of," 3772:(September 1990). Web. Retrieved February 11, 2013. 3450: 2995:. 9th ed. Addison-Wesley series in economics, 2006. 2964: 1365:Development economics also includes topics such as 1252:major forms of structural-change theory: W. Lewis' 3143:. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Second Edition, (1955). 3042:Ekelund, Robert B. Jr.; Hébert, Robert F. (1997). 2921: 2181:, development economist and a university professor 1698: 1547: 1272: 1239:and was largely derived from the successes of the 4265: 3882:Civil War and the Economics of the Peace Dividend 3753:The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture 3355: 3046:(4th ed.). Waveland Press . pp. 40–41. 1924: 1369:, and the functions of such organisations as the 1067:Following mercantilism was the related theory of 6339: 4368:Top 10% institutions in the field of Development 4354:, a list of resources for development economics. 3601:Montalvo, Jose G.; Reynal-Querol, Marta (2005). 2922:McKenzie, David; Paffhausen, Anna Luisa (2017). 2780:International Association for Feminist Economics 2686:The Other Path: The Economic Answer to Terrorism 1828:Per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP per head) 1220:The Stages of Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto, 1203: 4303:, Elsevier. Description and table of contents: 4077:World Bank Publications, Washington DC (2009), 4062:World Bank Publications, Washington DC (2009), 3908:56, 1–24 (March 2014) |doi:10.1057/ces.2013.28. 3789:(March 1992). Web. Retrieved February 11, 2013. 3522: 3518: 3516: 3443:". Journal of Development Economics 76 (2005): 3351: 3349: 3347: 3345: 3343: 3341: 2795:Important publications in development economics 2427:, one of the most prominent Chinese economists. 2413:in Economics for work in development economics. 1822: 1034:Mercantilist ideas continue in the theories of 973:World GDP per capita, from 1400 to 2003 CE 964: 4352:Development Economics and Economic Development 3713: 3711: 3709: 3707: 2435:University of Chicago Booth School of Business 5145: 4478: 4389: 4100:Bell, Clive (1987). "Development economics". 3596: 3594: 2998: 2908:Bell, Clive (1987). "development economics," 2878:Bell, Clive (1987). "development economics," 2572:Common Wealth: Economics for a Crowded Planet 2137:, professor of economics and Director of the 1438:The role of ethnicity in economic development 1110:Das Nationale System der Politischen Ökonomie 898: 3513: 3439:Montalvo, Jose G. and Marta Reynal-Querol. " 3338: 2775:Human Development and Capability Association 1778:have emerged as a reaction to the threat of 1389: 4103:The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics 3736:Language Diversity and Economic Development 3704: 3603:"Ethnic Diversity and Economic Development" 3362:"Ethnic Diversity and Economic Performance" 2910:The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics 2899:–66. Chicago: The Chicago University Press. 2880:The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics 2543:, has written extensively on globalization. 1548:{\displaystyle 1-\sum _{i=1}^{N}s_{i}^{2},} 1246: 1057:, credited as Father of the National System 5152: 5138: 4485: 4471: 4396: 4382: 3634: 3591: 3201:Rostow, W.W. "The Five Stages of Growth". 905: 891: 3695: 3574: 3441:Ethnic Diversity and Economic Development 2947: 2626:, emeritus professor of economics at the 2387:Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences 2271:Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences 2035:Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences 5360:Regional Planning Association of America 3110:Meier, G.M. and Seers, D. (Eds) (1984). 3026:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics 3011:. 8th ed. Oxford University Press, 2005. 2893:Economic Development and Cultural Change 2307:, the newest alternative to theories of 1859:, which relates strongly to theories of 1716:once again represents the size of group 1152:2016 United States presidential election 1049: 968: 4432:Ragnar Nurkse's balanced growth theory 4407: : Partial Theories of Development 4216:Gerald M. Meier, Dudley Seers (1984), 3853: 3250:Klein, Daniel B. and DiCola, Therese. " 3141:The Industrialisation of Backward Areas 3044:A History of Economic Theory and Method 2501:of the University of Oxford, author of 2072:, former professor of economics at the 1084:United States Secretary of the Treasury 1045: 6340: 4229:, 5th edition, New York: W. W. Norton. 4029: 3937: 3935: 3933: 3931: 3801: 3523:Collier, Paul; Hoeffler, Anke (1998). 3401: 3318: 3237:The Review of Economics and Statistics 3009:Leading Issues in Economic Development 2845:The Poverty of "Development Economics" 2527:Harris School of Public Policy Studies 1870: 1296: 1172:Ragnar Nurkse's balanced growth theory 5133: 4466: 4377: 4114: 3723:Review of Radical Political Economics 3556: 3464:Advances in the Sociology of Language 3273: 3271: 2662:Massachusetts Institute of Technology 2455:Massachusetts Institute of Technology 2255:Massachusetts Institute of Technology 2251:Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab 2199:Massachusetts Institute of Technology 2031:Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab 2027:Massachusetts Institute of Technology 1963:Massachusetts Institute of Technology 1360: 1161: 6320: 4162:Ben Fine and Jomo K.S. (eds, 2005), 4099: 3461: 2750:Development Cooperation Testimonials 2564:: Economic Possibilities of Our Time 2509:United Nations Development Programme 2100:, professor of economics and law at 5431:Professional transportation planner 4183: 3928: 3672:"Public Goods and Ethnic Divisions" 3328:European Journal of Social Sciences 2991:Todaro, Michael and Stephen Smith. 2497:, Senior Research Associate at the 1132:, under the influence of economist 13: 5159: 5041:Microfoundations of macroeconomics 4492: 4452:Fei–Ranis model of economic growth 4120:"Third World Economic Development" 3268: 2092:National Infrastructure Commission 2045:University of California, Berkeley 1810:Recovery from conflict (civil war) 1410:Economic development and ethnicity 1024:Austria Over All, If She Only Will 14: 6369: 4345: 4301:Handbook of Development Economics 4271:Economic Development, 2nd edition 4129:Concise Encyclopedia of Economics 3719:Neoliberalism and Ethnic Conflict 3637:Journal of Economic Policy Reform 3525:"On Economic Causes of Civil War" 3288:10.1038/scientificamerican0301-70 3023:(2008). "development economics". 2860:Women's education and development 2109:is the founding president of the 2065:Analytical Development Economics. 1458:were largely along tribal lines, 960:Theories of development economics 16:Economics of developing economies 6319: 6298: 6297: 6285: 5114: 5113: 5102: 4358:Technology in emerging economies 4134:Library of Economics and Liberty 3804:Terrorism and Political Violence 3610:Journal of Development Economics 3254:Journal of Development Economics 3225:. American Economic Association. 3139:Mandelbaum (Martin), K. (1945). 