Atmosphere of Earth

4939: 4995: 9430: 4136: 5012: 4001: 1304: 499: 4938: 1130: 4983: 7640: 9442: 7070: 5074: 1484: 992: 391: 5046: 4488: 5060: 804: 415:. Water vapor accounts for roughly 0.25% of the atmosphere by mass. The concentration of water vapor (a greenhouse gas) varies significantly from around 10 ppm by mole fraction in the coldest portions of the atmosphere to as much as 5% by mole fraction in hot, humid air masses, and concentrations of other atmospheric gases are typically quoted in terms of dry air (without water vapor). The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases, among which are other 9404: 8305: 7566: 48: 4994: 1552: 9466: 9478: 4194: 9454: 1389:) -- for altitudes out to around 70 km (43 mi; 230,000 ft). However, the atmosphere is more accurately modeled with a customized equation for each layer that takes gradients of temperature, molecular composition, solar radiation and gravity into account. At heights over 100 km, an atmosphere may no longer be well mixed. Then each chemical species has its own scale height. 1370:. Total atmospheric mass is 5.1480×10 kg (1.135×10 lb), about 2.5% less than would be inferred from the average sea level pressure and Earth's area of 51007.2 megahectares, this portion being displaced by Earth's mountainous terrain. Atmospheric pressure is the total weight of the air above unit area at the point where the pressure is measured. Thus air pressure varies with location and 3986:, shorter (blue) wavelengths scatter more easily than longer (red) wavelengths. This is why the sky looks blue; you are seeing scattered blue light. This is also why sunsets are red. Because the Sun is close to the horizon, the Sun's rays pass through more atmosphere than normal before reaching your eye. Much of the blue light has been scattered out, leaving the red light in a sunset. 4714: 1238:. During daytime hours, it stretches from 50 to 1,000 km (31 to 621 mi; 160,000 to 3,280,000 ft) and includes the mesosphere, thermosphere, and parts of the exosphere. However, ionization in the mesosphere largely ceases during the night, so auroras are normally seen only in the thermosphere and lower exosphere. The ionosphere forms the inner edge of the 1291:. During the day the planetary boundary layer usually is well-mixed, whereas at night it becomes stably stratified with weak or intermittent mixing. The depth of the planetary boundary layer ranges from as little as about 100 metres (330 ft) on clear, calm nights to 3,000 m (9,800 ft) or more during the afternoon in dry regions. 962:, for example) travels an average of 1 kilometre (0.62 mi; 3300 ft) between collisions with other molecules. Although the thermosphere has a high proportion of molecules with high energy, it would not feel hot to a human in direct contact, because its density is too low to conduct a significant amount of energy to or from the skin. 1277:

is large compared with the size of motions that cause mixing. This allows the gases to stratify by molecular weight, with the heavier ones, such as oxygen and nitrogen, present only near the bottom of the heterosphere. The upper part of the heterosphere is composed almost completely of hydrogen, the

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of ice particles. These are the highest clouds in the atmosphere and may be visible to the naked eye if sunlight reflects off them about an hour or two after sunset or similarly before sunrise. They are most readily visible when the Sun is around 4 to 16 degrees below the horizon. Lightning-induced

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are defined by whether the atmospheric gases are well mixed. The surface-based homosphere includes the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and the lowest part of the thermosphere, where the chemical composition of the atmosphere does not depend on molecular weight because the gases are mixed by

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Nearly all atmospheric water vapor or moisture is found in the troposphere, so it is the layer where most of Earth's weather takes place. It has basically all the weather-associated cloud genus types generated by active wind circulation, although very tall cumulonimbus thunder clouds can penetrate

825:, the temperature behavior provides a useful metric to distinguish atmospheric layers. In this way, Earth's atmosphere can be divided (called atmospheric stratification) into five main layers: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. The altitudes of the five layers are: 1503:

The division of the atmosphere into layers mostly by reference to temperature is discussed above. Temperature decreases with altitude starting at sea level, but variations in this trend begin above 11 km, where the temperature stabilizes over a large vertical distance through the rest of the

3940:. Earth also emits radiation back into space, but at longer wavelengths that humans cannot see. Part of the incoming and emitted radiation is absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere. In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be 888:

This layer is mainly composed of extremely low densities of hydrogen, helium and several heavier molecules including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide closer to the exobase. The atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometres without colliding with one another.

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The stratospheric temperature profile creates very stable atmospheric conditions, so the stratosphere lacks the weather-producing air turbulence that is so prevalent in the troposphere. Consequently, the stratosphere is almost completely free of clouds and other forms of weather. However, polar

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This image shows the Moon at the centre, with the limb of Earth near the bottom transitioning into the orange-colored troposphere. The troposphere ends abruptly at the tropopause, which appears in the image as the sharp boundary between the orange- and blue-colored atmosphere. The silvery-blue

4208:) by which heat is distributed around Earth. The large-scale structure of the atmospheric circulation varies from year to year, but the basic structure remains fairly constant because it is determined by Earth's rotation rate and the difference in solar radiation between the equator and poles. 1184:

Although variations do occur, the temperature usually declines with increasing altitude in the troposphere because the troposphere is mostly heated through energy transfer from the surface. Thus, the lowest part of the troposphere (i.e. Earth's surface) is typically the warmest section of the

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of Earth's atmosphere. The troposphere is denser than all its overlying layers because a larger atmospheric weight sits on top of the troposphere and causes it to be most severely compressed. Fifty percent of the total mass of the atmosphere is located in the lower 5.6 km (3.5 mi;

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The mesosphere is the third highest layer of Earth's atmosphere, occupying the region above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere. It extends from the stratopause at an altitude of about 50 km (31 mi; 160,000 ft) to the mesopause at 80–85 km (50–53 mi;

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concentrations are about 2 to 8 parts per million, which is much higher than in the lower atmosphere but still very small compared to the main components of the atmosphere. It is mainly located in the lower portion of the stratosphere from about 15–35 km (9.3–21.7 mi;

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at an altitude range of 500–1000 km (310–620 mi; 1,600,000–3,300,000 ft). The height of the thermopause varies considerably due to changes in solar activity. Because the thermopause lies at the lower boundary of the exosphere, it is also referred to as the

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Earth's atmosphere. Lower four layers of the atmosphere in three dimensions as seen diagonally from above the exobase. Layers drawn to scale, objects within the layers are not to scale. Aurorae shown at the bottom of the thermosphere can form at any altitude within this

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The upper limit varies depending on the definition. Various authorities consider it to end at about 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi) or about 190,000 kilometres (120,000 mi)—about halfway to the moon, where the influence of Earth's gravity is about the same as

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depends only on temperature and not on pressure or density, the speed of sound in the atmosphere with altitude takes on the form of the complicated temperature profile (see illustration to the right), and does not mirror altitudinal changes in density or pressure.

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of air is close to, but just greater than, 1. Systematic variations in the refractive index can lead to the bending of light rays over long optical paths. One example is that, under some circumstances, observers on board ships can see other vessels just over the

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The density of air at sea level is about 1.2 kg/m (1.2 g/L, 0.0012 g/cm). Density is not measured directly but is calculated from measurements of temperature, pressure and humidity using the equation of state for air (a form of the

1099:, which is the part of Earth's atmosphere that contains relatively high concentrations of that gas. The stratosphere defines a layer in which temperatures rise with increasing altitude. This rise in temperature is caused by the absorption of 812:

In general, air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere. However, the temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude, and may remain relatively constant or even increase with altitude in some regions (see the

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Composition of Earth's atmosphere by molecular count, excluding water vapor. Lower pie represents trace gases that together compose about 0.0434% of the atmosphere (0.0442% at August 2021 concentrations). Numbers are mainly from 2000, with

1103:(UV) from the Sun by the ozone layer, which restricts turbulence and mixing. Although the temperature may be −60 °C (−76 °F; 210 K) at the tropopause, the top of the stratosphere is much warmer, and may be near 0 °C. 4031:

O) absorbs at many wavelengths above 700 nm. When a molecule absorbs a photon, it increases the energy of the molecule. This heats the atmosphere, but the atmosphere also cools by emitting radiation, as discussed below.

4104:), its radiation peaks near 500 nm, and is visible to the human eye. Earth is approximately 290 K (17 °C; 62 °F), so its radiation peaks near 10,000 nm, and is much too long to be visible to humans. 4556:. Free oxygen molecules did not start to accumulate in the atmosphere until the rate of production of oxygen began to exceed the availability of reductant materials that removed oxygen. This point signifies a shift from a 308:

10 kg, three quarters of which is within about 11 km (6.8 mi; 36,000 ft) of the surface. The atmosphere becomes thinner with increasing altitude, with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and

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appeared as early as 3.5 billion years ago. How Earth at that time maintained a climate warm enough for liquid water and life, if the early Sun put out 30% lower solar radiance than today, is a puzzle known as the

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The thermosphere is the second-highest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from the mesopause (which separates it from the mesosphere) at an altitude of about 80 km (50 mi; 260,000 ft) up to the

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dating from between about 2.15 and 2.08 billion years ago provide a record of Earth's dynamic oxygenation evolution. These fluctuations in oxygenation were likely driven by the Lomagundi carbon isotope excursion.

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is directly related to this absorption and emission effect. Some gases in the atmosphere absorb and emit infrared radiation, but do not interact with sunlight in the visible spectrum. Common examples of these are

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If the entire mass of the atmosphere had a uniform density equal to sea level density (about 1.2 kg per m) from sea level upwards, it would terminate abruptly at an altitude of 8.50 km (27,900 ft).

4092:" emission curves, therefore hotter objects tend to emit more radiation, with shorter wavelengths. Colder objects emit less radiation, with longer wavelengths. For example, the Sun is approximately 6,000 856:

The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere (though it is so tenuous that some scientists consider it to be part of interplanetary space rather than part of the atmosphere). It extends from the

915:—the aurora borealis (northern lights) and aurora australis (southern lights)—sometimes occur in the lower part of the exosphere, where they overlap into the thermosphere. The exosphere contains many of the 4705:. The cause of the variation of the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is not precisely understood. Periods with more oxygen in the atmosphere were often associated with more rapid development of animals. 5011: 1058:

burn up upon atmospheric entrance. It is too high above Earth to be accessible to jet-powered aircraft and balloons, and too low to permit orbital spacecraft. The mesosphere is mainly accessed by

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release sulfur into the atmosphere, which reacts and hence reduces oxygen in the atmosphere. However, volcanic eruptions also release carbon dioxide, which can fuel oxygenic photosynthesis by

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of dry air, which can be used to calculate densities or to convert between mole fraction and mass fraction, is about 28.946 or 28.96 g/mol. This is decreased when the air is humid.

