1688:
1317:
modes and intermolecular interactions in molecular crystals. The influence of changes in the small substituents on shape and electron distribution can also be investigated by mapping the total electron density on the electrostatic potential for molecules in the gas phase. This allows straightforward visualisation and comparison of overall shape, electron-rich and electron-deficient regions within molecules. The shape of these molecules can be further investigated to study its influence on diverse solid-state diversity.
1970:
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1267:
packing motifs, interactions in the resultant crystal lattices and the extent of solid-state diversity of these compounds. The results highlight the value of crystal structure prediction studies and PIXEL calculations in the interpretation of the observed solid-state behaviour and quantifying the intermolecular interactions in the packed structures and identifying the key stabilising interactions. An experimental screen yielded 4 physical forms for
1054:
1217:
90:, which include graphite, diamond, and londsdaleite. While all three forms are allotropes, graphite is not a polymorph of diamond and londsdaleite. Isomerization and allotropy are only two of the phenomena linked to polymorphism. For additional information about identifying polymorphism and distinguishing it from other phenomena, see the review by Brog et al.
1108:, usually less stable polymorphs crystallize before the stable form. The concept hinges on the idea that unstable polymorphs more closely resemble the state in solution, and thus are kinetically advantaged. The founding case of fibrous vs rhombic benzamide illustrates the case. Another example is provided by two polymorphs of
1692:
and monotropic transitions and energy/temperature semi-quantitative diagrams can be drawn by applying several rules, principally the heat-of-transition rule, the heat-of-fusion rule and the density rule. These rules enable the deduction of the relative positions of the H and
Gisobars in the E/T diagram.
1700:, two types of polymorphic behaviour are recognized. For a monotropic system, plots of the free energies of the various polymorphs against temperature do not cross before all polymorphs melt. As a result, any transition from one polymorph to another below the melting point will be irreversible. For an
189:
became commonly used for studying the crystal structure of polymorphs. Both single crystal x-ray diffraction and powder x-ray diffraction techniques are used to obtain measurements of the crystal unit cell. Each polymorph of a compound has a unique crystal structure. As a result, different polymorphs
149:
for their studies of phosphates and arsenates in the early 1800s. The studies involved measuring the interfacial angles of the crystals to show that chemically identical salts could have two different forms. Mitscherlich originally called this discovery isomorphism. The measurement of crystal density
1266:
Multidisciplinary studies involving experimental and computational approaches were applied to pharmaceutical molecules to facilitate the comparison of their solid-state structures. Specifically, this study has focused on exploring how changes in molecular structure affect the molecular conformation,
70:
as “a crystalline phase of a given compound resulting from the possibility of at least two different arrangements of the molecules of that compound in the solid state.” These defining facts imply that polymorphism involves changes in physical properties but cannot include chemical change. Some early
1691:
Solid phase transitions which transform reversibly without passing through the liquid or gaseous phases are called enantiotropic. In contrast, if the modifications are not convertible under these conditions, the system is monotropic. Experimental data are used to differentiate between enantiotropic
1119:
Polymorphs have disparate stabilities. Some convert rapidly at room (or any) temperature. Most polymorphs of organic molecules only differ by a few kJ/mol in lattice energy. Approximately 50% of known polymorph pairs differ by less than 2 kJ/mol and stability differences of more than 10 kJ/mol are
210:
patterns. Such changes can subsequently be related to structural differences. Additionally, terahertz and low frequency Raman spectroscopies reveal vibrational modes resulting from intermolecular interactions in crystalline solids. Again, these vibrational modes are related to crystal structure and
1316:
molecules in both polymorphs. The combination of experimental and computational approaches has provided a deeper understanding of the factors influencing the solid-state structure and diversity in these compounds. Hirshfeld surfaces using
Crystal Explorer represent another way of exploring packing
1311:
has a significant influence in increasing the range of accessible solid forms and favouring various alternate packing arrangements. CSP studies have again helped in explaining the observed solid-state diversity of loxapine and amoxapine. PIXEL calculations showed that in absence of strong H-bonds,
416:
A classic example of a nonmetal that exhibits polymorphism is carbon. Carbon has many allotropes, including graphite, diamond, and londsdaleite. However, these are not all polymorphs of each other. Graphite is not a polymorph of diamond and londsdaleite, since it is chemically distinct, having sp
1312:
weak H-bonds such as C–H...O, C–H...N and dispersion interactions play a key role in stabilising the crystal lattice of both the molecules. Efficient crystal packing of amoxapine seems to be contributing towards its monomorphic behaviour as compared to the comparatively less efficient packing of
222:
may be used in combination with vibrational spectroscopy techniques to understand the origins of vibrations within crystals. The combination of techniques provides detailed information about crystal structures, similar to what can be achieved with x-ray crystallography. In addition to using
408:
Elements including metals may exhibit polymorphism. Allotropy is the term used when describing elements having different forms and is used commonly in the field of metallurgy. Some (but not all) allotropes are also polymorphs. For example iron has three allotropes that are also polymorphs.
41:
The preceding definition has evolved over many years and is still under discussion today. Discussion of the defining characteristics of polymorphism involves distinguishing among types of transitions and structural changes occurring in polymorphism versus those in other phenomena.
1704:
system, a plot of the free energy against temperature shows a crossing point before the various melting points. It may also be possible to convert interchangeably between the two polymorphs by heating or cooling, or through physical contact with a lower energy polymorph.
421:
bonding. Diamond, and londsdaleite are chemically identical, both having sp hybridized bonding, and they differ only in their crystal structures, making them polymorphs. Additionally, graphite has two polymorphs, a hexagonal (alpha) form and a rhombohedral (beta) form.
1127:. The solvent in all respects affects the nature of the polymorph, including concentration, other components of the solvent, i.e., species that inhibiting or promote certain growth patterns. A decisive factor is often the temperature of the solvent from which
235:
Many compounds exhibit polymorphism. It has been claimed that "every compound has different polymorphic forms, and that, in general, the number of forms known for a given compound is proportional to the time and money spent in research on that compound."
412:
Another metallic example is tin, which has two allotropes that are also polymorphs. At room temperature, beta-tin exists as a white tetragonal form. When cooled below 13.2 degrees, alpha-tin forms which is gray in color and has a cubic diamond form.
193:
Vibrational spectroscopic methods came into use for investigating polymorphism in the second half of the twentieth century and have become more commonly used as optical, computer, and semiconductor technologies improved. These techniques include
173:
While the use of hot stage microscopes continued throughout the 1900s, thermal methods also became commonly used to observe the heat flow that occurs during phase changes such as melting and polymorphic transitions. One such technique,
1287:, and further solid form diversity could be targeted with a better understanding of the role of kinetics in its crystallisation. CSP studies were able to offer an explanation for the absence of the centrosymmetric dimer in anhydrous
1660:, where the common 1T as well as 2H polytypes occur, but also more complex 'mixed coordination' types such as 4Hb and 6R, where the trigonal prismatic and the octahedral geometry layers are mixed. Here, the 1T polytype exhibits a
3895:
Surov, Artem O.; Vasilev, Nikita A.; Churakov, Andrei V.; Stroh, Julia; Emmerling, Franziska; Perlovich, German L. (2019). "Solid Forms of
Ciprofloxacin Salicylate: Polymorphism, Formation Pathways and Thermodynamic Stability".
1194:
rates depend on the polymorph. Polymorphic purity of drug samples can be checked using techniques such as powder X-ray diffraction, IR/Raman spectroscopy, and utilizing the differences in their optical properties in some cases.
1481:
Pyrazinamide has at least 4 polymorphs. All of them transforms to stable α form at room temperature upon storage or mechanical treatment. Recent studies prove that α form is thermodynamically stable at room temperature.
165:
came into use, and it provided better visualization of crystalline phases allowing crystallographers to distinguish between different polymorphs. The hot stage was invented and fitted to a polarized light microscope by
1120:
rare. Polymorph stability may change upon temperature or pressure. Importantly, structural and thermodynamic stability are different. Thermodynamic stability may be studied using experimental or computational methods.
