Disinvestment from South Africa

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of certain strategic minerals". In the end, the bill did not become law, as it was not able to pass the Senate. Even so, the fact that such a harsh bill made any progress at all through Congress "alerted both the South African government and U.S. business that significant further sanctions were likely to be forthcoming" if the political situation in South Africa remained unchanged.

22: 1716:, also argued that disinvestment would cause further economic hardships for black people and that this would ultimately worsen the political climate for negotiations. Suzman said that such sanctions are "self-defeating, wrecking the economy and do not assist anybody irrespective of race". Schwarz said, "Morality is cheap when someone else is paying." 483:"AAM still hoped that the new Labour Government would be more sensitive to the demands of public opinion than the previous Government." But by the end of 1964 it was clear that the election of the Labour Party had made little difference in the government's overall unwillingness to impose sanctions. Lisson summarized the situation at the UN in 1964: 1254:, black local officials resigned in droves, and the government declared a State of Emergency in 1985 and used thousands of troops to quell "unrest". Television audiences throughout the world were to watch almost nightly reports of massive resistance to apartheid, the growth of a democratic movement, and the savage police and military response. 1430:

companies doing business in South Africa, insisting that through its proxy votes, it could more effectively fight apartheid than by purging stocks from its portfolio. But after a decade of protests, Harvard did adopt a policy of selective divestment, and by the end of the 1980s was almost completely out of South Africa.

1651:, these measures had little effect because of the relatively small economies of those countries. The disinvestment campaign impacted South Africa only after the major Western nations, including the United States, got involved beginning in mid-1984. From 1984 onwards, South Africa experienced considerable 1610:

An additional and much harsher sanctions bill was passed by the House of Representatives in August 1988. This bill mandated "the withdrawal of all U.S. companies from South Africa, the sale by U.S. residents of all investments in South African companies and an end to most trade, except for the import

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The Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986 was introduced by Congressman Ronald Dellums, supported by the members of the Congressional Black Caucus in the House of Representatives, and piloted through the House by Congressman Howard Wolpe, chairman of the House Africa Subcommittee. President Ronald

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These initial successes set a pattern that was later repeated at other campuses across the country. Activism surged in 1984 on the wave of public interest created by the wide television coverage of resistance efforts of black South Africans. According to Knight's analysis, over the next few years the

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told the press that his party was "not in favour of trade sanctions partly because, even if fully effective, they would harm the people we are most concerned about – the Africans and those white South Africans who are having to maintain some standard of decency there". Even so, Lisson writes that the

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from companies that traded or had operations in South Africa. At many universities, students and faculty pressured the board of trustees to take action on the issue. The first anti-apartheid organization on university campuses in the United States was CUAA, founded by Ramon Sevilla at the University

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remained firm in its view that the imposition of sanctions would be unconstitutional "because we do not accept that this situation in South Africa constitutes a threat to international peace and security and we do not, in any case, believe that sanctions would have the effect of persuading the South

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established the necessity, the legality, and the practicability of internationally organised sanctions against South Africa, whose policies were seen to have become a direct threat to peace and security in Africa and the world. Its findings also pointed out that in order to be effective, a programme

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The South African government attempted to restrict the damaging outflow of capital. Knight writes that "in September 1985 it imposed a system of exchange control and a debt repayments standstill. Under exchange control, South African residents are generally prohibited from removing capital from the

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stated "I'd rather lose business in Nebraska than with South Africa." The impact was magnified when other U.S. state governments adopted similar measures through the 1980s. Nebraska passed stronger legislation in 1984, mandating divestment of all funds from companies doing business in South Africa.

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of 1986 students at Smith protested the Board of Trustees' decision not to fully divest. Student protests included a sit-in in the main administrative offices on 24 February 1986. The next day students blockaded the building, preventing staff from entering. The students expected to be arrested, but

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The disinvestment campaign on campuses began in 1977 at Michigan State University and Stanford University. It had some early successes in 1978 at Michigan State University, Columbia University, and the University of Wisconsin–Madison. Following the Michigan State University divestiture in 1978, the

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Some of the most effective actions in support of divestment from South Africa took place in the years 1976–1985. Sevilla travelled throughout the US and Europe gathering support for sanctions against South Africa, and he led a successful effort to force the University of California to divest all of

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The sums of money involved are large. According to the Internal Revenue Service, taxes involved in 1982 were $ 211,593,000 on taxable income of $ 440,780,000. The U.S. Chamber of Commerce in South Africa has estimated that the measure increases the tax bill for U.S. companies from 57.5% to 72% of

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passed legislation requiring them not to invest "in corporations and banks doing business in or with South Africa". By the end of 1989, "26 states, 22 counties and over 90 cities had taken some form of binding economic action against companies doing business in South Africa". Many public pension

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The Act banned new U.S. investment in South Africa, sales to the police and military, and new bank loans, except for the purpose of trade. Specific measures against trade included the prohibition of the import of agricultural goods, textiles, shellfish, steel, iron, uranium, and the products of

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funds connected to these local governments were required to divest. These local governments also exerted pressure by enacting selective purchasing policies, "whereby cities give preference in bidding on contracts for goods and services to those companies who do not do business in South Africa".

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to an endowed chair at Columbia. Broadly backed by a diverse array of student groups and many notable faculty members, the Committee Against Investment in South Africa held numerous teach-ins and demonstrations focused on the trustees' ties to the corporations doing business with South Africa.

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While part of the anti-apartheid movement lobbied individual businesses to adopt and comply with the Sullivan Principles, the movement opened an additional front with institutional investors. Besides advocating that institutional investors withdraw any direct investments in South Africa-based

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Throughout the 1980s, Harvard professors for the most part avoided involvement with South Africa in protest of apartheid, and then president Derek C. Bok was a vocal supporter of work by the U.S. to prompt reform in South Africa. But the University was slow to pull its own investments out of

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When anti-apartheid activists in the U.S. found that Washington was unwilling to get involved in economically isolating South Africa, they responded by lobbying individual business and institutional investors to end their involvement with or investments in the apartheid state as a matter of

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companies, anti-apartheid activists also lobbied for the divestment from all U.S.-based companies having South African interests that had not yet adopted the Sullivan Principles. Institutional investors such as public pension funds were the most susceptible to these lobbying efforts.

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in 1987 as an amendment to the Budget Reconciliation Act, removed the ability of U.S. corporations to obtain tax reimbursements for taxes paid in South Africa. The result was that U.S. corporations operating in South Africa were subject to double taxation. According to Knight:

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In addition to college and university campuses, anti-apartheid activists found support in city councils and state legislatures. Several states and localities passed legislation ordering the sale of South Africa-related securities. On 5 June 1978 the City and County of

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A comprehensive list of the students' demands was published on 28 February 1986. The "Women at College Hall" agreed to end the blockade if the Board of Trustees agreed to "issue a statement of intent to deliberate again, with a quorum, the issue of divestment" before

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The result of the widely televised South African response was "a dramatic expansion of international actions to isolate apartheid, actions that combined with the internal situation to force dramatic changes in South Africa's international economic relations".

