266:"Distributed leadership" entered the leadership and organizational theory discourse and clearly appealed to various scholars, policy makers, administrators, and practitioners as they have used it to frame, describe, and promote their work. Some use it as a recipe for effective leadership or improving schools; others use it to prescribe optimal leadership or organizational structure. The most common alternative usage is equating distributed leadership with more than one designated leader, ideas such as shared, democratic, or collaborative leadership. Studies along these lines often look at the distribution of leadership roles. Interest in these alternative organizational structures reflect the increased demands on leaders in schools and changes in the demands on educational organizations, and the term "distributed leadership" gets used to represent this. Some worry that this overlap in usage results in a watering down of ideas or rebranding of old ideas in new terms.
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interactions amongst leaders, followers, and the situation. This reflects the roots of the framework in distributed cognition and activity theory. A practical or normative approach is concerned with optimizing the distribution of leadership so as to improve organizations. In this case, research is focused on the effects of certain configurations of leadership roles or activities. While the use of
Distributed Leadership as a term will continue to evolve as scholarship on the topic continues to develop, this distinction is important in maintaining common epistemologies for researchers, policy makers, administrators, and practitioners.
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210:). In the example of the rubric for assessing teaching, the principal doing the observations will be prompted for what to pay attention to and the routine will improve a consistency to the observation practice. Thus the enactment of leaderships in this situation is distributed across the principal, the teacher being observed, and the routine.
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practice. Tools help focus the users attention but can also obscure other elements. The attendance taker might check off all those students present and think the task is complete but fail to notice a student that is present but not on the list. In this way, the tool is constitutive of the task, not just an accessory. A
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is a conceptual and analytical approach to understanding how the work of leadership takes place among the people and in context of a complex organization. Though developed and primarily used in education research, it has since been applied to other domains, including business and even tourism. Rather
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expands this work in two ways: first, foregrounding of the individual must be done without losing sight of the interdependence of the system; and second, there are three different levels of resolution (interpersonal, cultural/community, and institutional/cultural planes) are needed to understand the
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in the 1990s with his studies of navigation on a naval aircraft carrier. His work on understanding naturally situated cognition led to the conclusion that cognition is socially distributed. Rather than looking for knowledge structures within an individual, his work showed that cognitive activity, or
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exists where the leadership activities are performed in a particular sequence. Leadership activities are dynamic and situated, thus these three categories do not correspond with particular types of activities or duties. This part of the framework foregrounds leadership activities and all individuals
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Leadership research up through the late 1990s focused on the specific traits, functions, or effects of individual leaders. Much of the work done in educational research focused exclusively on the principal and centered around defining the heroics of individuals. Descriptions were written of what was
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Additionally, Spillane and Gronn both draw on an application of activity theory in the field of leadership research that grew out of
Mintzberg’s studies of work-activity, observing managers through structured observations to document what they actually do. While innovative and exciting at the time,
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are objects designed with a purpose toward enabling some action. Perhaps the most obvious example of a tool is a hammer. In organizations, however, tools might be a rubric for assessing teaching or an attendance checklist. They are not just accessories or incidentals; they both enable and constrain
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comprises a complex web of material and social aspects of the environment, such as history, culture, physical environmental features, and policy environment, as well as more local aspects such as task complexity, organizational structure, or staff stability. The key here is to identify and focus on
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is defined as any "activities tied to the core work of the organization that are designed by organizational members to influence the motivation, knowledge, affect, or practices of other organizational members." Thus a leader is anyone who engages in these activities based on tasks, not position. As
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A distinction that helps unravel the mixed usage is to distinguish between distributed leadership as a conceptual or analytical framework versus distributed leadership as a normative or practical framework. Taking an analytical perspective is to understand leadership activities as a product of the
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over time. This is a key link to distributed cognition, where thinking and understanding is a process constituted of interactions with other people, tools, and routines, rather than independently. Research from a distributed perspective often takes a task-oriented approach as a way to break down
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aspect posits leadership activity as a whole is stretched, or distributed, across many people. Leadership is often enacted with those not in official leadership positions, thus distributed leadership examines enactments of leadership activity rather than roles. The configurations of leadership
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is a broad social sciences approach to understanding human behavior as contextualized in a situation. This situated perspective expands the unit of analysis to the collective rather than individual and studies the relation between actions. Although this approach is aimed at understanding the
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Leadership is often studied as something that is done or acted out by an individual. Social or shared leadership approaches often still see leadership as actions done by individuals, just done in cooperation with others. Taking a distributed perspective, in contrast, draws on the theory of
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being done but not how, which limited transferability across contexts. From this research it was unclear how leaders responded to the complex environment in schools. Though some research on leadership has continued to focus on the role or function of the designated leader, such as
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sits at the intersection of psychology, sociology, and cognitive science. It is essentially the theory that knowledge and the thinking with that knowledge are stretched across the tools, situation, other people, and context. It originated with the work of anthropologist
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individual, the unit of analysis is the broader system in which that individual participates. Engestrom identifies three generations of activity theory and associated researcher: first generation, a model focused on the individual (subject-object-mediating artifact) by
246:(1978); second generation, expansion of the model to include collective action, by Alexei Leont'ev (1981); and third generation, toward a networked understanding of interactive activity systems, proposed by Engestrom himself (1987). Another Activity Theory scholar,
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the nature of this documentation was ultimately deemed shallow as it did not differentiate between what was managerial and non-managerial work, there were still unanswered questions about how management was enacted, and it did not explain leadership effectiveness.