2752: 2742: 2732: 2674:, professor of economics at the 2594:, professor of economics at the 2584:winner for economics, author of 2580:, Indian economist, first Asian 2453:, professor of economics at the 2317:, professor of economics at the 2293:, Israeli-American economist at 2253:, professor of economics at the 2197:, professor of economics at the 2187:, professor of economics at the 2161:, professor of economics at the 2147:, professor of economics at the 2086:, professor of economics at the 2050:Journal of Development Economics 2043:, professor of economics at the 2025:, professor of economics at the 2011:, professor of economics at the 2001:, professor of economics at the 1975:, professor of economics at the 1961:, professor of economics at the 1951:, Nobel Peace Prize Laureate by 872: 860: 45: 5828:Transferable development rights 5383:Environmental impact assessment 4051: 4023: 4008: 3983: 3958: 3911: 3894: 3874: 3847: 3830: 3775: 3758: 3745: 3728: 3663: 3628: 3550: 3500: 3395: 3312: 3244: 3228: 3212: 3195: 3175: 3159: 3146: 3133: 3120: 3104: 3091: 3078: 3069: 2740:Development Cooperation Stories 2129:Harvard School of Public Health 2115:Inter-American Development Bank 1273:International dependence theory 147:Concepts, theory and techniques 5454:Community economic development 5233:Planning and zoning commission 4427:Critical minimum effort theory 3953:Overseas Development Institute 3676:Quarterly Journal of Economics 3563:Quarterly Journal of Economics 3369:Journal of Economic Literature 3060: 3035: 3014: 2928:The World Bank Economic Review 2915: 2902: 2885: 2872: 2730:Development Cooperation Issues 2499:Environmental Change Institute 2369:Innovations for Poverty Action 2333:Canadian Economics Association 1925:Notable development economists 1895:Overseas Development Institute 1: 4437:Strategy of unbalanced growth 3622:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2004.01.002 2715:Democracy and economic growth 2507:, formerly economist for the 2123:, professor of economics and 2111:Center for Global Development 2090:, and commissioner of the UK 1991:theories mathematically with 1460:Nigeria's string of conflicts 1204:Linear-stages-of-growth model 1093:, and the American economist 6067:Planning Accreditation Board 5426:Transit-oriented development 5388:Recreation resource planning 3943:Economic growth and the MDGs 3906:Comparative Economic Studies 3649:10.1080/17487870.2011.523985 3221:The American Economic Review 3097:M. Nicolas J. Firzli : 2866: 2541:Kennedy School of Government 2487:, professor of economics at 2479:Kennedy School of Government 2463:, professor of economics at 2443:, professor of economics at 2423:; former chief economist of 2401:Kennedy School of Government 2353:, professor of economics at 2335:, introduced the concept of 2225:, professor of economics at 2211:, professor of economics at 2059:, professor of economics at 1935:Islamic Republic of Pakistan 1899:Millennium Development Goals 1823:Growth indicator controversy 965:Mercantilism and physiocracy 7: 4986:Civil engineering economics 4971:Statistical decision theory 4611:Income elasticity of demand 3923:The Economics of Transition 2785:International Monetary Fund 2702: 2650:, known for the Todaro and 2385:, co-recipient of the 2019 2343:theory mathematically with 2269:, co-recipient of the 2019 2153:International Growth Centre 2033:, co-recipient of the 2019 2017:International Growth Centre 1371:International Monetary Fund 1124:" until they could achieve 10: 6374: 6079:Professional organizations 5436:Urban freight distribution 5411:Transportation forecasting 4621:Price elasticity of supply 4616:Price elasticity of demand 4606:Cross elasticity of demand 4310:, eds. (1988, 1989). Vol. 4273:. Basingstoke: Macmillan. 4193:Princeton University Press 4155:Easterly, William (2002), 3508:Ethnic groups in conflict. 3404:Journal of Economic Growth 3381:10.1257/002205105774431243 3190:Development Microeconomics 3156:, Oxford: Basil Blackwell. 2810:UN Human Development Index 2628:London School of Economics 2604:World Bank Chief Economist 2598:, former President of the 2596:London School of Economics 2381:, University Professor at 2319:London School of Economics 2300:Journal of Economic Growth 2241:London School of Economics 2163:London School of Economics 2149:London School of Economics 2088:London School of Economics 2074:London School of Economics 2013:London School of Economics 2003:London School of Economics 1977:London School of Economics 1933:, Minister of Finance for 1874: 1857:Genuine Progress Indicator 1782:(perceived or actual) and 1340:Economic history of Taiwan 1207: 1165: 1060: 976: 18: 6315:List of planning journals 6279: 6201: 6166: 6140: 6094: 6087: 6054: 6014: 5890: 5883: 5696: 5604: 5551: 5475: 5466: 5444: 5401: 5368: 5350: 5318: 5284:History of urban planning 5265: 5256: 5195: 5167: 5097: 5064: 4943: 4500: 4412: 4232:Jeffrey D. Sachs (2005), 4213:, Oxford University Press 3476:10.1515/9783110880434-011 2805:International development 2790:International development 2770:Environmental determinism 2515:and Senior Researcher at 2383:the University of Chicago 2373:international development 2297:; editor-in-chief of the 2139:Paris School of Economics 1953:Norwegian Nobel Committee 1743:and lower investments in 1390:Geography and development 1283:international development 1210:Rostow's stages of growth 6251:Marine spatial planning 5763:Healthy community design 5341:Village design statement 5331:Preservation development 5326:Conservation development 4677:Income–consumption curve 4227:Economics of Development 4209:Gerald M. Meier (2005), 4169:Peter Griffiths (2003), 3766:The Roots of Muslim Rage 3207:Lynne Rienner Publishers 2642:social accounting matrix 2513:Human Development Report 2363:, American economist at 2331:; past president of the 2327:, Canadian economist at 1450:. It is debated whether 1426:in enhancing or causing 1321:market-friendly approach 1254:two-sector surplus model 1247:Structural-change theory 1190:Sir Hans Wolfgang Singer 135:JEL classification codes 6266:Real estate development 5997:List of urban theorists 5493:City Beautiful movement 5421:Rational planning model 5403:Transportation planning 5393:Sustainable development 5011:Industrial organization 4269:; Rees, Gareth (1998). 4219:Pioneers in Development 3816:10.1080/095465590944578 3688:10.1162/003355399556269 3559:"Corruption and Growth" 3416:10.1023/a:1024419522867 3241:. Cambridge: MIT Press. 3169:, XXII(2), pp. 139–91. 