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The initial Columbia divestment focused largely on bonds and financial institutions directly involved with the South African regime. It followed a year-long campaign initiated by students who in 1977 had worked together to block the appointment of former

589:(which were routinely rejected due to management proxy votes), and they could affect corporate reputations. Second, the companies were presented with a significant financial threat if major institutional investors decided to withdraw their investments. 1583:, attributes some of the increase in imports in 1988 to lax enforcement of the 1986 Act. He writes that a "major weakness of the Act is that it does little to prohibit exports to South Africa, even in such areas as computers and other capital goods". 1409:

would be held, and amnesty would be granted to anyone involved in the sit-in and blockade. As a result of student pressure, by 31 October 1988 Smith College had divested all $ 39 million in stocks that they held in companies working in South Africa.

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economist, also opposed this policy, asserting that the most direct adverse impact of the boycott would be felt by the black workers in that country, and that the best way to remedy the problem of apartheid was by promoting trade and the growth of

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The results of the Act were mixed in economic terms, according to Knight: Between 1985 and 1987, U.S. imports from South Africa declined by 35%, but the trend reversed in 1988 when imports increased by 15%. Knight, citing a 1989 study by the

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in 1982 voted for divestiture by all of Michigan's public colleges and universities, an action later struck down as unconstitutional by the Michigan Court of Appeals in response to a suit against the Act by the University of Michigan.

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in Britain. Candidates were asked to state their position on economic sanctions and other punitive measures against the South African government. Most candidates who responded said they supported sanctions. However, after the

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Four exchange control stamps in a South African passport from the mid-1980s allowing the passport holder to take a particular amount of currency out of the country. Exchange controls such as these were imposed by the

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As a result of these organised divestment campaigns, the boards of trustees of several colleges and universities voted to divest completely from companies with major South African interests. The first of these was

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Reagan responded by using his veto, but surprisingly, and in testament to the strength of the anti-apartheid movement, the Republican-controlled Senate overrode his veto. Knight gives this description of the act:

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According to Lisson, Great Britain rejected sanctions because of its economic interests in South Africa, which would have been put at risk if any type of meaningful economic sanctions had been put in place.

1402:, and to consider "a restructuring of the investment policy". Students also demanded that a teach-in be conducted to educate the college and the Board of Trustees on divestment and South African apartheid. 1280:

its investments in companies doing business in South Africa. In an anti-apartheid protest in April 1986, 61 students were arrested after building a shantytown in front of the chancellor's office at

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Board of Trustees and a five-month campaign by the Salaam Committee—a campus group made up of students and faculty—the college divested $ 5.4 million from companies connected to South Africa.

427:, and called for imposing economic and other sanctions on South Africa. Western nations and major trading partners of South Africa opposed the call for sanctions and boycotted the committee. 2484: 1530:. He introduced a nonbinding resolution calling for state pension funds that had been invested directly or indirectly in South Africa to be invested elsewhere. It became state law in 1980. 253: 1704:, slammed sanctions, stating that "They can only harm all the people of Southern Africa. They can only lead to more hardships, particularly for the blacks." The Members of Parliament 2763: 402: 1684:, which is traded at a 20% to 40% discount compared to the commercial rand. This means companies that disinvest get significantly fewer dollars for the capital they withdraw." 5235: 1243: 348: 3376: 3278: 4006: 2506: 1826: 1242:

The disinvestment campaign in the United States, which had been in existence for two decades, gained a critical mass following the black political resistance to the

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Image of UCLA students in sit-down protest with a banner reading "UC Out of South Africa! Divest Now" as two UC Police officers watch Los Angeles, California, 1986.

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The aim of the Conference was to work out the practicability of economic sanctions and their implications on the economies of South Africa, the UK, the U.S., and

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and other political trials to try to appease Afro-Asian countries and public opinion at home and abroad; by early 1965 the issue of sanctions had lost momentum.

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remarked that the University of California's massive divestment was particularly significant in pressuring for an end to white-minority rule in South Africa.

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described sanctions and disinvestment as "the way of poverty, starvation and destroying the hopes of the very people – all of them – whom you wish to help."

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opposed the disinvestment campaign, accusing its advocates of hypocrisy for not also proposing that the same sanctions be levelled on either the

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of sanctions would need the active participation of Britain and the U.S., who were also the main obstacle to the implementation of such a policy.

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The conference was not successful in persuading Britain to take up economic sanctions against South Africa. Rather, the British government

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Trustee meetings were picketed and interrupted by demonstrations, culminating in the May 1978 takeover of the Graduate School of Business.

680: 55: 2870: 1676:. The currency decline made imports more expensive, and this in turn caused inflation in South Africa to rise at a steep 12–15% per year. 5450: 5193: 4052: 4013: 58:, but was not implemented on a significant scale until the mid-1980s. A disinvestment policy the U.S. adopted in 1986 in response to the 1934: 5430: 4865: 4221: 3842: 3362: 2669: 1351: 5256: 5117: 5033: 4323: 2684: 2643: 1952:"Policies of apartheid of the Government of South Africa & International solidarity with the liberation struggle in South Africa" 630: 488: 1272:

of California, Berkeley. Sevilla had support from Nelson Mandela, with whom he was in communication while Mandela was imprisoned on

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Many politicians outside of South Africa also criticised disinvestment because of its economic impact on black South Africans.

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gained prominence on university campuses in the United States in the mid-1980s; the debate headlined the October 1985 issue of

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On 1 March 1986, the protest ended when administrators agreed that the trustees would re-evaluate their decision, a mandatory

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Public companies with South African interests were confronted on two levels. First, concerned stockholders submitted

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A CONFLICTED RELATIONSHIP: Harvard supported South Africa through investments, but partially divested under protest

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because of disinvestment and the repayment of foreign loans. The net capital movement out of South Africa was:

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during the time the disinvestment movement was at its peak, also opposed it, instead favouring a policy of "

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According to Knight, the early divestment in Nebraska caused little immediate change in business practices;

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This resulted in the divestment of $ 14.6 million in stocks from Nebraska's public employee pension funds.

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Constructive Engagement? Chester Crocker and American Policy in South Africa, Namibia and Angola 1981–1988

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undertook only a partial divestment from South Africa and only after significant pressure. Adam Sofen and

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Within South Africa there was opposition to disinvestment among both black and white political leaders.

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number of educational institutions fully or partially divesting from South Africa increased as follows:

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swept to power, commitment to the anti-apartheid cause dissipated. In short order, Labour Party leader

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Documenting the U.S. Solidarity Movement: With reflections on the sanctions and divestment campaigns

33:'s student newspaper. The man pictured with his index finger raised is then-South African president 5137: 4393: 4045: 3258: 3130: 1451: 1145: 765: 94: 1454:

authorized the withdrawal of three billion dollars worth of investments from the apartheid state.