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is a regular sequence or pattern of actions that happen in an organization. This may or may not align with the tools. For example, with a rubric for assessing teaching, the associated routine might be when and how an instructional leader observes a class, such as
107:. Importantly, the role of a leader or follower is dynamic, and a person might be a follower in one situation but not in another. Additionally, followers are not passive recipients of these influences and followers may influence the leaders as well.
79:, there has also be a significant shift to understanding leadership as a shared effort by more than one person. The latter constructs look more broadly at various roles that provide forms of leadership throughout the school, including
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91:. Distributed leadership draws on these multi-agent perspectives to describe how actors work to establish the conditions for improving teaching and learning in schools. Distributed leadership is not an activity, rather a procedure
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distributed cognition to understand leadership is an emergent property of the system. In this way, it sits in between those who see leadership is a result of individual agency and those who see it as an outcome of the situation.
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different levels activity. A distributed perspective on leadership takes this networked and multi-level approach to give "context of action" and "maintain... the tension between agency and distribution.
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Leithwood, Kenneth; Mascall, Blair; Strauss, Tiiu; Sacks, Robin; Memon, Nadeem; Yashkina, Anna (5 February 2007). "Distributing
Leadership to Make Schools Smarter: Taking the Ego Out of the System".
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43:, understanding leadership from a distributed perspective means seeing leadership activities as a situated and social process at the intersection of leaders, followers, and the situation.
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Understanding leadership from a distributed perspective means looking for leadership activity as situated and social process, drawing on both distributed cognition and activity theory.
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than focus on characteristics of the individual leader or features of the situation, distributed leadership foregrounds how actors engage in tasks that are "stretched" or
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practice into manageable units of analysis. Understanding how tasks are carried out and which are deemed important by leaders and followers gives a window into practice.
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Spillane, J. P., Halverson, R., & Diamond, J. B. (2001). Investigating School
Leadership Practice: A Distributed Perspective. Educational Researcher, (April), 23–28.
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Spillane, James P.; Camburn, Eric M.; Stitziel Pareja, Amber (5 February 2007). "Taking a
Distributed Perspective to the School Principal's Workday".
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Spillane, James P.; Halverson, Richard; Diamond, John B. (January 2004). "Towards a theory of leadership practice: a distributed perspective".
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Distributed leadership emerged in the early 2000s from sociological, cognitive, psychological, and anthropological theories, most importantly
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this definition implies, there is within an organization a group of people who are influenced by these leadership activities: these are the
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Spillane, James P.; Halverson, Richard; Diamond, John (2001). "Investigating School
Leadership Practice: A Distributed Perspective".
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the "aspects of the situation that enable and constrain leadership practice but also captur how they shape that practice." Whereas
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Spillane, James; Halverson, Richard; Diamond, John (2001). "Investigating School
Leadership Practice: A distributed perspective".
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714:. In J.V. Wertsch, P. del Rio, & A. Alvarez (Eds.) Sociocultural studies of mind. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
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describes the situation as merely the context within which individuals act, a distributed perspective looks to the situation as
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Spillane, J. P.; Halverson, R.; Diamond, J. B. (2004). "Towards a theory of leadership practice: a distributed perspective".