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in the Northern Hemisphere with a maximum around May. The maximum in the vegetation cycle follows in the late summer. Following the peak in vegetation, the drawdown of atmospheric CO

873:. The altitude of the exobase varies from about 500 kilometres (310 mi; 1,600,000 ft) to about 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) in times of higher incoming solar radiation. 4107:

Because of its temperature, the atmosphere emits infrared radiation. For example, on clear nights Earth's surface cools down faster than on cloudy nights. This is because clouds (H

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The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from Earth's surface to an average height of about 12 km (7.5 mi; 39,000 ft), although this

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Above this altitude lies the heterosphere, which includes the exosphere and most of the thermosphere. Here, the chemical composition varies with altitude. This is because the

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10 kg, depending on whether surface pressure or water vapor data are used; somewhat smaller than the previous estimate. The mean mass of water vapor is estimated as 1.27

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The temperature of the thermosphere gradually increases with height and can rise as high as 1500 °C (2700 °F), though the gas molecules are so far apart that its

8434: 317:, at 100 km (62 mi) or 1.57% of Earth's radius, is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space. Atmospheric effects become noticeable during 1295:

The average temperature of the atmosphere at Earth's surface is 14 °C (57 °F; 287 K) or 15 °C (59 °F; 288 K), depending on the reference.

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will occur resulting in a return to Earth. Depending on solar activity, satellites can experience noticeable atmospheric drag at altitudes as high as 700–800 km.

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49,000–115,000 ft), though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically. About 90% of the ozone in Earth's atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere.

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The refractive index of air depends on temperature, giving rise to refraction effects when the temperature gradient is large. An example of such effects is the

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are occasionally seen in the lower part of this layer of the atmosphere where the air is coldest. The stratosphere is the highest layer that can be accessed by

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is 1866.1 ppbv (parts per billion). Two older reliable sources have dry atmospheric compositions, including trace molecules, that total less than 100%:

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by the dioxygen and ozone gas in this region. Still another region of increasing temperature with altitude occurs at very high altitudes, in the aptly-named

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The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere has fluctuated over the last 600 million years, reaching a peak of about 30% around 280 million years ago during the

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day when you cannot see your shadow, there is no direct radiation reaching you, it has all been scattered. As another example, due to a phenomenon called

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casting shadows. Sunlight, filtered into a reddish hue by passing through much of the troposphere at sunset, is reflected off the ocean. The above-lying

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Within the five principal layers above, which are largely determined by temperature, several secondary layers may be distinguished by other properties:

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orbits in this layer, between 350 and 420 km (220 and 260 mi). It is this layer where many of the satellites orbiting the Earth are present.

6761: 6162: 1508:, starting above about 20 km, the temperature increases with height, due to heating within the ozone layer caused by the capture of significant 4088:

is the opposite of absorption, it is when an object emits radiation. Objects tend to emit amounts and wavelengths of radiation depending on their "

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or the solar wind. Every second, the Earth loses about 3 kg of hydrogen, 50 g of helium, and much smaller amounts of other constituents.

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typically cruise between 10 and 13 km (33,000 and 43,000 ft) where the lower density and temperature of the air improve fuel economy;

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that marks the top of this middle layer of the atmosphere. It is the coldest place on Earth and has an average temperature around −85

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values were increased to 345 ppmv, without changing their other constituents to compensate. This is made worse by the April 2019 CO

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Just below the mesopause, the air is so cold that even the very scarce water vapor at this altitude can condense into polar-mesospheric

1084:. This layer extends from the top of the troposphere at roughly 12 km (7.5 mi; 39,000 ft) above Earth's surface to the 5138: 1441:

begin to glow in this region, though the larger ones may not burn up until they penetrate more deeply. The various layers of Earth's

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Air pressure actually decreases exponentially with altitude, dropping by half every 5.6 km (18,000 ft) or by a factor of 1/

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Two recent reliable sources cited here have total atmospheric compositions, including trace molecules, that exceed 100%. They are

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The stratosphere is the second-lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It lies above the troposphere and is separated from it by the

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About 3.4 billion years ago, nitrogen formed the major component of the then-stable "second atmosphere". The influence of the

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O) are strong absorbers and emitters of infrared radiation. This is also why it becomes colder at night at higher elevations.

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Timothy W. Lyons, Christopher T. Reinhard & Noah J. Planavsky (2014). "Atmospheric oxygenation three billion years ago".

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Geometric altitude vs. temperature, pressure, density, and the speed of sound derived from the 1962 U.S. Standard Atmosphere.

5430: 5390: 5308: 5699: 7531: 5180: 9503: 6864: 947:. The lower part of the thermosphere, from 80 to 550 kilometres (50 to 342 mi) above Earth's surface, contains the 6797: 9257: 6337: 6302: 6258: 5982: 5618: 5499: 5213: 5144: 1559: 1347: 885:

visible in the far ultraviolet (caused by neutral hydrogen) extends to at least 100,000 kilometres (62,000 mi).

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This layer is completely cloudless and free of water vapor. However, non-hydrometeorological phenomena such as the

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influences the long-term evolution of the atmosphere by transferring carbon dioxide to and from large continental

1577:). Atmospheric density decreases as the altitude increases. This variation can be approximately modeled using the 8334: 7272: 6999: 5154: 5123: 4071:

at longer wavelengths. For example, the radio window runs from about one centimetre to about eleven-metre waves.

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is the part of the troposphere that is closest to Earth's surface and is directly affected by it, mainly through

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Trenberth, Kevin E.; Smith, Lesley (1970-01-01). "The Mass of the Atmosphere: A Constraint on Global Analyses".

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can be distinguished in the atmosphere based on characteristics such as temperature and composition, namely the

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Temperature trends in two thick layers of the atmosphere as measured between January 1979 and December 2005 by

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weather satellites. The instruments record microwaves emitted from oxygen molecules in the atmosphere. Source:

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The volume fraction of the main constituents of the Earth's atmosphere as a function of height, based on the

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more than other wavelengths by the gases in the atmosphere, surrounding Earth in a visibly blue layer at the

6069: 5287:. Astrophysics and Space Science Library. Vol. 331. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 17. 9498: 8950: 8785: 7782: 7777: 6772: 6443: 4496: 4464:

proportions) strongly suggests conditions similar to the current, and that the fundamental features of the

278: 214:, on average around 1% at sea level, and 0.4% over the entire atmosphere. Air composition, temperature and 6169: 4471: 4135: 9274: 8007: 8001: 7871: 7443: 7365: 5159: 1450: 974: 63: 7887:

Atmospheres in boldface are significant atmospheres; atmospheres in italics are unconfirmed atmospheres.

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On October 19, 2015, NASA started a website containing daily images of the full sunlit side of Earth at

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period, significantly higher than today's 21%. Two main processes govern changes in the atmosphere: the

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Before this time, any oxygen produced by cyanobacterial photosynthesis would be readily removed by the

443:. Many substances of natural origin may be present in locally and seasonally variable small amounts as 7723: 6836: 1406:. By international convention, this marks the beginning of space where human travelers are considered 365: 8822: 7595: 7375: 5874:"Thermal Structure of the Mesopause Region (80–105 km) at 40°N Latitude. Part I: Seasonal Variations" 5753: 4872: 4154: 1382: 6830: 6219: 6087: 5974: 1185:

troposphere. This promotes vertical mixing (hence, the origin of its name in the Greek word τρόπος,

9508: 8807: 7177: 7091: 6130: 6039: 5650: 4836: 4633:) first proliferated. The following time span from 539 million years ago to the present day is the 4434:

The geological record however shows a continuous relatively warm surface during the complete early

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stores. Free oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago during the

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of Earth – with the exception of one cold glacial phase about 2.4 billion years ago. In the late

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The relative concentration of gases remains constant until about 10,000 m (33,000 ft).

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the tropopause from below and rise into the lower part of the stratosphere. Most conventional

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which eventually cooled and condensed to contribute to ocean water at the end of the Hadean.

1363: 1359: 1242:. It has practical importance because it influences, for example, radio propagation on Earth. 1174: 1100: 1092: 870: 385: 164: 5967: 4415:. Water-related sediments have been found that date from as early as 3.8 billion years ago. 9376: 9348: 9313: 9240: 9040: 8977: 8795: 8616: 7909: 7861: 7810: 7697: 7588: 7305: 7257: 7029: 6622: 6505: 6452: 6206: 5885: 5288: 4422:

has to be taken into account rather soon in the history of the atmosphere because hints of

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higher in the 2011–2020 decade than they were in 1850. It has raised concerns of man-made

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metazoan life began to appear and rapidly diversify in another radiation event called the

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model (the eight dotted lines in each "decade" are at the eight cubes 8, 27, 64, ..., 729)

1177:(i.e. a layer of relatively warm air above a colder one), and in others by a zone that is 8: 9482: 9371: 9279: 9267: 9157: 9110: 8918: 8841: 8567: 8120: 7803: 7729: 7662: 7448: 7405: 7239: 7182: 6992: 6326:

Bergman, Theodore L.; Lavine, Adrienne S.; Incropera, Frank P.; DeWitt, David P. (2007).

6270: 4904: 4900: 4880: 4844: 4817: 4557: 4553: 4442:, an oxygen-containing atmosphere began to develop, apparently due to a billion years of 4423: 3983: 1427: 1303: 1150: 1088:

at an altitude of about 50 to 55 km (31 to 34 mi; 164,000 to 180,000 ft).

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to four significant digits without affecting the total because 0.004% was removed from N

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is a region of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation. It is responsible for

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propagation, begin below 100 km and extend beyond 500 km. By comparison, the

1434: 1235: 1129: 890: 878: 747: 541: 249:, but the atmosphere changed significantly over time, affected by many factors such as 235: 7792: 6745: 419:, principally carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Besides argon, other 9353: 8817: 8723: 8696: 8543: 8493: 8429: 8383: 7754: 7536: 7513: 7433: 7400: 6703: 6685: 6638: 6569: 6535: 6482: 6343: 6333: 6308: 6298: 6254: 5978: 5614: 5495: 5426: 5386: 5304: 5209: 5002: 4916: 4768: 4764: 4698: 4694: 4654: 4419: 4295: 4205: 4115: 4080: 1371: 1367: 1042: 1007: 746:

The total ppm above adds up to more than 1 million (currently 83.43 above it) due to

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Limb view of Earth's atmosphere. Colors roughly denote the layers of the atmosphere.