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At the UN, Britain consistently refused to accept that the situation in South Africa fell under

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According to Lisson, the International Conference for Economic Sanctions Against South Africa

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The capital flight triggered a dramatic decline in the international exchange rate of the

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Student anti-apartheid activists in the US demanded that their colleges and universities

1185: 559: 537: 2783: 2138: 3768: 3263: 3207: 3180: 3048: 2799: 2148: 1673: 1467: 1444: 1418: 1215: 650: 601: 169: 1865:, Vassar College Libraries Archives & Special Collections. Poughkeepsie, NY. 2006. 893: 5360: 5346: 4676: 4492: 4316: 3906: 3496: 3426: 2983: 2847: 2803: 2744: 2663: 2510: 1955: 1731: 1723: 1374: 1096: 810: 475: 3354: 1385:, took up the issue of South African investments several years later. In the spring 5284: 4641: 4351: 4131: 3821: 3576: 3544: 3480: 2795: 2711: 1876: 1487: 1391: 1048: 998: 928: 567: 2428:"Economic Leverage: UC Students Fought Tooth and Nail to Divest from South Africa" 4599: 4513: 4407: 4075: 3999: 3920: 3644: 3528: 3520: 3512: 3488: 2768: 2401: 2390: 1938: 1862: 1752: 1538: 1354: 1165: 1155: 665: 1880:: "Boycott of Israel? It worked for South Africa", Steven Rose and Hilary Rose, 5353: 5068: 4942: 4585: 4499: 4182: 4124: 4117: 4110: 3828: 3754: 3600: 3560: 2960:

An Analysis of U.S. Disinvestment from South Africa: Unity, Rights, and Justice

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Loosing the Bonds: The United States and South Africa in the Apartheid Years

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In 1977, the voluntary UN arms embargo became mandatory with the passing of

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Photographic Archive (Collection 1429). UCLA Library Special Collections,

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Chapter: "Sanctions, Disinvestment, and U.S. Corporations in South Africa"

2007:

Chapter: "Sanctions, Disinvestment, and U.S. Corporations in South Africa"

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The activity at the state and city level set the stage for action by the

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U.S. Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs. (1985).

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Panel discussion, 6 October 2014, speaker Andrea Prichett, at 47:30,

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In contrast to the limited action undertaken by Harvard, in 1986 the

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In a total rejection of apartheid, black South Africans mobilized to

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country and foreign investors can only remove investments via the

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that ultimately led to the dismantling of the apartheid system.

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Inkatha Freedom Party – Inkatha and the disinvestment campaign

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who in 1977 was also a board member of the corporate giant

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campaign is credited with playing a role in pressuring the

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Northeast Coalition for the Liberation of Southern Africa

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A second federal measure, introduced by Representative

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Following the passage of this resolution, the UK-based

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U.S. Economic Involvement with Apartheid South Africa

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to restrict the outflow of capital from the country.

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Part of this campaign centered around the so-called

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was first advocated in the 1960s in protest against

