244:", and "distributed computing" have much overlap, and no clear distinction exists between them. The same system may be characterized both as "parallel" and "distributed"; the processors in a typical distributed system run concurrently in parallel. Parallel computing may be seen as a particularly tightly coupled form of distributed computing, and distributed computing may be seen as a loosely coupled form of parallel computing. Nevertheless, it is possible to roughly classify concurrent systems as "parallel" or "distributed" using the following criteria:
227:
4651:
3887:
264:
Figure (b) shows the same distributed system in more detail: each computer has its own local memory, and information can be exchanged only by passing messages from one node to another by using the available communication links. Figure (c) shows a parallel system in which each processor has a direct access to a shared memory.
958:, all nodes in parallel (1) receive the latest messages from their neighbours, (2) perform arbitrary local computation, and (3) send new messages to their neighbors. In such systems, a central complexity measure is the number of synchronous communication rounds required to complete the task.
1168:
However, there are many interesting special cases that are decidable. In particular, it is possible to reason about the behaviour of a network of finite-state machines. One example is telling whether a given network of interacting (asynchronous and non-deterministic) finite-state machines can reach a
1548:
Distributed programs are abstract descriptions of distributed systems. A distributed program consists of a collection of processes that work concurrently and communicate by explicit message passing. Each process can access a set of variables which are disjoint from the variables that can be changed
1104:
as the organizer of some task distributed among several computers (nodes). Before the task is begun, all network nodes are either unaware which node will serve as the "coordinator" (or leader) of the task, or unable to communicate with the current coordinator. After a coordinator election algorithm
953:
In the analysis of distributed algorithms, more attention is usually paid on communication operations than computational steps. Perhaps the simplest model of distributed computing is a synchronous system where all nodes operate in a lockstep fashion. This model is commonly known as the LOCAL model.
345:
Various hardware and software architectures are used for distributed computing. At a lower level, it is necessary to interconnect multiple CPUs with some sort of network, regardless of whether that network is printed onto a circuit board or made up of loosely coupled devices and cables. At a higher
169:
A distributed system may have a common goal, such as solving a large computational problem; the user then perceives the collection of autonomous processors as a unit. Alternatively, each computer may have its own user with individual needs, and the purpose of the distributed system is to coordinate
680:
According to
Reactive Manifesto, reactive distributed systems are responsive, resilient, elastic and message-driven. Subsequently, Reactive systems are more flexible, loosely-coupled and scalable. To make your systems reactive, you are advised to implement Reactive Principles. Reactive Principles
1137:
In order to perform coordination, distributed systems employ the concept of coordinators. The coordinator election problem is to choose a process from among a group of processes on different processors in a distributed system to act as the central coordinator. Several central coordinator election
928:
Moreover, a parallel algorithm can be implemented either in a parallel system (using shared memory) or in a distributed system (using message passing). The traditional boundary between parallel and distributed algorithms (choose a suitable network vs. run in any given network) does not lie in the
754:
The field of concurrent and distributed computing studies similar questions in the case of either multiple computers, or a computer that executes a network of interacting processes: which computational problems can be solved in such a network and how efficiently? However, it is not at all obvious
263:
The figure on the right illustrates the difference between distributed and parallel systems. Figure (a) is a schematic view of a typical distributed system; the system is represented as a network topology in which each node is a computer and each line connecting the nodes is a communication link.
1108:
The network nodes communicate among themselves in order to decide which of them will get into the "coordinator" state. For that, they need some method in order to break the symmetry among them. For example, if each node has unique and comparable identities, then the nodes can compare their
988:
communication rounds, then the nodes in the network must produce their output without having the possibility to obtain information about distant parts of the network. In other words, the nodes must make globally consistent decisions based on information that is available in their
441:: architectures where there are no special machines that provide a service or manage the network resources. Instead all responsibilities are uniformly divided among all machines, known as peers. Peers can serve both as clients and as servers. Examples of this architecture include
937:
In parallel algorithms, yet another resource in addition to time and space is the number of computers. Indeed, often there is a trade-off between the running time and the number of computers: the problem can be solved faster if there are more computers running in parallel (see
1013:
Traditional computational problems take the perspective that the user asks a question, a computer (or a distributed system) processes the question, then produces an answer and stops. However, there are also problems where the system is required not to stop, including the
1134:, such as undirected rings, unidirectional rings, complete graphs, grids, directed Euler graphs, and others. A general method that decouples the issue of the graph family from the design of the coordinator election algorithm was suggested by Korach, Kutten, and Moran.
470:. Database-centric architecture in particular provides relational processing analytics in a schematic architecture allowing for live environment relay. This enables distributed computing functions both within and beyond the parameters of a networked database.
997:
rounds, and understanding which problems can be solved by such algorithms is one of the central research questions of the field. Typically an algorithm which solves a problem in polylogarithmic time in the network size is considered efficient in this model.
453:
Another basic aspect of distributed computing architecture is the method of communicating and coordinating work among concurrent processes. Through various message passing protocols, processes may communicate directly with one another, typically in a
279:
for more detailed discussion). Nevertheless, as a rule of thumb, high-performance parallel computation in a shared-memory multiprocessor uses parallel algorithms while the coordination of a large-scale distributed system uses distributed algorithms.
184:
The structure of the system (network topology, network latency, number of computers) is not known in advance, the system may consist of different kinds of computers and network links, and the system may change during the execution of a distributed
755:
what is meant by "solving a problem" in the case of a concurrent or distributed system: for example, what is the task of the algorithm designer, and what is the concurrent or distributed equivalent of a sequential general-purpose computer?
76:. Distributed systems cost significantly more than monolithic architectures, primarily due to increased needs for additional hardware, servers, gateways, firewalls, new subnets, proxies, and so on. Also, distributed systems are prone to
1442:
Systems consist of a number of physically distributed components that work independently using their private storage, but also communicate from time to time by explicit message passing. Such systems are called distributed
812:
are used. A Boolean circuit can be seen as a computer network: each gate is a computer that runs an extremely simple computer program. Similarly, a sorting network can be seen as a computer network: each comparator is a
133:" originally referred to computer networks where individual computers were physically distributed within some geographical area. The terms are nowadays used in a much wider sense, even referring to autonomous
780:
Shared-memory programs can be extended to distributed systems if the underlying operating system encapsulates the communication between nodes and virtually unifies the memory across all individual systems.
2069:
OhlĂdal, M.; Jaroš, J.; Schwarz, J.; et al. (2006). "Evolutionary Design of OAB and AAB Communication
Schedules for Interconnection Networks". In Rothlauf, F.; Branke, J.; Cagnoni, S. (eds.).
1123:
transmitted, and time. The algorithm suggested by
Gallager, Humblet, and Spira for general undirected graphs has had a strong impact on the design of distributed algorithms in general, and won the
431:: architectures that refer typically to web applications which further forward their requests to other enterprise services. This type of application is the one most responsible for the success of
412:: architectures where smart clients contact the server for data then format and display it to the users. Input at the client is committed back to the server when it represents a permanent change.
2985:
1161:
is an analogous example from the field of centralised computation: we are given a computer program and the task is to decide whether it halts or runs forever. The halting problem is
867:
is encoded as a string, and the string is given as input to a computer. The computer program finds a coloring of the graph, encodes the coloring as a string, and outputs the result.
1005:). The features of this concept are typically captured with the CONGEST(B) model, which is similarly defined as the LOCAL model, but where single messages can only contain B bits.
881:
is encoded as a string. However, multiple computers can access the same string in parallel. Each computer might focus on one part of the graph and produce a coloring for that part.
2955:
1173:, i.e., it is decidable, but not likely that there is an efficient (centralised, parallel or distributed) algorithm that solves the problem in the case of large networks.
921:
While the field of parallel algorithms has a different focus than the field of distributed algorithms, there is much interaction between the two fields. For example, the
700:
Many tasks that we would like to automate by using a computer are of question–answer type: we would like to ask a question and the computer should produce an answer. In
823:
The algorithm designer only chooses the computer program. All computers run the same program. The system must work correctly regardless of the structure of the network.
60:, and managing the independent failure of components. When a component of one system fails, the entire system does not fail. Examples of distributed systems vary from
3835:
838:
In the case of distributed algorithms, computational problems are typically related to graphs. Often the graph that describes the structure of the computer network
950:. The class NC can be defined equally well by using the PRAM formalism or Boolean circuits—PRAM machines can simulate Boolean circuits efficiently and vice versa.
455:
2926:
758:
The discussion below focuses on the case of multiple computers, although many of the issues are the same for concurrent processes running on a single computer.
3977:
2094:
2823:
1165:
in the general case, and naturally understanding the behaviour of a computer network is at least as hard as understanding the behaviour of one computer.
486:
the use of a communication network that connects several computers: for example, data produced in one physical location and required in another location.
969:
be the diameter of the network. On the one hand, any computable problem can be solved trivially in a synchronous distributed system in approximately 2
1248:
314:
was invented in the early 1970s. E-mail became the most successful application of ARPANET, and it is probably the earliest example of a large-scale
2977:
2840:
334:
330:
329:
The study of distributed computing became its own branch of computer science in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The first conference in the field,
99:
is the process of writing such programs. There are many different types of implementations for the message passing mechanism, including pure HTTP,
925:
for graph coloring was originally presented as a parallel algorithm, but the same technique can also be used directly as a distributed algorithm.