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In summary, the mass of Earth's atmosphere is distributed approximately as follows:

1268:, which places it about 20 km (12 mi; 66,000 ft) above the mesopause. 9518: 9458: 9303: 9262: 9245: 9132: 9030: 8562: 8466: 8350: 8108: 7997: 7967: 7844: 7767: 7559: 7554: 7460: 7327: 7312: 7189: 7169: 7111: 6693: 6677: 6650: 6630: 6559: 6551: 6513: 6468: 6460: 6385: 6224: 5893: 5296: 4856: 4686: 4614: 4329: 4299: 4221: 4217: 4160: 4052: 4040: 1462: 1423: 1403: 1261: 970: 789: 484: 373: 314: 140: 125: 9441: 4965: 9320: 9286: 9172: 9152: 9062: 8711: 8677: 8611: 8408: 8393: 8308: 8183: 8138: 8032: 8027: 8017: 7902: 7866: 7455: 7438: 7395: 7385: 7277: 5422: 5354: 4892: 4884: 4799: 4675: 4638: 4610: 4506: 4060: 1581:. More sophisticated models are used to predict the orbital decay of satellites. 1162: 1059: 966: 822: 733: 369: 298: 294: 7830: 7787: 6555: 5584: 5525:. Both are used as references in this article. Both exceed 100% because their CO 5073: 4204:

is the large-scale movement of air through the troposphere, and the means (with

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activity takes place in the troposphere, and it is the only layer accessible by

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heated the atmosphere, driving off the most volatile gases. The collision with

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is not very meaningful. The air is so rarefied that an individual molecule (of

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Thus, the exosphere no longer behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly

609: 488: 416: 290: 266: 223: 128:. The atmosphere serves as a protective buffer between the Earth's surface and 7736: 6849: 6681: 1169:, with some variation due to weather. The troposphere is bounded above by the 1091:

The atmospheric pressure at the top of the stratosphere is roughly 1/1000 the

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section). Because the general pattern of the temperature/altitude profile, or

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The composition of air is unchanged until elevation of approximately 10.000 m

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value, which is 413.32 ppmv. Although minor, the January 2019 value for

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Different molecules absorb different wavelengths of radiation. For example, O

4009: 4005: 1574: 1466: 1454: 1415: 1351: 1239: 1138: 1051: 901: 760: 729: 390: 282: 183: 7704: 6347: 6312: 6297:(9th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. pp. 600–606. 5300: 4008:(or opacity) to various wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, including 9127: 9085: 8861: 8812: 8748: 8604: 8508: 8216: 8202: 7715: 7541: 7503: 7493: 7483: 7423: 7204: 7049: 7039: 6906: 6896: 6845:

Interactive global map of current atmospheric and ocean surface conditions.

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Earth's night-side upper atmosphere appearing from the bottom as bands of

9223: 9167: 8989: 8967: 8962: 8829: 8706: 8672: 8660: 8548: 8471: 8175: 8050: 7300: 7106: 7034: 6956: 6939: 6929: 6891: 6464: 6332:(6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. pp. 941–950. 6327: 6292: 6022: 5108: 5103: 4949: 4813: 4806: 4634: 4588: 4577: 4530: 4404: 4267: 4232: 4068: 4055:(commonly called light), at roughly 400–700 nm and continues to the 4048: 1620:

Table of physical and thermal properties of air at atmospheric pressure:

1556: 1509: 1328: 1316: 1219: 1134: 1124: 1096: 1085: 999: 939: 908: 858: 704: 357: 326: 321:

of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km (75 mi). Several

310: 286: 160: 137: 129: 109: 59: 38: 6634: 6228: 495:) may be derived from natural sources or from industrial air pollution. 9330: 9147: 9105: 9047: 9016: 8655: 8587: 8525: 8498: 8461: 8267: 8148: 7611: 7390: 7357: 7332: 7214: 7134: 7044: 6966: 6961: 6924: 6901: 6473: 6437:

Marshak, Alexander; Várnai, Tamás; Kostinski, Alexander (15 May 2017).

4960:(pink area) extends to the orange and faintly green line of the lowest 4957: 4657: 4630: 4596: 4581: 4439: 4400: 4352: 4348: 4101: 4089: 3978:

is light that has been scattered in the atmosphere. For example, on an

1442: 1288: 1256: 1246: 1231: 1170: 1081: 1031: 1011: 986: 948: 897: 894: 866: 818: 803: 548: 342: 334: 258: 5059: 9213: 9095: 8903: 8898: 8876: 8765: 8758: 8577: 8572: 8479: 8456: 8226: 8188: 8143: 8133: 8073: 7894: 7821: 7322: 7267: 7252: 7224: 7194: 7121: 7054: 6934: 6911: 6756: 5098: 5026: 4945: 4791: 4783: 4779: 4622: 4607: 4592: 4561: 4537: 4510: 4502: 4408: 4396: 4384: 4356: 4333: 4287: 4255: 4169: 4024: 3933: 1535: 1419: 1407: 1023: 995: 916: 882: 851: 468: 460: 420: 346: 250: 207: 176: 133: 8319: 6438: 1433:

Even above the Kármán line, significant atmospheric effects such as

439:

are also present. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other

47: 9340: 8908: 8834: 8775: 8770: 8718: 8628: 8599: 8592: 8582: 8513: 8487: 8483: 8475: 8277: 8221: 8153: 8088: 7974: 7962: 7934: 6271:"Atmospheric Temperature Trends, 1979–2005 : Image of the Day" 5938: 4896: 4752: 4646: 4642: 4626: 4576:, until reaching a steady state of more than 15% by the end of the 4412: 4372: 4360: 4340: 4247: 4056: 3979: 3970:. If the light does not interact with the atmosphere, it is called 3927: 1551: 1446: 1320: 1275:

distance that particles can move without colliding with one another

1260:

found at about 100 km (62 mi; 330,000 ft), the very

1199: 1158: 555: 476: 472: 404: 219: 191: 187: 6027:

It contains about four-fifths of the mass of the whole atmosphere.

1402:

99.99997% is below 100 km (62 mi; 330,000 ft), the

238:

is found only within 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) from the ground.

9208: 9004: 8999: 8945: 8851: 8780: 8623: 8424: 8272: 8260: 8198: 8128: 8103: 8063: 8042: 8012: 7415: 7292: 7262: 7078: 7059: 6943: 6747:

Pollution – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary

6411:"Spotting Mysterious Twinkles on Earth From a Million Miles Away" 5118: 5113: 5018: 4961: 4852: 4848: 4618: 4573: 4392: 4380: 4368: 4303: 4275: 4271: 4259: 4251: 4165: 4097: 1458: 1438: 1385:(0.368) every 7.64 km (25,100 ft), (this is called the 1166: 1161:

varies from about 9 km (5.6 mi; 30,000 ft) at the

1146: 1027: 944: 683: 662: 444: 432: 168: 148: 113: 105: 82: 6844: 4043:, allowing the transmission of only certain bands of light. The 1600:

10 kg with an annual range due to water vapor of 1.2 or 1.5

1426:

reach 30.4 km (100,000 ft) and above; and the highest

1346:

The average atmospheric pressure at sea level is defined by the

9057: 9022: 8846: 8802: 8650: 8448: 8255: 8248: 7957: 7952: 7926: 7648: 7282: 7149: 7129: 4973: 4786:

in the Earth's atmosphere, causing noticeable problems such as

4690: 4679: 4549: 4526: 4457: 4263: 4236: 4193: 4176: 4093: 3963: 1189:, meaning "turn"). The troposphere contains roughly 80% of the 1055: 1035: 959: 912: 646: 574: 456: 452: 428: 408: 195: 159:), redistributes heat and moisture among different regions via 7580: 6733:

Back to Earth History : Summary Chart for the Precambrian

4922: 4023:

absorb almost all radiation with wavelengths shorter than 300

1050:(TLEs) occasionally form in the mesosphere above tropospheric 399:

and methane from 2019, and do not represent any single source.

9090: 8930: 8856: 8643: 8285: 8243: 8236: 8231: 8068: 8022: 7984: 7942: 7470: 7247: 7229: 7069: 7008: 5915:"Atmosphere, Climate & Environment Information Programme" 4776: 4682: 4671: 4475: 4307: 3974:

and is what you see if you were to look directly at the Sun.

1589: 1223: 920: 593: 436: 412: 270: 199: 152: 117: 94: 6325: 4491:

Oxygen content of the atmosphere over the last billion years

4460:

from 2.7 billion years ago. The early basic carbon isotopy (

1592:

or 1/1,200,000 the mass of Earth. According to the American

1584:

The average mass of the atmosphere is about 5 quadrillion (5

352:

The study of Earth's atmosphere and its processes is called

9035: 8891: 8886: 8866: 8740: 8691: 8535: 8163: 8098: 8093: 8083: 8078: 7947: 7619: 7521: 7139: 6757: 6067: 5899:

10.1175/1520-0469(2000)057<0066:TSOTMR>2.0.CO;2

4787: 4197:

An idealised view of three pairs of large circulation cells

1496: 1355: 1190: 630: 448: 424: 172: 121: 90: 67: 37:"Qualities of air" redirects here. Not to be confused with 4816:

radiations, is also caused by air pollution, chiefly from

4568:

showed major variations during the Proterozoic, including

1254:

turbulence. This relatively homogeneous layer ends at the

8994: 8638: 5278: 4734:

due to photosynthesis is apparent, particularly over the

3937: 1513: 79: 6977: 6666:"The human physiological impact of global deoxygenation" 6664:

Martin, Daniel; McKenna, Helen; Livina, Valerie (2016).

4678:, and the consumption of oxygen by rapidly diversifying 4168:

because light is refracted in the same direction as the

1430:

flight in 1963 reached 108.0 km (354,300 ft).

1010:

begins, leaving smoke trails, such as in this case of a

5872:

States, Robert J.; Gardner, Chester S. (January 2000).

1555:

Temperature and mass density against altitude from the

403:

The three major constituents of Earth's atmosphere are

6436: 5468:

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (1976),

4339:

to the surface, causing the atmosphere to cool, which

4294:, in particular, melted and ejected large portions of 4039:

of the gases in the atmosphere leave "windows" of low

821:, is constant and measurable by means of instrumented 9418: 6601:

Earth's Earliest Biosphere: Its Origin and Evolution.

4863:, with the global average surface temperatures being 4689:

and their own metabolic needs at night. Breakdown of

829:

Exosphere: 700 to 10,000 km (440 to 6,200 miles)

356:(aerology), and includes multiple subfields, such as 6798:"Daily Views of Earth Available on New NASA Website" 6533: 6496:

Edlén, Bengt (1966). "The refractive index of air".

5041: 4972:(invisible). Continuing with green and red bands of 4929:(DSCOVR) and show Earth as it rotates during a day. 4782:

have significantly increased the amount of airborne

4468:

became established as early as 4 billion years ago.

3936:(or sunlight) is the energy Earth receives from the 1222:

is contained within the stratosphere. In this layer

6663: 6249:Lutgens, Frederick K. and Edward J. Tarbuck (1995) 6163:"Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Control Run" 6145:"Earth's Radiation Balance and Oceanic Heat Fluxes" 5771: 5769: 5611:

Luft: Chemie, Physik, Biologie, Reinhaltung, Recht.