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by the
Australian Learning and Teaching Council (ALTC) and the Australian Government Office for Learning and Teaching (OLT)
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This is a diagram to understand how leadership practice is stretched across leaders, followers, the situation, and time.
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Observing sociocultural activity on three planes: participatory appropriation, guided participation, and apprenticeship
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Two aspects of the situation that are often foregrounded in a distributed perspective are tools and routines.
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Spillane, J. & Diamond, J. (2007). Distributed
Leadership in Practice. New York: Teachers College Press.
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leadership was enacted in schools, as an activity stretched across the "social and situational contexts."
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Importantly, tools and routines take a portion of the cognitive load required to complete a task (see
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Harris, A. (2008). Distributed School
Leadership: Developing tomorrow's leaders. New York: Routledge.
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knowing what to do, was a situated process, influenced by other people, tools, and the situation.
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Harris, A.; Spillane, J. (1 January 2008). "Distributed leadership through the looking glass".
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is where two or more leaders co-perform the leadership activity in the same place and time. In
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who contribute, avoiding the tendency to focus solely on designated leaders.
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997:"Distributed Leadership in Organizations: A Review of Theory and Research"
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Halverson, Richard (2010). "School formative feedback systems".
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Hutchins, E. (1995). Cognition in the Wild. Boston: MIT Press.
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Distributed school leadership: Developing tomorrow's leaders
288:"To distribute leadership or not? A lesson from the islands"
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Gronn, P (2008). "The future of distributed leadership".
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across the organization. With theoretical foundations in
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674:(3. printing ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
414:(1st ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. pp.
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Benson, Angela M.; Blackman, Deborah (October 2011).
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Comprehensive Assessment for Leadership and Learning
577:(1st ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. p.
827:. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University.
819:Spillane, James P.; Diamond, John B., Eds. (2007).
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699:(1st. ed.). Helsinki: Orienta-Konsultit.
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847:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
550:(1st ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
378:(1st ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
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995:Bolden, Richard (September 2011).
823:Distributed Leadership in Practice
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2199:Democratic Republic of the Congo
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889:Leadership and Policy in Schools
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604:Journal of Curriculum Studies
304:10.1016/j.tourman.2010.10.002
3512:United States Virgin Islands
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1121:Distributed Leadership Study
509:Peabody Journal of Education
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3274:Education in North America
1099:10.1080/0022027032000106726
637:Halverson, Richard (2003).
616:10.1080/0022027032000106726
571:Spillane, James P. (2006).
542:Spillane, James P. (2006).
408:Spillane, James P. (2006).
370:Spillane, James P. (2006).
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77:transformational leadership
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1025:Halverson, R. R. (2003).
901:10.1080/15700760601091267
798:10.1177/0263211x000283006
763:10.3102/0013189x030003023
656:10.14507/epaa.v11n37.2003
521:10.1080/01619561003685270
493:10.14507/epaa.v11n37.2003
453:10.1080/15700760601091200
349:10.3102/0013189x030003023
122:Collaborated distribution
83:, democratic leadership,
3690:Northern Mariana Islands
3507:Turks and Caicos Islands
2588:East Timor (Timor-Leste)
2184:Central African Republic
971:10.1177/0892020607085623
936:10.1177/0892020607085623
710:Rogoff, Barbara (1995).
695:Engestrom, Yrgö (1987).
670:Hutchins, Edwin (1994).
474:Halverson, Rich (2003).
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130:Coordinated distribution
89:collaborative leadership
73:instructional leadership
3655:Cocos (Keeling) Islands
2849:Cocos (Keeling) Islands
959:Management in Education
924:Management in Education
126:collective distribution
61:communities of practice
3437:British Virgin Islands
2951:Bosnia and Herzegovina
741:Educational Researcher
574:Distributed leadership
546:Distributed leadership
411:Distributed leadership
374:Distributed leadership
327:Educational Researcher
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47:Background and origins
28:Distributed leadership
18:Distributed Leadership
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3638:and other territories
3377:Saint Kitts and Nevis
2344:SĂŁo TomĂ© and PrĂncipe
2204:Republic of the Congo
866:. London: Routledge.
862:Harris, Alma (2009).