2472:
TULSIRAMJI GAIKWAD-PATIL College of
Engineering & Technology, Nagpur Department of Information Technology Introduction to Distributed Systems
1976:
117:, a problem is divided into many tasks, each of which is solved by one or more computers, which communicate with each other via message passing.
1022:
problems. In these problems, the distributed system is supposed to continuously coordinate the use of shared resources so that no conflicts or
4067:
783:
A model that is closer to the behavior of real-world multiprocessor machines and takes into account the use of machine instructions, such as
3919:
1921:
681:
are a set of principles and patterns which help to make your cloud native application as well as edge native applications more reactive.
3026:
2748:
2375:
3392:
2591:
2048:
2010:
3566:
1389:
1304:
3736:
3680:
3665:
3522:
1218:
80:. On the other hand, a well designed distributed system is more scalable, more durable, more changeable and more fine-tuned than a
489:
There are many cases in which the use of a single computer would be possible in principle, but the use of a distributed system is
4048:
3891:
2297:
Haussmann, J. (2019). "Cost-efficient parallel processing of irregularly structured problems in cloud computing environments".
592:
2904:
3632:
3546:
3333:
3305:
3279:
3249:
3219:
3200:
3173:
3147:
3111:
3085:
1533:
1427:
1112:
The definition of this problem is often attributed to LeLann, who formalized it as a method to create a new token in a token
4088:
3772:
4315:
1309:
655:
3802:
4338:
3319:
1253:
3853:
Rodriguez, Carlos; Villagra, Marcos; Baran, Benjamin (2007). "Asynchronous team algorithms for
Boolean Satisfiability".
4227:
1824:
1476:
884:
The main focus is on high-performance computation that exploits the processing power of multiple computers in parallel.
77:
52:
to one another in order to achieve a common goal. Three significant challenges of distributed systems are: maintaining
4083:
1105:
has been run, however, each node throughout the network recognizes a particular, unique node as the task coordinator.
4333:
4310:
3700:
3651:
3608:
3020:
2922:
2742:
2712:
2585:
2405:
2369:
2340:
2183:
2162:
2078:
2042:
2004:
1500:
1383:
770:
All processors have access to a shared memory. The algorithm designer chooses the program executed by each processor.
578:
140:
While there is no single definition of a distributed system, the following defining properties are commonly used as:
69:
318:. In addition to ARPANET (and its successor, the global Internet), other early worldwide computer networks included
3912:
188:
Each computer has only a limited, incomplete view of the system. Each computer may know only one part of the input.
716:
for each instance. Instances are questions that we can ask, and solutions are desired answers to these questions.
4305:
4120:
2109:
1329:
724:
719:
Theoretical computer science seeks to understand which computational problems can be solved by using a computer (
2792:
4676:
4412:
4326:
4275:
3729:
774:
53:
801:
The algorithm designer chooses the structure of the network, as well as the program executed by each computer.
357:
Whether these CPUs share resources or not determines a first distinction between three types of architecture:
4636:
4470:
4321:
4008:
2244:
Proceedings. IEEE INFOCOM'90: Ninth Annual Joint
Conference of the IEEE Computer and Communications Societies
1298:
1029:
There are also fundamental challenges that are unique to distributed computing, for example those related to
459:
61:
496:
It can allow for much larger storage and memory, faster compute, and higher bandwidth than a single machine.
1238:
1131:
1034:
827:
701:
337:(DISC) was first held in Ottawa in 1985 as the International Workshop on Distributed Algorithms on Graphs.
236:
Distributed systems are groups of networked computers which share a common goal for their work. The terms "
503:. Moreover, a distributed system may be easier to expand and manage than a monolithic uniprocessor system.
4655:
4601:
4061:
3905:
1344:
1023:
1015:
929:
same place as the boundary between parallel and distributed systems (shared memory vs. message passing).
463:
104:
777:(PRAM) that are used. However, the classical PRAM model assumes synchronous access to the shared memory.
4580:
4375:
4260:
4222:
4072:
3962:
3133:
3103:
1334:
1278:
922:
361:
1973:
4596:
4575:
4520:
4407:
4397:
4370:
4232:
3810:
2473:
1258:
1038:
751:
can be used as abstract models of a sequential general-purpose computer executing such an algorithm.
625:
215:
3464:
3411:
2883:
2140:
4550:
4176:
4115:
4028:
2155:
The Age of
Cryptocurrency: How Bitcoin and the Blockchain Are Challenging the Global Economic Order
1293:
1056:
1002:
748:
731:
that produces a correct solution for any given instance. Such an algorithm can be implemented as a
611:
distributed information processing systems such as banking systems and airline reservation systems;
366:
267:
The situation is further complicated by the traditional uses of the terms parallel and distributed
205:
3509:
727:). Traditionally, it is said that a problem can be solved by using a computer if we can design an
422:
clients can be used. This simplifies application deployment. Most web applications are three-tier.
4611:
4606:
4465:
4056:
3315:
1208:
962:
598:
551:
521:
Examples of distributed systems and applications of distributed computing include the following:
500:
315:
20:
791:. There is a wide body of work on this model, a summary of which can be found in the literature.
4350:
4282:
4186:
4078:
4033:
3504:
3459:
3406:
3289:
2878:
1914:
1233:
1083:
should be measured through "99th percentile" because "median" and "average" can be misleading.
910:; the computers must exchange messages with each other to discover more about the structure of
425:
415:
387:
383:
198:
81:
3008:
2732:
2357:
4442:
4402:
4355:
4345:
4140:
4003:
3432:
2834:
2573:
2127:
2032:
1994:
1339:
1213:
1080:
1072:
744:
705:
690:
661:
130:
100:
57:
3562:
2242:
Chiu, G (1990). "A model for optimal database allocation in distributed computing systems".
4382:
4270:
4265:
4255:
4242:
4038:
3620:
3125:
1373:
1243:
1203:
943:
831:
720:
639:
633:
588:
572:
351:
288:
The use of concurrent processes which communicate through message-passing has its roots in
237:
1001:
Another commonly used measure is the total number of bits transmitted in the network (cf.
8:
4545:
4500:
4300:
4166:
3365:(1986), "Deterministic coin tossing with applications to optimal parallel list ranking",
1599:
1582:
1162:
1101:
507:
347:
293:
134:
3745:
3677:
3659:
3624:
3489:
946:
by using a polynomial number of processors, then the problem is said to be in the class
137:
that run on the same physical computer and interact with each other by message passing.
4570:
4419:
4392:
4217:
4181:
4171:
4130:
3972:
3952:
3947:
3928:
3866:
3827:
3424:
3297:
3234:
3192:
3077:
3070:
2896:
2864:"A Modular Technique for the Design of Efficient Distributed Leader Finding Algorithms"
2815:
2788:
2314:
1042:
740:
525:
432:
419:
256:
241:
155:
3379:
1150:
a distributed system that solves a given problem. A complementary research problem is
4616:
4292:
4250:
4145:
3725:
3696:
3647:
3628:
3604:
3329:
3301:
3275:
3245:
3215:
3196:
3169:
3143:
3107:
3081:
3016:
2738:
2708:
2581:
2401:
2365:
2336:
2224:
2189:
2179:
2158:
2101:
2074:
2038:
2000:
1820:
1604:
1539:
1529:
1496:
1472:
1433:
1423:
1379:
1223:
643:
557:
531:
409:
379:
150:
3870:
3831:
2863:
2705:
Foundations of Data
Intensive Applications Large Scale Data Analytics Under the Hood
2318:
506:
It may be more cost-efficient to obtain the desired level of performance by using a
4626:
4425:
4360:
4207:
4023:
4018:
4013:
3982:
3858:
3819:
3798:
3514:
3485:
3469:
3428:
3416:
3374:
3184:
3121:
2900:
2888:
2819:
2807:
2306:
2216:
1594:
1521:
1415:
1288:
1109:
identities, and decide that the node with the highest identity is the coordinator.
1019:
917:
The main focus is on coordinating the operation of an arbitrary distributed system.
805:
784:
735:
that runs on a general-purpose computer: the program reads a problem instance from
732:
541:
535:
402:
326:
from the 1980s, both of which were used to support distributed discussion systems.
289:
88:
48:
The components of a distributed system communicate and coordinate their actions by
42:
30:
3542:
292:
architectures studied in the 1960s. The first widespread distributed systems were
113:
also refers to the use of distributed systems to solve computational problems. In
4490:
4430:
4365:
4212:
4202:
4135:
4125:
3967:
3957:
3862:
3782:
3776:
3684:
3397:
3271:
3259:
3241:
1980:
1525:
1419:
1228:
1170:
1158:
1087:
1066:
947:
906:. Initially, each computer only knows about its immediate neighbors in the graph
898:
is the structure of the computer network. There is one computer for each node of
809:
651:
582:
446:
378:
Distributed programming typically falls into one of several basic architectures:
178:
162:
49:
38:
1119:
Coordinator election algorithms are designed to be economical in terms of total
993:. Many distributed algorithms are known with the running time much smaller than
4621:
4437:
4094:
3987:
3716:
1314:
1273:
1124:
647:
568:
398:
371:
3614:
3518:
3339:
2787:
2310:
499:
It can provide more reliability than a non-distributed system, as there is no
4670:
4510:
4387:
3095:
2978:"How big data and distributed systems solve traditional scalability problems"
2947:
2193:
2105:
1608:
1543:
1437:
1263:
1198:
1062:
984:
On the other hand, if the running time of the algorithm is much smaller than
478:
Reasons for using distributed systems and distributed computing may include:
249:
210:
65:
3420:
510:
of several low-end computers, in comparison with a single high-end computer.