5997: 5966: 5400:but includes only ten of its largest constituents. 4211: 1596:, "The total mean mass of the atmosphere is 5.1480 1165:to 17 km (11 mi; 56,000 ft) at the 1022:Temperatures drop with increasing altitude to the 471:also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as 6603:Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., 1983 6070:"The 4 Most Abundant Gases in Earth's Atmosphere" 4823:Since 1750, human activity, especially after the 1608:10 kg and the dry air mass as 5.1352 ±0.0003 1465:to require reboosts every few months, otherwise, 1133:A picture of Earth's troposphere, with different 832:Thermosphere: 80 to 700 km (50 to 440 miles) 222:. Within the atmosphere, air suitable for use in 66:at an altitude of 335 km (208 mi) (the 9490: 6019:Concise Encyclopedia of Science & Technology 5766: 5208:(Fourth ed.), AIP Press, pp. 258–259, 4763:that cause harm or discomfort to organisms. The 4332:at the end of the Hadean closed off most of the 1418:is at 8,848 m (29,029 ft); commercial 861:(also known as the "exobase") at the top of the 70:is visible as a crescent in the far background). 6879: 6840:. Vol. III (9th ed.). pp. 28–36. 6390:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 5747: 5745: 4831:, most importantly carbon dioxide, methane and 1457:typically orbit at 350–400 km, within the 973:are occasionally seen in the thermosphere. The 6196: 5494:(Third ed.), Athlone Press, p. 119, 5408: 5406: 5385:(97th ed.), CRC Press, p. 14-3, 4952:in orange with silhouettes of clouds, and the 4827:, has increased the concentrations of various 4726:Animation shows the buildup of tropospheric CO 4517:and its appearance is indicated by the end of 3962:When light passes through Earth's atmosphere, 1461:of the ionosphere where they encounter enough 1366:). This is sometimes referred to as a unit of 1331:with approximate altitudes of various objects. 1054:. The mesosphere is also the layer where most 838:Stratosphere: 12 to 50 km (7 to 31 miles) 8335: 7910: 7596: 6993: 6865: 6430: 6068:Anne Marie Helmenstine, PhD (June 16, 2018). 5871: 5835: 5751: 5359:Global Greenhouse Gas Reference Network, NOAA 5332:Global Greenhouse Gas Reference Network, NOAA 835:Mesosphere: 50 to 80 km (31 to 50 miles) 372:. The study of historic atmosphere is called 6402: 5964: 5939:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences (1993). 5742: 5017:Earth's atmosphere backlit by the Sun in an 736:; these are identical for an ideal gas only. 5932: 5415:Atmospheric Science: An Introductory Survey 5403: 5380: 5199: 5197: 4976:stretching over several hundred kilometers. 4387:. A major part of carbon dioxide emissions 4359:, supplemented by gases introduced by huge 911:phenomena to be possible. However, Earth's 841:Troposphere: 0 to 12 km (0 to 7 miles) 512:Major constituents of air, by mole fraction 8342: 8328: 7917: 7903: 7603: 7589: 7000: 6986: 6872: 6858: 6544:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology 6000:The Weather and Climate of Southern Africa 5603: 5376: 5374: 4051:-C) up into the range humans can see, the 1396:50% is below 5.6 km (18,000 ft). 1019:260,000–280,000 ft) above sea level. 1006:(blue) and the mesosphere (dark) at which 210:. Air also contains a variable amount of 30:"Air" redirects here. For other uses, see 6721:Graph: Atmospheric Oxygen and CO2 vs Time 6697: 6563: 6529: 6527: 6472: 6408: 6218: 5998:Tyson, P.D.; Preston-Whyte, R.A. (2013). 5973:. London: Menthuen & Co Ltd. p. 5897: 5862:. Published by Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2005. 5716: 5481: 5349: 5347: 5285:Ultraviolet Radiation in the Solar System 5139:COSPAR international reference atmosphere 4964:, at about one hundred kilometers at the 4809:, which shields the surface from harmful 4391:in water and reacted with metals such as 1399:90% is below 16 km (52,000 ft). 1335: 907:The exosphere is too far above Earth for 5912: 5651:"Air - Molecular Weight and Composition" 5634: 5461: 5194: 4712: 4660:was fuelled by the rising oxygen level. 4486: 4192: 4143:upon the shape of the sun at the horizon 4134: 3999: 1594:National Center for Atmospheric Research 1550: 1482: 1302: 1173:, a boundary marked in most places by a 1149:as a band of its characteristic glow of 1128: 990: 802: 780:Water vapor varies significantly locally 497: 389: 46: 6795: 6273:. Earthobservatory.nasa.gov. 2000-01-01 6061: 5849:May 2009, p. 26 (accessed 25 July 2012) 5797: 5795: 5793: 5637:Termodinamica e trasmissione del calore 5371: 5246:"What Is... Earth's Atmosphere? - NASA" 4371:atmosphere, which consisted largely of 4343:most of the water vapor out of the air 4059:to around 1100 nm. There are also 1615: 506:; the model only works above 85 km 447:in an unfiltered air sample, including 304:The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 14: 9491: 7924: 6824: 6524: 6329:Fundamentals of heat and mass transfer 6290: 6127:"Global Surface Temperature Anomalies" 6050:from the original on 14 September 2010 5841:David C. Catling and Kevin J. Zahnle, 5521:(2016–2017, 100.004667%), which cites 5507: 5344: 5328:"Trends in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide" 5181:"Gateway to Astronaut Photos of Earth" 4820:and other ozone-depleting substances. 4525:that can react with oxygen to produce 4226: 3996:Absorption (electromagnetic radiation) 1298: 865:to a poorly defined boundary with the 364:. Early pioneers in the field include 241:Earth's early atmosphere consisted of 8349: 8323: 7898: 7584: 6981: 6853: 6670:The Journal of Physiological Sciences 6495: 6489: 6362:"Absorption / reflection of sunlight" 6253:, Prentice Hall, 6th ed., pp. 14–17, 5519:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 5487: 5412:Wallace, John M. and Peter V. Hobbs. 5383:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 5322: 5320: 5005:extend far above Earth's troposphere. 3921: 893:. These free-moving particles follow 7532:Geology of solar terrestrial planets 6108:from the original on 30 October 2010 5790: 5697: 5279:Vázquez, M.; Hanslmeier, A. (2006). 4910: 4313: 1194:18,000 ft) of the troposphere. 451:of mineral and organic composition, 62:, when seen from space on board the 6409:St. Fleur, Nicholas (19 May 2017). 5965:Barry, R.G.; Chorley, R.J. (1971). 5878:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 5203: 4621:life forms (including the earliest 4482: 4130: 1546: 322: 24: 5425:. Elsevier. Second Edition, 2006. 5317: 5269:. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 1996: 14–17 4004:Rough plot of Earth's atmospheric 900:and may migrate in and out of the 275:contributed to atmospheric changes 25: 9530: 6818: 5267:Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 5145:Environmental effects of aviation 4231:The first atmosphere, during the 1523: 1493:advanced microwave sounding units 1348:International Standard Atmosphere 798: 9476: 9464: 9452: 9440: 9428: 9403: 9402: 8304: 8303: 7638: 7565: 7564: 7068: 5809:from the original on 17 May 2017 5523:Allen's Astrophysical Quantities 5515:Allen's Astrophysical Quantities 5398:Allen's Astrophysical Quantities 5381:Haynes, H. M., ed. (2016–2017), 5206:Allen's Astrophysical Quantities 5072: 5058: 5044: 5010: 4993: 4981: 4937: 4925:. The images are taken from the 4751:is the introduction of airborne 4708: 4544:on the Earth's surface, notably 4521:(which signals the depletion of 4278:. During this earliest era, the 4067:that transmit some infrared and 814: 483:vapor. Sulfur compounds such as 132:, shields the surface from most 7610: 7273:Human impact on the environment 6789: 6750: 6738: 6725: 6714: 6657: 6606: 6593: 6580: 6378: 6354: 6319: 6284: 6263: 6243: 6190: 6179: 6155: 6137: 6119: 6094: 6076: 6032: 6010: 5991: 5969:Atmosphere, Weather and Climate 5958: 5917:. Ace.mmu.ac.uk. Archived from 5906: 5865: 5852: 5821: 5691: 5667: 5643: 5628: 5577: 5551: 5446:. Ace.mmu.ac.uk. Archived from 5436: 5355:"Trends in Atmospheric Methane" 5155:Instrumental temperature record 5124:Atmospheric dispersion modeling 4501:The constant re-arrangement of 4254:such as those now found in the 4212:Evolution of Earth's atmosphere 1209: 1069: 926: 7102:Climate variability and change 6771:. pp. 4–5. Archived from 6540:"Earth's Earliest Atmospheres" 6102:"NASA – Earth Fact Sheet" 6046:. Amsglossary.allenpress.com. 5777:"The height of the tropopause" 5542:U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976 5471:U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976 5272: 5259: 5238: 5235:. It includes 20 constituents. 