285:
was discovered, 124 years after the first crystal form was studied. Maleic acid is manufactured on an industrial scale in the chemical industry. It forms salt found in medicine. The new crystal type is produced when a
61:
is "A reversible transition of a solid crystalline phase at a certain temperature and pressure (the inversion point) to another phase of the same chemical composition with a different crystal structure." Additionally,
227:. This technique uses computational chemistry to model the formation of crystals and predict the existence of specific polymorphs of a compound before they have been observed experimentally by scientists.
2816:
Bowskill, David H.; Sugden, Isaac J.; Konstantinopoulos, Stefanos; Adjiman, Claire S.; Pantelides, Constantinos C. (2021). "Crystal
Structure Prediction Methods for Organic Molecules: State of the Art".
1279:
are consistent with its crystal energy landscape which confirms that no alternate packing arrangement is thermodynamically competitive to the experimentally obtained structure. Whilst in case of
161:’s studies in the 1830s. He was able to demonstrate methods to induce crystal phase changes and formally summarized his findings on the nature of polymorphism. Soon after, the more sophisticated
1687:
2314:
3080:
Serezhkin, Viktor N.; Savchenkov, Anton V. (2020). "Application of the Method of
Molecular Voronoi–Dirichlet Polyhedra for Analysis of Noncovalent Interactions in Aripiprazole Polymorphs".
2188:
2121:
2048:
4447:
C.E. Ryan, R.C. Marshall, J.J. Hawley, I. Berman & D.P. Considine, "The
Conversion of Cubic to Hexagonal Silicon Carbide as a Function of Temperature and Pressure," U.S. Air Force,
4461:
Carletta, Andrea (2015). "Solid-State
Investigation of Polymorphism and Tautomerism of Phenylthiazole-thione: A Combined Crystallographic, Calorimetric, and Theoretical Survey".
2361:
1425:
groups, both polymorphs form identical dimer structures. The aspirin polymorphs contain identical 2-dimensional sections and are therefore more precisely described as polytypes.
3948:
Thomas, Sajesh P.; Nagarajan, K.; Row, T. N. Guru (2012). "Polymorphism and tautomeric preference in fenobam and the utility of NLO response to detect polymorphic impurities".
4285:
Castro, Ricardo A. E.; Maria, Teresa M. R.; Évora, António O. L.; Feiteira, Joana C.; Silva, M. Ramos; Beja, A. Matos; Canotilho, João; Eusébio, M. Ermelinda S. (2010-01-06).
3140:
Tyler, Andrew R.; Ragbirsingh, Ronnie; McMonagle, Charles J.; Waddell, Paul G.; Heaps, Sarah E.; Steed, Jonathan W.; Thaw, Paul; Hall, Michael J.; Probert, Michael R. (2020).
1357:
exists as two polymorphs, which differ greatly in efficacy. Such issues were solved by reformulating the medicine into gelcaps and tablets, rather than the original capsules.
430:
Polymorphism in binary metal oxides has attracted much attention because these materials are of significant economic value. One set of famous examples have the composition SiO
409:
Alpha-iron, which exists at room temperature, has a bcc form. Above 910 degrees gamma-iron exists, which has a fcc form. Above 1390 degrees delta-iron exists with a bcc form.
2239:
1762:
1964:
3784:"Comparison of Different Computational Approaches for Unveiling the High-Pressure Behavior of Organic Crystals at a Molecular Level. Case Study of Tolazamide Polymorphs"
1421:. In form II, each aspirin molecule forms the same hydrogen bonds, but with two neighbouring molecules instead of one. With respect to the hydrogen bonds formed by the
1922:
1857:
1825:
1792:
376:
1886:
3116:
4413:
Wilson, J.A.; Di Salvo, F. J.; Mahajan, S. (October 1974). "Charge-density waves and superlattices in the metallic layered transition metal dichalcogenides".
4159:
Andrew D. Bond; Roland Boese; Gautam R. Desiraju (2007). "On the
Polymorphism of Aspirin: Crystalline Aspirin as Intergrowths of Two "Polymorphic" Domains".
1373:, though the existence of another polymorph was debated since the 1960s, and one report from 1981 reported that when crystallized in the presence of aspirin
4214:
Wang, In-Chun; Lee, Min-Jeong; Seo, Da-Young; Lee, Hea-Eun; Choi, Yongsun; Kim, Woo-Sik; Kim, Chang-Sam; Jeong, Myung-Yung; Choi, Guang Jin (14 June 2011).
4123:
Peddy
Vishweshwar; Jennifer A. McMahon; Mark Oliveira; Matthew L. Peterson & Michael J. Zaworotko (2005). "The Predictably Elusive Form II of Aspirin".
3471:"Relative Stability of Pyrazinamide Polymorphs Revisited: A Computational Study of Bending and Brittle Forms Phase Transitions in a Broad Temperature Range"
223:
computational methods for enhancing the understanding of spectroscopic data, the latest development in identifying polymorphism in crystals is the field of
1439:
powder has poor compression properties, which poses difficulty in making tablets. A second polymorph was found with more suitable compressive properties.
261:
slowly converted to rhombic crystals. Present-day analysis identifies three polymorphs for benzamide: the least stable one, formed by flash cooling is the
54:
1235:
66:
described the phases in polymorphic matter as "different in crystal structure but identical in the liquid or vapor states." McCrone also defines a
86:
of elements and polymorphism have been linked historically. However, allotropes of an element are not always polymorphs. A common example is the
53:(phase changes) that help describe polymorphism include polymorphic transitions as well as melting and vaporization transitions. According to
357:
1295:, the intermolecular interaction energy in each structure is also dominated by the Ed. Despite the molecular structure similarity between
3839:"Simple and efficient modifications of well known techniques for reliable growth of high-quality crystals of small bioorganic molecules"
3512:"Low Temperature Infrared Spectroscopy Study of Pyrazinamide: From the Isolated Monomer to the Stable Low Temperature Crystalline Phase"
2964:
Graeme M. Day; Andrew V. Trask; W. D. Samuel
Motherwell; William Jones (2006). "Investigating the Latent Polymorphism of Maleic Acid".
273:
form I. The hydrogen bonding mechanisms are the same for all three phases; however, they differ strongly in their pi-pi interactions.
4558:
2707:
Parrott, Edward P.J.; Zeitler, J. Axel (2015). "Terahertz Time-Domain and Low-Frequency Raman Spectroscopy of Organic Materials".
1283:, crystal energy landscape highlights that the extensive experimental screening has probably not found all possible polymorphs of
4161:
3003:
74:
Eliminating chemical change from those changes permissible during a polymorphic transition delineates polymorphism. For example,
4529:
4362:"The basics of crystallography and diffraction", Christopher Hammond, Second edition, Oxford science publishers, IUCr, page 28
3645:"Computational Investigation of the Stability of Di-p-Tolyl Disulfide "Hidden" and "Conventional" Polymorphs at High Pressures"
2862:
Crystal Engineering: The Design and Application of Functional Solids, Volume 539, Kenneth Richard Seddon, Michael Zaworotk 1999
4027:"The structure of posaconazole and its solvates with methanol, and dioxane and water: Difluorophenyl as a hydrogen bond donor"
4004:
3039:
199:
17:
4263:
3038:
Schur, Einat; Bernstein, Joel; Price, Louise S.; Guo, Rui; Price, Sarah L.; Lapidus, Saul H.; Stephens, Peter W. (2019).
4216:"Polymorph Transformation in Paracetamol Monitored by In-line NIR Spectroscopy During a Cooling Crystallization Process"
4367:
3287:"Polymorphism in nanocrystalline binary metal oxides", S. Sood, P.Gouma, Nanomaterials and Energy, 2(NME2), 1-15(2013).
1450:
acetate exists in at least five different polymorphs, four of which are unstable in water and change to a stable form.
170:
in about 1877. This invention helped crystallographers determine melting points and observe polymorphic transitions.
3370:
3248:
1253:
175:
3001:
Thallapally PK, Jetti RK, Katz AK (2004). "Polymorphism of 1,3,5-trinitrobenzene Induced by a Trisindane Additive".