672:Cognition in the wild
220:Distributed cognition
214:Foundational theories
208:Distributed Cognition
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53:distributed cognition
41:distributed cognition
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2902:Education in Europe
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2130:Education in Africa
1353:Instructional design
201:instructional rounds
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3287:Antigua and Barbuda
3167:States with limited
2790:limited recognition
2419:States with limited
2118:Education by region
1844:Secondary education
1756:Teaching philosophy
1659:Pedagogical pattern
1602:21st century skills
1581:Religious education
1224:Aims and objectives
3853:Schools portal
3327:Dominican Republic
2522:Education in Asia
1849:Tertiary education
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1278:Education sciences
989:General references
292:Tourism Management
180:Contingency Theory
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81:teacher leadership
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2073:
2070:
2069:
2065:
2064:
2002:
2001:
1997:
1996:
1993:
1992:
1988:
1987:
1943:
1942:
1938:
1937:
1934:
1933:
1929:
1928:
1886:
1885:
1881:
1880:
1839:Primary education
1810:
1809:
1699:Dialogic learning
1669:Teacher retention
1622:Critical thinking
1617:Class arrangement
1586:Special education
1261:Standardized test
1244:Course evaluation
873:978-0-415-41958-1
834:978-0-8077-4806-0
557:978-0-7879-6538-9
425:978-0-7879-6538-9
385:978-0-7879-6538-9
262:Usage of the term
85:shared leadership
16:(Redirected from
3912:
3872:
3871:
3862:
3861:
3851:
3850:
3849:
3824:
3812:Falkland Islands
3726:Sovereign states
3715:
3714:
3695:Pitcairn Islands
3665:French Polynesia
3650:Christmas Island
3579:Papua New Guinea
3559:Marshall Islands
3532:Sovereign states
3522:
3521:
3477:Saint Barthélemy
3407:Dependencies and
3280:Sovereign states
3270:
3269:
3205:Dependencies and
2909:Sovereign states
2897:
2896:
2885:
2875:
2874:
2844:Christmas Island
2530:Sovereign states
2517:
2516:
2507:
2506:(United Kingdom)
2502:Tristan da Cunha
2498:Ascension Island
2490:
2477:
2468:
2444:Dependencies and
2137:Sovereign states
2125:
2124:
2114:
2113:
2097:
2045:
2044:
2040:
2039:
2015:Higher education
2011:
2010:
2006:
2005:
1970:
1969:
1965:
1964:
1956:Secondary school
1952:
1951:
1947:
1946:
1913:
1912:
1908:
1907:
1895:
1894:
1890:
1889:
1861:
1860:
1856:
1855:
1830:
1829:
1816:
1815:
1744:Student-centered
1729:Phenomenon-based
1719:Peer instruction
1684:Blended learning
1607:Bloom's taxonomy
1571:Gifted education
1566:Education reform
1398:Computer science
1179:
1178:
1164:
1157:
1150:
1141:
1140:
1110:
1072:
1048:
1046:
1018:
1016:
983:
982:
954:
948:
947:
919:
913:
912:
884:
878:
877:
859:
853:
852:
846:
838:
826:
816:
810:
809:
781:
775:
774:
756:
747:(April): 23–28.
736:
730:
729:
723:
715:
707:
701:
700:
692:
686:
685:
667:
661:
660:
658:
634:
628:
627:
599:
593:
592:
568:
562:
561:
549:
539:
533:
532:
504:
498:
497:
495:
471:
465:
464:
436:
430:
429:
405:
399:
396:
390:
389:
377:
367:
361:
360:
342:
333:(April): 23–28.
322:
316:
315:
298:(5): 1141–1149.