5173: 4927:Deep Space Climate Observatory 4580:. The rise of the more robust 4182: 4047:runs from around 300 nm ( 1472: 1118: 956:temperature in the usual sense 379: 147:(temperature extremes between 101:, with variable quantities of 13: 1: 7527:Evolution of the Solar System 6796:Northon, Karen (2015-10-19). 5559:"Vital signs: Carbon Dioxide" 5166: 4871:, which can have significant 4674:and their increasing role in 3989: 3951: 1414:By comparison, the summit of 980: 475:(elemental or in compounds), 206:, and small amounts of other 145:diurnal temperature variation 8368:Pollution / quality 7278:Evolutionary history of life 6444:Geophysical Research Letters 5829:"Earth's Atmospheric Layers" 5726:. UCAR. 2011. Archived from 5204:Cox, Arthur N., ed. (2000), 4956:in white and blue. Next the 4497:Geological history of oxygen 4453:), which have been found as 4242:, consisted of gases in the 1538:of constant composition the 845: 761:increasing in recent decades 732:is sometimes referred to as 143:, keeps it warm and reduces 7: 7872:Extraterrestrial atmosphere 6556:10.1101/cshperspect.a004895 6366:Understanding Global Change 5517:(2000, 100.001241343%) and 5160:Reference atmospheric model 5037: 4923:https://epic.gsfc.nasa.gov/ 4861:rise in global temperatures 4602:, which was followed by an 4529:deposits) during the early 4074: 1451:International Space Station 975:International Space Station 773:Water vapor is about 0.25% 504:MSIS-E-90 atmospheric model 190:), dry air contains 78.08% 85:that surrounds the Earth's 10: 9535: 9504:Atmospheric thermodynamics 7066: 6762:"Summary for Policymakers" 6590:Wiley Press, New York 1984 5700:"Earth's Upper Atmosphere" 5698:Zell, Holly (2015-03-02). 5655:www.engineeringtoolbox.com 4968:and the lower edge of the 4914: 4859:, have caused an observed 4796:pollution-related diseases 4741: 4494: 4317: 4215: 4186: 4152: 4146: 4078: 3993: 3955: 3925: 1565: 1527: 1476: 1368:standard atmospheres (atm) 1339: 1264:itself as accepted by the 1122: 1073: 984: 930: 849: 703: 682: 661: 645: 629: 608: 592: 573: 554: 383: 155:) through heat retention ( 78:is composed of a layer of 58:, above the clouds of the 28: 9398: 9339: 9204: 9197: 9078: 8939:Types / location 8938: 8929: 8739: 8534: 8447: 8417: 8366: 8357: 8299: 8212: 8171: 8162: 8119: 8041: 7983: 7933: 7885: 7854: 7820: 7753: 7714: 7647: 7636: 7618: 7550: 7512: 7469: 7414: 7356: 7291: 7238: 7168: 7120: 7077: 7015: 7007: 6952: 6920: 6887: 6682:10.1007/s12576-016-0501-0 6518:10.1088/0026-1394/2/2/002 5860:Essentials of Meteorology 5677:. The Engineering ToolBox 5613:Walter de Gruyter, 2003, 5281:"Historical Introduction" 4637:eon, during the earliest 4367:, created the subsequent 4155:Scintillation (astronomy) 3966:interact with it through 1204:propeller-driven aircraft 1048:transient luminous events 723: 698: 525: 522: 517: 97:), known collectively as 7537:Location in the Universe 7479:Antarctic/Southern Ocean 7178:List of sovereign states 6731:Christopher R. Scotese, 6588:The Evolving Continents. 6386:"The Atmospheric Window" 6291:Holman, Jack P. (2002). 6002:(2nd ed.). Oxford: 5546:Astrophysical Quantities 5491:Astrophysical Quantities 4837:Greenhouse gas emissions 1489:microwave sounding units 1285:planetary boundary layer 479:compounds and elemental 6837:Encyclopædia Britannica 6104:. Nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. 6004:Oxford University Press 5301:10.1007/1-4020-3730-9_1 5129:Atmospheric electricity 5094:Air (classical element) 4685:and also by plants for 4515:Great Oxygenation Event 4451:Great Oxygenation Event 4429:faint young Sun paradox 4411:that were deposited as 4306:significant amounts of 4202:Atmospheric circulation 4189:Atmospheric circulation 1479:Atmospheric temperature 1307:Comparison of the 1962 1064:rocket-powered aircraft 755:The concentration of CO 366:Léon Teisserenc de Bort 52:Blue light is scattered 18:Earth's atmosphere 5843:The Planetary Air Leak 5803:"Exosphere - overview" 5752:Randy Russell (2008). 5724:"Exosphere - overview" 5623:(View in Google Books) 5585:"Vital signs: Methane" 4905:mass dying of wildlife 4739: 4604:evolutionary radiation 4519:banded iron formations 4492: 4365:Late Heavy Bombardment 4280:Moon-forming collision 4250:, and probably simple 4198: 4149:Atmospheric refraction 4144: 4141:atmospheric refraction 4012: 3958:Atmospheric scattering 1641:Thermal conductivity 1563: 1500: 1336:Pressure and thickness 1332: 1309:US Standard Atmosphere 1154: 1015: 809: 507: 400: 186:(i.e., by quantity of 71: 7258:Biogeochemical cycles 7183:dependent territories 6538:; Fegley, B. (2010). 5488:Allen, C. W. (1976), 4873:environmental impacts 4825:Industrial Revolution 4725: 4570:a billion-year period 4490: 4196: 4139:Distortive effect of 4138: 4079:Further information: 4003: 1644:Thermal diffusivity 1638:Kinematic viscosity 1554: 1486: 1306: 1175:temperature inversion 1132: 1101:ultraviolet radiation 1093:pressure at sea level 994: 917:artificial satellites 871:interplanetary medium 806: 501: 467:. Various industrial 393: 386:Atmospheric chemistry 50: 9314:remnant natural area 8951:storage and recovery 8617:habitat conservation 8435:Deforestation (REDD) 8184:Evolutionary history 7862:Prebiotic atmosphere 7306:Computer cartography 7030:Prebiotic atmosphere 6465:10.1002/2017GL073248 6084:"Earth's Atmosphere" 5847:Scientific American, 5548:(1976, 99.9999357%). 4761:biological materials 4320:Prebiotic atmosphere 4172:of Earth's surface. 1616:Tabulated properties 1504:troposphere. In the 1342:Atmospheric pressure 1113:jet-powered aircraft 1046:discharges known as 777:over full atmosphere 216:atmospheric pressure 171:conditions allowing 32:Air (disambiguation) 9499:Atmosphere of Earth 9268:Earth Overshoot Day 8842:Marine conservation 8823:non-timber products 8121:Natural environment 7449:Geologic time scale 7170:Culture and society 7025:Atmosphere of Earth 6635:10.1038/nature13068 6627:2014Natur.506..307L 6510:1966Metro...2...71E 6457:2017GeoRL..44.5197M 6229:10.1175/JCLI-3299.1 6211:2005JCli...18..864T 5890:2000JAtS...57...66S 5858:Ahrens, C. Donald. 5831:. January 22, 2013. 5544:(99.9997147%); and 5293:2005ASSL..331.....V 4901:ecological collapse 4881:ocean acidification 4818:chlorofluorocarbons 4558:reducing atmosphere 4554:atmospheric methane 4542:reducing substances 4424:earliest life forms 4227:Earliest atmosphere 3984:Rayleigh scattering 3948:in the atmosphere. 1635:Dynamic viscosity 1560:standard atmosphere 1512:radiation from the 1299:Physical properties 1289:turbulent diffusion 1145:can be seen at the 881:from sunlight. The 743:by molecular count 699:If air is not dry: 610:Carbon dioxide 514: 362:atmospheric physics 354:atmospheric science 319:atmospheric reentry 236:terrestrial animals 163:, and provides the 124:), all retained by 76:atmosphere of Earth 9253:Ecosystem services 8376:Ambient standards 7877:Stellar atmosphere 7755:Natural satellites 7444:Geological history 7318:Geodetic astronomy 6881:Earth's atmosphere 6831:"Atmosphere" 6735:, Paleomar Project 6416:The New York Times 6199:Journal of Climate 5754:"The Thermosphere" 5421:2018-07-28 at the 5089:Aerial perspective 5052:Environment portal 5003:noctilucent clouds 4757:particulate matter 4740: 4695:volcanic eruptions 4651:Cambrian explosion 4493: 4436:temperature record 4199: 4145: 4037:absorption spectra 4013: 3976:Indirect radiation 3922:Optical properties 1579:barometric formula 1564: 1520:above 90 km. 1501: 1333: 1313:geometric altitude 1155: 1095:. It contains the 1043:noctilucent clouds 1016: 879:radiation pressure 810: 748:experimental error 510: 508: 441:chemical compounds 401: 273:activity has also 265:(particularly the 228:terrestrial plants 72: 9416: 9415: 9394: 9393: 9193: 9192: 8872:genetic resources 8808:genetic resources 8443: 8442: 8351:Natural resources 8317: 8316: 8295: 8294: 7968:chemical elements 7892: 7891: 7578: 7577: 7514:Planetary science 7434:Extremes on Earth 7401:Signal processing 6975: 6974: 6826:Buchan, Alexander 5675:"Air Composition" 5450:on 9 October 2010 5431:978-0-12-732951-2 5392:978-1-4987-5428-6 5310:978-1-4020-3730-6 4948:illuminating the 4917:Weather satellite 4911:Images from space 4887:(which threatens 4857:land developments 4769:industrialization 4765:population growth 4723: 4606:event during the 4600:global glaciation 4472:Ancient sediments 4420:evolution of life 4314:Second atmosphere 4206:ocean circulation 4116:greenhouse effect 4081:Emission spectrum 3919: 3918: 1278:lightest element. 