4537:
3743:"A Short Review of Current Computational Concepts for High-Pressure Phase Transition Studies in Molecular Crystals"
1645:
1381:
of aspirin has weak additional peaks. Though at the time it was dismissed as mere impurity, it was, in retrospect,
2246:
1497:
crystal structures differ in one dimension only. Polytypes have identical close-packed planes, but differ in the
2053:
1980:
2655:
2422:
2381:
2126:
1502:
1342:
375:
has nine. The record for the largest number of well-characterised polymorphs is held by a compound known as
1664:, with distinct influence on the conductivity as a function of temperature, while the 2H polytype exhibits
224:
1303:(molecules in group 2), the crystal packing observed in polymorphs of loxa differs significantly from the
3315:
1656:, the 1T polytype is metallic in character, while the 2H form is more semiconducting. Another example is
162:
4026:
2196:
1715:
384:
158:
4122:
2321:
1675:
are also polytypical. It has been suggested that this type of polymorphism is due to kinetics where
1652:). For these materials the polytypes have more distinct effects on material properties, e.g. for MoS
4573:
4080:
Bauer J, et al. (2004). "Ritonavir: An Extraordinary Example of Conformational Polymorphism".
1927:
388:
167:
1428:
Pure Form II aspirin could be prepared by seeding the batch with aspirin anhydrate in 15% weight.
3686:"Pressure-driven phase transition mechanisms revealed by quantum chemistry: l -serine polymorphs"
2966:
1203:
The known cases up to 2015 are discussed in a review article by Bučar, Lancaster, and Bernstein.
1147:
1135:
329:
219:
3510:
Borba, Ana; Albrecht, Merwe; Gómez-Zavaglia, Andrea; Suhm, Martin A.; Fausto, Rui (2010-01-14).
2963:
146:
1045:. A third form of calcium carbonate is vaterite, which is hexagonal and relatively unstable.
3301:
1891:
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8:
4563:
4287:"A New Insight into Pyrazinamide Polymorphic Forms and their Thermodynamic Relationships"
1661:
1620:
1291:. PIXEL calculations on all the crystal structures of clozapine revealed that similar to
4042:
3799:
3701:
3595:
3527:
3331:
3157:
2720:
2458:
2123:, and if they have the same shape as in Figure 2, then the two curves intersect at some
1924:. In order to crystallize, a ball of crystal much overcome the energetic barrier to the
1701:
1505:, although most are rare. All the polytypes of SiC have virtually the same density and
1307:. A combined experimental and computational study demonstrated that the methyl group in
250:
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3984:
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3415:
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3097:
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2884:
Wöhler, F.; Liebig, J.; Ann (1832). "Untersuchungen über das Radikal der Benzoesäure".
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2793:
2768:
2740:
2441:
Brog, Jean-Pierre; Chanez, Claire-Lise; Crochet, Aurelien; Fromm, Katharina M. (2013).
1657:
360:. This experiment shows that additives can induce the appearance of polymorphic forms.
203:
3783:
3584:
Acta Crystallographica Section B Structural Science, Crystal Engineering and Materials
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2874:, Second Edition Steven W. Baertschi, Karen M. Alsante, Robert A. Reed 2011 CRC Press
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1506:
1403:
1105:
1079:
1042:
254:
50:
35:
4109:
3419:
1096:. With gentle heating of the slurry, the black polymorph converts to the red form.
4501:
4470:
4422:
4393:
4337:
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4133:
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93:
It is also useful to note that materials with two polymorphic phases can be called
4196:
157:
The development of the microscope enhanced observations of polymorphism and aided
3879:
3165:
2929:
Thun, Jürgen (2007). "Polymorphism in Benzamide: Solving a 175-Year-Old Riddle".
1969:
1470:
1422:
1172:
1134:
Metastable polymorphs are not always reproducibly obtained, leading to cases of "
1128:
1124:
325:
151:
34:
is the phenomenon where a compound or element can crystallize into more than one
3996:
2386:
1501:
in the third dimension perpendicular to these planes. Silicon carbide (SiC) has
211:
can be used to uncover differences in 3-dimensional structure among polymorphs.
4398:
4381:
3353:
Newell, Lyman C.; Maxson, R. N.; Filson, M. H. (1939). "Red Mercuric Sulfide".
3197:
Cruz-Cabeza, Aurora J.; Bernstein, Joel (2014). "Conformational Polymorphism".
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2520:
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1498:
105:
63:
27:
Ability of a solid material to exist in more than one form or crystal structure
4426:
4231:
4093:
3991:, Springer Theses, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 153–193,
3855:
3807:
3643:
Smirnova, Valeriya Yu.; Iurchenkova, Anna A.; Rychkov, Denis A. (2022-08-17).
3603:
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was reported in 2005, found after attempted co-crystallization of aspirin and
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4286:
4058:
3864:
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3768:
3719:
3670:
3611:
3553:
3511:
3496:
3411:
3142:"Encapsulated Nanodroplet Crystallization of Organic-Soluble Small Molecules"
3117:"Red–orange–yellow reclaims polymorph record with help from molecular cousin"
3040:"The (Current) Acridine Solid Form Landscape: Eight Polymorphs and a Hydrate"
2915:
2897:
2615:
2601:
2391:
1458:
1418:
1392:
1378:
321:
207:
82:(dynamic isomerization) leads to chemical change, not polymorphism. As well,
75:
4474:
4158:
3985:"Exploring the Physical Form Landscape of Clozapine, Amoxapine and Loxapine"
3909:
3578:
Hoser, Anna Agnieszka; Rekis, Toms; Madsen, Anders Østergaard (2022-06-01).
3093:
3058:
2689:
4505:
4324:
Cherukuvada, Suryanarayan; Thakuria, Ranjit; Nangia, Ashwini (2010-09-01).
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McQuiston, Dylan K.; Mucalo, Michael R.; Saunders, Graham C. (2019-03-05).
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1338:
1334:
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372:
262:
109:
4326:"Pyrazinamide Polymorphs: Relative Stability and Vibrational Spectroscopy"
3837:
Rychkov, Denis A.; Arkhipov, Sergey G.; Boldyreva, Elena V. (2014-08-01).
3759:
3742:
3661:
3644:
3487:
3470:
2480:
Cruz-Cabeza, Aurora J.; Reutzel-Edens, Susan M.; Bernstein, Joel (2015).
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If the crystal is grown slowly, it could be kinetically stuck in form 1.
1635:
1436:
1113:
1062:
302:
282:
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2593:
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and when the solvent is allowed to evaporate slowly. Whereas form I has
206:. Mid-frequency IR and Raman spectroscopies are sensitive to changes in
3961:
3710:
3685:
3451:
3434:
3314:
Perić, J.; Vučak, M.; Krstulović, R.; Brečević, Lj.; Kralj, D. (1996).
2561:(1965). "Polymorphism". In Fox, D.; Labes, M.; Weissberger, A. (eds.).
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2466:
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1157:
1088:β-HgS precipitates as a black solid when Hg(II) salts are treated with
459:
299:
295:
287:
270:
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4302:
4137:
3535:
3435:"Static and lattice vibrational energy differences between polymorphs"
3210:
2815:
2443:"Polymorphism, what it is and how to identify it: a systematic review"
1977:
Now, suppose there are two kinds of crystals, with different energies
1337:
increased rapidly and resulted in much research in crystallography of
1190:
Polymorphism in drugs can also have direct medical implications since
1116:, where only narrow cooling rate favors obtaining metastable form II.
3388:"Cooling rate "window" in the crystallization of metacetamol form II"
2979:
2728:
2533:
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rapidly reproduce partly disordered sequences in a periodic fashion.
1447:
1354:
1304:
1296:
1288:
1276:
1268:
1191:
1075:
1038:
443:
258:
125:
83:
3580:"Dynamics and disorder: on the stability of pyrazinamide polymorphs"
1341:. A methanol solvate and a 1,4-dioxane co-crystal were added to the
1325:
The original formulations of posaconazole on the market licensed as
1560:
1462:
1415:
1313:
1308:
1300:
451:
368:
356:
when the compound was crystallised in the presence of an additive,
332:, while in form II, the sheets are oriented in the same direction.
320:. Both polymorphs consist of sheets of molecules connected through
291:
179:
117:
79:
3386:
Drebushchak, V. A.; McGregor, L.; Rychkov, D. A. (February 2017).
348:, but in 2004, a second polymorph was obtained in the space group
4382:"Two-dimensional MoS2: Properties, preparation, and applications"
2481:
2479:
1370:
1071:
1034:
455:
380:
113:
3139:
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groups: in form I, the sheets alternate with respect of the net
257:. They observed that the silky needles of freshly crystallized
3509:
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2442:
1411:
1407:
1168:
439:
435:
344:
yielded a second polymorph. The usual form has the space group
3684:
Rychkov, Denis A.; Stare, Jernej; Boldyreva, Elena V. (2017).