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Chambers was angered when he learned that the 1443:, student organizations conducted a campaign of 469:The AAM tried to make sanctions an issue in the 4174:Storming of the Kempton Park World Trade Centre 2203: 16:Economic boycott against apartheid South Africa 2881:"On 'Constructive Engagement' in South Africa" 2529: 2527: 2330:"College Hall Occupation Oral History Project" 1605: 1262: 510:United Nations Security Council Resolution 418 3370: 3014: 2685:"Israel Economic Team - No Talk of Sanctions" 2374: 2334:5 College Archives and Manuscript Collections 2001: 1999: 1997: 1995: 1993: 1687: 1223: 549:Interfaith Center on Corporate Responsibility 396: 2965:Black South African Opinion on Disinvestment 2503:The Harvey Milk Interviews: In His Own Words 2497: 2153:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2096:. Vernal Education Project. 3 February 1998. 1991: 1989: 1987: 1985: 1983: 1981: 1979: 1977: 1975: 1973: 1797:Anti-Apartheid movement in the United States 1586: 1441:the University of California Berkeley campus 1330: 551:. An array of celebrities, including singer 423:, a non-binding resolution establishing the 3028: 2712:"Press Conference ending visit to Zimbabwe" 2524: 2415:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kQfF1702dQI 2069:"Obama inspired by anti-apartheid campaign" 1434: 562:, authored by and named after the Rev. Dr. 465:African Government to change its policies". 3377: 3363: 3021: 3007: 1647:had been the first to impose sanctions on 1614: 1466:In 1989, after a three-year review by the 1394:, refused to have the students arrested. 1230: 1216: 503: 403: 389: 2781: 2736: 1970: 4247:Reconstruction and Development Programme 2709: 2432:California University Alumni Association 1926: 1924: 1922: 1920: 1918: 1916: 1888:, Volume 417, Issue 6890, p. 690 (2002). 1856:"The Fergusson Years: Vassar, 1986–2006" 1822:International sanctions during apartheid 1629: 1510:was the first U.S. state to divest from 1477: 20: 3843:1946 African Mine Workers' Union strike 2564: 2533: 2473:. University of California, May 2, 2018 1941:, Ph.D. Dissertation, 15 September 2000 1171:Music in the movement against apartheid 455: 74:United Nations resolutions and embargos 5443: 4324:2012 Western Cape farm workers' strike 3221:Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment 2837: 2740:British Foreign Secretaries Since 1974 2668:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 2590: 2404:. Adam A. Sofen and Alan E. Wirzbicki. 2264:. 2 May 1978 – via Getty Images. 1545: 1344: 254:1964 Conference for Economic Sanctions 236:UN Special Committee against Apartheid 3358: 3002: 2993:University of California, Los Angeles 2782:Posnikoff, Judith F. (January 1997). 2616: 2482: 2426:Smith, Chris A. (17 September 2014). 2425: 2223:Mary Alice McDonaugh (3 March 1977). 1913: 1897: 1849: 1461: 1413: 5481:South Africa–United States relations 1473: 364:Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute 259:1978 World Conference against Racism 4254:Truth and Reconciliation Commission 3900:Coloured-vote constitutional crisis 2842:. Melton, Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK: 2682: 2617:Kelly, Michael (11 December 2013). 2483:White, Lauren (30 September 2016). 2066: 1619: 1390:the college president at the time, 646:Coloured vote constitutional crisis 593:Achieving critical mass (1984–1989) 13: 5451:Boycotts of apartheid South Africa 3057: 2864: 2822:"The Crusade Against South Africa" 2800:10.1111/j.1465-7287.1997.tb00456.x 2710:Thatcher, Margaret (30 May 1989). 2591:Barker, Karlyn (8 February 1985). 1514:. The divestment was initiated by 527:United States campaign (1977–1989) 516:adopted a voluntary international 135:International anti-apartheid music 56:South Africa's system of apartheid 14: 5492: 5413:Pan Africanist Congress of Azania 5041:South African Party (Cape Colony) 2989:Charles E. Young Research Library 2937: 2471:How students helped end apartheid 2056:. Associated Press. 2 April 1986. 1807:Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions 1802:Academic boycotts of South Africa 1643:While post-colonial countries in 1315:Number of institutions divesting 5425: 5424: 2970:The Crusade Against South Africa 2593:"States, Cities Fight Apartheid" 1817:Economic history of South Africa 1564:Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act 1558:Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act 1361: 1199: 1198: 1161:Internal resistance to apartheid 616: 211:Artists United Against Apartheid 188:Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act 93: 5055:South African Party (1977–1980) 5048:South African Party (1911–1934) 4964:Progressive Party (Cape Colony) 4761:Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners 3332:National Budget of South Africa 2831: 2814: 2775: 2757: 2730: 2703: 2676: 2636: 2610: 2584: 2567:"The Importance of Being Ernie" 2558: 2491: 2476: 2464: 2438: 2419: 2407: 2348: 2293: 2276:"Clark, Smith Decide to Divest" 2268: 2250: 2235: 2216: 2204:David Rosenberg (8 June 1978). 2197: 2179: 2161: 2130: 2116: 2099: 2086: 1518:, the only black member of the 1252:make the townships ungovernable 1244:1983 South African constitution 671:Church Street, Pretoria bombing 545:corporate social responsibility 514:United Nations General Assembly 417:United Nations General Assembly 4373:2019 service delivery protests 4359:#FeesMustFall student protests 4104:1983 constitutional referendum 2140:The Anti-Apartheid Act of 1985 2060: 2042: 2016: 1944: 1891: 1868: 1832:Socially responsible investing 532:The Sullivan Principles (1977) 1: 5466:Foreign trade of South Africa 4831:Johannesburg Reform Committee 4060:Israel–South Africa Agreement 3453: 3438: 3415: 3408: 2395:Harvard Honors Nelson Mandela 2242:"Demonstration at Columbia". 