1107:stratospheric or 1008:atmospheric entry 891:escape into space 823:balloon soundings 786: 785: 763:, as has that of 741:parts per million 263:evolution of life 157:greenhouse effect 116:features such as 87:planetary surface 16:(Redirected from 9526: 9481: 9480: 9479: 9469: 9468: 9467: 9457: 9456: 9455: 9445: 9444: 9433: 9432: 9431: 9424: 9406: 9405: 9357: 9304:Natural heritage 9263:overexploitation 9202: 9201: 8936: 8935: 8882:herbal medicines 8862:FAO Plant Treaty 8402: 8379: 8364: 8363: 8344: 8337: 8330: 8321: 8320: 8307: 8306: 8179: 8169: 8168: 8109:tropical cyclone 8059: 7919: 7912: 7905: 7896: 7895: 7642: 7605: 7598: 7591: 7582: 7581: 7568: 7567: 7461:History of Earth 7112:Paleoclimatology 7072: 7002: 6995: 6988: 6979: 6978: 6874: 6867: 6860: 6851: 6850: 6841: 6833: 6812: 6811: 6809: 6808: 6793: 6787: 6786: 6784: 6783: 6777: 6766: 6754: 6748: 6742: 6736: 6729: 6723: 6718: 6712: 6711: 6701: 6661: 6655: 6654: 6621:(7488): 307–15. 6610: 6604: 6597: 6591: 6584: 6578: 6577: 6567: 6531: 6522: 6521: 6493: 6487: 6486: 6476: 6434: 6428: 6427: 6425: 6423: 6406: 6400: 6399: 6397: 6396: 6382: 6376: 6375: 6373: 6372: 6358: 6352: 6351: 6323: 6317: 6316: 6288: 6282: 6281: 6279: 6278: 6267: 6261: 6247: 6241: 6240: 6222: 6194: 6188: 6183: 6177: 6176: 6174: 6168:. Archived from 6167: 6159: 6153: 6152: 6147:. Archived from 6141: 6135: 6134: 6129:. Archived from 6123: 6117: 6116: 6114: 6113: 6098: 6092: 6091: 6086:. Archived from 6080: 6074: 6073: 6065: 6059: 6058: 6056: 6055: 6036: 6030: 6029: 6014: 6008: 6007: 5995: 5989: 5988: 5972: 5962: 5956: 5955: 5953: 5952: 5943:. Archived from 5936: 5930: 5929: 5927: 5926: 5910: 5904: 5903: 5901: 5869: 5863: 5856: 5850: 5839: 5833: 5832: 5825: 5819: 5818: 5816: 5814: 5799: 5788: 5787: 5785: 5784: 5773: 5764: 5763: 5761: 5760: 5749: 5740: 5739: 5737: 5735: 5720: 5714: 5713: 5711: 5710: 5695: 5689: 5688: 5683: 5682: 5671: 5665: 5664: 5662: 5661: 5647: 5641: 5640: 5632: 5626: 5607: 5601: 5600: 5598: 5596: 5581: 5575: 5574: 5572: 5570: 5555: 5549: 5539: 5511: 5505: 5504: 5485: 5479: 5478: 5476: 5465: 5459: 5458: 5456: 5455: 5440: 5434: 5410: 5401: 5395: 5378: 5369: 5368: 5367: 5366: 5351: 5342: 5341: 5340: 5339: 5324: 5315: 5314: 5276: 5270: 5263: 5257: 5256: 5254: 5253: 5242: 5236: 5219:, which rounds N 5218: 5201: 5192: 5191: 5189: 5188: 5177: 5082: 5077: 5076: 5068: 5063: 5062: 5054: 5049: 5048: 5014: 4997: 4985: 4941: 4866: 4829:greenhouse gases 4724: 4687:photorespiration 4617:, where complex 4615:Avalon explosion 4483:Third atmosphere 4222:Paleoclimatology 4218:History of Earth 4161:refractive index 4131:Refractive index 4053:visible spectrum 3972:direct radiation 3915: 3914: 3907: 3902: 3900: 3893: 3888: 3886: 3879: 3877: 3870: 3865: 3860: 3853: 3848: 3843: 3841: 3834: 3829: 3827: 3820: 3818: 3811: 3806: 3801: 3794: 3793: 3786: 3781: 3779: 3772: 3767: 3765: 3758: 3756: 3749: 3744: 3739: 3732: 3731: 3724: 3719: 3717: 3710: 3705: 3703: 3696: 3694: 3687: 3682: 3677: 3670: 3669: 3662: 3657: 3655: 3648: 3643: 3641: 3634: 3632: 3625: 3620: 3615: 3608: 3607: 3600: 3595: 3593: 3586: 3581: 3579: 3572: 3570: 3563: 3558: 3553: 3546: 3541: 3536: 3534: 3527: 3522: 3520: 3513: 3511: 3504: 3499: 3494: 3487: 3486: 3479: 3474: 3472: 3465: 3460: 3458: 3451: 3449: 3442: 3437: 3432: 3425: 3424: 3417: 3412: 3410: 3403: 3398: 3396: 3389: 3387: 3380: 3375: 3370: 3363: 3362: 3355: 3350: 3348: 3341: 3336: 3334: 3327: 3325: 3318: 3313: 3308: 3301: 3300: 3293: 3288: 3286: 3279: 3274: 3272: 3265: 3263: 3256: 3251: 3246: 3239: 3238: 3231: 3226: 3224: 3217: 3212: 3210: 3203: 3201: 3194: 3189: 3184: 3177: 3176: 3169: 3164: 3162: 3155: 3150: 3148: 3141: 3139: 3132: 3127: 3122: 3115: 3114: 3107: 3102: 3100: 3093: 3088: 3086: 3079: 3077: 3070: 3065: 3060: 3053: 3052: 3045: 3040: 3038: 3031: 3026: 3024: 3017: 3015: 3008: 3003: 2998: 2991: 2990: 2983: 2978: 2976: 2969: 2964: 2962: 2955: 2953: 2946: 2941: 2936: 2929: 2924: 2919: 2917: 2910: 2909: 2902: 2900: 2893: 2891: 2884: 2882: 2875: 2870: 2863: 2862: 2855: 2850: 2848: 2841: 2840: 2833: 2831: 2824: 2822: 2815: 2813: 2806: 2801: 2794: 2793: 2786: 2781: 2779: 2772: 2771: 2764: 2762: 2755: 2753: 2746: 2744: 2737: 2732: 2725: 2724: 2717: 2712: 2710: 2703: 2702: 2695: 2693: 2686: 2684: 2677: 2675: 2668: 2663: 2656: 2655: 2648: 2643: 2641: 2634: 2633: 2626: 2624: 2617: 2615: 2608: 2606: 2599: 2594: 2587: 2586: 2579: 2574: 2572: 2565: 2564: 2557: 2555: 2548: 2546: 2539: 2537: 2530: 2525: 2518: 2517: 2510: 2505: 2503: 2496: 2491: 2489: 2482: 2480: 2473: 2471: 2464: 2459: 2452: 2451: 2444: 2439: 2437: 2430: 2429: 2422: 2420: 2413: 2411: 2404: 2402: 2395: 2390: 2383: 2382: 2375: 2370: 2368: 2361: 2360: 2353: 2351: 2344: 2342: 2335: 2333: 2326: 2321: 2314: 2313: 2306: 2301: 2299: 2292: 2287: 2285: 2278: 2276: 2269: 2267: 2260: 2255: 2248: 2243: 2238: 2236: 2229: 2228: 2221: 2219: 2212: 2210: 2203: 2201: 2194: 2189: 2182: 2181: 2174: 2169: 2167: 2160: 2159: 2152: 2150: 2143: 2141: 2134: 2132: 2125: 2120: 2113: 2108: 2103: 2101: 2094: 2093: 2086: 2084: 2077: 2075: 2068: 2063: 2058: 2051: 2050: 2043: 2038: 2036: 2029: 2028: 2021: 2019: 2012: 2010: 2003: 1998: 1993: 1986: 1985: 1978: 1973: 1971: 1964: 1963: 1956: 1954: 1947: 1945: 1938: 1936: 1929: 1924: 1917: 1912: 1907: 1905: 1898: 1897: 1890: 1888: 1881: 1879: 1872: 1870: 1863: 1858: 1851: 1846: 1841: 1839: 1832: 1831: 1824: 1822: 1815: 1813: 1806: 1804: 1797: 1792: 1785: 1784: 1777: 1772: 1770: 1763: 1762: 1755: 1753: 1746: 1744: 1737: 1735: 1728: 1723: 1716: 1711: 1706: 1704: 1697: 1696: 1689: 1687: 1680: 1678: 1671: 1669: 1662: 1657: 1647:Prandtl number 1623: 1622: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1587: 1547:Density and mass 1463:atmospheric drag 1424:weather balloons 1163:geographic poles 1060:sounding rockets 971:aurora australis 790:molecular weight 769: 515: 509: 485:hydrogen sulfide 417:greenhouse gases 374:paleoclimatology 307: 281:(mainly through 42: 35: 21: 9534: 9533: 9529: 9528: 9527: 9525: 9524: 9523: 9509:Breathing gases 9489: 9488: 9487: 9477: 9475: 9465: 9463: 9453: 9451: 9439: 9429: 9427: 9419: 9417: 9412: 9390: 9355: 9335: 9321:Systems ecology 9287:Natural capital 9189: 9074: 9063:reclaimed water 8925: 8887:UPOV Convention 8735: 8530: 8439: 8413: 8409:Ozone depletion 8400: 8377: 8353: 8348: 8318: 8313: 8291: 8208: 8177: 8158: 8115: 8057: 8037: 8028:Gaia hypothesis 8018:Plate tectonics 7979: 7929: 7923: 7893: 7888: 7881: 7850: 7816: 7749: 7710: 7643: 7634: 7614: 7609: 7579: 7574: 7546: 7508: 7465: 7456:Geologic record 7410: 7396:Plate tectonics 7386:Mineral physics 7366:Earth structure 7352: 7287: 7234: 7164: 7116: 7073: 7064: 7011: 7006: 6976: 6971: 6948: 6916: 6883: 6878: 6821: 6816: 6815: 6806: 6804: 6794: 6790: 6781: 6779: 6775: 6764: 6755: 6751: 6743: 6739: 6730: 6726: 6719: 6715: 6662: 6658: 6611: 6607: 6598: 6594: 6585: 6581: 6550:(10): a004895. 6532: 6525: 6494: 6490: 6435: 6431: 6421: 6419: 6407: 6403: 6394: 6392: 6384: 6383: 6379: 6370: 6368: 6360: 6359: 6355: 6340: 6324: 6320: 6305: 6289: 6285: 6276: 6274: 6269: 6268: 6264: 6248: 6244: 6220:10.1.1.727.6573 6195: 6191: 6184: 6180: 6172: 6165: 6161: 6160: 6156: 6143: 6142: 6138: 6125: 6124: 6120: 6111: 6109: 6100: 6099: 6095: 6082: 6081: 6077: 6066: 6062: 6053: 6051: 6044:– AMS Glossary" 6038: 6037: 6033: 6017:"Troposphere". 