269:
form III (observed by Wöhler/Liebig). The most stable form is
1644:
A second group of materials with different polytypes are the
3313:
1033:
A classical example of polymorphism is the pair of minerals
4264:"Disappearing Polymorphs and Gastrointestinal Infringement"
2650:. New York, USA: Oxford University Press. pp. 94–149.
1402:
In form I, pairs of aspirin molecules form centrosymmetric
1138:", with usually negative implications on law and business.
391:. Polymorphism in organic compounds is often the result of
121:
3642:
3385:
2872:
Pharmaceutical Stress Testing: Predicting Drug Degradation
4533:
4323:
3894:
3304:(ART) summarized in the Journal of Materials Science 2011
2417:. New York, USA: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–27.
4284:
3989:
Control and Prediction of Solid-State of Pharmaceuticals
3836:
4024:
2766:
434:, which form many polymorphs. Important ones include:
3316:"Phase Transformation of Calcium Carbonate Polymorphs"
3037:
2767:
Bučar, D.-K.; Lancaster, R. W.; Bernstein, J. (2015).
2440:
1509:. The most common SiC polytypes are shown in Table 1.
141:
Early records of the discovery of polymorphism credit
4412:
3683:
3469:
Dubok, Aleksandr S.; Rychkov, Denis A. (2023-04-04).
2324:
2249:
2199:
2129:
2056:
1983:
1930:
1894:
1888:
rises to a maximum before dropping, crossing zero at
1865:
1833:
1800:
1770:
1718:
1648:, layered materials such as molybdenum disulfide (MoS
1164:
and are granted patents for only a single polymorph.
3196:
3000:
2565:. Vol. 2. Wiley-Interscience. pp. 726–767.
78:
can often lead to polymorphic transitions. However,
4197:"Polytypism - Online Dictionary of Crystallography"
3079:
1226:
may be too technical for most readers to understand
190:will produce different x-ray diffraction patterns.
3947:
3782:Fedorov, A. Yu.; Rychkov, D. A. (September 2020).
3352:
3265:"Definition of polymorphism - mindat.org glossary"
3243:(Second ed.). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
2355:
2308:
2233:
2182:
2115:
2042:
1958:
1916:
1880:
1851:
1819:
1786:
1756:
3238:
2616:"Definition of trimorphism - mindat.org glossary"
1493:are a special case of polymorphs, where multiple
1112:. Nevertheless, there are known systems, such as
1099:
4550:
3577:
2563:Physics and Chemistry of the Organic Solid State
178:(DSC), continues to be used for determining the
2883:
2576:Dunitz, Jack D.; Bernstein, Joel (1995-04-01).
2575:
1708:A simple model of polymorphism is to model the
3781:
2706:
1271:as compared to 60 distinct physical forms for
4213:
2241:. Crystals tend to dissolve. Amorphous phase.
3468:
2309:{\displaystyle r_{crit,1}<r<r'_{crit}}
1028:
3392:Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry
2673:"Ostwald Rule of Stages - Myth or Reality?"
2116:{\displaystyle G_{2}=a_{2}r^{2}-b_{2}r^{3}}
2043:{\displaystyle G_{1}=a_{1}r^{2}-b_{1}r^{3}}
1794:is the surface energy, and the second term
1123:Polymorphism is affected by the details of
1041:, which is orthorhombic. Both are forms of
371:has been obtained as eight polymorphs and
363:
104:Polymorphism is of practical relevance to
71:definitions do not make this distinction.
4397:
4239:
3854:
3758:
3709:
3660:
3619:
3543:
3486:
3450:
3173:
3108:
2905:
2858:
2856:
2792:
2688:
2645:
2553:
2551:
2532:
2412:
1254:Learn how and when to remove this message
1238:, without removing the technical details.
249:The phenomenon was discovered in 1832 by
4460:
3982:
3432:
2831:10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-060718-030256
1968:
1686:
1275:. The experimental screening results of
943:High-pressure and high-temperature phase
335:
214:
4162:Angewandte Chemie International Edition
3877:
3740:
3239:Greenwood, N. N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997).
3004:Angewandte Chemie International Edition
2931:Angewandte Chemie International Edition
2773:Angewandte Chemie International Edition
2557:
2482:"Facts and fictions about polymorphism"
2183:{\displaystyle r'_{crit}>r_{crit,1}}
1082:. Note: the colors are from impurities.
136:
97:, those with three polymorphic phases,
14:
4551:
4490:"Perils of Polymorphism: Size Matters"
3297:
3295:
3293:
3234:
3232:
3230:
3228:
3114:
2853:
2670:
2548:
1827:is the volume energy. Both parameters
1183:against competitors while that of the
1179:polymorph of the active ingredient in
425:
294:and maleic acid (2:1) is dissolved in
265:form II. This type is followed by the
4380:Li, Xiao; Zhu, Hongwei (2015-03-01).
4379:
4079:
3573:
3571:
3464:
3462:
3433:Nyman, Jonas; Day, Graeme M. (2015).
2762:
2760:
2758:
2756:
2754:
2702:
2700:
1236:make it understandable to non-experts
1141:
4487:
3281:
3133:
2928:
2641:
2639:
2637:
2635:
2518:
2436:
2434:
2408:
2406:
2190:. Then the system has three phases:
1442:
1365:There was only one proven polymorph
1329:were formulated utilising form I of
1210:
239:
3690:Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics
3516:The Journal of Physical Chemistry A
3290:
3225:
2769:"Disappearing Polymorphs Revisited"
398:
154:and expressed in Ostwald's Ratio.
24:
4488:Ward, Michael D. (February 2017).
3843:Journal of Applied Crystallography
3568:
3459:
3257:
2751:
2697:
2648:Polymorphism in Molecular Crystals
2415:Polymorphism in Molecular Crystals
2363:. Crystals tend to grow as form 2.
2316:. Crystals tend to grow as form 1.
25:
4585:
4523:
4449:Physical Sciences Research Papers
2632:
2608:
2569:
2431:
2403:
1333:. The discovery of polymorphs of
787:Rutile-type Tetragonal (P42/mnm)
176:differential scanning calorimetry
4559:Polymorphism (materials science)
4538:Illinois Institute of Technology
4530:"Small Molecule Crystallization"
3741:Rychkov, Denis A. (2020-01-31).
3302:Anatase to Rutile Transformation
1646:transition metal dichalcogenides
1596:the most stable and common form
1453:
1215:
1152:
1061:
1052:
4481:
4454:
4441:
4406:
4373:
4356:
4317:
4278:
4256:
4207:
4189:
4152:
4116:
4073:
4018:
3976:
3941:
3924:
3888:
3878:Buckley, Harold Eugene (1951).
3871:
3830:
3788:Journal of Structural Chemistry
3775:
3734:
3677:
3636:
3503:
3426:
3379:
3357:. Vol. 1. pp. 19–20.
3346:
3307:
3190:
3073:
3031:
2994:
2957:
2922:
2877:
2865:
2809:
2234:{\displaystyle r<r_{crit,1}}
1757:{\displaystyle G=ar^{2}-br^{3}}
1476:
1198:
1187:polymorph had already expired.
316:, the new form has space group
4270:. 20 July 2012. Archived from
4051:10.1016/j.molstruc.2018.11.031
4031:Journal of Molecular Structure
3932:"Accredited Degree Programmes"
3115:Krämer, Katrina (2020-07-29).
2664:
2512:
2473:
2356:{\displaystyle r>r'_{crit}}
1966:part of the energy landscape.
1875:
1869:
1431:
1100:Factors affecting polymorphism
276:
13:
1:
2582:Accounts of Chemical Research
2397:
2382:Isomorphism (crystallography)
1959:{\displaystyle r>r_{crit}}
1503:more than 170 known polytypes
1485:
1343:Cambridge Structural Database
1037:, which is rhombohedral, and
861:Metastable phase (Not stable)
850:Metastable phase (Not stable)
568:Corundum-type Rhombohedral (R
524:Corundum-type Rhombohedral (R
3340:10.1016/0040-6031(95)02748-3
3166:10.1016/j.chempr.2020.04.009
2819:Annu. Rev. Chem. Biomol. Eng
1712:of a ball-shaped crystal as
1348:
1175:defended its patent for the
244:
225:crystal structure prediction
182:of polymorphic transitions.