1842: 322:(South-West Africa ceasefire) 226:Organisation of African Unity 170:Crime of Apartheid Convention 4486:Black Consciousness Movement 4240:Government of National Unity 3226:Qualifying Small Enterprises 2923:Contemporary Economic Policy 2788:Contemporary Economic Policy 2716:Margaret Thatcher Foundation 2258:"Student Sit-in at Columbia" 1136:Apartheid in popular culture 330:(arms embargo strengthening) 306:(arms embargo strengthening) 25:The campaign to divest from 7: 4197:Saint James Church massacre 4083:Weapons of mass destruction 2933:, Doubleday, New York, 1997 2926:. XV(1):76–86. January 1997 2887:. 105(47). 5 November 1985. 1785: 1606:Further legislative efforts 1502: 1263:Higher education endowments 706:Saint James Church massacre 701:Assassination of Chris Hani 489:Chapter VII of the Charter 157:Instruments and legislation 10: 5497: 5476:Investment in South Africa 3937:1957 Alexandra bus boycott 3815:South West Africa campaign 3714:Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 3679:French Huguenot settlement 3238:Exempted Micro Enterprises 3216:Black Economic Empowerment 2914:(Africa World Press). 1990 2743:. Routledge. p. 190. 2124:"African Activist Archive" 2013:(Africa World Press), 1990 1747:People's Republic of China 1688:Criticism of disinvestment 1623: 1561: 1371:Northampton, Massachusetts 711:1994 Bophuthatswana crisis 535: 512:. On 20 November 1987 the 371:television programming ban 130:Free South Africa Movement 5422: 5399:African National Congress 5388: 5294: 5127: 4852:Liberal Party (1953–1968) 4575: 4566: 4424: 4220: 4190:1992 apartheid referendum 3859: 3804: 3723: 3661: 3634: 3627: 3393: 3292: 3246: 3206: 3171: 3118: 3102: 3069: 3055: 3036: 2737:Theakston, Kevin (2004). 1837:Disinvestment from Israel 1714:Progressive Federal Party 1587:Budget Reconciliation Act 1581:General Accounting Office 1574:state-owned corporations. 1331:Michigan State University 959:Winnie Madikizela-Mandela 375:Rugby union and apartheid 349:Elimination of Racism Day 87:apartheid in South Africa 4845:Labour Party (1969–1994) 4838:Labour Party (1910–1958) 4394:2020 Phala Phala Robbery 4352:#RhodesMustFall protests 3951:1960 republic referendum 2944:African Activist Archive 2389:7 September 2007 at the 2336:. Smith College Archives 2328:Smith College Archives. 1637:South African government 1601:profits in South Africa. 1452:University of California 1435:University of California 1373:, which is connected to 1146:Cape Qualified Franchise 314:(mandatory arms embargo) 290:(voluntary arms embargo) 82:International opposition 66:government to embark on 5471:International sanctions 5461:Economy of South Africa 5297:terrorist organisations 5097:National Party of Venda 4380:2019 Johannesburg riots 3993:Constructive engagement 3958:International isolation 3776:Witwatersrand Gold Rush 3327:State-owned enterprises 3186:Witwatersrand Gold Rush 3030:Economy of South Africa 2929:Robert Kinloch Massie, 2895:The Heritage Foundation 2875:The Heritage Foundation 2507:Vince Emery Productions 2244:The New York Daily News 1792:Anti-Apartheid Movement 1776:constructive engagement 1615:Effects on South Africa 1552:U.S. federal government 1425:give this description: 1383:Five College Consortium 1176:Nostalgia for apartheid 587:shareholder resolutions 566:. Leon Sullivan was an 504:United Nations embargos 432:Anti-Apartheid Movement 298:(sanctions feasibility) 216:Commonwealth of Nations 206:Anti-Apartheid Movement 140:International sanctions 125:Constructive engagement 4303:Attack on Kennedy Road 3914:Congress of the People 3505:South African Republic 3063: 2565:Catania, Sara (2006). 2534:Lansing, Paul (1981). 1762:free market capitalism 1721:British Prime Minister 1640: 1603: 1576: 1524:University of Nebraska 1490: 1432: 1379:Amherst, Massachusetts 1256: 1151:Disinvestment campaign 876:State Security Council 497: 467: 453: 444: 415:In November 1962, the 282:(Sharpeville massacre) 40: 4873:Natal Indian Congress 4593:Afrikaner Broederbond 4447:Afrikaner nationalism 4233:1994 general election 4204:Bophuthatswana crisis 4097:Church Street bombing 3877:Apartheid legislation 3870:1948 general election 3790:South Africa Act 1909 3585:Union of South Africa 3405:Kingdom of Mapungubwe 3385:Political history of 3061: 2912:Sanctioning Apartheid 2838:Davies, J.E. (2008). 2826:Making Economic Sense 2105:D. (pseudonym), Bob. 2011:Sanctioning Apartheid 1861:28 March 2007 at the 1702:Inkatha Freedom Party 1700:and president of the 1633: 1598: 1571: 1481: 1427: 1248: 1141:Apartheid legislation 1131:Afrikaner nationalism 691:Cape Town peace march 681:Trojan Horse Incident 641:1948 general election 555:, also participated. 485: 471:1964 general election 462: 448: 436: 221:Halt All Racist Tours 24: 4507:Greater South Africa 4345:2014 platinum strike 4211:Shell House massacre 4139:Transkei coup d'état 3944:Sharpeville massacre 3707:Battle of Blaauwberg 3700:Battle of Muizenberg 3652:Battle of Salt River 3435:Mthethwa Paramountcy 3274:Consumer price index 3062:Flag of South Africa 2691:on 13 September 2015 2400:13 June 2007 at the 1898:Reddy, E.S. (2007). 1696:, Chief Minister of 1694:Mangosuthu Buthelezi 1668:R5.5 billion in 1988 1665:R3.1 billion in 1987 1662:R6.1 billion in 1986 1659:R9.2 billion in 1985 1520:Nebraska legislature 1039:Eugène Terre'Blanche 909:Mangosuthu Buthelezi 716:Shell House massacre 686:Khotso House bombing 656:Sharpeville massacre 456:The British response 176:Gleneagles Agreement 145:Milton King boycotts 5406:Democratic Alliance 4576:Civic and political 4440:Afrikaner Calvinism 4433:African nationalism 4282:African Renaissance 3972:UNSC Resolution 591 3893:Internal resistance 3794:National Convention 3762:Transvaal Civil War 3686:Khoikhoi–Dutch Wars 3569:Orange River Colony 3110:Automotive industry 2597:The Washington Post 2540:Nebraska Law Review 2280:The Harvard Crimson 2030:. 