6016: 6015: 6011: 5996: 5992: 5985: 5963: 5959: 5950: 5948: 5937: 5933: 5924: 5922: 5911: 5907: 5870: 5866: 5857: 5853: 5840: 5836: 5827: 5826: 5822: 5812: 5810: 5801: 5800: 5791: 5782: 5780: 5775: 5774: 5767: 5758: 5756: 5750: 5743: 5733: 5731: 5722: 5721: 5717: 5708: 5706: 5696: 5692: 5680: 5678: 5673: 5672: 5668: 5659: 5657: 5649: 5648: 5644: 5633: 5629: 5609:Detlev Möller: 5608: 5604: 5594: 5592: 5583: 5582: 5578: 5568: 5566: 5557: 5556: 5552: 5538: 5534: 5532: 5528: 5512: 5508: 5502: 5486: 5482: 5474: 5466: 5462: 5453: 5451: 5442: 5441: 5437: 5423:Wayback Machine 5411: 5404: 5393: 5379: 5372: 5364: 5362: 5353: 5352: 5345: 5337: 5335: 5326: 5325: 5318: 5311: 5277: 5273: 5265:Lide, David R. 5264: 5260: 5251: 5249: 5244: 5243: 5239: 5234: 5230: 5226: 5222: 5216: 5202: 5195: 5186: 5184: 5179: 5178: 5174: 5169: 5164: 5078: 5071: 5064: 5057: 5050: 5043: 5040: 5035: 5034: 5033: 5030: 5015: 5006: 4998: 4989: 4986: 4977: 4942: 4919: 4913: 4893:extreme weather 4885:glacial retreat 4864: 4839:, coupled with 4746: 4733: 4729: 4713: 4711: 4676:carbon fixation 4647:actively moving 4585:photoautotrophs 4567: 4507:plate tectonics 4499: 4485: 4324:The increasing 4322: 4316: 4229: 4224: 4214: 4191: 4185: 4157: 4151: 4133: 4126: 4122: 4110: 4083: 4077: 4030: 4022: 4018: 3998: 3992: 3960: 3954: 3942:reflected light 3930: 3924: 3912: 3910: 3905: 3898: 3896: 3891: 3884: 3882: 3875: 3873: 3868: 3863: 3858: 3851: 3846: 3839: 3837: 3832: 3825: 3823: 3816: 3814: 3809: 3804: 3799: 3791: 3789: 3784: 3777: 3775: 3770: 3763: 3761: 3754: 3752: 3747: 3742: 3737: 3729: 3727: 3722: 3715: 3713: 3708: 3701: 3699: 3692: 3690: 3685: 3680: 3675: 3667: 3665: 3660: 3653: 3651: 3646: 3639: 3637: 3630: 3628: 3623: 3618: 3613: 3605: 3603: 3598: 3591: 3589: 3584: 3577: 3575: 3568: 3566: 3561: 3556: 3551: 3544: 3539: 3532: 3530: 3525: 3518: 3516: 3509: 3507: 3502: 3497: 3492: 3484: 3482: 3477: 3470: 3468: 3463: 3456: 3454: 3447: 3445: 3440: 3435: 3430: 3422: 3420: 3415: 3408: 3406: 3401: 3394: 3392: 3385: 3383: 3378: 3373: 3368: 3360: 3358: 3353: 3346: 3344: 3339: 3332: 3330: 3323: 3321: 3316: 3311: 3306: 3298: 3296: 3291: 3284: 3282: 3277: 3270: 3268: 3261: 3259: 3254: 3249: 3244: 3236: 3234: 3229: 3222: 3220: 3215: 3208: 3206: 3199: 3197: 3192: 3187: 3182: 3174: 3172: 3167: 3160: 3158: 3153: 3146: 3144: 3137: 3135: 3130: 3125: 3120: 3112: 3110: 3105: 3098: 3096: 3091: 3084: 3082: 3075: 3073: 3068: 3063: 3058: 3050: 3048: 3043: 3036: 3034: 3029: 3022: 3020: 3013: 3011: 3006: 3001: 2996: 2988: 2986: 2981: 2974: 2972: 2967: 2960: 2958: 2951: 2949: 2944: 2939: 2934: 2927: 2922: 2915: 2913: 2907: 2905: 2898: 2896: 2889: 2887: 2880: 2878: 2873: 2868: 2860: 2858: 2853: 2846: 2844: 2838: 2836: 2829: 2827: 2820: 2818: 2811: 2809: 2804: 2799: 2791: 2789: 2784: 2777: 2775: 2769: 2767: 2760: 2758: 2751: 2749: 2742: 2740: 2735: 2730: 2722: 2720: 2715: 2708: 2706: 2700: 2698: 2691: 2689: 2682: 2680: 2673: 2671: 2666: 2661: 2653: 2651: 2646: 2639: 2637: 2631: 2629: 2622: 2620: 2613: 2611: 2604: 2602: 2597: 2592: 2584: 2582: 2577: 2570: 2568: 2562: 2560: 2553: 2551: 2544: 2542: 2535: 2533: 2528: 2523: 2515: 2513: 2508: 2501: 2499: 2494: 2487: 2485: 2478: 2476: 2469: 2467: 2462: 2457: 2449: 2447: 2442: 2435: 2433: 2427: 2425: 2418: 2416: 2409: 2407: 2400: 2398: 2393: 2388: 2380: 2378: 2373: 2366: 2364: 2358: 2356: 2349: 2347: 2340: 2338: 2331: 2329: 2324: 2319: 2311: 2309: 2304: 2297: 2295: 2290: 2283: 2281: 2274: 2272: 2265: 2263: 2258: 2253: 2246: 2241: 2234: 2232: 2226: 2224: 2217: 2215: 2208: 2206: 2199: 2197: 2192: 2187: 2179: 2177: 2172: 2165: 2163: 2157: 2155: 2148: 2146: 2139: 2137: 2130: 2128: 2123: 2118: 2111: 2106: 2099: 2097: 2091: 2089: 2082: 2080: 2073: 2071: 2066: 2061: 2056: 2048: 2046: 2041: 2034: 2032: 2026: 2024: 2017: 2015: 2008: 2006: 2001: 1996: 1991: 1983: 1981: 1976: 1969: 1967: 1961: 1959: 1952: 1950: 1943: 1941: 1934: 1932: 1927: 1922: 1915: 1910: 1903: 1901: 1895: 1893: 1886: 1884: 1877: 1875: 1868: 1866: 1861: 1856: 1849: 1844: 1837: 1835: 1829: 1827: 1820: 1818: 1811: 1809: 1802: 1800: 1795: 1790: 1782: 1780: 1775: 1768: 1766: 1760: 1758: 1751: 1749: 1742: 1740: 1733: 1731: 1726: 1721: 1714: 1709: 1702: 1700: 1694: 1692: 1685: 1683: 1676: 1674: 1667: 1665: 1660: 1655: 1632:Specific heat 1618: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1585: 1570: 1549: 1532: 1526: 1481: 1475: 1445:, important to 1358:; 14.6959 1344: 1338: 1301: 1212: 1127: 1121: 1109:nacreous clouds 1078: 1072: 989: 983: 967:aurora borealis 935: 929: 854: 848: 801: 768: 764: 758: 734:volume fraction 712: 672: 665: 619: 612: 582: 563: 494: 398: 388: 382: 370:Richard Assmann 305: 299:acid deposition 295:ozone depletion 267:photoautotrophs 245:gases from the 141:solar radiation 126:Earth's gravity 43: 36: 29: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 9532: 9522: 9521: 9516: 9511: 9506: 9501: 9486: 9485: 9473: 9461: 9449: 9437: 9435:Earth sciences 9414: 9413: 9411: 9410: 9399: 9396: 9395: 9392: 9391: 9389: 9388: 9379: 9374: 9369: 9364: 9359: 9356:(perpetuation) 9351: 9345: 9343: 9337: 9336: 9334: 9333: 9328: 9323: 9318: 9317: 9316: 9309:Nature reserve 9306: 9301: 9300: 9299: 9294: 9284: 9283: 9282: 9272: 9271: 9270: 9265: 9255: 9250: 9249: 9248: 9243: 9233: 9232: 9231: 9226: 9221: 9216: 9205: 9199: 9195: 9194: 9191: 9190: 9188: 9187: 9186: 9185: 9180: 9170: 9165: 9160: 9155: 9150: 9145: 9140: 9135: 9130: 9125: 9120: 9115: 9114: 9113: 9103: 9098: 9093: 9088: 9082: 9080: 9076: 9075: 9073: 9072: 9067: 9066: 9065: 9055: 9050: 9045: 9044: 9043: 9033: 9028: 9027: 9026: 9014: 9013: 9012: 9007: 9002: 8992: 8987: 8986: 8985: 8980: 8975: 8965: 8960: 8955: 8954: 8953: 8942: 8940: 8933: 8927: 8926: 8924: 8923: 8922: 8921: 8916: 8906: 8901: 8896: 8895: 8894: 8889: 8884: 8879: 8874: 8869: 8864: 8854: 8849: 8844: 8839: 8838: 8837: 8827: 8826: 8825: 8820: 8815: 8810: 8800: 8799: 8798: 8793: 8788: 8786:climate change 8778: 8773: 8768: 8763: 8762: 8761: 8754:Bioprospecting 8751: 8745: 8743: 8737: 8736: 8734: 8733: 8732: 8731: 8726: 8716: 8715: 8714: 8709: 8704: 8699: 8689: 8688: 8687: 8682: 8681: 8680: 8675: 8665: 8664: 8663: 8658: 8648: 8647: 8646: 8636: 8631: 8621: 8620: 8619: 8609: 8608: 8607: 8597: 8596: 8595: 8590: 8585: 8580: 8570: 8565: 8560: 8559: 8558: 8557: 8556: 8540: 8538: 8532: 8531: 8529: 8528: 8523: 8522: 8521: 8516: 8506: 8501: 8496: 8491: 8469: 8464: 8459: 8453: 8451: 8445: 8444: 8441: 8440: 8438: 8437: 8432: 8427: 8421: 8419: 8415: 8414: 8412: 8411: 8406: 8405: 8404: 8399:Clean Air Act 8391: 8386: 8381: 8372: 8370: 8361: 8355: 8354: 8347: 8346: 8339: 8332: 8324: 8315: 8314: 8312: 8311: 8300: 8297: 8296: 8293: 8292: 8290: 8289: 8282: 8281: 8280: 8275: 8265: 8264: 8263: 8258: 8253: 8252: 8251: 8241: 8240: 8239: 8224: 8219: 8213: 8210: 8209: 8207: 8206: 8196: 8191: 8186: 8181: 8172: 8166: 8160: 8159: 8157: 8156: 8151: 8146: 8141: 8136: 8131: 8125: 8123: 8117: 8116: 8114: 8113: 8112: 8111: 8106: 8096: 8091: 8086: 8081: 8076: 8071: 8066: 8061: 8053: 8047: 8045: 8039: 8038: 8036: 8035: 8030: 8025: 8020: 8015: 8010: 8005: 7995: 7989: 7987: 7981: 7980: 7978: 7977: 7972: 7971: 7970: 7965: 7955: 7950: 7945: 7939: 7937: 7931: 7930: 7922: 7921: 7914: 7907: 7899: 7890: 7889: 7886: 7883: 7882: 7880: 7879: 7874: 7869: 7864: 7858: 7856: 7852: 7851: 7849: 7848: 7841: 7834: 7826: 7824: 7818: 7817: 7815: 7814: 7807: 7800: 7795: 7790: 7785: 7780: 7775: 7770: 7765: 7759: 7757: 7751: 7750: 7748: 7747: 7740: 7733: 7726: 7720: 7718: 7712: 7711: 7709: 7708: 7701: 7694: 7687: 7680: 7673: 7666: 7659: 7653: 7651: 7645: 7644: 7637: 7635: 7633: 7632: 7624: 7622: 7616: 7615: 7608: 7607: 7600: 7593: 7585: 7576: 7575: 7573: 7572: 7562: 7557: 7551: 7548: 7547: 7545: 7544: 7539: 7534: 7529: 7524: 7518: 7516: 7510: 7509: 7507: 7506: 7501: 7496: 7491: 7489:Atlantic Ocean 7486: 7481: 7475: 7473: 7467: 7466: 7464: 7463: 7458: 7453: 7452: 7451: 7441: 7436: 7431: 7426: 7420: 7418: 7412: 7411: 7409: 7408: 7403: 7398: 7393: 7388: 7383: 7378: 7373: 7371:Fluid dynamics 7368: 7362: 7360: 7354: 7353: 7351: 7350: 7345: 7343:Geopositioning 7340: 7338:Remote Sensing 7335: 7330: 7325: 7320: 7315: 7310: 7309: 7308: 7297: 7295: 7289: 7288: 7286: 7285: 7280: 7275: 7270: 7265: 7260: 7255: 7250: 7244: 7242: 7236: 7235: 7233: 7232: 7227: 7222: 7217: 7212: 7207: 7202: 7197: 7192: 7187: 7186: 7185: 7174: 7172: 7166: 7165: 7163: 7162: 7157: 7152: 7147: 7142: 7137: 7132: 7126: 7124: 7118: 7117: 7115: 7114: 7109: 7104: 7099: 7097:Climate change 7094: 7092:Energy balance 7089: 7087:Climate system 7083: 7081: 7075: 7074: 7067: 7065: 7063: 7062: 7057: 7052: 7047: 7042: 7037: 7032: 7027: 7021: 7019: 7013: 7012: 7005: 7004: 6997: 6990: 6982: 6973: 6972: 6970: 6969: 6964: 6959: 6953: 6950: 6949: 6947: 6946: 6937: 6932: 6927: 6921: 6918: 6917: 6915: 6914: 6909: 6904: 6899: 6894: 6888: 6885: 6884: 6877: 6876: 6869: 6862: 6854: 6848: 6847: 6842: 6820: 6819:External links 6817: 6814: 6813: 6788: 6749: 6744:Starting from 6737: 6724: 6713: 6656: 6605: 6592: 6579: 6523: 6488: 6429: 6401: 6377: 6353: 6338: 6318: 6303: 6283: 6262: 6251:The Atmosphere 6242: 6189: 6178: 6175:on 2008-05-28. 