131:
7:
4494:Israel Journal of Chemistry
4463:Crystal Growth & Design
4330:Crystal Growth & Design
4291:Crystal Growth & Design
3997:10.1007/978-3-319-27555-0_7
3983:Bhardwaj, Rajni M. (2016),
3898:Crystal Growth & Design
3342:– via Science Direct.
3082:Crystal Growth & Design
3047:Crystal Growth & Design
2677:Crystal Growth & Design
2370:
403:
393:conformational polymorphism
281:In 2006 a new polymorph of
230:
45:
10:
4590:
4399:10.1016/j.jmat.2015.03.003
2519:Gold, Victor, ed. (2019).
1360:
1145:
707:Corundum-type Hexagonal (R
598:Cubic spinel structure (Fd
340:After 125 years of study,
196:infrared (IR) spectroscopy
163:polarized light microscope
4451:, #336, Aug 1967, p 1-26.
4427:10.1080/00018730110102718
4232:10.1208/s12249-011-9642-x
3856:10.1107/S1600576714011273
3808:10.1134/S0022476620090024
3604:10.1107/S2052520622004577
3404:10.1007/s10973-016-5954-0
3363:10.1002/9780470132326.ch7
3241:Chemistry of the Elements
2671:Cardew, Peter T. (2023).
2578:"Disappearing Polymorphs"
1682:
1515:: Some polytypes of SiC.
1410:groups with the (acidic)
1078:(on right), two forms of
1029:Other inorganic compounds
965:
946:Hexagonal (P6a/m or P6a)
911:
868:
829:
774:
751:Corundum-type Trigonal (R
734:
675:
653:773-912 K or RT and 1 atm
617:
551:
507:
481:
159:Moritz Ludwig Frankenheim
2898:10.1002/jlac.18320030302
2646:Bernstein, Joel (2002).
2521:"Polymorphic transition"
2486:Chemical Society Reviews
2413:Bernstein, Joel (2002).
1917:{\displaystyle r_{crit}}
1852:{\displaystyle a,b>0}
1473:also show polymorphism.
4475:10.1021/acs.cgd.5b00237
4094:10.1023/A:1011052932607
4082:Pharmaceutical Research
3950:Chemical Communications
3910:10.1021/acs.cgd.9b00185
3094:10.1021/acs.cgd.9b01645
3059:10.1021/acs.cgd.9b00557
2967:Chemical Communications
2690:10.1021/acs.cgd.2c00141
2387:Dimorphism (Wiktionary)
1820:{\displaystyle -br^{3}}
1764:. Here, the first term
1148:Disappearing polymorphs
1136:disappearing polymorphs
842:Rutile-type Tetragonal
583:Body-centered cubic (Ia
364:Other organic compounds
220:Computational chemistry
4506:10.1002/ijch.201600071
4386:Journal of Materiomics
4175:10.1002/anie.200603373
3326:(1 May 1996): 175–86.
3017:10.1002/anie.200352253
2943:10.1002/anie.200701383
2785:10.1002/anie.201410356
2357:
2310:
2235:
2184:
2117:
2044:
1974:
1960:
1918:
1882:
1853:
1821:
1788:
1787:{\displaystyle ar^{2}}
1758:
1693:
477:Structure/Space Group
200:terahertz spectroscopy
59:polymorphic transition
3760:10.3390/cryst10020081
3662:10.3390/cryst12081157
3488:10.3390/cryst13040617
2892:(3). Wiley: 249–282.
2886:Annalen der Pharmacie
2358:
2311:
2236:
2185:
2118:
2045:
1972:
1961:
1919:
1883:
1854:
1822:
1789:
1759:
1690:
932:553-673 K & 1 atm
921:553-673 K & 1 atm
892:Tetragonal (P42/nmc)
853:Tetragonal (I41/amd)
474:Conditions of P and T
383:crystallizes as both
342:1,3,5-trinitrobenzene
336:1,3,5-Trinitrobenzene
215:Computational methods
187:X-ray crystallography
185:In the 20th century,
2709:Applied Spectroscopy
2508:– via MEDLINE.
2322:
2247:
2197:
2127:
2054:
1981:
1928:
1892:
1881:{\displaystyle G(r)}
1863:
1831:
1798:
1768:
1716:
1022:Tetragonal (P4/ncc)
1011:Orthorhombic (Pnma)
924:Orthorhombic (Pbnm)
864:Orthorhombic (Pcab)
664:912-1097 K and 1 atm
656:Body-centered cubic
147:Jöns Jacob Berzelius
143:Eilhard Mitscherlich
137:Experimental methods
88:allotropes of carbon
30:In crystallography,
18:Dimorphism (geology)
4544:"SiC and Polytpism"
4415:Advances in Physics
4132:(48): 16802–16803.
4043:2019JMoSt1179..477M
3956:(85): 10559–10561.
3800:2020JStCh..61.1356F
3702:2017PCCP...19.6671R
3596:2022AcCrB..78..416H
3528:2010JPCA..114..151B
3355:Inorganic Syntheses
3332:1996TcAc..277..175P
3158:2020Chem....6.1755T
2721:2015ApSpe..69....1P
2594:10.1021/ar00052a005
2459:2013RSCAd...316905B
2352:
2305:
2151:
1662:charge density wave
1621:face-centered cubic
1353:The antiviral drug
1162:regulatory approval
1000:Monoclinic (P21/n)
897:Fluorite-type phase
881:Monoclinic (P21/c)
704:15-25 GPa at 1273 K
686:Bixbyite-type phase
642:603-923 K and 1 atm
634:Monoclinic (P21/c)
533:High pressure phase
498:-type Orthorhombic
491:Ambient conditions
426:Binary metal oxides
4201:reference.iucr.org
3962:10.1039/C2CC34912D
3711:10.1039/C6CP07721H
3452:10.1039/C5CE00045A
3320:Thermochimica Acta
3121:chemistryworld.com
2498:10.1039/c5cs00227c
2467:10.1039/c3ra41559g
2353:
2331:
2306:
2284:
2231:
2180:
2130:
2113:
2040:
1975:
1956:
1914:
1878:
1849:
1817:
1784:
1754:
1694:
1677:screw dislocations
1658:tantalum disulfide
1142:In pharmaceuticals
878:Ambient conditions
802:Orthorhombic, CaCl
784:Ambient conditions
748:Ambient conditions
727:100 GPa and 1000 K
689:Ambient conditions
631:Ambient conditions
565:Ambient conditions
521:Ambient conditions
389:hexagonal crystals
204:Raman spectroscopy
4342:10.1021/cg1004424
4303:10.1021/cg900890n
4220:AAPS PharmSciTech
4138:10.1021/ja056455b
4126:J. Am. Chem. Soc.
4006:978-3-319-27554-3
3536:10.1021/jp907466h
3445:(28): 5154–5165.
3211:10.1021/cr400249d
2937:(35): 6729–6731.
2779:(24): 6972–6993.
2492:(23): 8619–8635.
1710:Gibbs free energy
1666:superconductivity
1642:
1641:
1537:Stacking sequence
1532:Ramsdell notation
1507:Gibbs free energy
1499:stacking sequence
1443:Cortisone acetate
1264:
1263:
1256:
1080:calcium carbonate
1043:calcium carbonate
1026:
1025:
958:60 kbar and 973 K
839:Equilibrium phase
799:15 KBar at 1073 K
255:Justus von Liebig
240:Organic compounds
150:was also used by
51:Phase transitions
36:crystal structure
16:(Redirected from
4581:
4518:
4517:
4485:
4479:
4478:
4469:(5): 2461–2473.
4458:
4452:
4445:
4439:
4438:
4421:(8): 1171–1248.
4410:
4404:
4403:
4401:
4377:
4371:
4360:
4354:
4353:
4336:(9): 3931–3941.
4321:
4315:
4314:
4282:
4276:
4275:
4274:on 20 July 2012.