3112:Pioneers in Development 2855:Sustainable development 2710:Chinese economic reform 2586:Development as Freedom, 2489:Northwestern University 2419:, Chinese economist at 2365:Northwestern University 2355:Northwestern University 2189:University of Cambridge 1905:, who emphasises that: 1776:movements of resistance 1258:patterns of development 1116:was impossible without 952:contribute to economic 321:Industrial organization 178:Computational economics 6358:Economic globalization 6310:List of planned cities 6246:Landscape architecture 6002:List of urban planners 5724:Conservation community 5561:Collaborative planning 5370:Environmental planning 5278:Comprehensive planning 4306:Hollis B. Chenery and 4191:. Princeton, NJ: 3532:Oxford Economic Papers 3252:Institutional Ties of 3152:Nurkse, Ragnar (1953) 2638:Foster–Greer–Thorbecke 2078:Dissent on Development 1700: 1623: 1549: 1526: 1287:neocolonial dependence 1168:Industrial development 1114:industrialized economy 1100:Report on Manufactures 1089:, the German-American 1058: 974: 173:Experimental economics 6348:Development economics 6221:Development economics 6072:Real estate education 6032:James Howard Kunstler 5957:Konstantinos Doxiadis 5838:Urban growth boundary 5778:Mixed-use development 5673:Intentional community 4981:Engineering economics 4576:Cost–benefit analysis 4447:Technological dualism 4405:Development Economics 4244:Development Economics 4093:, pp. 3566–3574 3781:Barber, Benjamin R. " 3557:Mauro, Paolo (1995). 2882:, v. 1, pp. 818, 825. 2720:Demographic economics 2696:Georgetown University 2636:, a co-originator of 2409:, winner of the 1979 2305:unified growth theory 2265:winner, advocate for 1937:, special advisor at 1701: 1603: 1581:index is defined as 1550: 1506: 1178:Paul Rosenstein-Rodan 1053: 1029:Jean-Baptiste Colbert 972: 918:Development economics 5773:Leapfrog development 5719:Complete Communities 5576:Intelligent urbanism 5503:Garden city movement 5446:Economic development 5378:Environmental design 4798:Price discrimination 4692:Intertemporal choice 3868:10.1093/oep/51.1.168 3740:University of Leuven 3697:2027/uc1.l0076716224 3544:10.1093/oep/50.4.563 3239:, 50(4), pp. 391–416 3165:Lewis, W.A. (1954). 3007:and James E. Rauch. 2993:Economic Development 2840:Kaldor's growth laws 2800:Economic development 2676:University of Oxford 2652:Harris–Todaro models 2431:Sendhil Mullainathan 2341:creative destruction 2337:Schumpeterian growth 2213:Princeton University 2151:and Director of the 2135:François Bourguignon 2015:and Director of the 1989:creative destruction 1985:Schumpeterian growth 1861:distributive justice 1588: 1497: 1424:neoliberal economics 1317:public-choice theory 1313:free market approach 1232:capital accumulation 1069:economic nationalism 1063:Economic nationalism 1046:Economic nationalism 1036:economic nationalism 948:, and institutions. 926:economic development 400:Social choice theory 21:Economic development 6353:Development studies 6179:Communist countries 5803:Planning Permission 5740:Filtering (housing) 5714:Cluster development 5523:Settlement movement 5508:Indigenous planning 5109:Business portal 5046:Operations research 4873:Substitution effect 3717:Prasch, Robert E. " 3280:Scientific American 3256:Authors and Editors 3223:, 50(4), pp. 624–54 2940:10.1093/wber/lhx015 2760:Development studies 2660:, professor at the 2614:Columbia University 2557:Columbia University 2179:Michael B. Connolly 2102:Columbia University 1893:Researchers at the 1877:Fair trade movement 1871:Recent developments 1541: 1404:Tropic of Capricorn 1384:development studies 1297:Neoclassical theory 1279:dependence theories 1134:Henry Charles Carey 1075:in America and the 1020:Philipp von Hörnigk 1008:classical economics 997:School of Salamanca 867:Business portal 188:Operations research 168:National accounting 6062:Planning education 6022:Elizabeth Farrelly 5866:High-rise urbanism 5704:Affordable housing 5243:World Urbanism Day 4687:Indifference curve 4655:Goods and services 4596:Economies of scope 4591:Economies of scale 4176:K.S. Jomo (2005), 4124:David R. Henderson 3948:2011-07-17 at the 3887:2015-09-23 at the 3842:The Bottom Billion 3838:The Bottom Billion 3734:De Grauwe, Paul. " 3358:La Ferrara, Eliana 3356:Alesina, Alberto; 3319:Salawu, B (2010). 3261:2021-05-10 at the 3182:Bardhan, Pranab K. 2850:Social development 2825:Harrod–Domar model 2658:Robert M. Townsend 2562:The End of Poverty 2537:Harvard University 2475:Harvard University 2445:Harvard University 2397:Harvard University 2351:Seema Jayachandran 2227:Harvard University 2215:and winner of the 2173:The Bottom Billion 2070:Peter Thomas Bauer 2061:Cornell University 2053:from 1985 to 2003. 1987:, and established 1849:lifestyle coaching 1729:empirical research 1696: 1667: 1642: 1545: 1527: 1379:sustainable growth 1361:Topics of research 1225:Harrod–Domar model 1162:Post-WWII theories 1126:economies of scale 1097:. Hamilton's 1791 1087:Alexander Hamilton 1059: 1055:Alexander Hamilton 975: 198:Industrial complex 193:Middle income trap 6335: 6334: 6292:Cities portal 6216:Civil engineering 6197: 6196: 6050: 6049: 5879: 5878: 5847:Peri-urbanisation 5667:Planned community 5498:Dark-sky movement 5488:Car-free movement 5462: 5461: 5416:Trip distribution 5352:Regional planning 5305:Urban green space 5273:Land-use planning 5248:Labor market area 5238:Growth management 5213:Metropolitan area 5127: 5126: 5089:Political economy 4888:Supply and demand 4768:Pareto efficiency 4460: 4459: 4417:Dual-sector model 4280:978-0-333-72228-2 4252:table of contents 4202:978-0-691-15589-0 4083:978-0-8213-7270-8 4068:978-0-8213-7255-5 3917:O'Reilly, Colin " 3787:Atlantic Magazine 3783:Jihad vs. McWorld 3770:Atlantic Magazine 3764:Lewis, Bernard. " 3265:". (August 2004). 3053:978-1-57766-381-2 2725:Dependency theory 2421:Peking University 2393:Eliana La Ferrara 2309:endogenous growth 2159:Francesco Caselli 1981:Collège de France 1915:social protection 1840:disposable income 1770:characterized by 1768:globalizing world 1741:fiscal management 1668: 1666: 1641: 1565:is size of group 1141:Four Asian Tigers 1122:infant industries 934:structural change 915: 914: 6365: 6323: 6322: 6301: 6300: 6290: 6289: 6288: 6241:Land development 6092: 6091: 5927:Donald Appleyard 5888: 5887: 5638:Mining community 5591:Radical planning 5538:Transition towns 5473: 5472: 5289:Spatial planning 5263: 5262: 5154: 5147: 5140: 5131: 5130: 5117: 5116: 5107: 5106: 4849:Returns to scale 4707:Market structure 4487: 4480: 4473: 4464: 4463: 4398: 4391: 4384: 4375: 4374: 4308:T. N. Srinivasan 4292:Stephen C. Smith 4284: 4206: 4185:Lin, Justin Yifu 4137: 4132:(1st ed.). 