170:
the use of shared resources or provide communication services to the users.
4110:
3595:
3157:
2859:
2228:
1283:
1268:
1113:
669:
605:
438:
418:: architectures that move the client intelligence to a middle tier so that
394:
73:
3855:
2007 2nd Bio-Inspired Models of
Network, Information and Computing Systems
3823:
2811:
1996:
On the Way to the Web: The Secret
History of the Internet and its Founders
1493:
Monolith to Microservices Evolutionary Patterns to Transform Your Monolith
850:
Consider the computational problem of finding a coloring of a given graph
271:
that do not quite match the above definitions of parallel and distributed
4631:
3447:
3388:
3362:
3229:
2855:
1319:
1183:
736:
2892:
3263:
3129:
2362:
Parallel Computation Systems For Robotics: Algorithms And Architectures
1509:
462:
can enable distributed computing to be done without any form of direct
442:
259:). Information is exchanged by passing messages between the processors.
226:
173:
Other typical properties of distributed systems include the following:
129:
in terms such as "distributed system", "distributed programming", and "
2220:
1371:
4505:
4480:
3897:
3600:
Distributed Computing: Fundamentals, Simulations, and Advanced Topics
3481:
3165:
3139:
2769:
LeLann, G. (1977). "Distributed systems - toward a formal approach".
2574:"Trading Bit, Message, and Time Complexity of Distributed Algorithms"
2207:
Lind P, Alm M (2006), "A database-centric virtual chemistry system",
1324:
977:
rounds), solve the problem, and inform each node about the solution (
973:
communication rounds: simply gather all information in one location (
728:
255:
In distributed computing, each processor has its own private memory (
3738:
Operating Systems: Three Easy Pieces, Chapter 48 Distributed Systems
3473:
2173:
1403:
1130:
Many other algorithms were suggested for different kinds of network
842:
the problem instance. This is illustrated in the following example.
4555:
4535:
4460:
3072:
Foundations of Multithreaded, Parallel, and Distributed Programming
2355:
1188:
619:
545:
467:
307:
297:
1059:
can be used to run synchronous algorithms in asynchronous systems.
4560:
4540:
4515:
4150:
1349:
939:
323:
303:
3594:
4530:
4525:
3886:
2068:
319:
311:
1817:
Fundamentals of Software Architecture: An Engineering Approach
1469:
Fundamentals of Software Architecture: An Engineering Approach
41:
whose inter-communicating components are located on different
1193:
3796:
3013:
Randomness Through Computation: Some Answers, More Questions
2571:
1912:
1658:
1448:
1075:
algorithms provide globally consistent physical time stamps.
4565:
4495:
4485:
3617:
Introduction to Reliable and Secure Distributed Programming
3615:
Christian Cachin; Rachid Guerraoui; LuĂs Rodrigues (2011),
3325:
2793:"A Distributed Algorithm for Minimum-Weight Spanning Trees"
1120:
248:
In parallel computing, all processors may have access to a
2073:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 267–78.
739:, performs some computation, and produces the solution as
4475:
4452:
2580:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 51–65.
2176:
Peer-to-peer computing : principles and applications
854:. Different fields might take the following approaches:
2398:
Models of Computation: Exploring the Power of Computing
3852:
3643:
Distributed Systems: Concepts and Design (5th Edition)
3393:"Distributed computing column 32 – The year in review"
1913:
Bentaleb, A.; Yifan, L.; Xin, J.; et al. (2016).
3120:
2871:
ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems
2800:
ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems
2487:
2455:
2420:
1663:
1661:
914:. Each computer must produce its own color as output.
221:
144:
There are several autonomous computational entities (
3450:(1992), "Locality in distributed graph algorithms",
3321:
Distributed Computing: A Locality-Sensitive Approach
2358:"Neural Networks for Real-Time Robotic Applications"
1141:
3770:
1520:. London: Springer London. 2010. pp. 373–406.
1414:. London: Springer London. 2010. pp. 373–406.
1127:for an influential paper in distributed computing.
1048:Much research is also focused on understanding the
91:that runs within a distributed system is called a
3771:Keidar, Idit; Rajsbaum, Sergio, eds. (2000–2009),
3233:
3069:
2565:
1471:(1st ed.). O'Reilly Media. pp. 146–147.
961:This complexity measure is closely related to the
3803:"Grapevine: An exercise in distributed computing"
3640:
2948:"Major unsolved problems in distributed systems?"
2853:
2791:, P. A. Humblet, and P. M. Spira (January 1983).
2349:
2174:Quang Hieu Vu; Mihai Lupu; Beng Chin Ooi (2010).
1906:
1378:. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
1372:Tanenbaum, Andrew S.; Steen, Maarten van (2002).
1249:Edsger W. Dijkstra Prize in Distributed Computing
4668:
2726:
2724:
2356:Toomarian, N.B.; Barhen, J.; Gulati, S. (1992).
708:. Formally, a computational problem consists of
335:International Symposium on Distributed Computing
333:(PODC), dates back to 1982, and its counterpart
331:Symposium on Principles of Distributed Computing
310:, was introduced in the late 1960s, and ARPANET
1632:
1630:
1583:"Modern Messaging for Distributed Sytems (sic)"
818:Distributed algorithms in message-passing model
675:
3734:
3689:
3480:
3182:
3009:"Indeterminism and Randomness Through Physics"
2559:
2389:
2284:
2256:
2037:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 35–36.
1454:
1154:the properties of a given distributed system.
3913:
3797:Birrell, A. D.; Levin, R.; Schroeder, M. D.;
3678:Java Distributed Computing by Jim Faber, 1998
3288:
3258:
3212:Distributed Systems – An Algorithmic Approach
3046:
3000:
2721:
2527:
2515:
2432:
2147:
2095:"Real Time And Distributed Computing Systems"
1883:
1375:Distributed systems: principles and paradigms
3715:
3100:Computational Complexity – A Modern Approach
2839:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2395:
2062:
1986:
1627:
902:and one communication link for each edge of
796:Parallel algorithms in message-passing model
276:
161:The entities communicate with each other by
3735:Dusseau, Remzi H.; Dusseau, Andrea (2016).
3360:
2483:
1367:
1365:
252:to exchange information between processors.
3920:
3906:
3094:
3006:
2737:. Packt Publishing Ltd. pp. 100–101.
2511:
2024:
942:). If a decision problem can be solved in
765:Parallel algorithms in shared-memory model
684:
3508:
3463:
3410:
3378:
2882:
2730:
2296:
1992:
1598:
1305:List of distributed computing conferences
1100:) is the process of designating a single
1362:
1219:Distributed algorithmic mechanism design
350:running on those CPUs with some sort of
225:
16:System with multiple networked computers
3641:Coulouris, George; et al. (2011),
3540:
3067:
2572:Schneider, J.; Wattenhofer, R. (2011).
2499:
2268:
2206:
2030:
1957:
1945:
1707:
1679:
1636:
1621:
1580:
1560:
1033:. Examples of related problems include
593:distributed database management systems
346:level, it is necessary to interconnect
4669:
3927:
3709:Introduction to Distributed Algorithms
3446:
3387:
2768:
2555:
2071:Applications of Evolutionary Computing
2034:Introduction to Distributed Algorithms
1887:
1843:
932:
482:The very nature of an application may
3901:
3657:
3563:"Ian Peter's History of the Internet"
3560:
3314:
3268:The Art of Multiprocessor Programming
3228:
3209:
3156:
2691:
2679:
2675:
2663:
2659:
2647:
2643:
2631:
2627:
2615:
2611:
2551:
2539:
2488:Cormen, Leiserson & Rivest (1990)
2468:
2466:
2464:
2456:Cormen, Leiserson & Rivest (1990)
2444:
2421:Cormen, Leiserson & Rivest (1990)
2280:
2276:
2272:
1969:
1915:"Parallel and Distributed Algorithms"
1871:
1859:
1855:
1839:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1783:
1779:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1747:
1743:
1731:
1727:
1715:
1711:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1667:
1652:
1640:
1587:Journal of Physics: Conference Series
1568:
1564:
3015:. World Scientific. pp. 112–3.
2958:from the original on 20 January 2023
2920:
2360:. In Fijany, A.; Bejczy, A. (eds.).
2241:
2178:. Heidelberg: Springer. p. 16.
2157:St. Martin's Press January 27, 2015
1920:. National University of Singapore.
1466:
1310:List of volunteer computing projects
761:Three viewpoints are commonly used:
493:for practical reasons. For example:
3706:
3543:"A primer on distributed computing"
1254:Federation (information technology)
300:, which was invented in the 1970s.
154:), each of which has its own local
13:
3582:
2988:from the original on 17 March 2018
2461:
1116:in which the token has been lost.
1079:Note that in distributed systems,
579:massively multiplayer online games
222:Parallel and distributed computing
78:fallacies of distributed computing
70:massively multiplayer online games
14:
4688:
3879:
3692:Elements of Distributed Computing
2364:. World Scientific. p. 214.
1900:
1142:Properties of distributed systems
1008:
306:, one of the predecessors of the
4650:
4649:
3885:
3841:from the original on 2016-07-30.
3189:Fundamentals of Database Systems
2910:from the original on 2007-04-18.
2829:from the original on 2017-09-26.