4260:
4254:
4253:
4243:
4211:
4205:
4204:
4193:
4187:
4186:
4156:
4150:
4149:
4120:
4114:
4113:
4077:
4071:
4070:
4022:
4016:
4015:
4014:
4013:
3980:
3974:
3973:
3945:
3939:
3938:
3936:
3928:
3922:
3921:
3904:(5): 2979–2990.
3892:
3886:
3885:
3875:
3869:
3868:
3858:
3849:(4): 1435–1442.
3834:
3828:
3827:
3794:(9): 1356–1366.
3779:
3773:
3772:
3762:
3738:
3732:
3731:
3713:
3696:(9): 6671–6676.
3681:
3675:
3674:
3664:
3640:
3634:
3633:
3623:
3575:
3566:
3565:
3547:
3507:
3501:
3500:
3490:
3466:
3457:
3456:
3454:
3430:
3424:
3423:
3398:(2): 1807–1814.
3383:
3377:
3376:
3350:
3344:
3343:
3311:
3305:
3299:
3288:
3285:
3279:
3278:
3276:
3275:
3261:
3255:
3254:
3236:
3223:
3222:
3205:(4): 2170–2191.
3199:Chemical Reviews
3194:
3188:
3187:
3177:
3152:(7): 1755–1765.
3137:
3131:
3130:
3128:
3127:
3112:
3106:
3105:
3088:(3): 1997–2003.
3077:
3071:
3070:
3053:(8): 4884–4893.
3044:
3035:
3029:
3028:
3011:(9): 1149–1155.
2998:
2992:
2991:
2980:10.1039/b513442k
2961:
2955:
2954:
2926:
2920:
2919:
2909:
2881:
2875:
2869:
2863:
2860:
2851:
2850:
2813:
2807:
2806:
2796:
2764:
2749:
2748:
2729:10.1366/14-07707
2704:
2695:
2694:
2692:
2683:(6): 3958−3969.
2668:
2662:
2661:
2643:
2630:
2629:
2627:
2626:
2612:
2606:
2605:
2573:
2567:
2566:
2555:
2546:
2545:
2543:
2541:
2536:
2534:10.1351/goldbook
2516:
2510:
2509:
2477:
2471:
2470:
2453:(38): 16905–31.
2438:
2429:
2428:
2410:
2362:
2360:
2359:
2354:
2348:
2315:
2313:
2312:
2307:
2301:
2274:
2273:
2240:
2238:
2237:
2232:
2230:
2229:
2189:
2187:
2186:
2181:
2179:
2178:
2147:
2122:
2120:
2119:
2114:
2112:
2111:
2102:
2101:
2089:
2088:
2079:
2078:
2066:
2065:
2049:
2047:
2046:
2041:
2039:
2038:
2029:
2028:
2016:
2015:
2006:
2005:
1993:
1992:
1965:
1963:
1962:
1957:
1955:
1954:
1923:
1921:
1920:
1915:
1913:
1912:
1887:
1885:
1884:
1879:
1858:
1856:
1855:
1850:
1826:
1824:
1823:
1818:
1816:
1815:
1793:
1791:
1790:
1785:
1783:
1782:
1763:
1761:
1760:
1755:
1753:
1752:
1737:
1736:
1610:ABCACBCABACABCB
1518:
1517:
1259:
1252:
1248:
1245:
1239:
1219:
1218:
1211:
1207:Dibenzoxazepines
1131:is carried out.
1110:titanium dioxide
1065:
1056:
978:Monoclinic (Pc)
906:
886:Tetragonal phase
875:Monoclinic phase
769:
754:
710:
695:
670:
613:Rhombic (Pna21)
601:
586:
571:
527:
503:RT and 12±3 GPa
465:
464:
399:Inorganic matter
322:hydrogen bonding
251:Friedrich Wöhler
208:hydrogen bonding
21:
4589:
4588:
4584:
4583:
4582:
4580:
4579:
4578:
4574:Crystallography
4549:
4548:
4526:
4521:
4486:
4482:
4459:
4455:
4446:
4442:
4411:
4407:
4378:
4374:
4361:
4357:
4322:
4318:
4283:
4279:
4262:
4261:
4257:
4212:
4208:
4195:
4194:
4190:
4157:
4153:
4121:
4117:
4078:
4074:
4023:
4019:
4011:
4009:
4007:
3981:
3977:
3946:
3942:
3934:
3930:
3929:
3925:
3893:
3889:
3876:
3872:
3835:
3831:
3780:
3776:
3739:
3735:
3682:
3678:
3641:
3637:
3576:
3569:
3508:
3504:
3467:
3460:
3431:
3427:
3384:
3380:
3373:
3351:
3347:
3312:
3308:
3300:
3291:
3286:
3282:
3273:
3271:
3263:
3262:
3258:
3251:
3237:
3226:
3195:
3191:
3138:
3134:
3125:
3123:
3113:
3109:
3078:
3074:
3042:
3036:
3032:
2999:
2995:
2962:
2958:
2927:
2923:
2907:2027/hvd.hxdg3f
2882:
2878:
2870:
2866:
2861:
2854:
2814:
2810:
2765:
2752:
2705:
2698:
2669:
2665:
2658:
2644:
2633:
2624:
2622:
2614:
2613:
2609:
2574:
2570:
2556:
2549:
2539:
2537:
2525:IUPAC Gold Book
2517:
2513:
2478:
2474:
2439:
2432:
2425:
2411:
2404:
2400:
2373:
2335:
2323:
2320:
2319:
2288:
2254:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2244:
2210:
2206:
2198:
2195:
2194:
2159:
2155:
2134:
2128:
2125:
2124:
2107:
2103:
2097:
2093:
2084:
2080:
2074:
2070:
2061:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2051:
2034:
2030:
2024:
2020:
2011:
2007:
2001:
1997:
1988:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1978:
1941:
1937:
1929:
1926:
1925:
1899:
1895:
1893:
1890:
1889:
1864:
1861:
1860:
1859:. The function
1832:
1829:
1828:
1811:
1807:
1799:
1796:
1795:
1778:
1774:
1769:
1766:
1765:
1748:
1744:
1732:
1728:
1717:
1714:
1713:
1685:
1674:
1655:
1651:
1488:
1479:
1471:chloramphenicol
1456:
1445:
1434:
1423:carboxylic acid
1363:
1351:
1260:
1249:
1243:
1240:
1232:help improve it
1229:
1220:
1216:
1201:
1173:GlaxoSmithKline
1155:
1150:
1144:
1129:crystallisation
1125:crystallisation
1102:
1093:
1086:
1085:
1084:
1083:
1068:
1067:
1066:
1058:
1057:
1031:
989:Triclinic (P1)
969:
954:
915:
904:
872:
833:
824:
814:
805:
795:
778:
767:
763:773 K and 1 atm
752:
742:
738:
723:
719:
708:
693:
683:
679:
668:
625:
621:
599:
584:
569:
559:
555:
546:
542:
525:
515:
511:
497:
485:
433:
428:
406:
401:
366:
355:
338:
326:carboxylic acid
311:
279:
247:
242:
233:
217:
152:Wilhelm Ostwald
139:
134:
106:pharmaceuticals
48:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4587:
4577:
4576:
4571:
4566:
4561:
4547:
4546:
4541:
4525:
4524:External links
4522:
4520:
4519:
4500:(1–2): 82–92.
4480:
4453:
4440:
4405:
4372:
4355:
4316:
4297:(1): 274–282.
4277:
4255:
4226:(2): 764–770.
4206:
4188:
4169:(4): 618–622.
4151:
4115:
4088:(6): 859–866.
4072:
4017:
4005:
3975:
3940:
3923:
3887:
3881:Crystal Growth
3870:
3829:
3774:
3733:
3676:
3635:
3590:(3): 416–424.
3567:
3522:(1): 151–161.
3502:
3458:
3425:
3378:
3371:
3345:
3306:
3289:
3280:
3269:www.mindat.org
3256:
3249:
3224:
3189:
3132:
3107:
3072:
3030:
2993:
2956:
2921:
2876:
2864:
2852:
2808:
2750:
2696:
2663:
2656:
2631:
2620:www.mindat.org
2607:
2588:(4): 193–200.
2568:
2559:McCrone, W. C.