12 September 2019 1937:7 June 2007 at the 1730:, at that time her 1546:Federal involvement 1484:Library of Congress 1345:Columbia University 1186:Sullivan Principles 560:Sullivan Principles 538:Sullivan Principles 272:UN Security Council 182:Sullivan principles 4146:Ciskei coup d'état 3965:UN Resolution 1761 3930:Women's March 1956 3783:South African Wars 3769:Mineral Revolution 3264:South African rand 3208:Affirmative action 3181:Mineral Revolution 3153:Telecommunications 3064: 2877:. 12 November 1984 2820:Rothbard, Murray. 2772:, 10 December 2013 2683:Belling, Suzanne. 2623:Omaha World-Herald 2360:The New York Times 2229:Columbia Spectator 2210:Columbia Spectator 2193:. 4 February 1988. 2191:The New York Times 2173:The New York Times 2054:The New York Times 1874:See the debate in 1674:South African rand 1641: 1491: 1468:Gettysburg College 1462:Gettysburg College 1445:civil disobedience 1419:Harvard University 1414:Harvard University 1352:Secretary of State 771:Conservative Party 651:1956 Treason Trial 164:UN Resolution 1761 41: 5438: 5437: 5391:political parties 5384: 5383: 5361:Orde van die Dood 4971:Progressive Party 4677:Congress Alliance 4493:Cape Independence 4425:Political culture 4420: 4419: 4387:COVID-19 pandemic 4317:Marikana massacre 4153:Venda coup d'état 3907:Defiance Campaign 3497:Orange Free State 3427:Dutch Cape Colony 3352: 3351: 3254:National Treasury 3070:Natural resources 2984:Los Angeles Times 2516:978-0-9725898-8-8 2362:. 28 October 1986 2262:The New York Post 1764:in South Africa. 1732:Foreign Secretary 1724:Margaret Thatcher 1474:States and cities 1375:Hampshire College 1328: 1327: 1290:Hampshire College 1240: 1239: 1097:South-West Africa 440:the Protectorates 413: 412: 52:from South Africa 5488: 5428: 5427: 5415: 5408: 5401: 5377: 5370: 5363: 5356: 5349: 5342: 5335: 5328: 5321: 5314: 5307: 5295:Paramilitary and 5287: 5285:Umkosi Wezintaba 5280: 5273: 5266: 5259: 5252: 5245: 5238: 5231: 5224: 5217: 5210: 5203: 5196: 5189: 5182: 5175: 5168: 5161: 5154: 5147: 5140: 5130:social movements 5128:Trade unions and 5120: 5113: 5106: 5099: 5092: 5085: 5078: 5071: 5064: 5057: 5050: 5043: 5036: 5029: 5022: 5015: 5008: 5001: 4994: 4987: 4980: 4973: 4966: 4959: 4952: 4945: 4938: 4931: 4924: 4917: 4910: 4903: 4896: 4889: 4882: 4875: 4868: 4861: 4854: 4847: 4840: 4833: 4826: 4819: 4812: 4805: 4798: 4791: 4784: 4777: 4770: 4763: 4756: 4749: 4742: 4735: 4728: 4721: 4714: 4707: 4700: 4693: 4686: 4679: 4672: 4665: 4658: 4651: 4644: 4642:Boerestaat Party 4637: 4630: 4623: 4616: 4609: 4602: 4595: 4588: 4573: 4572: 4559: 4550: 4541: 4532: 4525: 4516: 4509: 4502: 4495: 4488: 4481: 4472: 4463: 4456: 4449: 4442: 4435: 4413: 4403: 4396: 4389: 4382: 4375: 4368: 4361: 4354: 4347: 4340: 4333: 4326: 4319: 4312: 4305: 4298: 4291: 4284: 4277: 4270: 4263: 4256: 4249: 4242: 4235: 4213: 4206: 4199: 4192: 4185: 4176: 4169: 4162: 4155: 4148: 4141: 4134: 4132:Dakar Conference 4127: 4120: 4113: 4106: 4099: 4092: 4085: 4078: 4071: 4062: 4055: 4053:Israeli alliance 4048: 4041: 4034: 4023: 4016: 4009: 4007:Sporting boycott 4002: 3995: 3988: 3981: 3979:Academic boycott 3974: 3967: 3960: 3953: 3946: 3939: 3932: 3923: 3916: 3909: 3902: 3895: 3886: 3879: 3872: 3852: 3845: 3838: 3836:Great Depression 3831: 3824: 3822:Maritz rebellion 3817: 3797: 3785: 3778: 3771: 3764: 3757: 3750: 3743: 3736: 3716: 3709: 3702: 3695: 3688: 3681: 3674: 3672:Dutch settlement 3654: 3647: 3645:Bantu migrations 3632: 3631: 3620: 3612: 3604: 3596: 3588: 3580: 3577:Transvaal Colony 3572: 3564: 3556: 3548: 3545:Nieuwe Republiek 3540: 3532: 3524: 3516: 3508: 3500: 3492: 3484: 3481:Natalia Republic 3476: 3468: 3460: 3458: 3455: 3450:Ndwandwe Kingdom 3445: 3443: 3440: 3430: 3422: 3420: 3417: 3413: 3410: 3379: 3372: 3365: 3356: 3355: 3315:Traded companies 3279:Provinces by HDI 3193:Great Depression 3173:Economic history 3023: 3016: 3009: 3000: 2999: 2906:Richard Knight. 2858: 2857: 2835: 2829: 2818: 2812: 2811: 2779: 2773: 2761: 2755: 2754: 2734: 2728: 2727: 2725: 2723: 2707: 2701: 2700: 2698: 2696: 2680: 2674: 2673: 2667: 2659: 2657: 2655: 2650:on 22 March 2012 2646:. 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Vrystaat 3557: 3549: 3541: 3533: 3525: 3517: 3509: 3501: 3493: 3485: 3477: 3469: 3461: 3446: 3431: 3423: 3400: 3398: 3391: 3390: 3382: 3381: 3374: 3367: 3359: 3350: 3349: 3347: 3346: 3341: 3340: 3339: 3329: 3324: 3319: 3318: 3317: 3307: 3302: 3296: 3294: 3290: 3289: 3287: 3286: 3281: 3276: 3271: 3266: 3261: 3256: 3250: 3248: 3247:Macroeconomics 3244: 3243: 3241: 3240: 3235: 3234: 3233: 3223: 3218: 3212: 3210: 3204: 3203: 3201: 3200: 3195: 3190: 3189: 3188: 3177: 3175: 3169: 3168: 3166: 3165: 3163:Power stations 3160: 3155: 3150: 3149: 3148: 3143: 3133: 3128: 3122: 3120: 3116: 3115: 3113: 3112: 3106: 3104: 3100: 3099: 3097: 3096: 3091: 3086: 3085: 3084: 3073: 3071: 3067: 3066: 3056: 3054: 3052: 3051: 3046: 3040: 3038: 3034: 3033: 3026: 3025: 3018: 3011: 3003: 2997: 2996: 2977: 2972: 2967: 2962: 2957: 2952: 2947: 2939: 2938:External links 2936: 2935: 2934: 2927: 2915: 2904: 2898: 2897:. 25 July 1986 2888: 2878: 2866: 2863: 2860: 2859: 2853:978-1847013040 2852: 2830: 2813: 2774: 2756: 2749: 2729: 2702: 2675: 2635: 2609: 2583: 2557: 2523: 2515: 2490: 2475: 2463: 2452:on 8 June 2011 2437: 2418: 2406: 2373: 2347: 2317: 2292: 2267: 2249: 2234: 2215: 2196: 2178: 2160: 2129: 2115: 2098: 2085: 2059: 2041: 2028:Businessday NG 2015: 1969: 1943: 1912: 1890: 1867: 1847: 1846: 1844: 1841: 1840: 1839: 1834: 1829: 1824: 1819: 1814: 1809: 1804: 1799: 1794: 1787: 1784: 1772:U.S. President 1770:, who was the 1689: 1686: 1682:financial rand 1670: 1669: 1666: 1663: 1660: 1653:capital flight 1624:Main article: 1621: 1618: 1616: 1613: 1607: 1604: 1593:Charles Rangel 1588: 1585: 1562:Main article: 1559: 1556: 1547: 1544: 1516:Ernie Chambers 1504: 1501: 1475: 1472: 1463: 1460: 1456:Nelson Mandela 1436: 1433: 1423:Alan Wirzbicki 1415: 1412: 1381:, through the 1363: 1360: 1346: 1343: 1332: 1329: 1326: 1325: 1322: 1319: 1316: 1312: 1311: 1308: 1305: 