2333:Reactive Application Development
340:
201:used for distributed computing:
4121:Analysis of parallel algorithms
3668:from the original on 2010-08-24
3569:from the original on 2010-01-20
3549:from the original on 2021-05-13
3528:from the original on 2013-01-08
3490:"What can be computed locally?"
3040:
3029:from the original on 2020-08-01
2970:
2940:
2929:from the original on 2012-11-24
2914:
2847:
2781:
2777:: 155·160 – via Elsevier.
2762:
2751:from the original on 2023-01-20
2697:
2685:
2669:
2653:
2637:
2621:
2605:
2594:from the original on 2020-08-01
2545:
2533:
2521:
2505:
2493:
2477:
2449:
2438:
2426:
2414:
2400:. Addison Wesley. p. 209.
2378:from the original on 2020-08-01
2325:
2290:
2262:
2250:
2235:
2200:
2167:
2087:
2051:from the original on 2023-01-20
2013:from the original on 2023-01-20
1963:
1951:
1939:
1927:from the original on 2017-03-26
1893:
1877:
1865:
1849:
1833:
1809:
1789:
1773:
1753:
1737:
1721:
1701:
1673:
1646:
1392:from the original on 2020-08-12
1330:Parallel distributed processing
1052:nature of distributed systems:
775:parallel random-access machines
725:computational complexity theory
473:
460:"database-centric" architecture
458:relationship. Alternatively, a
230:(a), (b): a distributed system.
120:
3773:"Distributed computing column"
1615:
1600:10.1088/1742-6596/608/1/012038
1574:
1554:
1485:
1460:
84:deployed on a single machine.
56:of components, overcoming the
1:
4068:Simultaneous and heterogenous
3380:10.1016/S0019-9958(86)80023-7
3055:
1299:Library Oriented Architecture
1146:So far the focus has been on
845:
773:One theoretical model is the
4656:Category: Parallel computing
3863:10.1109/BIMNICS.2007.4610083
3711:, Cambridge University Press
3068:Andrews, Gregory R. (2000),
2560:Naor & Stockmeyer (1995)
2299:Journal of Cluster Computing
2285:Elmasri & Navathe (2000)
2257:Elmasri & Navathe (2000)
1526:10.1007/978-1-84882-745-5_11
1467:Ford, Neal (March 3, 2020).
1420:10.1007/978-1-84882-745-5_11
1239:Distributed operating system
702:theoretical computer science
676:Reactive distributed systems
656:volunteer computing projects
7:
3598:and Jennifer Welch (2004),
2734:Apache ZooKeeper Essentials
2433:Herlihy & Shavit (2008)
1345:Shared nothing architecture
1176:
1086:
1016:dining philosophers problem
826:A commonly used model is a
616:real-time process control:
516:
464:inter-process communication
192:
10:
4693:
3963:High-performance computing
3661:Java Distributed Computing
3290:Papadimitriou, Christos H.
3214:, Chapman & Hall/CRC,
3135:Introduction to Algorithms
2952:cstheory.stackexchange.com
1455:Dusseau & Dusseau 2016
1335:Parallel programming model
1169:deadlock. This problem is
789:asynchronous shared memory
688:
626:industrial control systems
604:distributed cache such as
283:
18:
4645:
4597:Automatic parallelization
4589:
4451:
4291:
4241:
4233:Application checkpointing
4195:
4159:
4103:
4047:
3996:
3935:
3811:Communications of the ACM
3619:(2. ed.), Springer,
3519:10.1137/S0097539793254571
3497:SIAM Journal on Computing
3452:SIAM Journal on Computing
2484:Cole & Vishkin (1986)
2311:10.1007/s10586-018-2879-3
1999:. Apress. pp. 44–5.
1518:Texts in Computer Science
1412:Texts in Computer Science
1259:Flat neighborhood network
1039:Byzantine fault tolerance
749:universal Turing machines
695:
216:Event driven architecture
74:peer-to-peer applications
3294:Computational Complexity
2923:"Distributed Algorithms"
2512:Arora & Barak (2009)
1819:. O'Reilly Media. 2020.
1516:"Distributed Programs".
1410:"Distributed Programs".
1356:
1294:Layered queueing network
1003:communication complexity
704:, such tasks are called
552:wireless sensor networks
466:, by utilizing a shared
206:Saga interaction pattern
181:in individual computers.
19:Not to be confused with
4612:Embarrassingly parallel
4607:Deterministic algorithm
3721:Parallel Program Design
3690:Garg, Vijay K. (2002),
3421:10.1145/1466390.1466402
3367:Information and Control
3210:Ghosh, Sukumar (2007),
3011:. In Hector, Z. (ed.).
1209:Decentralized computing
723:) and how efficiently (
685:Theoretical foundations
501:single point of failure
316:distributed application
232:(c): a parallel system.
97:distributed programming
21:Decentralized computing
4327:Associative processing
4283:Non-blocking algorithm
4089:Clustered multi-thread
3719:; et al. (1988),
3541:Godfrey, Bill (2002).
3236:Distributed Algorithms
3098:; Barak, Boaz (2009),
2771:Information Processing
2576:. In Peleg, D. (ed.).
2554:, Sections 2.3 and 7.
2135:Cite journal requires
1234:Distributed networking
923:Cole–Vishkin algorithm
889:Distributed algorithms
858:Centralized algorithms
745:random-access machines
706:computational problems
565:network applications:
233:
199:architectural patterns
82:monolithic application
58:lack of a global clock
4677:Distributed computing
4443:Hardware acceleration
4356:Superscalar processor
4346:Dataflow architecture
3943:Distributed computing
3892:Distributed computing
3824:10.1145/358468.358487
3126:Leiserson, Charles E.
2812:10.1145/357195.357200
2578:Distributed Computing
2458:, Sections 28 and 29.
2396:Savage, J.E. (1998).
1549:by any other process.
1340:Plan 9 from Bell Labs
1214:Distributed algorithm
1073:Clock synchronization
991:local D-neighbourhood
743:. Formalisms such as
691:Distributed algorithm
664:in computer graphics.
662:distributed rendering
589:distributed databases
573:peer-to-peer networks
229:
131:distributed algorithm
115:distributed computing
111:Distributed computing
27:Distributed computing
4322:Pipelined processing
4271:Explicit parallelism
4266:Implicit parallelism
4256:Dataflow programming
3894:at Wikimedia Commons
3707:Tel, Gerard (1994),
3602:, Wiley-Interscience
3185:Navathe, Shamkant B.
3047:Papadimitriou (1994)
2528:Papadimitriou (1994)
2516:Papadimitriou (1994)
1974:The history of email
1884:Papadimitriou (1994)
1581:Magnoni, L. (2015).
1244:Eventual consistency
1204:Dataflow programming
1094:Coordinator election
965:of the network. Let
944:polylogarithmic time
832:finite-state machine
721:computability theory
640:scientific computing
634:parallel computation
599:network file systems
352:communication system
238:concurrent computing
4546:Parallel Extensions
4351:Pipelined processor
3658:Faber, Jim (1998),
3625:2011itra.book.....C
3561:Peter, Ian (2004).
3260:Herlihy, Maurice P.
3007:Svozil, K. (2011).
2893:10.1145/77606.77610
2682:, Sections 6.2–6.3.
2153:Vigna P, Casey MJ.
1069:ordering of events.
956:communication round
933:Complexity measures
872:Parallel algorithms
433:application servers
294:local-area networks
93:distributed program
43:networked computers
35:distributed systems
4420:Massively parallel
4398:distributed shared
4218:Cache invalidation
4182:Instruction window
3973:Manycore processor
3953:Massively parallel
3948:Parallel computing
3929:Parallel computing
3857:. pp. 66–69.
3694:, Wiley-IEEE Press
3683:2010-08-24 at the
3162:Self-Stabilization
2921:Hamilton, Howard.
2731:Haloi, S. (2015).
1993:Banks, M. (2012).
1979:2009-04-15 at the
1899:See references in
1495:. O'Reilly Media.
1138:algorithms exist.
1043:self-stabilisation
1035:consensus problems
1018:and other similar
787:(CAS), is that of
558:routing algorithms
532:telephone networks
526:telecommunications
257:distributed memory
242:parallel computing
234:
177:The system has to
4664:
4663:
4617:Parallel slowdown
4251:Stream processing
4141:Karp–Flatt metric
3890:Media related to
3847:Conference Papers
3751:on 31 August 2021
3634:978-3-642-15259-7
3486:Stockmeyer, Larry
3335:978-0-89871-464-7
3307:978-0-201-53082-7
3281:978-0-12-370591-4
3251:978-1-55860-348-6
3221:978-1-58488-564-1
3202:978-0-201-54263-9
3175:978-0-262-04178-2
3149:978-0-262-03141-7
3130:Rivest, Ronald L.
3122:Cormen, Thomas H.
3113:978-0-521-42426-4
3087:978-0-201-35752-3
2982:theserverside.com
2854:Korach, Ephraim;
2335:. Manning. 2018.
2259:, Section 24.1.2.