2547:
2511:
2472:
2430:
2423:
2401:
2399:
2396:
2395:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2372:
2369:
2365:
2364:
2351:
2347:
2344:
2341:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2327:
2317:
2304:
2300:
2297:
2294:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2280:
2277:
2272:
2269:
2266:
2263:
2260:
2257:
2253:
2242:
2228:
2225:
2222:
2219:
2216:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2202:
2177:
2174:
2171:
2168:
2165:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2143:
2140:
2137:
2133:
2110:
2106:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2087:
2083:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2064:
2060:
2037:
2033:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2014:
2010:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1991:
1987:
1953:
1950:
1947:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1933:
1911:
1908:
1905:
1902:
1898:
1877:
1874:
1871:
1868:
1848:
1845:
1842:
1839:
1836:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1803:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1740:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1724:
1721:
1698:thermodynamics
1684:
1681:
1672:
1653:
1649:
1640:
1639:
1629:
1626:
1623:
1618:
1614:
1613:
1611:
1608:
1605:
1602:
1598:
1597:
1594:
1591:
1588:
1585:
1581:
1580:
1578:
1575:
1572:
1569:
1565:
1564:
1558:
1555:
1552:
1549:
1545:
1544:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1524:
1487:
1484:
1478:
1475:
1455:
1452:
1444:
1441:
1433:
1430:
1419:hydrogen bonds
1362:
1359:
1350:
1347:
1262:
1261:
1223:
1221:
1214:
1200:
1197:
1154:
1151:
1146:Main article:
1143:
1140:
1106:Ostwald's rule
1101:
1098:
1091:
1074:(on left) and
1070:
1069:
1060:
1059:
1051:
1050:
1049:
1048:
1047:
1030:
1027:
1024:
1023:
1020:
1017:
1013:
1012:
1009:
1006:
1002:
1001:
998:
995:
991:
990:
987:
984:
980:
979:
976:
973:
970:
967:
963:
962:
959:
956:
952:
948:
947:
944:
941:
937:
936:
933:
930:
926:
925:
922:
919:
916:
913:
909:
908:
901:
898:
894:
893:
890:
887:
883:
882:
879:
876:
873:
870:
866:
865:
862:
859:
855:
854:
851:
848:
844:
843:
840:
837:
834:
831:
827:
826:
822:
819:
816:
812:
808:
807:
803:
800:
797:
793:
789:
788:
785:
782:
779:
776:
772:
771:
764:
761:
757:
756:
749:
746:
743:
740:
736:
732:
731:
728:
725:
721:
717:
713:
712:
705:
702:
698:
697:
690:
687:
684:
681:
677:
673:
672:
665:
662:
658:
657:
654:
651:
647:
646:
643:
640:
636:
635:
632:
629:
626:
623:
619:
615:
614:
611:
608:
604:
603:
596:
593:
589:
588:
581:
578:
574:
573:
566:
563:
560:
557:
553:
549:
548:
544:
540:
537:
534:
530:
529:
522:
519:
518:Corundum phase
516:
513:
509:
505:
504:
500:
499:
495:
492:
489:
486:
483:
479:
478:
475:
472:
469:
431:
427:
424:
405:
402:
400:
397:
365:
362:
353:
337:
334:
309:
278:
275:
246:
243:
241:
238:
232:
229:
216:
213:
138:
135:
133:
130:
64:Walter McCrone
47:
44:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4586:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4565:
4562:
4560:
4557:
4556:
4554:
4545:
4542:
4539:
4535:
4531:
4528:
4527:
4515:
4511:
4507:
4503:
4499:
4495:
4491:
4484:
4476:
4472:
4468:
4464:
4457:
4450:
4444:
4436:
4432:
4428:
4424:
4420:
4416:
4409:
4400:
4395:
4391:
4387:
4383:
4376:
4369:
4365:
4359:
4351:
4347:
4343:
4339:
4335:
4331:
4327:
4320:
4312:
4308:
4304:
4300:
4296:
4292:
4288:
4281:
4273:
4269:
4265:
4259:
4251:
4247:
4242:
4237:
4233:
4229:
4225:
4221:
4217:
4210:
4202:
4198:
4192:
4184:
4180:
4176:
4172:
4168:
4164:
4163:
4155:
4147:
4143:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4128:
4127:
4119:
4111:
4107:
4103:
4099:
4095:
4091:
4087:
4083:
4076:
4068:
4064:
4060:
4056:
4052:
4048:
4044:
4040:
4036:
4032:
4028:
4021:
4008:
4002:
3998:
3994:
3990:
3986:
3979:
3971:
3967:
3963:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3944:
3933:
3927:
3919:
3915:
3911:
3907:
3903:
3899:
3891:
3883:
3882:
3874:
3866:
3862:
3857:
3852:
3848:
3844:
3840:
3833:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3805:
3801:
3797:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3778:
3770:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3737:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3717:
3712:
3707:
3703:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3680:
3672:
3668:
3663:
3658:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3639:
3631:
3627:
3622:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3585:
3581:
3574:
3572:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3537:
3533:
3529:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3506:
3498:
3494:
3489:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3465:
3463:
3453:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3429:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3397:
3393:
3389:
3382:
3374:
3372:9780470132326
3368:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3349:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3310:
3303:
3298:
3296:
3294:
3284:
3270:
3266:
3260:
3252:
3250:0-7506-3365-4
3246:
3242:
3235:
3233:
3231:
3229:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3193:
3185:
3181:
3176:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3136:
3122:
3118:
3111:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3076:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3041:
3034:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3005:
2997:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2968:
2960:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2925:
2917:
2913:
2908:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2888:(in German).
2887:
2880:
2873:
2868:
2859:
2857:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2812:
2804:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2763:
2761:
2759:
2757:
2755:
2746:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2703:
2701:
2691:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2667:
2659:
2653:
2649:
2642:
2640:
2638:
2636:
2621:
2617:
2611:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2572:
2564:
2560:
2554:
2552:
2535:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2515:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2476:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2437:
2435:
2426:
2420:
2416:
2409:
2407:
2402:
2393:
2392:Polyamorphism
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2374:
2368:
2349:
2345:
2342:
2339:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2325:
2318:
2302:
2298:
2295:
2292:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2278:
2275:
2270:
2267:
2264:
2261:
2258:
2255:
2251:
2243:
2226:
2223:
2220:
2217:
2214:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2200:
2193:
2192:
2191:
2175:
2172:
2169:
2166:
2163:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2141:
2138:
2135:
2131:
2108:
2104:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2085:
2081:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2062:
2058:
2035:
2031:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2012:
2008:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1989:
1985:
1971:
1967:
1951:
1948:
1945:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1931:
1909:
1906:
1903:
1900:
1896:
1872:
1866:
1846:
1843:
1840:
1837:
1834:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1801:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1738:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1722:
1719:
1711:
1706:
1703:
1702:enantiotropic
1699:
1689:
1680:
1678:
1669:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1647:
1637:
1633:
1630:
1627:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1616:
1615:
1612:
1609:
1606:
1604:rhombohedral
1603:
1600:
1599:
1595:
1592:
1589:
1586:
1583:
1582:
1579:
1576:
1573:
1570:
1567:
1566:
1562:
1559:
1556:
1553:
1550:
1547:
1546:
1543:
1540:
1538:
1535:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1510:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1483:
1474:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1459:Carbamazepine
1454:Carbamazepine
1451:
1449:
1440:
1438:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1420:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1400:
1398:
1394:
1393:levetiracetam
1390:
1386:
1384:
1380:
1379:diffractogram
1376:
1372:
1368:
1358:
1356:
1346:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1323:
1322:
1318:
1315:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1258:
1255:
1247:
1237:
1233:
1227:
1224:This section
1222:
1213:
1212:
1209:
1208:
1204:
1196:
1193:
1188:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1171:dispute, the
1170:
1167:In a classic
1165:
1163:
1159:
1153:Legal aspects
1149:
1139:
1137:
1132:
1130:
1126:
1121:
1117:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1104:According to
1097:
1095:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1064:
1055:
1046:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1021:
1018:
1015:
1014:
1010:
1007:
1004:
1003:
999:
996:
993:
992:
988:
985:
982:
981:
977:
974:
971:
964:
960:
957:
950:
949:
945:
942:
939:
938:
934:
931:
928:
927:
923:
920:
917:
910:
902:
899:
896:
895:
891:
888:
885:
884:
880:
877:
874:
867:
863:
860:
857:
856:
852:
849:
846:
845:
841:
838:
835:
828:
825:-type (Pbcn)
820:
818:Above 18 KBar
817:
810:
809:
806:-type (Pnnm)
801:
798:
791:
790:
786:
783:
780:
773:
765:
762:
759:
758:
750:
747:
744:
733:
730:Orthorhombic
729:
726:
715:
714:
706:
703:
701:Corundum-type
700:
699:
691:
688:
685:
674:
666:
663:
660:
659:
655:
652:
649:
648:
644:
641:
638:
637:
633:
630:
627:
616:
612:
609:
606:
605:
597:
594:
591:
590:
582:
579:
576:
575:
567:
564:
561:
550:
538:
536:RT and 35 GPa
535:
532:
531:
523:
520:
517:
506:
502:
501:
493:
490:
487:
480:
476:
473:
470:
467:
466:
463:
461:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
423:
420:
414:
410:
396:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
370:
361:
359:
351:
347:
343:
333:
331:
330:dipole moment
327:
323:
319:
315:
307:
304:
301:
297:
293:
289:
284:
274:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
237:
228:
226:
221:
212:
209:
205:
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197:
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183:
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177:
171:
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164:
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155:
153:
148:
144:
129:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
110:agrochemicals
107:
102:
100:
96:
91:
89:
85:
81:
77:
76:isomerization
72:
69:
65:
60:
56:
52:
43:
39:
37:
33:
19:
4497:
4493:
4483:
4466:
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4414:
4408:
4392:(1): 33–44.