1302: 1264: 1261: 1238: 1237: 1235: 1234: 1227: 1220: 1212: 1209: 1208: 1207: 1206: 1193: 1192: 1189: 1188: 1183: 1178: 1173: 1168: 1163: 1158: 1153: 1148: 1143: 1138: 1133: 1127: 1125:Related topics 1124: 1123: 1120: 1119: 1116: 1115: 1110: 1105: 1099: 1094: 1089: 1084: 1079: 1073: 1070: 1069: 1066: 1065: 1062: 1061: 1056: 1051: 1049:H. F. Verwoerd 1046: 1041: 1036: 1031: 1029:Adelaide Tambo 1026: 1021: 1019:Robert Sobukwe 1016: 1011: 1009:J. G. Strijdom 1006: 1001: 996: 991: 989:Raymond Mhlaba 986: 981: 976: 974:Nelson Mandela 971: 966: 961: 956: 954:Albert Luthuli 951: 949:Ahmed Kathrada 946: 941: 939:Bantu Holomisa 936: 931: 926: 921: 916: 914:F. W. de Klerk 911: 906: 901: 896: 890: 887: 886: 883: 882: 879: 878: 873: 868: 863: 858: 853: 848: 843: 838: 833: 831:National Party 828: 823: 818: 813: 808: 803: 798: 793: 788: 783: 778: 773: 768: 763: 758: 753: 748: 743: 738: 732: 727: 726: 723: 722: 719: 718: 713: 708: 703: 698: 693: 688: 683: 678: 673: 668: 663: 658: 653: 648: 643: 637: 634: 633: 627: 626: 625: 622: 621: 613: 612: 606: 605: 594: 591: 576:General Motors 536:Main article: 533: 530: 528: 525: 505: 502: 457: 454: 411: 410: 408: 407: 400: 393: 385: 382: 381: 378: 377: 372: 366: 361: 356: 351: 345: 342: 341: 338: 337: 334: 333: 325: 317: 309: 301: 293: 285: 276: 270: 269: 266: 265: 262: 261: 256: 250: 247: 246: 243: 242: 239: 238: 233: 228: 223: 218: 213: 208: 202: 199: 198: 195: 194: 191: 190: 184: 178: 172: 166: 159: 156: 155: 152: 151: 148: 147: 142: 137: 132: 127: 122: 117: 112: 106: 103: 102: 99: 98: 90: 89: 75: 72: 38: 31:Vassar College 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5493: 5482: 5479: 5477: 5474: 5472: 5469: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5456:Disinvestment 5454: 5452: 5449: 5448: 5446: 5433: 5432: 5421: 5414: 5410: 5407: 5403: 5400: 5396: 5395: 5393: 5387: 5376: 5372: 5369: 5365: 5362: 5358: 5355: 5351: 5348: 5344: 5341: 5337: 5334: 5330: 5327: 5323: 5320: 5316: 5313: 5309: 5306: 5302: 5301: 5299: 5293: 5286: 5282: 5279: 5275: 5272: 5271:Die Spoorbund 5268: 5265: 5261: 5258: 5254: 5251: 5247: 5244: 5240: 5237: 5233: 5230: 5226: 5223: 5219: 5216: 5212: 5209: 5205: 5202: 5198: 5195: 5191: 5188: 5184: 5181: 5177: 5174: 5170: 5167: 5163: 5160: 5156: 5153: 5149: 5146: 5142: 5139: 5135: 5134: 5132: 5126: 5119: 5115: 5112: 5111:Workers Party 5108: 5105: 5101: 5098: 5094: 5091: 5087: 5084: 5080: 5077: 5073: 5070: 5066: 5063: 5059: 5056: 5052: 5049: 5045: 5042: 5038: 5035: 5031: 5028: 5024: 5021: 5017: 5014: 5010: 5007: 5003: 5000: 4996: 4993: 4989: 4986: 4985:Radio Freedom 4982: 4979: 4975: 4972: 4968: 4965: 4961: 4958: 4954: 4951: 4947: 4944: 4940: 4937: 4936:Oranjewerkers 4933: 4930: 4926: 4923: 4919: 4916: 4912: 4909: 4905: 4902: 4898: 4895: 4891: 4888: 4884: 4881: 4877: 4874: 4870: 4867: 4863: 4860: 4856: 4853: 4849: 4846: 4842: 4839: 4835: 4832: 4828: 4825: 4821: 4818: 4814: 4811: 4807: 4804: 4800: 4797: 4793: 4790: 4786: 4783: 4779: 4776: 4772: 4769: 4765: 4762: 4758: 4755: 4751: 4748: 4744: 4741: 4737: 4734: 4730: 4727: 4723: 4720: 4716: 4713: 4709: 4706: 4702: 4699: 4695: 4692: 4688: 4685: 4681: 4678: 4674: 4671: 4667: 4664: 4660: 4657: 4653: 4650: 4646: 4643: 4639: 4636: 4632: 4629: 4625: 4622: 4618: 4615: 4611: 4608: 4604: 4601: 4597: 4594: 4590: 4587: 4583: 4582: 4580: 4578:organisations 4574: 4571: 4569:organisations 4565: 4558: 4557: 4552: 4549: 4548: 4543: 4540: 4539: 4534: 4531: 4527: 4524: 4523: 4518: 4515: 4511: 4508: 4504: 4501: 4497: 4494: 4490: 4487: 4483: 4480: 4479: 4474: 4471: 4470: 4465: 4462: 4458: 4455: 4451: 4448: 4444: 4441: 4437: 4434: 4430: 4429: 4427: 4423: 4412: 4410: 4405: 4402: 4398: 4395: 4391: 4388: 4384: 4381: 4377: 4374: 4370: 4367: 4366:Tshwane riots 4363: 4360: 4356: 4353: 4349: 4346: 4342: 4339: 4335: 4332: 4328: 4325: 4321: 4318: 4314: 4311: 4307: 4304: 4300: 4297: 4293: 4290: 4286: 4283: 4279: 4276: 4272: 4269: 4265: 4262: 4258: 4255: 4251: 4248: 4244: 4241: 4237: 4234: 4230: 4229: 4227: 4225: 4219: 4212: 4208: 4205: 4201: 4198: 4194: 4191: 4187: 4184: 4180: 4175: 4171: 4170: 4168: 4164: 4161: 4157: 4154: 4150: 4147: 4143: 4140: 4136: 4133: 4129: 4126: 4122: 4119: 4115: 4112: 4108: 4105: 4101: 4098: 4094: 4091: 4090:Project Coast 4087: 4084: 4080: 4077: 4073: 4070: 4069:Mafeje affair 4066: 4061: 4057: 4056: 4054: 4050: 4047: 4043: 4040: 4039:Durban Moment 4036: 4033: 4032:Rivonia Trial 4029: 4022: 4018: 4015: 4011: 4010: 4008: 4004: 4001: 3997: 3994: 3990: 3987: 3986:Disinvestment 3983: 3980: 3976: 3973: 3969: 3966: 3962: 3961: 3959: 3955: 3952: 3948: 3945: 3941: 3938: 3934: 3931: 3927: 3922: 3918: 3917: 3915: 3911: 3908: 3904: 3901: 3897: 3894: 3890: 3885: 3881: 3880: 3878: 3874: 3871: 3867: 3866: 3864: 3862: 3858: 3851: 3847: 3844: 3840: 3837: 3833: 3830: 3826: 3823: 3819: 3816: 3812: 3811: 3809: 3807: 3803: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3784: 3780: 3777: 3773: 3770: 3766: 3763: 3759: 3756: 3752: 3749: 3745: 3742: 3741:1820 Settlers 3738: 3735: 3731: 3730: 3728: 3726: 3722: 3715: 3711: 3708: 3704: 3701: 3697: 3694: 3690: 3687: 3683: 3680: 3676: 3673: 3669: 3668: 3666: 3664: 3660: 3653: 3649: 3646: 3642: 3641: 3639: 3637: 3633: 3630: 3626: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3451: 3447: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3406: 3402: 3401: 3399: 3397: 3392: 3388: 3380: 3375: 3373: 3368: 3366: 3361: 3360: 3357: 3345: 3342: 3338: 3337:National debt 3335: 3334: 3333: 3330: 3328: 3325: 3323: 3320: 3316: 3313: 3312: 3311: 3308: 3306: 3303: 3301: 3298: 3297: 3295: 3291: 3285: 3284:Foreign trade 3282: 3280: 3277: 3275: 3272: 3270: 3267: 3265: 3262: 3260: 3257: 3255: 3252: 3251: 3249: 3245: 3239: 3236: 3232: 3229: 3228: 3227: 3224: 3222: 3219: 3217: 3214: 3213: 3211: 3209: 3205: 3199: 3198:Disinvestment 3196: 3194: 3191: 3187: 3184: 3183: 3182: 3179: 3178: 3176: 3174: 3170: 3164: 3161: 3159: 3158:Nuclear power 3156: 3154: 3151: 3147: 3144: 3142: 3139: 