4111: 4046: 4045: 4043: 4042: 4027: 4021: 4012: 4006: 4005: 4003: 4002: 3993:. Archived from 3987: 3981: 3980: 3978: 3977: 3968:. Archived from 3962: 3956: 3939: 3926: 3915: 3909: 3900:O'Reilly, Colin 3898: 3892: 3880:Collier, Paul. " 3878: 3872: 3871: 3851: 3845: 3836:Collier, Paul. " 3834: 3828: 3827: 3799: 3790: 3779: 3773: 3762: 3756: 3749: 3743: 3732: 3726: 3715: 3702: 3701: 3699: 3667: 3661: 3660: 3632: 3626: 3625: 3607: 3598: 3589: 3588: 3578: 3554: 3548: 3547: 3529: 3520: 3511: 3504: 3498: 3497: 3459: 3448: 3437: 3428: 3427: 3399: 3393: 3392: 3366: 3353: 3336: 3335: 3325: 3316: 3310: 3309: 3275: 3266: 3248: 3242: 3232: 3226: 3216: 3210: 3199: 3193: 3186:Christopher Udry 3179: 3173: 3163: 3157: 3150: 3144: 3137: 3131: 3128:Economic Journal 3124: 3118: 3108: 3102: 3095: 3089: 3084:Jeremy Weltman: 3082: 3076: 3073: 3067: 3064: 3058: 3057: 3039: 3033: 3018: 3012: 3005:Meier, Gerald M. 3002: 2996: 2989: 2962: 2961: 2951: 2919: 2913: 2906: 2900: 2889: 2883: 2876: 2815:Gini coefficient 2765:Development wave 2756: 2746: 2736: 2682:Hernando de Soto 2672:Anthony Venables 2339:and established 2329:Brown University 2315:Maitreesh Ghatak 2295:Brown University 2277:William Easterly 2267:field experiment 2259:MacArthur Fellow 2098:Jagdish Bhagwati 2029:and Director of 2023:Abhijit Banerjee 1884:Gini coefficient 1705: 1703: 1702: 1697: 1692: 1691: 1679: 1678: 1673: 1669: 1659: 1657: 1656: 1655: 1643: 1634: 1630: 1622: 1617: 1554: 1552: 1551: 1546: 1540: 1535: 1525: 1520: 1416:ethnic diversity 1400:Tropic of Cancer 1396:Jeffrey D. Sachs 1367:third world debt 1344:Sho-Chieh Tsiang 1336:Arnold Harberger 1332:Economy of Chile 907: 900: 893: 879:Money portal 877: 876: 875: 865: 864: 361:Natural resource 153:Economic systems 49: 26: 25: 6373: 6372: 6368: 6367: 6366: 6364: 6363: 6362: 6338: 6337: 6336: 6331: 6286: 6284: 6275: 6271:Social sciences 6231:Urban economics 6203: 6193: 6162: 6136: 6083: 6046: 6010: 5977:Peter Calthorpe 5932:Ebenezer Howard 5893: 5875: 5862:Verticalization 5692: 5600: 5586:Market urbanism 5581:Livable streets 5547: 5468: 5458: 5440: 5397: 5364: 5346: 5314: 5258: 5252: 5191: 5163: 5158: 5128: 5123: 5101: 5093: 5060: 4939: 4581:Deadweight loss 4518:Consumer choice 4496: 4491: 4461: 4456: 4408: 4402: 4348: 4281: 4254:, and excerpt, 4236:, Penguin Books 4203: 4159:, The MIT Press 4054: 4049: 4040: 4038: 4036:Harvard Gazette 4028: 4024: 4013: 4009: 4000: 3998: 3989: 3988: 3984: 3975: 3973: 3964: 3963: 3959: 3950:Wayback Machine 3940: 3929: 3916: 3912: 3899: 3895: 3889:Wayback Machine 3879: 3875: 3852: 3848: 3835: 3831: 3800: 3793: 3780: 3776: 3763: 3759: 3750: 3746: 3733: 3729: 3716: 3705: 3668: 3664: 3633: 3629: 3605: 3599: 3592: 3576:10.2307/2946696 3555: 3551: 3527: 3521: 3514: 3506:Horowitz, D.L. 3505: 3501: 3486: 3460: 3451: 3438: 3431: 3400: 3396: 3364: 3354: 3339: 3323: 3317: 3313: 3298: 3276: 3269: 3263:Wayback Machine 3249: 3245: 3233: 3229: 3217: 3213: 3200: 3196: 3180: 3176: 3164: 3160: 3151: 3147: 3138: 3134: 3125: 3121: 3116:Review extract. 3109: 3105: 3096: 3092: 3083: 3079: 3074: 3070: 3065: 3061: 3054: 3040: 3036: 3029:, 2nd Edition. 3019: 3015: 3003: 2999: 2990: 2965: 2920: 2916: 2912:, v. 1, p. 825. 2907: 2903: 2890: 2886: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2864: 2705: 2694:, professor at 2612:, professor at 2610:Joseph Stiglitz 2600:British Academy 2555:, professor at 2547:Mark Rosenzweig 2535:, professor at 2473:, professor at 2465:Yale University 2417:Justin Yifu Lin 2407:W. Arthur Lewis 2395:, professor at 2345:Philippe Aghion 2185:Partha Dasgupta 2009:Oriana Bandiera 1973:Philippe Aghion 1927: 1879: 1873: 1825: 1812: 1798:in the form of 1764:ethnic conflict 1753: 1714: 1687: 1683: 1674: 1651: 1647: 1632: 1631: 1629: 1625: 1624: 1618: 1607: 1589: 1586: 1585: 1563: 1536: 1531: 1521: 1510: 1498: 1495: 1494: 1440: 1428:ethnic conflict 1412: 1392: 1363: 1299: 1275: 1249: 1212: 1206: 1198:W. Arthur Lewis 1182:Kurt Mandelbaum 1174: 1164: 1130:Abraham Lincoln 1073:American System 1065: 1048: 1040:neomercantilism 981: 967: 962: 930:economic growth 920:is a branch of 911: 873: 871: 859: 852: 851: 822: 812: 811: 810: 809: 573:von Böhm-Bawerk 461: 450: 449: 211: 203: 202: 158:Economic growth 148: 140: 139: 81: 79:classifications 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6371: 6361: 6360: 6355: 6350: 6333: 6332: 6330: 6329: 6317: 6312: 6307: 6295: 6280: 6277: 6276: 6274: 6273: 6268: 6263: 6258: 6253: 6248: 6243: 6238: 6233: 6228: 6223: 6218: 6213: 6207: 6205: 6199: 6198: 6195: 6194: 6192: 6191: 6186: 6181: 6176: 6170: 6168: 6164: 6163: 6161: 6160: 6155: 6150: 6144: 6142: 6138: 6137: 6135: 6134: 6132:United Kingdom 6129: 6124: 6119: 6114: 6112:Czech Republic 6109: 6104: 6098: 6096: 6089: 6085: 6084: 6082: 6081: 6076: 6075: 6074: 6069: 6058: 6056: 6052: 6051: 6048: 6047: 6045: 6044: 6042:Randal O'Toole 6039: 6034: 6029: 6024: 6018: 6016: 6012: 6011: 6009: 6008: 6005: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5984: 5982:Patrick Geddes 5979: 5974: 5969: 5964: 5962:Kevin A. Lynch 5959: 5954: 5949: 5944: 5942:Guy Benveniste 5939: 5934: 5929: 5924: 5922:Daniel Burnham 5919: 5917:Colin Buchanan 5914: 5912:Clarence Stein 5909: 5907:Clarence Perry 5904: 5898: 5896: 5885: 5881: 5880: 5877: 5876: 5874: 5873: 5868: 5859: 5854: 5852:Urban vitality 5849: 5840: 5835: 5830: 5825: 5820: 5815: 5810: 5805: 5800: 5795: 5790: 5785: 5780: 5775: 5770: 5765: 5759:Healthy cities 5756: 5751: 5749:Brusselization 5745:Gentrification 5742: 5737: 5734:Eminent domain 5731: 5726: 5721: 5716: 5711: 5706: 5700: 5698: 5694: 5693: 5691: 5690: 5685: 5680: 5675: 5670: 5664: 5659: 5658: 5657: 5647: 5646: 5645: 5635: 5630: 5625: 5620: 5610: 5608: 5606:Cities by type 5602: 5601: 5599: 5598: 5593: 5588: 5583: 5578: 5573: 5568: 5566:Context theory 5563: 5557: 5555: 5549: 5548: 5546: 5545: 5540: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5520: 5515: 5510: 5505: 5500: 5495: 5490: 5485: 5483:Athens Charter 5479: 5477: 5470: 5464: 5463: 5460: 5459: 5457: 5456: 5450: 5448: 5442: 5441: 5439: 5438: 5433: 5428: 5423: 5418: 5413: 5407: 5405: 5399: 5398: 5396: 5395: 5390: 5385: 5380: 5374: 5372: 5366: 5365: 5363: 5362: 5356: 5354: 5348: 5347: 5345: 5344: 5338: 5333: 5328: 5322: 5320: 5316: 5315: 5313: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5297: 5292: 5286: 5281: 5275: 5269: 5267: 5260: 5254: 5253: 5251: 5250: 5245: 5240: 5235: 5230: 5225: 5220: 5215: 5210: 5205: 5199: 5197: 5193: 5192: 5190: 5189: 5184: 5179: 5174: 5168: 5165: 5164: 5161:Urban planning 5157: 5156: 5149: 5142: 5134: 5125: 5124: 5122: 5121: 5111: 5098: 5095: 5094: 5092: 5091: 5086: 5084:Macroeconomics 5081: 5080: 5079: 5068: 5066: 5062: 5061: 5059: 5058: 5053: 5048: 5043: 5038: 5033: 5028: 5023: 5018: 5013: 5008: 5003: 4998: 4993: 4988: 4983: 4978: 4973: 4968: 4963: 4958: 4953: 4947: 4945: 4941: 4940: 4938: 4937: 4932: 4931: 4930: 4925: 4915: 4910: 4909: 4908: 4899: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4870: 4861: 4856: 4851: 4846: 4841: 4836: 4831: 4826: 4821: 4820: 4819: 4814: 4805: 4800: 4795: 4790: 4785: 4783:Price controls 4775: 4770: 4765: 4764: 4763: 4758: 4753: 4748: 4747: 4746: 4741: 4731: 4726: 4725: 4724: 4719: 4704: 4702:Market failure 4699: 4694: 4689: 4684: 4679: 4674: 4669: 4668: 4667: 4662: 4652: 4647: 4642: 4637: 4636: 4635: 4625: 4624: 4623: 4618: 4613: 4608: 4598: 4593: 4588: 4583: 4578: 4573: 4572: 4571: 4566: 4561: 4556: 4555: 4554: 4544: 4539: 4529: 4520: 4515: 4510: 4504: 4502: 4498: 4497: 4494:Microeconomics 4490: 4489: 4482: 4475: 4467: 4458: 4457: 4455: 4454: 4449: 4444: 4442:Social dualism 4439: 4434: 4429: 4424: 4422:Big push model 4419: 4413: 4410: 4409: 4401: 4400: 4393: 4386: 4378: 4372: 4371: 4365: 4355: 4347: 4346:External links 4344: 4343: 4342: 4341: 4340: 4334: 4328: 4318: 4298: 4288:Michael Todaro 4285: 4279: 4267:Smith, Charles 4263: 4258: 4237: 4230: 4223: 4214: 4207: 4201: 4181: 4174: 4167: 4160: 4153: 4112: 4097: 4085: 4070: 4053: 4050: 4048: 4047: 4022: 4007: 3982: 3957: 3927: 3921:" forthcoming 3910: 3893: 3873: 3856:Oxf. Econ. Pap 3846: 3829: 3791: 3774: 3757: 3744: 3727: 3703: 3682:(4): 1243–84. 