4389:
4385:
4375:
4368:0 19 8505531
4358:
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4329:
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4290:
4280:
4272:the original
4267:
4258:
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4209:
4200:
4191:
4166:
4160:
4154:
4129:
4124:
4118:
4085:
4081:
4075:
4034:
4030:
4020:
4010:, retrieved
3988:
3978:
3953:
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3842:
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3545:11336/131247
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3439:CrystEngComm
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3395:
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3381:
3354:
3348:
3323:
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3268:
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2712:
2708:
2680:
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2666:
2647:
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2619:
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2581:
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2562:
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2524:
2514:
2489:
2485:
2475:
2450:
2447:RSC Advances
2446:
2414:
2366:
1976:
1707:
1696:In terms of
1695:
1670:
1643:
1541:
1536:
1531:
1526:
1521:
1512:
1511:
1495:close-packed
1490:
1489:
1480:
1477:Pyrazinamide
1457:
1446:
1435:
1427:
1406:through the
1401:
1397:acetonitrile
1388:
1387:
1382:
1374:
1366:
1364:
1352:
1339:posaconazole
1335:posaconazole
1331:posaconazole
1324:
1321:Posaconazole
1320:
1319:
1265:
1250:
1244:January 2024
1241:
1225:
1206:
1205:
1202:
1199:Case studies
1189:
1184:
1176:
1166:
1156:
1133:
1122:
1118:
1103:
1087:
1032:
900:Above 2643 K
889:Above 1443 K
468:Metal oxides
448:cristobalite
429:
415:
411:
407:
392:
373:aripiprazole
367:
349:
345:
339:
317:
313:
305:
280:
263:orthorhombic
248:
234:
218:
192:
184:
172:
168:Otto Lehmann
156:
140:
103:
98:
94:
92:
73:
67:
58:
49:
40:
32:polymorphism
31:
29:
4037:: 477–486.
3655:(8): 1157.
2825:: 593–623.
2715:(1): 1–25.
2540:January 28,
1671:ZnS and CdI
1636:zinc blende
1437:Paracetamol
1432:Paracetamol
1192:dissolution
1114:metacetamol
1019:Above 900 K
975:Up to 220 K
961:Monoclinic
935:Monoclinic
796:-type phase
645:Tetragonal
595:Up to 933 K
580:Below 773 K
303:space group
283:maleic acid
277:Maleic acid
80:tautomerism
4564:Mineralogy
4553:Categories
4268:blakes.com
4012:2023-12-20
3481:(4): 617.
3274:2016-10-23
3126:2021-05-07
2657:0198506058
2625:2016-10-23
2424:0198506058
2398:References
1632:sphalerite
1587:hexagonal
1571:hexagonal
1551:hexagonal
1486:Polytypism
1467:paroxetine
1414:proton to
1293:olanzapine
1285:olanzapine
1281:olanzapine
1273:olanzapine
460:stishovite
419:hybridized
385:monoclinic
358:trisindane
300:monoclinic
296:chloroform
288:co-crystal
271:monoclinic
267:monoclinic
126:explosives
99:trimorphic
4514:0021-2148
4435:218647397
4350:1528-7483
4311:1528-7483
4067:105578644
4059:0022-2860
3918:132854494
3865:1600-5767
3824:222299340
3816:0022-4766
3769:2073-4352
3753:(2): 81.
3720:1463-9076
3671:2073-4352
3612:2052-5206
3554:1089-5639
3497:2073-4352
3412:1388-6150
3102:213824513
3067:198349955
2916:0365-5490
2847:232377397
2602:0001-4842
2377:Allotropy
2091:−
2018:−
1802:−
1739:−
1527:Structure
1491:Polytypes
1448:Cortisone
1395:from hot
1385:aspirin.
1375:anhydride
1355:ritonavir
1349:Ritonavir
1305:amoxapine
1297:amoxapine
1289:clozapine
1277:clozapine
1269:clozapine
1076:Aragonite
1039:aragonite
1008:623-900 K
997:300-623 K
986:220-300 K
903:Cubic (Fm
766:Cubic (Fd
724:(II)-type
692:Cubic (Ia
547:-II type
444:tridymite
259:benzamide
245:Benzamide
132:Detection
118:dyestuffs
95:dimorphic
84:allotropy
68:polymorph
4569:Gemology
4250:21671200
4183:17139692
4146:16316223
4110:20923508
4102:11474792
3970:23000909
3884:. Wiley.
3747:Crystals
3728:28210731
3649:Crystals
3630:35695115
3562:20055514
3475:Crystals
3420:99391719
3219:24350653
3184:32685768
3025:14983460
2988:16353090
2951:17665385
2839:33770462
2803:26031248
2737:25506684
2506:26400501
2371:See also
2350:′
2303:′
2149:′
1973:Figure 2
1561:wurtzite
1463:estrogen
1416:carbonyl
1314:loxapine
1309:loxapine
1301:loxapine
1160:receive
858:Brookite
452:moganite
440:β-quartz
436:α-quartz
404:Elements
369:Acridine
292:caffeine
231:Examples
180:enthalpy
114:pigments
46:Overview
4540:website
4241:3134639
4039:Bibcode
3796:Bibcode
3698:Bibcode
3621:9254588
3592:Bibcode
3524:Bibcode
3328:Bibcode
3175:7357602
3154:Bibcode
2794:4479028
2745:7699996
2717:Bibcode
2455:Bibcode
1593:ABCACB
1542:Comment
1513:Table 1
1389:Form II
1383:Form II
1371:aspirin
1361:Aspirin
1345:(CSD).
1327:Noxafil
1230:Please
1177:Type II
1072:Calcite
1035:calcite
1016:α phase
1005:β phase
994:γ phase
983:δ phase
972:ε phase
940:h phase
929:β phase
918:α phase
847:Anatase
781:α phase
760:γ phase
745:α phase
667:FCC (Fm
661:δ phase
650:γ phase
639:β phase
628:α phase
607:ε phase
592:γ phase
577:β phase
562:α phase
488:α phase
456:coesite
381:Glycine
324:of the
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1584:α-SiC
1568:α-SiC
1548:α-SiC
1469:, and
1412:methyl
1408:acetyl
1404:dimers
1377:, the
1367:Form I
1185:Type I
1181:Zantac
1169:patent
836:Rutile
458:, and
124:, and
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4431:S2CID
4106:S2CID
4063:S2CID
3935:(PDF)
3914:S2CID
3820:S2CID
3416:S2CID
3098:S2CID
3063:S2CID
3043:(PDF)
2843:S2CID
2741:S2CID
1638:form
1577:ABCB
1563:form
1522:Phase
1158:Drugs
821:α-PbO
815:-type
811:α-PbO
471:Phase
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