3138: 3137: 3134: 3132: 3129: 3127: 3124: 3123: 3121: 3117: 3111: 3108: 3107: 3105: 3101: 3095: 3092: 3090: 3087: 3083: 3080: 3079: 3078: 3075: 3074: 3072: 3068: 3060: 3050: 3047: 3045: 3042: 3041: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3024: 3019: 3017: 3012: 3010: 3005: 3004: 3001: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2985: 2981: 2978: 2976: 2973: 2971: 2968: 2966: 2963: 2961: 2958: 2956: 2953: 2951: 2948: 2945: 2942: 2941: 2932: 2928: 2925: 2924: 2919: 2916: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2902: 2899: 2896: 2892: 2889: 2886: 2882: 2879: 2876: 2872: 2869: 2868: 2855: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2834: 2827: 2823: 2817: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2778: 2771: 2770: 2765: 2760: 2752: 2750:1-135-76637-1 2746: 2742: 2741: 2733: 2717: 2713: 2706: 2690: 2686: 2679: 2671: 2665: 2649: 2645: 2639: 2624: 2620: 2613: 2598: 2594: 2587: 2572: 2568: 2561: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2530: 2528: 2518: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2494: 2486: 2479: 2472: 2467: 2451: 2447: 2441: 2433: 2429: 2422: 2416: 2410: 2403: 2399: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2385: 2380: 2378: 2361: 2357: 2351: 2335: 2331: 2324: 2322: 2306: 2302: 2296: 2281: 2277: 2271: 2263: 2259: 2253: 2246:. 2 May 1978. 2245: 2238: 2230: 2226: 2219: 2211: 2207: 2200: 2192: 2188: 2182: 2175:. 7 May 1978. 2174: 2170: 2164: 2156: 2150: 2142: 2141: 2133: 2125: 2119: 2112: 2108: 2102: 2095: 2089: 2074: 2070: 2063: 2055: 2051: 2045: 2029: 2025: 2019: 2012: 2008: 2002: 2000: 1998: 1996: 1994: 1992: 1990: 1988: 1986: 1984: 1982: 1980: 1978: 1976: 1974: 1957: 1953: 1947: 1940: 1936: 1933: 1927: 1925: 1923: 1921: 1919: 1917: 1901: 1894: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1878: 1871: 1864: 1860: 1857: 1852: 1848: 1838: 1835: 1833: 1830: 1828: 1825: 1823: 1820: 1818: 1815: 1813: 1812:Disinvestment 1810: 1808: 1805: 1803: 1800: 1798: 1795: 1793: 1790: 1789: 1783: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1768:Ronald Reagan 1765: 1763: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1739:conservatives 1735: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1722: 1717: 1715: 1711: 1710:Harry Schwarz 1707: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1685: 1683: 1677: 1675: 1667: 1664: 1661: 1658: 1657: 1656: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1638: 1632: 1627: 1612: 1602: 1597: 1594: 1584: 1582: 1575: 1570: 1565: 1555: 1553: 1543: 1540: 1536: 1535:David Packard 1531: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1500: 1497: 1496:San Francisco 1489: 1485: 1480: 1471: 1469: 1459: 1457: 1453: 1448: 1446: 1442: 1431: 1426: 1424: 1420: 1411: 1408: 1403: 1401: 1395: 1393: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1367:Smith College 1362:Smith College 1359: 1356: 1353: 1342: 1339: 1323: 1320: 1317: 1314: 1313: 1309: 1306: 1303: 1301: 1300: 1297: 1293: 1291: 1285: 1283: 1277: 1275: 1274:Robben Island 1270: 1260: 1255: 1253: 1247: 1245: 1233: 1228: 1226: 1221: 1219: 1214: 1213: 1211: 1210: 1205: 1197: 1196: 1195: 1194: 1187: 1184: 1182: 1181:Project Coast 1179: 1177: 1174: 1172: 1169: 1167: 1164: 1162: 1159: 1157: 1154: 1152: 1149: 1147: 1144: 1142: 1139: 1137: 1134: 1132: 1129: 1128: 1122: 1121: 1114: 1111: 1109: 1106: 1104: 1100: 1098: 1095: 1093: 1090: 1088: 1087:Robben Island 1085: 1083: 1080: 1078: 1075: 1074: 1068: 1067: 1060: 1057: 1055: 1054:B. J. Vorster 1052: 1050: 1047: 1045: 1042: 1040: 1037: 1035: 1032: 1030: 1027: 1025: 1022: 1020: 1017: 1015: 1012: 1010: 1007: 1005: 1004:Walter Sisulu 1002: 1000: 997: 995: 992: 990: 987: 985: 982: 980: 977: 975: 972: 970: 967: 965: 962: 960: 957: 955: 952: 950: 947: 945: 942: 940: 937: 935: 932: 930: 927: 925: 922: 920: 917: 915: 912: 910: 907: 905: 902: 900: 897: 895: 892: 891: 885: 884: 877: 874: 872: 869: 867: 864: 862: 859: 857: 854: 852: 849: 847: 844: 842: 839: 837: 834: 832: 829: 827: 824: 822: 819: 817: 814: 812: 809: 807: 804: 802: 799: 797: 794: 792: 789: 787: 784: 782: 779: 777: 774: 772: 769: 767: 764: 762: 759: 757: 754: 752: 749: 747: 744: 742: 739: 737: 734: 733: 730: 729:Organisations 725: 724: 717: 714: 712: 709: 707: 704: 702: 699: 697: 694: 692: 689: 687: 684: 682: 679: 677: 676:Vaal uprising 674: 672: 669: 667: 664: 662: 661:Rivonia Trial 659: 657: 654: 652: 649: 647: 644: 642: 639: 638: 632: 629: 628: 624: 623: 619: 615: 614: 611: 608: 607: 603: 599: 598: 590: 588: 583: 579: 577: 573: 569: 565: 564:Leon Sullivan 561: 556: 554: 550: 546: 539: 524: 522: 519: 515: 511: 501: 496: 494: 490: 484: 481: 480:Harold Wilson 477: 472: 466: 461: 452: 447: 443: 441: 435: 433: 428: 426: 422: 418: 406: 401: 399: 394: 392: 387: 386: 384: 383: 376: 373: 370: 367: 365: 362: 360: 357: 355: 354:"Biko" (song) 352: 350: 347: 346: 343:Other aspects 340: 339: 332: 326: 324: 318: 316: 310: 308: 302: 300: 294: 292: 286: 284: 278: 277: 273: 268: 267: 260: 257: 255: 252: 251: 245: 244: 237: 234: 232: 229: 227: 224: 222: 219: 217: 214: 212: 209: 207: 204: 203: 200:Organisations 197: 196: 189: 185: 183: 179: 177: 173: 171: 167: 165: 161: 160: 154: 153: 146: 143: 141: 138: 136: 133: 131: 128: 126: 123: 121: 120:Disinvestment 118: 116: 113: 111: 108: 107: 101: 100: 96: 92: 91: 88: 83: 80: 79: 71: 69: 65: 64:South African 61: 60:disinvestment 57: 53: 49: 45: 44:Disinvestment 36: 32: 28: 23: 19: 5429: 5389:Histories of 5083:United Party 4992:Reform Party 4929:Orangia Unie 4554: 4545: 4538:Swart gevaar 4536: 4520: 4476: 4467: 4408: 4310:Blikkiesdorp 3985: 3636:Pre-colonial 3489:Natal Colony 3473:Zulu Kingdom 3387:South Africa 3344:Trade unions 3269:Reserve Bank 3197: 3146:LGBT tourism 3044:Western Cape 2982: 2930: 2921: 2911: 2885:The MIT Tech 2884: 2844:James Currey 2839: 2833: 2825: 2816: 2794:(1): 76–86. 2791: 2787: 2777: 2767: 2759: 2739: 2732: 2720:. 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