283:
21:
3920:
3919:
3915:
3914:
3913:
3911:
3910:
3909:
3885:
3884:
3883:
3878:
3847:
3845:
3828:
3822:
3805:
3803:
3793:
3720:
3709:
3637:
3631:
3614:
3608:
3589:Solomon Islands
3527:
3516:
3410:
3408:
3401:
3275:
3264:
3248:
3206:
3200:
3186:Northern Cyprus
3168:
3162:
3083:North Macedonia
2904:
2891:
2863:
2831:
2822:
2803:Northern Cyprus
2789:
2782:
2524:
2511:
2510:
2505:
2488:
2475:
2466:
2447:
2445:
2438:
2422:
2420:
2413:
2132:
2119:
2104:
2103:
2084:
2075:
2066:
2058:
2051:
2029:
2017:
1998:
1989:
1981:
1976:
1958:
1939:
1930:
1922:
1917:
1901:
1882:
1874:
1867:
1823:
1806:
1760:
1679:Active learning
1674:Teaching method
1649:Learning theory
1590:
1556:Autodidacticism
1551:Adult education
1537:
1478:Performing arts
1359:
1266:Teacher quality
1256:Standards-based
1212:
1184:
1173:
1168:
1117:
991:
986:
955:
951:
920:
916:
885:
881:
874:
860:
856:
840:
839:
835:
817:
813:
782:
778:
754:10.1.1.494.6018
737:
733:
717:
716:
708:
704:
693:
689:
682:
668:
664:
635:
631:
600:
596:
589:
569:
565:
558:
540:
536:
505:
501:
472:
468:
437:
433:
426:
406:
402:
397:
393:
386:
368:
364:
340:10.1.1.494.6018
323:
319:
284:
280:
276:
264:
238:Activity Theory
216:
171:
139:
113:
97:
57:activity theory
49:
37:activity theory
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3918:
3908:
3907:
3902:
3897:
3880:
3879:
3877:
3876:
3866:
3856:
3841:
3838:
3837:
3834:
3833:
3830:
3829:
3827:
3826:
3819:
3814:
3808:
3806:
3798:
3795:
3794:
3792:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3751:
3746:
3741:
3736:
3730:
3728:
3722:
3721:
3711:
3710:
3708:
3707:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3687:
3685:Norfolk Island
3682:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3662:
3657:
3652:
3647:
3645:American Samoa
3641:
3639:
3633:
3632:
3630:
3629:
3624:
3618:
3616:
3615:of New Zealand
3610:
3609:
3607:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3571:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3535:
3533:
3529:
3528:
3518:
3517:
3515:
3514:
3509:
3504:
3499:
3497:Sint Eustatius
3494:
3489:
3484:
3479:
3474:
3469:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3442:Cayman Islands
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3413:
3411:
3406:
3403:
3402:
3400:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3289:
3283:
3281:
3277:
3276:
3266:
3265:
3263:
3262:
3260:European Union
3256:
3254:
3253:Other entities
3250:
3249:
3247:
3246:
3241:
3236:
3231:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3210:
3208:
3207:other entities
3202:
3201:
3199:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3172:
3170:
3164:
3163:
3161:
3160:
3158:United Kingdom
3155:
3150:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2971:Czech Republic
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2918:
2912:
2910:
2906:
2905:
2893:
2892:
2890:
2889:
2879:
2868:
2865:
2864:
2862:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2835:
2833:
2824:
2823:
2821:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2794:
2792:
2784:
2783:
2781:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2750:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2534:
2532:
2526:
2525:
2513:
2512:
2509:
2508:
2491:
2478:
2469:
2455:Canary Islands
2451:
2450:
2448:
2443:
2440:
2439:
2437:
2436:
2431:
2425:
2423:
2418:
2415:
2414:
2412:
2411:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2391:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2351:
2346:
2341:
2336:
2331:
2326:
2321:
2316:
2311:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2226:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2151:
2146:
2140:
2138:
2134:
2133:
2121:
2120:
2110:
2109:
2106:
2105:
2102:
2101:
2090:
2089:
2086:
2085:
2081:
2080:
2077:
2076:
2072:
2071:
2068:
2067:
2063:
2061:
2060:
2053:
2043:
2036:
2035:
2024:
2019:
2009:
2003:
2000:
1999:
1995:
1994:
1991:
1990:
1986:
1984:
1983:
1978:
1968:
1961:
1960:
1950:
1944:
1941:
1940:
1936:
1935:
1932:
1931:
1927:
1925:
1924:
1919:
1911:
1904:
1903:
1899:Primary school
1893:
1887:
1884:
1883:
1879:
1877:
1876:
1869:
1859:
1852:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1836:
1828:
1825:
1824:
1812:
1811:
1808:
1807:
1805:
1804:
1799:
1794:
1789:
1784:
1779:
1774:
1768:
1766:
1762:
1761:
1759:
1758:
1753:
1752:
1751:
1746:
1741:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1721:
1716:
1711:
1706:
1701:
1696:
1691:
1686:
1681:
1671:
1666:
1661:
1656:
1651:
1646:
1645:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1624:
1619:
1614:
1612:Cognitive load
1609:
1604:
1598:
1596:
1592:
1591:
1589:
1588:
1583:
1578:
1573:
1568:
1563:
1558:
1553:
1547:
1545:
1539:
1538:
1536:
1535:
1530:
1525:
1520:
1515:
1510:
1505:
1500:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1475:
1470:
1465:
1460:
1455:
1450:
1445:
1440:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1410:
1405:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1369:
1367:
1361:
1360:
1358:
1357:
1356:
1355:
1345:
1340:
1335:
1330:
1325:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1305:
1300:
1295:
1290:
1285:
1283:Evidence-based
1280:
1275:
1270:
1269:
1268:
1263:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1247:
1246:
1231:
1226:
1220:
1218:
1217:By perspective
1214:
1213:
1211:
1210:
1205:
1200:
1194:
1192:
1186:
1185:
1175:
1174:
1167:
1166:
1159:
1152:
1144:
1138:
1137:
1130:
1124:
1116:
1115:External links
1113:
1112:
1111:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1063:(2): 141–158.