3662: 3627: 3616:(2): 293–323. 3590: 3569:(3): 681–712. 3549: 3512: 3499: 3484: 3449: 3429: 3410:(2): 195–222. 3394: 3375:(3): 762–800. 3337: 3311: 3296: 3267: 3243: 3227: 3211: 3194: 3174: 3158: 3145: 3132: 3119: 3103: 3090: 3077: 3068: 3059: 3052: 3034: 3013: 2997: 2963: 2934:(3): 595–610. 2914: 2901: 2884: 2870: 2868: 2865: 2863: 2862: 2857: 2852: 2847: 2842: 2837: 2835:Human security 2832: 2827: 2822: 2817: 2812: 2807: 2802: 2797: 2792: 2787: 2782: 2777: 2772: 2767: 2762: 2757: 2747: 2737: 2727: 2722: 2717: 2712: 2706: 2704: 2701: 2700: 2699: 2692:Steven Radelet 2689: 2679: 2669: 2664:known for his 2655: 2648:Michael Todaro 2645: 2634:Erik Thorbecke 2631: 2621: 2607: 2592:Nicholas Stern 2589: 2575: 2550: 2544: 2530: 2523:James Robinson 2520: 2492: 2482: 2471:Lant Pritchett 2468: 2458: 2451:Benjamin Olken 2448: 2438: 2428: 2414: 2404: 2390: 2379:Michael Kremer 2376: 2358: 2348: 2322: 2312: 2288: 2274: 2249:, Director of 2244: 2237:Simeon Djankov 2234: 2220: 2206: 2195:Dave Donaldson 2192: 2182: 2176: 2166: 2156: 2142: 2132: 2121:David E. Bloom 2118: 2107:Nancy Birdsall 2104: 2095: 2081: 2067: 2063:and author of 2054: 2041:Pranab Bardhan 2038: 2020: 2006: 1996: 1970: 1959:Daron Acemoglu 1956: 1945:Muhammad Yunus 1942: 1926: 1923: 1919:jobless growth 1911: 1910: 1872: 1869: 1824: 1821: 1811: 1808: 1752: 1749: 1725:Tower of Babel 1712: 1707: 1706: 1695: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1677: 1672: 1665: 1662: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1640: 1637: 1628: 1621: 1616: 1613: 1610: 1606: 1602: 1599: 1596: 1593: 1561: 1556: 1555: 1544: 1539: 1534: 1530: 1524: 1519: 1516: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1502: 1439: 1436: 1411: 1408: 1391: 1388: 1362: 1359: 1325:libertarianism 1298: 1295: 1277:International 1274: 1271: 1248: 1245: 1205: 1202: 1163: 1160: 1091:Friedrich List 1061:Main article: 1047: 1044: 1006:in France and 977:Main article: 966: 963: 961: 958: 913: 912: 910: 909: 902: 895: 887: 884: 883: 882: 881: 869: 854: 853: 850: 849: 844: 834: 829: 823: 818: 817: 814: 813: 808: 807: 800: 795: 790: 785: 780: 775: 770: 765: 760: 755: 750: 745: 740: 735: 730: 725: 720: 715: 710: 705: 700: 695: 690: 685: 680: 675: 670: 665: 660: 655: 650: 645: 640: 635: 630: 625: 620: 615: 610: 605: 600: 595: 590: 585: 580: 575: 570: 565: 560: 555: 550: 545: 540: 535: 530: 525: 520: 515: 510: 505: 500: 495: 490: 485: 480: 475: 470: 464: 463: 462: 456: 455: 452: 451: 448: 447: 442: 437: 432: 427: 422: 417: 412: 407: 402: 393: 388: 383: 378: 373: 368: 366:Organizational 363: 358: 353: 348: 343: 338: 333: 328: 323: 318: 313: 308: 303: 298: 293: 288: 283: 278: 273: 268: 263: 258: 253: 248: 243: 238: 233: 228: 223: 218: 212: 210:By application 209: 208: 205: 204: 201: 200: 195: 190: 185: 180: 175: 170: 165: 160: 155: 149: 146: 145: 142: 141: 138: 137: 132: 127: 122: 117: 112: 103: 98: 93: 88: 82: 76: 75: 72: 71: 70: 69: 64: 59: 51: 50: 42: 41: 35: 34: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6370: 6359: 6356: 6354: 6351: 6349: 6346: 6345: 6343: 6328: 6327: 6318: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6308: 6306: 6305: 6296: 6294: 6293: 6282: 6281: 6278: 6272: 6269: 6267: 6264: 6262: 6261:Public policy 6259: 6257: 6256:Public health 6254: 6252: 6249: 6247: 6244: 6242: 6239: 6237: 6234: 6232: 6229: 6227: 6226:Urban ecology 6224: 6222: 6219: 6217: 6214: 6212: 6209: 6208: 6206: 6200: 6190: 6189:Ancient Egypt 6187: 6185: 6182: 6180: 6177: 6175: 6172: 6171: 6169: 6165: 6159: 6156: 6154: 6151: 6149: 6146: 6145: 6143: 6139: 6133: 6130: 6128: 6125: 6123: 6120: 6118: 6115: 6113: 6110: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6100: 6099: 6097: 6093: 6090: 6086: 6080: 6077: 6073: 6070: 6068: 6065: 6064: 6063: 6060: 6059: 6057: 6053: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6037:Lewis Mumford 6035: 6033: 6030: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6019: 6017: 6013: 6007: 6006: 6003: 6000: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5990: 5988: 5987:Raymond Unwin 5985: 5983: 5980: 5978: 5975: 5973: 5970: 5968: 5965: 5963: 5960: 5958: 5955: 5953: 5950: 5948: 5945: 5943: 5940: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5930: 5928: 5925: 5923: 5920: 5918: 5915: 5913: 5910: 5908: 5905: 5903: 5900: 5899: 5897: 5895: 5894:practitioners 5889: 5886: 5882: 5872: 5869: 5867: 5863: 5860: 5858: 5855: 5853: 5850: 5848: 5844: 5841: 5839: 5836: 5834: 5831: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5823:Tract housing 5821: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5813:Temporary use 5811: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5798:Planning gain 5796: 5794: 5791: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5760: 5757: 5755: 5752: 5750: 5746: 5743: 5741: 5738: 5735: 5732: 5730: 5729:Creative city 5727: 5725: 5722: 5720: 5717: 5715: 5712: 5710: 5707: 5705: 5702: 5701: 5699: 5695: 5689: 5686: 5684: 5683:Urban village 5681: 5679: 5676: 5674: 5671: 5668: 5665: 5663: 5662:Model village 5660: 5656: 5653: 5652: 5651: 5648: 5644: 5641: 5640: 5639: 5636: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5626: 5624: 5623:Commuter town 5621: 5619: 5615: 5612: 5611: 5609: 5607: 5603: 5597: 5596:Urban renewal 5594: 5592: 5589: 5587: 5584: 5582: 5579: 5577: 5574: 5572: 5569: 5567: 5564: 5562: 5559: 5558: 5556: 5554: 5550: 5544: 5541: 5539: 5536: 5534: 5533:Structuralism 5531: 5529: 5526: 5524: 5521: 5519: 5516: 5514: 5511: 5509: 5506: 5504: 5501: 5499: 5496: 5494: 5491: 5489: 5486: 5484: 5481: 5480: 5478: 5474: 5471: 5465: 5455: 5452: 5451: 5449: 5447: 5443: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5429: 5427: 5424: 5422: 5419: 5417: 5414: 5412: 5409: 5408: 5406: 5404: 5400: 5394: 5391: 5389: 5386: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5376: 5375: 5373: 5371: 5367: 5361: 5358: 5357: 5355: 5353: 5349: 5342: 5339: 5337: 5336:Rural housing 5334: 5332: 5329: 5327: 5324: 5323: 5321: 5317: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5295:Redevelopment 5293: 5290: 5287: 5285: 5282: 5279: 5276: 5274: 5271: 5270: 5268: 5264: 5261: 5255: 5249: 5246: 5244: 5241: 5239: 5236: 5234: 5231: 5229: 5226: 5224: 5221: 5219: 5216: 5214: 5211: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5201: 5200: 5198: 5194: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5175: 5173: 5170: 5169: 5166: 5162: 5155: 5150: 5148: 5143: 5141: 5136: 5135: 5132: 5120: 5112: 5110: 5105: 5100: 5099: 5096: 5090: 5087: 5085: 5082: 5078: 5075: 5074: 5073: 5070: 5069: 5067: 5063: 5057: 5054: 5052: 5049: 5047: 5044: 5042: 5039: 5037: 5034: 5032: 5029: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5019: 5017: 5016:Institutional 5014: 5012: 5009: 5007: 5004: 5002: 4999: 4997: 4994: 4992: 4989: 4987: 4984: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4974: 