2221:10.1021/ci050360b
1535:978-1-84882-744-8
1429:978-1-84882-744-8
1224:Distributed cache
1065:provide a causal
877:Again, the graph
644:cluster computing
542:computer networks
536:cellular networks
397:; or categories:
179:tolerate failures
62:SOA-based systems
4684:
4653:
4652:
4627:Software lockout
4426:Computer cluster
4361:Vector processor
4316:Array processing
4301:Flynn's taxonomy
4208:Memory coherence
3983:Computer network
3922:
3915:
3908:
3899:
3898:
3889:
3874:
3842:
3840:
3807:
3792:
3791:
3790:
3781:, archived from
3760:
3758:
3756:
3750:
3744:. Archived from
3743:
3724:
3723:, Addison-Wesley
3712:
3695:
3675:
3674:
3673:
3646:
3645:, Addison-Wesley
3637:
3603:
3577:
3575:
3574:
3557:
3555:
3554:
3529:
3527:
3512:
3503:(6): 1259–1277,
3494:
3476:
3467:
3442:
3441:
3440:
3431:, archived from
3414:
3383:
3382:
3349:
3348:
3347:
3338:, archived from
3310:
3284:
3254:
3239:
3224:
3205:
3191:(3rd ed.),
3183:Elmasri, Ramez;
3178:
3152:
3138:(1st ed.),
3116:
3090:
3075:
3050:
3044:
3038:
3037:
3035:
3034:
3004:
2998:
2997:
2995:
2993:
2974:
2968:
2967:
2965:
2963:
2944:
2938:
2937:
2935:
2934:
2918:
2912:
2911:
2909:
2886:
2868:
2851:
2845:
2844:
2838:
2830:
2828:
2797:
2785:
2779:
2778:
2766:
2760:
2759:
2757:
2756:
2728:
2719:
2718:
2701:
2695:
2689:
2683:
2673:
2667:
2657:
2651:
2641:
2635:
2625:
2619:
2614:, Sections 5–7.
2609:
2603:
2602:
2600:
2599:
2569:
2563:
2549:
2543:
2537:
2531:
2525:
2519:
2509:
2503:
2497:
2491:
2481:
2475:
2470:
2459:
2453:
2447:
2442:
2436:
2430:
2424:
2418:
2412:
2411:
2393:
2387:
2386:
2384:
2383:
2353:
2347:
2346:
2329:
2323:
2322:
2294:
2288:
2266:
2260:
2254:
2248:
2247:
2239:
2233:
2232:
2209:J Chem Inf Model
2204:
2198:
2197:
2171:
2165:
2151:
2145:
2144:
2138:
2133:
2131:
2123:
2121:
2120:
2114:
2108:. Archived from
2099:
2091:
2085:
2084:
2066:
2060:
2059:
2057:
2056:
2031:Tel, G. (2000).
2028:
2022:
2021:
2019:
2018:
1990:
1984:
1967:
1961:
1955:
1949:
1943:
1937:
1936:
1934:
1932:
1926:
1919:
1910:
1904:
1897:
1891:
1881:
1875:
1869:
1863:
1853:
1847:
1837:
1831:
1830:
1813:
1807:
1793:
1787:
1777:
1771:
1757:
1751:
1741:
1735:
1725:
1719:
1705:
1699:
1682:, pp. 8–9, 291.
1677:
1671:
1665:
1656:
1650:
1644:
1634:
1625:
1619:
1613:
1612:
1602:
1578:
1572:
1558:
1552:
1551:
1513:
1507:
1506:
1489:
1483:
1482:
1464:
1458:
1452:
1446:
1445:
1407:
1401:
1400:
1398:
1397:
1369:
1289:Jungle computing
1020:mutual exclusion
810:sorting networks
806:Boolean circuits
785:Compare-and-swap
733:computer program
712:together with a
622:control systems,
290:operating system
197:Here are common
89:computer program
50:passing messages
39:computer systems
31:computer science
4692:
4691:
4687:
4686:
4685:
4683:
4682:
4681:
4667:
4666:
4665:
4660:
4641:
4585:
4491:Coarray Fortran
4447:
4431:Beowulf cluster
4287:
4237:
4228:Synchronization
4213:Cache coherence
4203:Multiprocessing
4191:
4155:
4136:Cost efficiency
4131:Gustafson's law
4099:
4043:
3992:
3968:Multiprocessing
3958:Cloud computing
3931:
3926:
3882:
3877:
3838:
3805:
3788:
3786:
3778:ACM SIGACT News
3754:
3752:
3748:
3741:
3685:Wayback Machine
3671:
3669:
3635:
3585:
3583:Further reading
3580:
3572:
3570:
3552:
3550:
3525:
3492:
3474:10.1137/0221015
3465:10.1.1.471.6378
3438:
3436:
3412:10.1.1.116.1285
3398:ACM SIGACT News
3361:Cole, Richard;
3345:
3343:
3336:
3308:
3282:
3272:Morgan Kaufmann
3252:
3242:Morgan Kaufmann
3230:Lynch, Nancy A.
3222:
3203:
3176:
3150:
3114:
3088:
3058:
3053:
3049:, Section 19.3.
3045:
3041:
3032:
3030:
3023:
3005:
3001:
2991:
2989:
2976:
2975:
2971:
2961:
2959:
2946:
2945:
2941:
2932:
2930:
2919:
2915:
2907:
2884:10.1.1.139.7342
2866:
2852:
2848:
2832:
2831:
2826:
2795:
2786:
2782:
2767:
2763:
2754:
2752:
2745:
2729:
2722:
2715:
2703:
2702:
2698:
2690:
2686:
2674:
2670:
2658:
2654:
2642:
2638:
2626:
2622:
2610:
2606:
2597:
2595:
2588:
2570:
2566:
2550:
2546:
2538:
2534:
2530:, Section 15.2.
2526:
2522:
2518:, Section 15.3.
2514:, Section 6.7.
2510:
2506:
2498:
2494:
2490:, Section 30.5.
2482:
2478:
2471:
2462:
2454:
2450:
2443:
2439:
2435:, Chapters 2–6.
2431:
2427:
2419:
2415:
2408:
2394:
2390:
2381:
2379:
2372:
2354:
2350:
2343:
2331:
2330:
2326:
2295:
2291:
2267:
2263:
2255:
2251:
2240:
2236:
2205:
2201:
2186:
2172:
2168:
2152:
2148:
2136:
2134:
2125:
2124:
2118:
2116:
2112:
2097:
2093:
2092:
2088:
2081:
2067:
2063:
2054:
2052:
2045:
2029:
2025:
2016:
2014:
2007:
1991:
1987:
1981:Wayback Machine
1968:
1964:
1956:
1952:
1944:
1940:
1930:
1928:
1924:
1917:
1911:
1907:
1898:
1894:
1882:
1878:
1870:
1866:
1858:, p. xix, 1–2.
1854:
1850:
1838:
1834:
1827:
1815:
1814:
1810:
1794:
1790:
1778:
1774:
1758:
1754:
1742:
1738:
1726:
1722:
1706:
1702:
1678:
1674:
1666:
1659:
1651:
1647:
1635:
1628:
1620:
1616:
1579:
1575:
1559:
1555:
1536:
1515:
1514:
1510:
1503:
1491:
1490:
1486:
1479:
1465:
1461:
1453:
1449:
1430:
1409:
1408:
1404:
1395:
1393:
1386:
1370:
1363:
1359:
1354:
1229:Distributed GIS
1179:
1171:PSPACE-complete
1159:halting problem
1144:
1098:leader election
1091:
1067:happened-before
1031:fault-tolerance
1011:
935:
848:
804:Models such as
698:
693:
687:
678:
652:cloud computing
583:virtual reality
519:
476:
447:bitcoin network
343:
286:
231:
224:
195:
163:message passing
123:
103:connectors and
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4690:
4680:
4679:
4662:
4661:
4659:
4658:
4646:
4643:
4642:
4640:
4639:
4634:
4629:
4624:
4622:Race condition
4619:
4614:
4609:
4604:
4599:
4593:
4591:
4587:
4586:
4584:
4583:
4578:
4573:
4568:
4563:
4558:
4553:
4548:
4543:
4538:
4533:
4528:
4523:
4518:
4513:
4508:
4503:
4498:
4493:
4488:
4483:
4478:
4473:
4468:
4463:
4457:
4455:
4449:
4448:
4446:
4445:
4440:
4435:
4434:
4433:
4423:
4417:
4416:
4415:
4410:
4405:
4400:
4395:
4390:
4380:
4379:
4378:
4373:
4366:Multiprocessor
4363:
4358:
4353:
4348:
4343:
4342:
4341:
4336:
4331:
4330:
4329:
4324:
4319:
4308:
4297:
4295:
4289:
4288:
4286:
4285:
4280:
4279:
4278:
4273:
4268:
4258:
4253:
4247:
4245:
4239:
4238:
4236:
4235:
4230:
4225:
4220:
4215:
4210:
4205:
4199:
4197:
4193:
4192:
4190:
4189:
4184:
4179:
4174:
4169:
4163:
4161:
4157:
4156:
4154:
4153:
4148:
4143:
4138:
4133:
4128:
4123:
4118:
4113:
4107:
4105:
4101:
4100:
4098:
4097:
4095:Hardware scout
4092:
4086:
4081:
4076:
4070:
4065:
4059:
4053:
4051:
4049:Multithreading
4045:
4044:
4042:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4026:
4021:
4016:
4011:
4006:
4000:
3998:
3994:
3993:
3991:
3990:
3988:Systolic array
3985:
3980:
3975:
3970:
3965:
3960:
3955:
3950:
3945:
3939:
3937:
3933:
3932:
3925:
3924:
3917:
3910:
3902:
3896:
3895:
3881:
3880:External links
3878:
3876:
3875:
3849:
3848:
3844:
3843:
3818:(4): 260–274.