1052:
1049:
1022:
1019:
1007:(3): 251–269.
990:
987:
985:
984:
949:
914:
879:
872:
854:
833:
811:
792:(3): 317–338.
776:
731:
702:
687:
680:
662:
629:
594:
588:978-0787965389
587:
563:
556:
534:
515:(2): 130–155.
499:
466:
447:(1): 103–125.
431:
424:
400:
391:
384:
362:
317:
277:
275:
272:
263:
260:
248:Barbara Rogoff
226:Edwin Hutchins
215:
212:
170:
167:
138:
135:
112:
109:
96:
93:
48:
45:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3917:
3906:
3903:
3901:
3898:
3896:
3893:
3892:
3890:
3875:
3867:
3865:
3857:
3855:
3854:
3843:
3842:
3839:
3825:
3820:
3818:
3817:French Guiana
3815:
3813:
3810:
3809:
3807:
3801:
3796:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3747:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3731:
3729:
3727:
3723:
3716:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3680:New Caledonia
3678:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3660:Easter Island
3658:
3656:
3653:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3642:
3640:
3634:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3619:
3617:
3611:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3536:
3534:
3530:
3523:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3505:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3493:
3490:
3488:
3485:
3483:
3480:
3478:
3475:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3414:
3412:
3404:
3398:
3397:United States
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3284:
3282:
3278:
3271:
3261:
3258:
3257:
3255:
3251:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3219:Faroe Islands
3217:
3215:
3212:
3211:
3209:
3203:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3191:South Ossetia
3189:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3173:
3171:
3165:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3043:Liechtenstein
3041:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2913:
2911:
2907:
2903:
2898:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2878:
2870:
2869:
2866:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2836:
2834:
2829:
2825:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2813:South Ossetia
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2795:
2793:
2791:
2785:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2569:
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2260:
2259:Guinea-Bissau
2257:
2255:
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2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
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2100:
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2049:Undergraduate
2047:
2046:
2041:
2038:
2037:
2033:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2016:
2013:
2012:
2007:
2004:
1985:
1979:
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1974:Middle school
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1966:
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1957:
1954:
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1948:
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1739:Project-based
1737:
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1734:Problem-based
1732:
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1689:Contemplative
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1251:Psychometrics
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681:9780262082310
677:
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44:
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38:
34:
29:
19:
3844:
3800:Dependencies
3636:Dependencies
3622:Cook Islands
3502:Sint Maarten
3482:Saint Martin
3196:Transnistria
2828:Dependencies
2758:Turkmenistan
2723:Saudi Arabia
2494:Saint Helena
2465:
2369:South Africa
2359:Sierra Leone
2164:Burkina Faso
2056:Postgraduate
1872:Kindergarten
1724:Personalized
1704:Experiential
1664:Teacher look
1373:Agricultural
1229:Anthropology
1090:
1086:
1060:
1056:
1034:
1030:
1004:
1000:
965:(1): 31–34.
962:
958:
952:
930:(1): 31–34.
927:
923:
917:
895:(1): 37–67.