4972: 4969: 4967: 4964: 4962: 4961:Computational 4959: 4957: 4954: 4952: 4949: 4948: 4946: 4942: 4936: 4933: 4929: 4926: 4924: 4921: 4920: 4919: 4916: 4914: 4911: 4907: 4906:Law of supply 4903: 4900: 4898: 4897:Law of demand 4894: 4891: 4890: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4883:Social choice 4881: 4879: 4876: 4874: 4871: 4869: 4868:Excess supply 4865: 4862: 4860: 4857: 4855: 4854:Risk aversion 4852: 4850: 4847: 4845: 4842: 4840: 4837: 4835: 4832: 4830: 4827: 4825: 4822: 4818: 4815: 4813: 4809: 4806: 4804: 4801: 4799: 4796: 4794: 4791: 4789: 4788:Price ceiling 4786: 4784: 4781: 4780: 4779: 4776: 4774: 4771: 4769: 4766: 4762: 4759: 4757: 4754: 4752: 4749: 4745: 4744:Complementary 4742: 4740: 4737: 4736: 4735: 4732: 4730: 4727: 4723: 4720: 4718: 4715: 4714: 4713: 4710: 4709: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4700: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4688: 4685: 4683: 4680: 4678: 4675: 4673: 4670: 4666: 4663: 4661: 4658: 4657: 4656: 4653: 4651: 4648: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4638: 4634: 4631: 4630: 4629: 4626: 4622: 4619: 4617: 4614: 4612: 4609: 4607: 4604: 4603: 4602: 4599: 4597: 4594: 4592: 4589: 4587: 4584: 4582: 4579: 4577: 4574: 4570: 4567: 4565: 4562: 4560: 4557: 4553: 4550: 4549: 4548: 4545: 4543: 4540: 4538: 4535: 4534: 4533: 4530: 4528: 4527:non-convexity 4524: 4521: 4519: 4516: 4514: 4511: 4509: 4506: 4505: 4503: 4499: 4495: 4488: 4483: 4481: 4476: 4474: 4469: 4468: 4465: 4453: 4450: 4448: 4445: 4443: 4440: 4438: 4435: 4433: 4430: 4428: 4425: 4423: 4420: 4418: 4415: 4414: 4411: 4406: 4399: 4394: 4392: 4387: 4385: 4380: 4379: 4376: 4369: 4366: 4363: 4362:The Economist 4359: 4356: 4353: 4350: 4349: 4339: 4335: 4333: 4329: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4304: 4302: 4299: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4286: 4282: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4262: 4259: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4245: 4241: 4238: 4235: 4231: 4228: 4224: 4221: 4220: 4215: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4179: 4175: 4172: 4168: 4165: 4161: 4158: 4154: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4135: 4131: 4130: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4104: 4098: 4096: 4092: 4091: 4086: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4075: 4071: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4060: 4056: 4055: 4037: 4033: 4026: 4020: 4016: 4011: 3997:on 2010-05-29 3996: 3992: 3986: 3972:on 2010-04-24 3971: 3967: 3966:"description" 3961: 3954: 3951: 3947: 3944: 3938: 3936: 3934: 3932: 3924: 3920: 3914: 3907: 3903: 3897: 3890: 3886: 3883: 3877: 3869: 3865: 3862:(1): 168–83. 3861: 3857: 3850: 3843: 3839: 3833: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3810:(1): 159–77. 3809: 3805: 3798: 3796: 3788: 3784: 3778: 3771: 3767: 3761: 3754: 3748: 3741: 3737: 3731: 3724: 3720: 3714: 3712: 3710: 3708: 3698: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3666: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3631: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3604: 3597: 3595: 3586: 3582: 3577: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3553: 3545: 3541: 3538:(4): 563–73. 3537: 3533: 3526: 3519: 3517: 3509: 3503: 3495: 3491: 3487: 3485:9783110880434 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3458: 3456: 3454: 3446: 3442: 3436: 3434: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3398: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3363: 3359: 3352: 3350: 3348: 3346: 3344: 3342: 3333: 3329: 3322: 3315: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3297:9780415415057 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3274: 3272: 3264: 3260: 3257: 3255: 3247: 3240: 3238: 3231: 3224: 3222: 3215: 3208: 3204: 3198: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3178: 3172: 3168: 3162: 3155: 3149: 3142: 3136: 3129: 3123: 3117: 3113: 3107: 3100: 3094: 3087: 3081: 3072: 3063: 3055: 3049: 3045: 3038: 3032: 3028: 3027: 3022: 3017: 3010: 3006: 3001: 2994: 2988: 2986: 2984: 2982: 2980: 2978: 2976: 2974: 2972: 2970: 2968: 2959: 2955: 2950: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2918: 2911: 2905: 2898: 2894: 2888: 2881: 2875: 2871: 2861: 2858: 2856: 2853: 2851: 2848: 2846: 2843: 2841: 2838: 2836: 2833: 2831: 2828: 2826: 2823: 2821: 2818: 2816: 2813: 2811: 2808: 2806: 2803: 2801: 2798: 2796: 2793: 2791: 2788: 2786: 2783: 2781: 2778: 2776: 2773: 2771: 2768: 2766: 2763: 2761: 2758: 2755: 2751: 2748: 2745: 2741: 2738: 2735: 2731: 2728: 2726: 2723: 2721: 2718: 2716: 2713: 2711: 2708: 2707: 2697: 2693: 2690: 2687: 2683: 2680: 2677: 2673: 2670: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2656: 2653: 2649: 2646: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2632: 2629: 2625: 2622: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2608: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2590: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2576: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2563: 2558: 2554: 2553:Jeffrey Sachs 2551: 2548: 2545: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2531: 2528: 2524: 2521: 2518: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2505: 2500: 2496: 2493: 2490: 2486: 2483: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2469: 2466: 2462: 2459: 2456: 2452: 2449: 2446: 2442: 2439: 2436: 2432: 2429: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2415: 2412: 2408: 2405: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2391: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2377: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2359: 2356: 2352: 2349: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2323: 2320: 2316: 2313: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2301: 2296: 2292: 2289: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2275: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2245: 2242: 2238: 2235: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2221: 2219:in Economics. 2218: 2214: 2210: 2207: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2193: 2190: 2186: 2183: 2180: 2177: 2174: 2170: 2167: 2164: 2160: 2157: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2145:Robin Burgess 2143: 2140: 2136: 2133: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2119: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2105: 2103: 2099: 2096: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2082: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2068: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2055: 2052: 2051: 2046: 2042: 2039: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2021: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2007: 2004: 2000: 1997: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1971: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1957: 1954: 1950: 1947:, Founder of 1946: 1943: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1931:Mahbub ul Haq 1929: 1928: 1922: 1920: 1916: 1908: 1907: 1906: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1891: 1887: 1885: 1878: 1868: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1852: 1850: 1844: 1841: 1837: 1836:median income 1833: 1829: 1820: 1816: 1807: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1796:social unrest 1793: 1787: 1786:development. 