3801:(April 1982).
3799:Needham, R. M.
3794:
3767:
3766:
3762:
3761:
3732:
3713:
3704:
3687:
3655:
3638:
3633:
3612:
3591:
3590:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3578:
3558:
3537:
3536:
3532:
3531:
3478:
3458:(1): 193–201,
3448:Linial, Nathan
3444:
3385:
3357:
3356:
3352:
3351:
3334:
3312:
3306:
3298:Addison–Wesley
3286:
3280:
3264:Shavit, Nir N.
3256:
3250:
3226:
3220:
3207:
3201:
3193:Addison–Wesley
3180:
3174:
3154:
3148:
3118:
3112:
3096:Arora, Sanjeev
3092:
3086:
3078:Addison–Wesley
3064:
3063:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3051:
3039:
3021:
2999:
2969:
2939:
2913:
2846:
2789:R. G. Gallager
2780:
2761:
2743:
2720:
2713:
2696:
2694:, Section 6.4.
2684:
2678:, Section 18.
2668:
2662:, Section 16.
2652:
2636:
2620:
2604:
2586:
2564:
2544:
2532:
2520:
2504:
2500:Andrews (2000)
2492:
2476:
2460:
2448:
2437:
2425:
2413:
2406:
2388:
2370:
2348:
2341:
2324:
2305:(3): 887–909.
2289:
2269:Andrews (2000)
2261:
2249:
2234:
2199:
2184:
2166:
2146:
2137:|journal=
2086:
2079:
2061:
2043:
2023:
2005:
1985:
1962:
1958:Andrews (2000)
1950:
1946:Andrews (2000)
1938:
1905:
1892:
1886:, Chapter 15.
1876:
1864:
1848:
1832:
1826:978-1492043454
1825:
1808:
1788:
1772:
1752:
1736:
1720:
1708:Andrews (2000)
1700:
1680:Andrews (2000)
1672:
1657:
1645:
1639:, p. 291–292.
1637:Andrews (2000)
1626:
1622:Godfrey (2002)
1614:
1573:
1561:Andrews (2000)
1553:
1534:
1508:
1501:
1484:
1478:978-1492043454
1477:
1459:
1457:, p. 1–2.
1447:
1428:
1402:
1384:
1360:
1358:
1355:
1353:
1352:
1347:
1342:
1337:
1332:
1327:
1322:
1317:
1315:Model checking
1312:
1307:
1302:
1296:
1291:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1274:Grid computing
1271:
1266:
1261:
1256:
1251:
1246:
1241:
1236:
1231:
1226:
1221:
1216:
1211:
1206:
1201:
1196:
1191:
1186:
1180:
1178:
1175:
1143:
1140:
1125:Dijkstra Prize
1090:
1085:
1077:
1076:
1070:
1063:Logical clocks
1060:
1010:
1009:Other problems
1007:
934:
931:
919:
918:
915:
891:
890:
886:
885:
882:
874:
873:
869:
868:
860:
859:
847:
844:
836:
835:
824:
820:
819:
815:
814:
802:
798:
797:
793:
792:
781:
778:
771:
767:
766:
697:
694:
689:Main article:
686:
683:
677:
674:
673:
672:
667:
666:
665:
659:
654:, and various
648:grid computing
631:
630:
629:
623:
614:
613:
612:
609:
602:
596:
586:
576:
569:World Wide Web
563:
562:
561:
555:
549:
539:
518:
515:
514:
513:
512:
511:
504:
497:
487:
475:
472:
451:
450:
436:
423:
413:
403:tight coupling
399:loose coupling
376:
375:
372:Shared nothing
369:
364:
342:
339:
285:
282:
261:
260:
253:
223:
220:
219:
218:
213:
208:
194:
191:
190:
189:
186:
182:
167:
166:
159:
122:
119:
105:message queues
29:is a field of
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4689:
4678:
4675:
4674:
4672:
4657:
4648:
4647:
4644:
4638:
4635:
4633:
4630:
4628:
4625:
4623:
4620:
4618:
4615:
4613:
4610:
4608:
4605:
4603:
4600:
4598:
4595:
4594:
4592:
4588:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4574:
4572:
4569:
4567:
4564:
4562:
4559:
4557:
4554:
4552:
4549:
4547:
4544:
4542:
4539:
4537:
4534:
4532:
4529:
4527:
4524:
4522:
4519:
4517:
4514:
4512:
4511:Global Arrays
4509:
4507:
4504:
4502:
4499:
4497:
4494:
4492:
4489:
4487:
4484:
4482:
4479:
4477:
4474:
4472:
4469:
4467:
4464:
4462:
4459:
4458:
4456:
4454:
4450:
4444:
4441:
4439:
4438:Grid computer
4436:
4432:
4429:
4428:
4427:
4424:
4421:
4418:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4396:
4394:
4391:
4389:
4386:
4385:
4384:
4381:
4377:
4374:
4372:
4369:
4368:
4367:
4364:
4362:
4359:
4357:
4354:
4352:
4349:
4347:
4344:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4332:
4328:
4325:
4323:
4320:
4317:
4314:
4313:
4312:
4309:
4307:
4304:
4303:
4302:
4299:
4298:
4296:
4294:
4290:
4284:
4281:
4277:
4274:
4272:
4269:
4267:
4264:
4263:
4262:
4259:
4257:
4254:
4252:
4249:
4248:
4246:
4244:
4240:
4234:
4231:
4229:
4226:
4224:
4221:
4219:
4216:
4214:
4211:
4209:
4206:
4204:
4201:
4200:
4198:
4194:
4188:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4178:
4175:
4173:
4170:
4168:
4165:
4164:
4162:
4158:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4127:
4124:
4122:
4119:
4117:
4114:
4112:
4109:
4108:
4106:
4102:
4096:
4093:
4090:
4087:
4085:
4082:
4080:
4077:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4066:
4063:
4060:
4058:
4055:
4054:
4052:
4050:
4046:
4040:
4037:
4035:
4032:
4030:
4027:
4025:
4022:
4020:
4017:
4015:
4012:
4010:
4007:
4005:
4002:
4001:
3999:
3995:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3959:
3956:
3954:
3951:
3949:
3946:
3944:
3941:
3940:
3938:
3934:
3930:
3923:
3918:
3916:
3911:
3909:
3904:
3903:
3900:
3893:
3888:
3884:
3883:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3860:
3856:
3851:
3850:
3846:
3845:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3813:
3812:
3804:
3800:
3795:
3785:on 2014-01-16
3784:
3780:
3779:
3774:
3769:
3768:
3764:
3763:
3747:
3740:
3739:
3733:
3731:
3727:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3710:
3705:
3702:
3701:0-471-03600-5
3698:
3693:
3688:
3686:
3682:
3679:
3667:
3663:
3662:
3656:
3653:
3652:0-132-14301-1
3649:
3644:
3639:
3636:
3630:
3626:
3622:
3618:
3613:
3610:
3609:0-471-45324-2
3606:
3601:
3597:
3596:Attiya, Hagit
3593:
3592:
3588:
3587:
3568:
3564:
3559:
3548:
3544:
3539:
3538:
3534:
3533:
3524:
3520:
3516:
3511:
3510:10.1.1.29.669
3506:
3502:
3498:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3466:
3461:
3457:
3453:
3449:
3445:
3435:on 2014-01-16
3434:
3430:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3404:
3400:
3399:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3381:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3359:
3358:
3354:
3353:
3342:on 2009-08-06
3341:
3337:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3322:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3247:
3243:
3238:
3237:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3217:
3213:
3208:
3204:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3181:
3177:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3158:Dolev, Shlomi
3155:
3151:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3136:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3083:
3079:
3074:
3073:
3066:
3065:
3061:
3060:
3048:
3043:
3028:
3024:
3022:9789814462631
3018:
3014:
3010:
3003:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2973:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2943:
2928:
2924:
2917:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2877:(1): 84–101.
2876:
2872:
2865:
2861:
2860:Moran, Shlomo
2857:
2850:
2842:
2836:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2794:
2790:
2784:
2776:
2772:
2765:
2750:
2746:
2744:9781784398323
2740:
2736:
2735:
2727:
2725:
2716:
2714:9781119713012
2710:
2706:
2700:
2693:
2688:
2681:
2677:
2672:
2665:
2661:
2656:
2650:, Chapter 17.
2649:
2645:
2640:
2634:, p. 192–193.
2633:
2630:, p. 99–102.
2629:
2624:
2618:, Chapter 13.
2617:
2613:
2608:
2593:
2589:
2587:9783642240997
2583:
2579:
2575:
2568:
2561:
2557:
2556:Linial (1992)
2553:
2548:
2541:
2536:
2529:
2524:
2517:
2513:
2508:
2501:
2496:
2489:
2485:
2480:
2474:
2469:
2467:
2465:
2457:
2452:
2446:
2441:
2434:
2429:
2423:, Section 30.
2422:
2417:
2409:
2407:9780201895391
2403:
2399:
2392:
2377:
2373:
2371:9789814506175
2367:
2363:
2359:
2352:
2344:
2342:9781638355816
2338:
2334:
2328:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2293:
2287:, Section 24.
2286:
2282:
2279:, p. xix, 1.