892:
888:
882:
863:
857:
822:
814:
789:
785:
779:
744:
740:
734:
711:
705:
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244:Lev Vygotsky
236:
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218:
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184:constitutive
183:
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153:
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104:
99:
98:
95:Key concepts
69:
64:
50:
27:
26:
3874:WikiProject
3569:New Zealand
3472:Puerto Rico
3382:Saint Lucia
3332:El Salvador
3234:Isle of Man
3169:recognition
3143:Switzerland
3078:Netherlands
2887:Asia portal
2788:States with
2708:Philippines
2648:South Korea
2643:North Korea
2538:Afghanistan
2421:recognition
2374:South Sudan
2264:Ivory Coast
1980:High school
1777:Definitions
1654:Lesson plan
1543:Alternative
1448:Mathematics
1418:Engineering
1093:(1): 3–34.
610:(1): 3–34.
117:Leader Plus
111:Leader Plus
33:distributed
3900:Leadership
3889:Categories
3467:Montserrat
3462:Martinique
3457:Guadeloupe
3312:Costa Rica
3113:San Marino
3073:Montenegro
3053:Luxembourg
3033:Kazakhstan
2936:Azerbaijan
2768:Uzbekistan
2743:Tajikistan
2658:Kyrgyzstan
2638:Kazakhstan
2558:Bangladesh
2548:Azerbaijan
2476:(Portugal)
2434:Somaliland
2354:Seychelles
2319:Mozambique
2304:Mauritania
2289:Madagascar
2244:The Gambia
2179:Cape Verde
2032:Continuing
2022:Vocational
1627:Curriculum
1561:Democratic
1533:Vocational
1523:Technology
1483:Philosophy
1365:By subject
1343:Technology
1323:Psychology
1308:Philosophy
1298:Leadership
1239:Evaluation
1234:Assessment
649:(37): 37.
486:(37): 37.
100:Leadership
3789:Venezuela
3734:Argentina
3539:Australia
3452:Greenland
3367:Nicaragua
3342:Guatemala
3224:Gibraltar
3048:Lithuania
2854:Hong Kong
2808:Palestine
2733:Sri Lanka
2728:Singapore
2608:Indonesia
2309:Mauritius
1865:Preschool
1765:Wikimedia
1503:Religious
1428:Euthenics
1413:Economics
1393:Chemistry
1383:Bilingual
1338:Sociology
1293:Inclusion
1273:Economics
1171:Education
979:143505983
944:143505983
909:146358158
843:cite book
806:145398182
749:CiteSeerX
720:cite book
335:CiteSeerX
312:154212800
175:situation
169:Situation
154:situation
150:followers
105:followers
3864:Category
3779:Suriname
3769:Paraguay
3754:Colombia
3554:Kiribati
3417:Anguilla
3352:Honduras
3322:Dominica
3297:Barbados
3244:Svalbard
3229:Guernsey
3176:Abkhazia
3128:Slovenia
3123:Slovakia
3098:Portugal
2956:Bulgaria
2877:Category
2798:Abkhazia
2748:Thailand
2703:Pakistan
2683:Mongolia
2678:Maldives
2673:Malaysia
2573:Cambodia
2500: /
2496: /
2489:(France)
2483: /
2461: /
2457: /
2409:Zimbabwe
2384:Tanzania
2234:Ethiopia
2229:Eswatini
2209:Djibouti
2174:Cameroon
2159:Botswana
1749:Socratic
1709:Feedback
1595:Concepts
1488:Physical
1458:Military
1438:Language
1388:Business
1328:Research
1318:Politics
1303:Pedagogy
1198:Glossary
1183:Overview
1037:: 1–34.