1785: 1781: 1780:modernization 1777: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1762: 1758: 1748: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1721: 1719: 1715: 1693: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1675: 1670: 1663: 1660: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1638: 1635: 1626: 1619: 1614: 1611: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1597: 1594: 1591: 1584: 1583: 1582: 1580: 1576: 1573: 1568: 1564: 1542: 1537: 1532: 1528: 1522: 1517: 1514: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1500: 1493: 1492: 1491: 1488: 1483: 1481: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1435: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1407: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1387: 1385: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1358: 1356: 1351: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1328: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1308: 1305: 1294: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1270: 1266: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1244: 1242: 1241:Marshall Plan 1238: 1233: 1228: 1226: 1221: 1217: 1211: 1201: 1199: 1195: 1194:Simon Kuznets 1191: 1187: 1186:Ragnar Nurkse 1183: 1179: 1173: 1169: 1159: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1144: 1142: 1137: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1118:protectionism 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1101: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1085: 1080: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1064: 1056: 1052: 1043: 1041: 1037: 1032: 1030: 1025: 1022:, who in his 1021: 1016: 1014: 1009: 1005: 1000: 998: 994: 993:scholasticism 990: 986: 980: 971: 957: 955: 949: 947: 946:human capital 943: 937: 935: 931: 927: 923: 919: 908: 903: 901: 896: 894: 889: 888: 886: 885: 880: 870: 868: 863: 858: 857: 856: 855: 848: 845: 842: 838: 835: 833: 830: 828: 825: 824: 821: 816: 815: 806: 805: 801: 799: 796: 794: 791: 789: 786: 784: 781: 779: 776: 774: 771: 769: 766: 764: 761: 759: 756: 754: 751: 749: 746: 744: 741: 739: 736: 734: 731: 729: 726: 724: 721: 719: 716: 714: 711: 709: 706: 704: 701: 699: 696: 694: 691: 689: 686: 684: 681: 679: 676: 674: 671: 669: 666: 664: 661: 659: 656: 654: 651: 649: 646: 644: 641: 639: 636: 634: 631: 629: 626: 624: 621: 619: 616: 614: 611: 609: 606: 604: 601: 599: 596: 594: 591: 589: 586: 584: 581: 579: 576: 574: 571: 569: 566: 564: 561: 559: 556: 554: 551: 549: 546: 544: 541: 539: 536: 534: 531: 529: 526: 524: 521: 519: 516: 514: 511: 509: 506: 504: 501: 499: 496: 494: 491: 489: 486: 484: 481: 479: 476: 474: 471: 469: 468:de Mandeville 466: 465: 460: 454: 453: 446: 443: 441: 438: 436: 433: 431: 428: 426: 423: 421: 418: 416: 413: 411: 408: 406: 403: 401: 397: 396:Public choice 394: 392: 389: 387: 384: 382: 379: 377: 374: 372: 371:Participation 369: 367: 364: 362: 359: 357: 354: 352: 349: 347: 344: 342: 339: 337: 334: 332: 331:Institutional 329: 327: 324: 322: 319: 317: 314: 312: 309: 307: 304: 302: 299: 297: 294: 292: 289: 287: 284: 282: 281:Expeditionary 279: 277: 274: 272: 271:Environmental 269: 267: 264: 262: 259: 257: 254: 252: 249: 247: 244: 242: 239: 237: 234: 232: 229: 227: 224: 222: 219: 217: 214: 213: 207: 206: 199: 196: 194: 191: 189: 186: 184: 181: 179: 176: 174: 171: 169: 166: 164: 161: 159: 156: 154: 151: 150: 144: 143: 136: 133: 131: 128: 126: 123: 121: 118: 116: 113: 111: 107: 104: 102: 101:International 99: 97: 94: 92: 89: 87: 84: 83: 80: 77:Branches and 74: 73: 68: 65: 63: 60: 58: 55: 54: 53: 52: 48: 44: 43: 40: 37: 36: 32: 28: 27: 22: 6325: 6302: 6283: 6220: 6211:Architecture 6184:Nazi Germany 5992:Thomas Adams 5972:Loretta Lees 5967:Le Corbusier 5937:Edmund Bacon 5902:Andrés Duany 5857:Urbanization 5843:Urban sprawl 5808:Rural flight 5788:Permeability 5783:Model cities 5655:Logging camp 5614:Company town 5528:Smart growth 5518:New Urbanism 5300:Urban design 5051:Optimization 5036:Mathematical 4996:Experimental 4991:Evolutionary 4976:Econometrics 4965: 4834:Public goods 4808:Price system 4803:Price signal 4717:Monopolistic 4586:Distribution 4501:Major topics 4404: 4361: 4300: 4296:Description. 4270: 4243: 4233: 4226: 4222:, World Bank 4217: 4210: 4188: 4177: 4170: 4163: 4156: 4127: 4116:Crook, Clive 4107: 4101: 4088: 4073: 4058: 4052:Bibliography 4039:. Retrieved 4035: 4025: 4010: 3999:. Retrieved 3995:the original 3985: 3974:. Retrieved 3970:the original 3960: 3922: 3913: 3905: 3896: 3876: 3859: 3855: 3849: 3841: 3832: 3807: 3803: 3786: 3777: 3769: 3760: 3752: 3747: 3739: 3730: 3722: 3679: 3675: 3665: 3640: 3636: 3630: 3613: 3609: 3566: 3562: 3552: 3535: 3531: 3507: 3502: 3467: 3463: 3444: 3407: 3403: 3397: 3372: 3368: 3334:(3): 345–53. 3331: 3327: 3314: 3279: 3253: 3246: 3236: 3230: 3220: 3214: 3202: 3197: 3189: 3177: 3166: 3161: 3153: 3148: 3140: 3135: 3127: 3122: 3111: 3106: 3093: 3080: 3071: 3062: 3043: 3037: 3024: 3016: 3008: 3000: 2992: 2931: 2927: 2917: 2904: 2892: 2887: 2874: 2820:Lorenz curve 2684:, author of 2666:Thai Project 2585: 2571: 2560: 2559:, author of 2502: 2495:Kate Raworth 2461:Rohini Pande 2325:Peter Howitt 2298: 2284: 2280: 2279:, author of 2247:Esther Duflo 2223:Melissa Dell 2209:Angus Deaton 2172: 2171:, author of 2169:Paul Collier 2077: 2076:, author of 2064: 2057:Kaushik Basu 2048: 1993:Peter Howitt 1949:Grameen Bank 1912: 1892: 1888: 1880: 1865:econometrics 1853: 1845: 1826: 1817: 1813: 1788: 1763: 1760: 1756: 1754: 1745:public goods 1722: 1717: 1710: 1708: 1578: 1575:polarization 1571: 1566: 1559: 1557: 1484: 1447: 1443: 1441: 1420:nation-state 1413: 1393: 1364: 1352: 1348:Anne Krueger 1329: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1309: 1304:free markets 1300: 1276: 1267: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1250: 1229: 1219: 1216:W. W. Rostow 1213: 1175: 1156:Trumponomics 1145: 1138: 1109: 1105: 1098: 1081: 1066: 1033: 1023: 1017: 1001: 989:nation state 985:mercantilism 982: 979:Mercantilism 950: 942:optimization 938: 917: 916: 837:Publications 802: 425:Sociological 398: / 296:Geographical 276:Evolutionary 251:Digitization 245: 216:Agricultural 120:Mathematical 91:Econometrics 6204:disciplines 6027:Jane Jacobs 5952:James Rouse 5833:Urban decay 5818:Third place 5793:Placemaking 5643:Pit village 5633:Global city 5001:Game theory 4966:Development 4913:Uncertainty 4793:Price floor 4773:Preferences 4712:Competition 4682:Information 4645:Externality 4628:Equilibrium 4569:Transaction 4547:Opportunity 4508:Aggregation 4248:Description 4173:, Zed Books 4166:, Zed Books 4015:description 3643:(1): 1–10. 