2278:
2274:
2270:
2265:
2258:
2253:
2245:
2238:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2215:(3): 1034–9,
2214:
2210:
2203:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2185:9783642035135
2181:
2177:
2170:
2164:
2163:9781250065636
2160:
2156:
2150:
2142:
2129:
2115:on 2017-01-10
2111:
2107:
2103:
2096:
2090:
2082:
2080:9783540332374
2076:
2072:
2065:
2050:
2046:
2044:9780521794831
2040:
2036:
2035:
2027:
2012:
2008:
2006:9781430250746
2002:
1998:
1997:
1989:
1982:
1978:
1975:
1971:
1966:
1959:
1954:
1947:
1942:
1923:
1916:
1909:
1902:
1896:
1889:
1888:Keidar (2008)
1885:
1880:
1873:
1868:
1861:
1857:
1852:
1845:
1844:Keidar (2008)
1841:
1836:
1828:
1822:
1818:
1812:
1805:
1802:, p. xix, 2.
1801:
1797:
1792:
1785:
1781:
1776:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1756:
1749:
1745:
1740:
1733:
1729:
1724:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1704:
1697:
1694:, p. xix, 1.
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1676:
1669:
1664:
1662:
1654:
1649:
1642:
1638:
1633:
1631:
1623:
1618:
1610:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1593:(1): 012038.
1592:
1588:
1584:
1577:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1557:
1550:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1512:
1504:
1502:9781492047810
1498:
1494:
1488:
1480:
1474:
1470:
1463:
1456:
1451:
1444:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1406:
1391:
1387:
1385:0-13-088893-1
1381:
1377:
1376:
1368:
1366:
1361:
1351:
1348:
1346:
1343:
1341:
1338:
1336:
1333:
1331:
1328:
1326:
1323:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1313:
1311:
1308:
1306:
1303:
1300:
1297:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1285:
1282:
1280:
1277:
1275:
1272:
1270:
1267:
1265:
1264:Fog computing
1262:
1260:
1257:
1255:
1252:
1250:
1247:
1245:
1242:
1240:
1237:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1227:
1225:
1222:
1220:
1217:
1215:
1212:
1210:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1200:
1199:Code mobility
1197:
1195:
1192:
1190:
1187:
1185:
1182:
1181:
1174:
1172:
1166:
1164:
1160:
1155:
1153:
1149:
1139:
1135:
1133:
1128:
1126:
1122:
1117:
1115:
1110:
1106:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1089:
1084:
1082:
1074:
1071:
1068:
1064:
1061:
1058:
1057:Synchronizers
1055:
1054:
1053:
1051:
1046:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1027:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1006:
1004:
999:
996:
992:
987:
982:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
959:
957:
951:
949:
945:
941:
930:
926:
924:
916:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
892:
888:
887:
883:
880:
876:
875:
871:
870:
866:
862:
861:
857:
856:
855:
853:
843:
841:
833:
829:
825:
822:
821:
817:
816:
811:
807:
803:
800:
799:
795:
794:
790:
786:
782:
779:
776:
772:
769:
768:
764:
763:
762:
759:
756:
752:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
722:
717:
715:
711:
707:
703:
692:
682:
671:
668:
663:
660:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
638:
637:
635:
632:
627:
624:
621:
618:
617:
615:
610:
607:
606:burst buffers
603:
600:
597:
594:
590:
587:
584:
580:
577:
574:
570:
567:
566:
564:
559:
556:
553:
550:
547:
543:
540:
537:
533:
530:
529:
527:
524:
523:
522:
509:
505:
502:
498:
495:
494:
492:
488:
485:
481:
480:
479:
471:
469:
465:
461:
457:
448:
444:
440:
437:
434:
430:
428:
424:
421:
417:
414:
411:
410:Client–server
408:
407:
406:
404:
400:
396:
392:
390:
385:
381:
380:client–server
373:
370:
368:
365:
363:
362:Shared memory
360:
359:
358:
355:
353:
349:
341:Architectures
338:
336:
332:
327:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
299:
295:
291:
281:
278:
274:
270:
265:
258:
254:
251:
250:shared memory
247:
246:
245:
243:
239:
228:
217:
214:
212:
211:Microservices
209:
207:
204:
203:
202:
200:
187:
183:
180:
176:
175:
174:
171:
164:
160:
157:
153:
152:
147:
143:
142:
141:
138:
136:
132:
128:
118:
116:
112:
108:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
85:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
66:microservices
63:
59:
55:
51:
46:
44:
40:
37:, defined as
36:
33:that studies
32:
28:
22:
4196:Coordination
4126:Amdahl's law
4062:Simultaneous
3942:
3854:
3815:
3809:
3787:, retrieved
3783:the original
3777:
3753:. Retrieved
3746:the original
3737:
3720:
3717:Chandy, Mani
3708:
3691:
3670:, retrieved
3664:, O'Reilly,
3660:
3642:
3616:
3599:
3571:. Retrieved
3551:. Retrieved
3500:
3496:
3455:
3451:
3437:, retrieved
3433:the original
3405:(4): 53–54,
3402:
3396:
3389:Keidar, Idit
3373:(1): 32–53,
3370:
3366:
3363:Vishkin, Uzi
3344:, retrieved
3340:the original
3320:
3316:Peleg, David
3293:
3267:
3235:
3211:
3188:
3161:
3134:
3099:
3071:
3042:
3031:. Retrieved
3012:
3002:
2990:. Retrieved
2981:
2972:
2960:. Retrieved
2951:
2942:
2931:. Retrieved
2916:
2874:
2870:
2856:Kutten, Shay
2849:
2835:cite journal
2806:(1): 66–77.
2803:
2799:
2783:
2774:
2770:
2764:
2753:. Retrieved
2733:
2704:
2699:
2692:Ghosh (2007)
2687:
2680:Ghosh (2007)
2676:Lynch (1996)
2671:
2666:, Section 6.
2664:Peleg (2000)
2660:Lynch (1996)
2655:
2648:Ghosh (2007)
2644:Dolev (2000)
2639:
2632:Ghosh (2007)
2628:Lynch (1996)
2623:
2616:Ghosh (2007)
2612:Lynch (1996)
2607:
2596:. Retrieved
2577:
2567:
2552:Peleg (2000)
2547:
2540:Lynch (1996)
2535:
2523:
2507:
2495:
2479:
2451:
2445:Lynch (1996)
2440:
2428:
2416:
2397:
2391:
2380:. Retrieved
2361:
2351:
2332:
2327:
2302:
2298:
2292:
2281:Peleg (2000)
2277:Lynch (1996)
2273:Ghosh (2007)
2271:, p. 10–11.
2264:
2252:
2243:
2237:
2212:
2208:
2202:
2175:
2169:
2154:
2149:
2128:cite journal
2117:. Retrieved
2110:the original
2089:
2070:
2064:
2053:. Retrieved
2033:
2026:
2015:. Retrieved
1995:
1988:
1970:Peter (2004)
1965:
1953:
1941:
1929:. Retrieved
1908:
1901:Introduction
1895:
1879:
1872:Peleg (2000)
1867:
1860:Peleg (2000)
1856:Lynch (1996)
1851:
1840:Ghosh (2007)
1835:
1816:
1811:
1804:Peleg (2000)
1800:Lynch (1996)
1796:Ghosh (2007)
1791:
1784:Peleg (2000)
1780:Lynch (1996)
1775:
1768:Peleg (2000)
1764:Lynch (1996)
1760:Ghosh (2007)
1755:
1748:Peleg (2000)
1744:Ghosh (2007)
1739:
1732:Peleg (2000)
1728:Ghosh (2007)
1723:
1716:Peleg (2000)
1712:Ghosh (2007)
1703:
1696:Peleg (2000)
1692:Lynch (1996)
1688:Ghosh (2007)
1684:Dolev (2000)
1675:
1668:Ghosh (2007)
1653:Lynch (1996)
1648:
1641:Dolev (2000)
1617:
1590:
1586:
1576:
1569:Ghosh (2007)
1565:Dolev (2000)
1556:
1547:
1517:
1511:
1492:
1487:
1468:
1462:
1450:
1441:
1411:
1405:
1394:. Retrieved
1374:
1284:Internet GIS
1269:Folding@home
1167:
1156:
1151:
1147:
1145:
1136:
1129:
1118:
1114:ring network
1111:
1107:
1097:
1093:
1092:
1078:
1050:asynchronous
1049:
1047:
1030:
1028:
1012:
1000:
994:
990:
985:
983:
978:
974:
970:
966:
960:
955:
954:During each
952:
936:
927:
920:
911:
907:
903:
899:
895:
878:
864:
851:
849:
839:
837:
788:
760:
757:
753:
718:
713:
709:
699:
679:
670:peer-to-peer
642:, including
585:communities,
544:such as the
520:
490:
483:
477:
474:Applications
452:
439:Peer-to-peer
426:
395:peer-to-peer
388:
377:
356:
344:
328:
302:
287:
272:
268:
266:
262:
235:
196:
172:
168:
149:
145:
139:
126:
124:
121:Introduction
114:
110:
109:
96:
92:
86:
47:
34:
26:
25:
4632:Scalability
4393:distributed
4276:Concurrency
4243:Programming
4084:Cooperative
4073:Speculative
4009:Instruction
2542:, p. 17–23.
1762:, p. 4, 8.