771:14863899
529:17836842
357:14863899
142:Practice
137:Practice
3784:Uruguay
3759:Ecuador
3739:Bolivia
3700:Tokelau
3604:Vanuatu
3447:Curaçao
3432:Bonaire
3427:Bermuda
3357:Jamaica
3337:Grenada
3292:Bahamas
3153:Ukraine
3103:Romania
3063:Moldova
3021:Ireland
3016:Iceland
3011:Hungary
3001:Germany
2996:Georgia
2986:Finland
2981:Estonia
2976:Denmark
2961:Croatia
2946:Belgium
2941:Belarus
2931:Austria
2926:Armenia
2921:Andorra
2916:Albania
2773:Vietnam
2688:Myanmar
2668:Lebanon
2598:Georgia
2553:Bahrain
2543:Armenia
2485:RĂ©union
2481:Mayotte
2472:Madeira
2467:(Spain)
2463:Melilla
2394:Tunisia
2364:Somalia
2349:Senegal
2334:Nigeria
2324:Namibia
2314:Morocco
2279:Liberia
2274:Lesotho
2224:Eritrea
2194:Comoros
2169:Burundi
2144:Algeria
2052:→
2027:Further
1982:→
1977:→
1959:→
1923:→
1918:→
1902:→
1875:→
1868:→
1714:Passive
1637:Studies
1518:Teacher
1508:Science
1498:Reading
1493:Physics
1468:Nursing
1453:Medical
1288:History
1208:Outline
1190:General
1107:3094291
624:3094291
461:3116768
196:routine
146:leaders
3764:Guyana
3744:Brazil
3675:Hawaii
3599:Tuvalu
3372:Panama
3362:Mexico
3307:Canada
3302:Belize
3239:Jersey
3181:Kosovo
3148:Turkey
3138:Sweden
3118:Serbia
3108:Russia
3093:Poland
3088:Norway
3068:Monaco
3038:Latvia
3006:Greece
2991:France
2966:Cyprus
2818:Taiwan
2753:Turkey
2718:Russia
2653:Kuwait
2633:Jordan
2623:Israel
2583:Cyprus
2568:Brunei
2563:Bhutan
2504:
2487:
2474:
2404:Zambia
2399:Uganda
2339:Rwanda
2294:Malawi
2254:Guinea
2149:Angola
2099:Portal
2059:
2018:
1921:Junior
1916:Infant
1821:Stages
1797:Quotes
1782:Images
1642:Theory
1632:Hidden
1528:Values
1433:Health
1408:Design
1333:Rights
1313:Policy
1132:CALL:
1105:
977:
942:
907:
870:
831:
804:
769:
751:
678:
622:
585:
554:
527:
459:
422:
382:
355:
337:
310:
152:, the
3749:Chile
3594:Tonga
3584:Samoa
3574:Palau
3564:Nauru
3422:Aruba
3347:Haiti
3214:Ă…land
3133:Spain
3058:Malta
3028:Italy
2859:Macau
2778:Yemen
2738:Syria
2713:Qatar
2693:Nepal
2628:Japan
2603:India
2593:Egypt
2578:China
2459:Ceuta
2379:Sudan
2329:Niger
2284:Libya
2269:Kenya
2249:Ghana
2239:Gabon
2214:Egypt
2154:Benin
1802:Texts
1772:Books
1473:Peace
1463:Music
1443:Legal
1403:Death
1203:Index
1103:S2CID
975:S2CID
940:S2CID
905:S2CID
802:S2CID
767:S2CID
620:S2CID
525:S2CID
457:S2CID
416:11–12
353:S2CID
308:S2CID
274:Notes
191:Tools
87:, or
3774:Peru
3670:Guam
3627:Niue
3549:Fiji
3492:Saba
3317:Cuba
2698:Oman
2663:Laos
2618:Iraq
2613:Iran
2389:Togo
2299:Mali
2189:Chad
1792:News
868:ISBN
849:link
829:ISBN
726:link
676:ISBN
583:ISBN
552:ISBN
420:ISBN
380:ISBN
173:The
115:The
55:and
39:and
3802:and
2830:and
1513:Sex
1378:Art
1095:doi
1065:doi
1039:doi
1009:doi
967:doi
932:doi
897:doi
794:doi
759:doi
651:doi
612:doi
517:doi
488:doi
449:doi
398:Ali
345:doi
300:doi
75:or
65:how
3891::
1101:.
1091:36
1089:.
1061:46
1059:.
1035:11
1033:.
1029:.
1005:13
1003:.
999:.
973:.
963:22
961:.
938:.
928:22
926:.
903:.
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641:.
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606:.
581:.
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511:.
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455:.
443:.
418:.
351:.
343:.
331:30
329:.
306:.
296:32
294:.
290:.
148:,
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2030:(
1163:e
1156:t
1149:v
1109:.
1097::
1071:.
1067::
1047:.
1041::
1017:.
1011::
981:.
969::
946:.
934::
911:.
899::
893:6
876:.
851:)
837:.
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796::
773:.
761::
728:)
684:.
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653::
626:.
614::
591:.
560:.
531:.
519::
496:.
490::
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451::
445:6
428:.
388:.
359:.
347::
314:.
302::
20:)
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