3021:Ray, Debraj 2949:10986/31468 2895:, 29(3), p 2830:Debt relief 2624:John Sutton 2618:Nobel Prize 2602:and former 2582:Nobel Prize 2578:Amartya Sen 2533:Dani Rodrik 2441:Nathan Nunn 2411:Nobel Prize 2361:Dean Karlan 2263:Clark Medal 2231:Clark Medal 2217:Nobel Prize 2203:Clark Medal 1999:Nava Ashraf 1967:Clark Medal 1903:Ban Ki-moon 1832:real income 1761:cultivating 1432:endogeneity 1394:Economists 1106:magnum opus 1013:colonialism 1004:physiocrats 954:convergence 673:von Neumann 326:Information 266:Engineering 246:Development 241:Demographic 183:Game theory 125:Methodology 6342:Categories 5947:Ian McHarg 5892:Theorists/ 5669:(New town) 5628:Ghost town 5467:Concepts/ 5203:Urban area 5031:Managerial 4951:Behavioral 4824:Production 4761:Oligopsony 4601:Elasticity 4513:Budget set 4240:Debraj Ray 4041:2022-11-14 4001:2010-05-11 3976:2010-05-11 3470:: 213–30. 3130:53 (1943). 2485:Nancy Qian 2425:World Bank 2291:Oded Galor 2125:demography 2084:Tim Besley 1875:See also: 1804:demography 1792:inequality 1784:neoliberal 1772:free trade 1375:World Bank 1355:World Bank 1319:, and the 1208:See also: 1166:See also: 1146:Following 1095:Henry Clay 1077:Zollverein 832:Economists 703:Schumacher 608:Schumpeter 578:von Wieser 498:von Thünen 459:economists 435:Statistics 430:Solidarity 351:Managerial 316:Humanistic 311:Historical 256:Ecological 221:Behavioral 115:Mainstream 6236:Geography 6148:Barcelona 6127:Singapore 6102:Australia 6095:Countries 5709:Cityscape 5476:Movements 5072:Economics 4944:Subfields 4839:Rationing 4756:Oligopoly 4751:Monopsony 4739:Bilateral 4672:Household 4523:Convexity 4151:163149563 4143:317650570 4110:: 818–26. 4095:Abstract. 4019:preview). 3424:152680631 3192:, Oxford. 3031:Abstract. 2958:0258-6770 2867:Footnotes 2375:problems. 1800:terrorism 1737:municipal 1735:, at the 1681:× 1645:− 1605:∑ 1601:− 1508:∑ 1504:− 1476:civil war 1452:ethnicity 1448:diversity 1444:ethnicity 922:economics 748:Greenspan 713:Samuelson 693:Galbraith 663:Tinbergen 603:von Mises 598:Heckscher 558:Edgeworth 376:Personnel 336:Knowledge 301:Happiness 291:Financial 261:Education 236:Democracy 130:Political 96:Heterodox 39:Economics 6304:Category 6153:Shanghai 6055:Training 5697:Concepts 5688:Boomtown 5678:Arcology 5650:Man camp 5618:Monotown 5571:Ekistics 5553:Theories 5469:theories 5310:Urbanism 5259:branches 5228:Planning 5223:Land use 5177:Theories 5119:Category 5065:See also 4956:Business 4928:Marginal 4923:Expected 4864:Shortage 4859:Scarcity 4734:Monopoly 4640:Exchange 4552:Implicit 4542:Marginal 4242:(1998). 4187:(2012). 4147:50016270 4118:(1992). 3991:"review" 3946:Archived 3885:Archived 3824:54195092 3657:40602760 3447:. Print. 3360:(2005). 3306:11234509 3259:Archived 3171:Reprint. 2703:See also 1757:spawning 1482:groups. 1464:saliency 1402:and the 1237:Cold War 1150:and the 841:journals 827:Glossary 778:Stiglitz 743:Rothbard 723:Buchanan 708:Friedman 698:Koopmans 688:Leontief 668:Robinson 553:Marshall 457:Notable 405:Regional 381:Planning 356:Monetary 286:Feminist 231:Cultural 226:Business 31:a series 29:Part of 6326:Commons 6202:Related 6015:Critics 5768:LEED-ND 5266:General 5196:General 5187:Outline 5172:History 5077:Applied 5056:Welfare 4918:Utility 4878:Surplus 4817:Pricing 4729:Duopoly 4722:Perfect 4665:Service 4633:General 4537:Average 4126:(ed.). 3844:(2007). 3585:2946696 3494:7394251 3445:293–323 3389:8487971 3209:, 2003. 3188:(2000) 2897:pp. 457 2568:preview 2261:, 2010 2257:, 2009 2233:winner. 2205:winner. 2127:at the 1969:winner. 1731:in the 1468:Somalia 1291:Marxism 1262:pattern 847:Schools 839: ( 798:Piketty 793:Krugman 658:Kuznets 648:Kalecki 623:Polanyi 513:Cournot 508:Bastiat 493:Ricardo 483:Malthus 473:Quesnay 445:Welfare 415:Service 86:Applied 62:Outline 57:History 6174:Africa 6158:Sydney 6141:Cities 6122:Serbia 6117:Russia 6088:Places 5884:People 5871:Zoning 5754:Infill 5218:Suburb 4902:Supply 4893:Demand 4829:Profit 4697:Market 4559:Social 4277: 4256:ch. 1. 4199: 4141: 4081: 4066: 3822: 3655: 3583: 3492: 3482: 3422: 3387: 3304: 3294: 3050: 2956: 2570:) and 1965:, and 1709:where 1558:where 1472:Somali 1456:Rwanda 1188:, and 1148:Brexit 783:Thaler 763:Ostrom 758:Becker 753:Sowell 733:Baumol 638:Myrdal 633:Sraffa 628:Frisch 618:Knight 613:Keynes 588:Fisher 583:Veblen 568:Pareto 548:Menger 543:George 538:Jevons 533:Walras 523:Gossen 391:Public 386:Policy 341:Labour 306:Health 163:Market 6167:Other 6107:China 5543:YIMBY 5513:NIMBY 5319:Rural 5291:(Eur) 5257:Major 5182:Index 5021:Labor 5006:Green 4778:Price 4660:Goods 4650:Firms 4122:. In 3820:S2CID 3653:S2CID 3606:(PDF) 3581:JSTOR 3528:(PDF) 3490:S2CID 3420:S2CID 3385:S2CID 3365:(PDF) 3324:(PDF) 2517:Oxfam 1487:index 820:Lists 788:Hoppe 773:Lucas 738:Solow 728:Arrow 718:Simon 683:Lange 678:Hicks 653:Röpke 643:Hayek 593:Pigou 563:Clark 478:Smith 440:Urban 420:Socio 410:Rural 110:Macro 106:Micro 67:Index 5736:(US) 5343:(UK) 5280:(US) 5208:City 4935:Wage 4844:Rent 4812:Free 4564:Sunk 4532:Cost 4525:and 4324:and 4314:and 4290:and 4275:ISBN 4197:ISBN 4139:OCLC 4079:ISBN 4064:ISBN 4017:and 3480:ISBN 3302:PMID 3292:ISBN 3184:and 3048:ISBN 2954:ISSN 2616:and 2283:and 2229:and 2201:and 1979:and 1939:UNDP 1838:and 1733:U.S. 1480:clan 1446:and 1373:and 1196:and 1170:and 1104:his 1038:and 932:and 804:more 528:Marx 518:Mill 503:List 5026:Law 3904:". 3864:doi 3840:." 3812:doi 3785:". 3768:". 3738:". 3721:". 3692:hdl 3684:doi 3680:114 3645:doi 3618:doi 3571:doi 3567:110 3540:doi 3472:doi 3412:doi 3377:doi 3284:doi 2944:hdl 2936:doi 2539:'s 2511:'s 2477:'s 2399:'s 1759:or 1346:). 1338:), 1218:in 768:Sen 488:Say 346:Law 6344:: 5864:/ 5845:/ 5761:/ 5747:/ 5616:/ 4364:). 4326:3B 4322:3A 4250:, 4195:. 4149:, 4145:, 4106:. 4034:. 3930:^ 3860:51 3858:. 3818:. 3808:18 3806:. 3794:^ 3706:^ 3690:. 3678:. 3674:. 3651:. 3641:14 3639:. 3614:76 3612:. 3608:. 3593:^ 3579:. 3565:. 3561:. 3536:50 3534:. 3530:. 3515:^ 3488:. 3478:. 3466:. 3452:^ 3432:^ 3418:. 3406:. 3383:. 3373:43 3371:. 3367:. 3340:^ 3332:13 3330:. 3326:. 3300:. 3290:. 3270:^ 2966:^ 2952:. 2942:. 2932:31 2930:. 2926:. 1834:, 1830:, 1386:. 1315:, 1184:, 1180:, 1136:. 1042:. 1015:. 928:, 108:/ 33:on 5153:e 5146:t 5139:v 4904:/ 4895:/ 4866:/ 4810:/ 4486:e 4479:t 4472:v 4397:e 4390:t 4383:v 4360:( 4338:5 4332:4 4316:2 4312:1 4283:. 4205:. 4136:. 4108:1 4044:. 4004:. 3979:. 3955:. 3925:. 3870:. 3866:: 3826:. 3814:: 3700:. 3694:: 3686:: 3659:. 3647:: 3624:. 3620:: 3587:. 3573:: 3546:. 3542:: 3496:. 3474:: 3468:2 3426:. 3414:: 3408:8 3391:. 3379:: 3308:. 3286:: 3101:. 3088:. 3056:. 2960:. 2946:: 2938:: 2678:. 2644:. 2630:. 2606:. 2574:. 2566:( 2529:. 2519:. 2491:. 2467:. 2457:. 2447:. 2437:. 2403:. 2389:. 2357:. 2347:. 2321:. 2311:. 2287:. 2273:. 2243:. 2191:. 2165:. 2155:. 2141:. 2131:. 2117:. 2094:. 2080:. 2037:. 2019:. 2005:. 1995:. 1955:. 1941:. 1718:i 1713:i 1711:s 1694:, 1689:i 1685:s 1676:2 1671:) 1664:2 1661:1 1653:i 1649:s 1639:2 1636:1 1627:( 1620:N 1615:1 1612:= 1609:i 1598:1 1595:= 1592:Q 1579:Q 1572:Q 1567:i 1562:i 1560:s 1543:, 1538:2 1533:i 1529:s 1523:N 1518:1 1515:= 1512:i 1501:1 1342:( 1334:( 1102:, 906:e 899:t 892:v 843:) 23:.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.