1320:OpenHarmony
1184:Actor model
1163:undecidable
367:Shared disk
127:distributed
54:concurrency
4637:Starvation
4376:asymmetric
4111:PRAM model
4079:Preemptive
3789:2009-08-16
3730:0201058669
3672:2010-09-29
3573:2009-08-04
3553:2021-05-13
3482:Naor, Moni
3439:2009-08-20
3346:2009-07-16
3056:References
3033:2018-07-20
2933:2013-03-03
2755:2018-07-20
2598:2018-07-20
2382:2018-07-20
2275:, p. 4–6.
2119:2017-01-09
2055:2018-07-20
2017:2018-07-20
1766:, p. 2–3.
1730:, p. 3–4.
1710:, p. 291.
1396:2020-08-28
894:The graph
863:The graph
846:An example
528:networks:
491:beneficial
443:BitTorrent
416:Three-tier
384:three-tier
4371:symmetric
4116:PEM model
3755:8 October
3535:Web sites
3505:CiteSeerX
3460:CiteSeerX
3407:CiteSeerX
3166:MIT Press
3140:MIT Press
3104:Cambridge
2879:CiteSeerX
2283:, p. xv.
2194:663093862
2106:2278-0661
1948:, p. 348.
1842:, p. 10.
1609:1742-6596
1544:1868-0941
1438:1868-0941
1325:HarmonyOS
1148:designing
1024:deadlocks
981:rounds).
834:per node.
830:with one
813:computer.
729:algorithm
710:instances
420:stateless
348:processes
269:algorithm
146:computers
135:processes
125:The word
4671:Category
4602:Deadlock
4590:Problems
4556:pthreads
4536:OpenHMPP
4461:Ateji PX
4422:computer
4293:Hardware
4160:Elements
4146:Slowdown
4057:Temporal
4039:Pipeline
3871:15185219
3836:Archived
3832:16066616
3765:Articles
3681:Archived
3666:archived
3567:Archived
3547:Archived
3523:archived
3488:(1995),
3391:(2008),
3355:Articles
3318:(2000),
3292:(1994),
3266:(2008),
3232:(1996),
3187:(2000),
3160:(2000),
3132:(1990),
3027:Archived
2992:16 March
2986:Archived
2962:16 March
2956:Archived
2927:Archived
2905:Archived
2862:(1990).
2824:Archived
2749:Archived
2707:. 2021.
2592:Archived
2502:, p. ix.
2376:Archived
2319:54447518
2229:16711722
2049:Archived
2011:Archived
1977:Archived
1960:, p. 32.
1922:Archived
1798:, p. 7.
1782:, p. 2.
1746:, p. 4.
1714:, p. 3.
1698:, p. xv.
1690:, p. 3.
1686:, p. 5.
1670:, p. 10.
1571:, p. 10.
1443:systems.
1390:Archived
1189:AppScale
1177:See also
1152:studying
1088:Election
963:diameter
714:solution
620:aircraft
546:Internet
517:Examples
468:database
456:main/sub
445:and the
308:Internet
298:Ethernet
296:such as
193:Patterns
185:program.
101:RPC-like
4561:RaftLib
4541:OpenACC
4516:GPUOpen
4506:C++ AMP
4481:Charm++
4223:Barrier
4167:Process
4151:Speedup
3936:General
3621:Bibcode
3429:7607391
2901:9175968
2820:2758285
1931:20 July
1874:, p. 1.
1862:, p. 1.
1806:, p. 4.
1786:, p. 1.
1770:, p. 4.
1750:, p. 2.
1734:, p. 1.
1718:, p. 4.
1655:, p. 1.
1643:, p. 5.
1350:Web GIS
1279:Inferno
1102:process
1081:latency
1026:occur.
940:speedup
508:cluster
484:require
324:FidoNet
304:ARPANET
284:History
273:systems
4654:
4531:OpenCL
4526:OpenMP
4471:Chapel
4388:shared
4383:Memory
4318:(SIMT)
4261:Models
4172:Thread
4104:Theory
4075:(SpMT)
4029:Memory
4014:Thread
3997:Levels
3869:
3830:
3728:
3699:
3650:
3631:
3607:
3507:
3462:
3427:
3409:
3332:
3304:
3278:
3248:
3218:
3199:
3172:
3146:
3110:
3084:
3019:
2899:
2881:
2818:
2741:
2711:
2584:
2404:
2368:
2339:
2317:
2227:
2192:
2182:
2161:
2104:
2077:
2041:
2003:
1823:
1607:
1542:
1532:
1499:
1475:
1436:
1426:
1382:
1132:graphs
1041:, and
741:output
696:Models
320:Usenet
312:e-mail
156:memory
95:, and
4501:Dryad
4466:Boost
4187:Array
4177:Fiber
4091:(CMT)
4064:(SMT)
3978:GPGPU
3867:S2CID
3839:(PDF)
3828:S2CID
3806:(PDF)
3749:(PDF)
3742:(PDF)
3589:Books
3526:(PDF)
3493:(PDF)
3425:S2CID
3062:Books
2908:(PDF)
2897:S2CID
2867:(PDF)
2827:(PDF)
2816:S2CID
2796:(PDF)
2315:S2CID
2113:(PDF)
2098:(PDF)
1925:(PDF)
1918:(PDF)
1357:Notes
1301:(LOA)
1194:BOINC
1121:bytes
828:graph
737:input
429:-tier
401:, or
393:, or
391:-tier
277:below
275:(see
151:nodes
4566:ROCm
4496:CUDA
4486:Cilk
4453:APIs
4413:COMA
4408:NUMA
4339:MIMD
4334:MISD
4311:SIMD
4306:SISD
4034:Loop
4024:Data
4019:Task
3757:2021
3726:ISBN
3697:ISBN
3648:ISBN
3629:ISBN
3605:ISBN
3330:ISBN
3326:SIAM
3302:ISBN
3276:ISBN
3246:ISBN
3216:ISBN
3197:ISBN
3170:ISBN
3144:ISBN
3108:ISBN
3082:ISBN
3017:ISBN
2994:2018
2964:2018
2841:link
2739:ISBN
2709:ISBN
2582:ISBN
2402:ISBN
2366:ISBN
2337:ISBN
2225:PMID
2190:OCLC
2180:ISBN
2159:ISBN
2141:help
2102:ISSN
2075:ISBN
2039:ISBN
2001:ISBN
1933:2018
1821:ISBN
1605:ISSN
1540:ISSN
1530:ISBN
1497:ISBN
1473:ISBN
1434:ISSN
1424:ISBN
1380:ISBN
1157:The
1096:(or
808:and
591:and
581:and
571:and
534:and
322:and
240:", "
4581:ZPL
4576:TBB
4571:UPC
4551:PVM
4521:MPI
4476:HPX
4403:UMA
4004:Bit
3859:doi
3820:doi
3515:doi
3470:doi
3417:doi
3375:doi
2889:doi
2808:doi
2307:doi
2217:doi
1595:doi
1591:608
1522:doi
1416:doi
747:or
148:or
72:to
68:to
64:to
45:.
4673::
3865:.
3834:.
3826:.
3816:25
3814:.
3808:.
3775:,
3676::
3627:,
3565:.
3545:.
3521:,
3513:,
3501:24
3499:,
3495:,
3484:;
3468:,
3456:21
3454:,
3423:,
3415:,
3403:39
3401:,
3395:,
3371:70
3369:,
3328:,
3324:,
3300:,
3296:,
3274:,
3270:,
3262:;
3244:,
3240:,
3195:,
3168:,
3164:,
3142:,
3128:;
3124:;
3106:,
3102:,
3080:,
3076:,
3025:.
2984:.
2980:.
2954:.
2950:.
2925:.
2903:.
2895:.
2887:.
2875:12
2873:.
2869:.
2858:;
2837:}}
2833:{{
2822:.
2814:.
2802:.
2798:.
2775:77
2773:.
2747:.
2723:^
2646:.
2590:.
2558:.
2486:.
2463:^
2374:.
2313:.
2303:22
2301:.
2223:,
2213:46
2211:,
2188:.
2132::
2130:}}
2126:{{
2100:.
2047:.
2009:.
1972:,
1660:^
1629:^
1603:.
1589:.
1585:.
1567:.
1563:.
1546:.
1538:.
1528:.
1440:.
1432:.
1422:.
1388:.
1364:^
1045:.
1037:,
948:NC
840:is
650:,
646:,
636::
405:.
386:,
382:,
354:.
107:.
87:A
3921:e
3914:t
3907:v
3873:.
3861::
3822::
3793:.
3759:.
3703:.
3654:.
3623::
3611:.
3576:.
3556:.
3530:.
3517::
3477:.
3472::
3443:.
3419::
3384:.
3377::
3350:.
3311:.
3285:.
3255:.
3225:.
3206:.
3179:.
3153:.
3117:.
3091:.
3036:.
2996:.
2966:.
2936:.
2891::
2843:)
2810::
2804:5
2758:.
2717:.
2601:.
2562:.
2410:.
2385:.
2345:.
2321:.
2309::
2246:.
2231:.
2219::
2196:.
2143:)
2139:(
2122:.
2083:.
2058:.
2020:.
1983:.
1935:.
1903:.
1890:.
1846:.
1829:.
1624:.
1611:.
1597::
1524::
1505:.
1481:.
1418::
1399:.
995:D
986:D
979:D
975:D
971:D
967:D
912:G
908:G
904:G
900:G
896:G
879:G
865:G
852:G
658:,
628:;
608:,
601:,
595:,
575:,
560:;
554:,
548:,
538:,
449:.
435:.
427:n
389:n
374:.
165:.
158:.
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