6154: 6151:on 2005-03-03. 6136: 6133:on 2009-03-03. 6118: 6093: 6090:on 2009-06-14. 6075: 6060: 6031: 6009: 5990: 5983: 5957: 5931: 5913:Joe Buchdahl. 5905: 5864: 5851: 5834: 5820: 5805:. UCAR. 2011. 5789: 5779:. Das.uwyo.edu 5765: 5741: 5730:on 17 May 2017 5715: 5690: 5666: 5642: 5635:Yunus Çengel. 5627: 5602: 5576: 5550: 5536: 5530: 5526: 5506: 5500: 5480: 5460: 5435: 5402: 5396:, which cites 5391: 5370: 5343: 5316: 5309: 5271: 5258: 5237: 5232: 5231:and added to O 5228: 5224: 5220: 5214: 5193: 5171: 5170: 5168: 5165: 5163: 5162: 5157: 5152: 5150:Global dimming 5147: 5142: 5136: 5134:Climate system 5131: 5126: 5121: 5116: 5111: 5106: 5101: 5096: 5091: 5085: 5084: 5083: 5069: 5066:Science portal 5055: 5039: 5036: 5032: 5031: 5021:observed from 5016: 5009: 5007: 4999: 4992: 4990: 4987: 4980: 4978: 4943: 4936: 4933: 4932: 4931: 4915:Main article: 4912: 4909: 4891:), increasing 4889:water security 4877:sea level rise 4869:climate change 4750: 4742:Main article: 4736:boreal forests 4731: 4727: 4710: 4707: 4703:aquatic plants 4641:of which, the 4565: 4495:Main article: 4484: 4481: 4447:photosynthesis 4444:cyanobacterial 4377:carbon dioxide 4326:solidification 4315: 4312: 4296:Earth's mantle 4228: 4225: 4213: 4210: 4187:Main article: 4184: 4181: 4147:Main article: 4132: 4129: 4124: 4120: 4108: 4100:; 10,340 4076: 4073: 4045:optical window 4028: 4020: 4016: 3994:Main article: 3991: 3988: 3956:Main article: 3953: 3950: 3923: 3920: 3917: 3916: 3908: 3903: 3894: 3889: 3880: 3871: 3866: 3861: 3855: 3854: 3849: 3844: 3835: 3830: 3821: 3812: 3807: 3802: 3796: 3795: 3787: 3782: 3773: 3768: 3759: 3750: 3745: 3740: 3734: 3733: 3725: 3720: 3711: 3706: 3697: 3688: 3683: 3678: 3672: 3671: 3663: 3658: 3649: 3644: 3635: 3626: 3621: 3616: 3610: 3609: 3601: 3596: 3587: 3582: 3573: 3564: 3559: 3554: 3548: 3547: 3542: 3537: 3528: 3523: 3514: 3505: 3500: 3495: 3489: 3488: 3480: 3475: 3466: 3461: 3452: 3443: 3438: 3433: 3427: 3426: 3418: 3413: 3404: 3399: 3390: 3381: 3376: 3371: 3365: 3364: 3356: 3351: 3342: 3337: 3328: 3319: 3314: 3309: 3303: 3302: 3294: 3289: 3280: 3275: 3266: 3257: 3252: 3247: 3241: 3240: 3232: 3227: 3218: 3213: 3204: 3195: 3190: 3185: 3179: 3178: 3170: 3165: 3156: 3151: 3142: 3133: 3128: 3123: 3117: 3116: 3108: 3103: 3094: 3089: 3080: 3071: 3066: 3061: 3055: 3054: 3046: 3041: 3032: 3027: 3018: 3009: 3004: 2999: 2993: 2992: 2984: 2979: 2970: 2965: 2956: 2947: 2942: 2937: 2931: 2930: 2925: 2920: 2911: 2903: 2894: 2885: 2876: 2871: 2865: 2864: 2856: 2851: 2842: 2834: 2825: 2816: 2807: 2802: 2796: 2795: 2787: 2782: 2773: 2765: 2756: 2747: 2738: 2733: 2727: 2726: 2718: 2713: 2704: 2696: 2687: 2678: 2669: 2664: 2658: 2657: 2649: 2644: 2635: 2627: 2618: 2609: 2600: 2595: 2589: 2588: 2580: 2575: 2566: 2558: 2549: 2540: 2531: 2526: 2520: 2519: 2511: 2506: 2497: 2492: 2483: 2474: 2465: 2460: 2454: 2453: 2445: 2440: 2431: 2423: 2414: 2405: 2396: 2391: 2385: 2384: 2376: 2371: 2362: 2354: 2345: 2336: 2327: 2322: 2316: 2315: 2307: 2302: 2293: 2288: 2279: 2270: 2261: 2256: 2250: 2249: 2244: 2239: 2230: 2222: 2213: 2204: 2195: 2190: 2184: 2183: 2175: 2170: 2161: 2153: 2144: 2135: 2126: 2121: 2115: 2114: 2109: 2104: 2095: 2087: 2078: 2069: 2064: 2059: 2053: 2052: 2044: 2039: 2030: 2022: 2013: 2004: 1999: 1994: 1988: 1987: 1979: 1974: 1965: 1957: 1948: 1939: 1930: 1925: 1919: 1918: 1913: 1908: 1899: 1891: 1882: 1873: 1864: 1859: 1853: 1852: 1847: 1842: 1833: 1825: 1816: 1807: 1798: 1793: 1787: 1786: 1778: 1773: 1764: 1756: 1747: 1738: 1729: 1724: 1718: 1717: 1712: 1707: 1698: 1690: 1681: 1672: 1663: 1658: 1652: 1651: 1650:Bulk modulus 1648: 1645: 1642: 1639: 1636: 1633: 1630: 1627: 1617: 1614: 1568:Density of air 1566:Main article: 1548: 1545: 1540:speed of sound 1534:Because in an 1530:Speed of sound 1528:Main article: 1525: 1524:Speed of sound 1522: 1477:Main article: 1474: 1471: 1412: 1411: 1400: 1397: 1362:; 760.00 1340:Main article: 1337: 1334: 1325:speed of sound 1300: 1297: 1293: 1292: 1280: 1279: 1270: 1269: 1243: 1228: 1211: 1208: 1151:blue scattered 1139:high altitudes 1123:Main article: 1120: 1117: 1074:Main article: 1071: 1068: 1002:(orange), the 985:Main article: 982: 979: 931:Main article: 928: 925: 909:meteorological 850:Main article: 847: 844: 843: 842: 839: 836: 833: 830: 800: 799:Stratification 797: 784: 783: 782: 781: 778: 771: 766: 756: 753: 752: 751: 737: 721: 720: 717: 714: 710: 707: 701: 700: 696: 695: 692: 689: 686: 680: 679: 676: 673: 670: 667: 659: 658: 655: 652: 649: 643: 642: 639: 636: 633: 627: 626: 623: 620: 617: 614: 606: 605: 602: 599: 596: 590: 589: 586: 583: 580: 577: 571: 570: 567: 564: 561: 558: 552: 551: 545: 537: 534: 530: 529: 524: 520: 519: 492: 489:sulfur dioxide 396: 384:Main article: 381: 378: 341:(formally the 291:global warming 279:climate change 224:photosynthesis 204:carbon dioxide 112:(which create 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9531: 9520: 9517: 9515: 9512: 9510: 9507: 9505: 9502: 9500: 9497: 9496: 9494: 9484: 9474: 9472: 9462: 9460: 9450: 9448: 9443: 9438: 9436: 9426: 9425: 9422: 9409: 9401: 9400: 9397: 9387: 9386:Non-renewable 9383: 9380: 9378: 9375: 9373: 9370: 9368: 9365: 9363: 9360: 9358: 9352: 9350: 9347: 9346: 9344: 9342: 9338: 9332: 9329: 9327: 9326:Urban ecology 9324: 9322: 9319: 9315: 9312: 9311: 9310: 9307: 9305: 9302: 9298: 9295: 9293: 9290: 9289: 9288: 9285: 9281: 9278: 9277: 9276: 9273: 9269: 9266: 9264: 9261: 9260: 9259: 9256: 9254: 9251: 9247: 9244: 9242: 9239: 9238: 9237: 9234: 9230: 9227: 9225: 9222: 9220: 9217: 9215: 9212: 9211: 9210: 9207: 9206: 9203: 9200: 9196: 9184: 9181: 9179: 9176: 9175: 9174: 9171: 9169: 9166: 9164: 9161: 9159: 9158:Privatization 9156: 9154: 9151: 9149: 9146: 9144: 9141: 9139: 9136: 9134: 9131: 9129: 9126: 9124: 9121: 9119: 9116: 9112: 9109: 9108: 9107: 9104: 9102: 9099: 9097: 9094: 9092: 9089: 9087: 9084: 9083: 9081: 9077: 9071: 9068: 9064: 9061: 9060: 9059: 9056: 9054: 9053:Surface water 9051: 9049: 9046: 9042: 9039: 9038: 9037: 9034: 9032: 9029: 9025: 9024: 9020: 9019: 9018: 9015: 9011: 9008: 9006: 9003: 9001: 8998: 8997: 8996: 8993: 8991: 8988: 8984: 8981: 8979: 8976: 8974: 8971: 8970: 8969: 8966: 8964: 8961: 8959: 8956: 8952: 8949: 8948: 8947: 8944: 8943: 8941: 8937: 8934: 8932: 8928: 8920: 8917: 8915: 8912: 8911: 8910: 8907: 8905: 8902: 8900: 8897: 8893: 8890: 8888: 8885: 8883: 8880: 8878: 8875: 8873: 8870: 8868: 8865: 8863: 8860: 8859: 8858: 8855: 8853: 8850: 8848: 8845: 8843: 8840: 8836: 8833: 8832: 8831: 8828: 8824: 8821: 8819: 8816: 8814: 8811: 8809: 8806: 8805: 8804: 8801: 8797: 8794: 8792: 8789: 8787: 8784: 8783: 8782: 8779: 8777: 8774: 8772: 8769: 8767: 8764: 8760: 8757: 8756: 8755: 8752: 8750: 8747: 8746: 8744: 8742: 8738: 8730: 8727: 8725: 8722: 8721: 8720: 8717: 8713: 8710: 8708: 8705: 8703: 8700: 8698: 8695: 8694: 8693: 8690: 8686: 8683: 8679: 8676: 8674: 8671: 8670: 8669: 8666: 8662: 8659: 8657: 8654: 8653: 8652: 8649: 8645: 8642: 8641: 8640: 8637: 8635: 8632: 8630: 8627: 8626: 8625: 8622: 8618: 8615: 8614: 8613: 8610: 8606: 8603: 8602: 8601: 8598: 8594: 8591: 8589: 8586: 8584: 8581: 8579: 8576: 8575: 8574: 8571: 8569: 8566: 8564: 8561: 8555: 8554:peak farmland 8552: 8551: 8550: 8547: 8546: 8545: 8542: 8541: 8539: 8537: 8533: 8527: 8524: 8520: 8517: 8515: 8512: 8511: 8510: 8507: 8505: 8502: 8500: 8497: 8495: 8492: 8489: 8485: 8481: 8477: 8473: 8470: 8468: 8465: 8463: 8460: 8458: 8455: 8454: 8452: 8450: 8446: 8436: 8433: 8431: 8428: 8426: 8423: 8422: 8420: 8416: 8410: 8407: 8403: 8397: 8396: 8395: 8392: 8390: 8387: 8385: 8382: 8380: 8374: 8373: 8371: 8369: 8365: 8362: 8360: 8356: 8352: 8345: 8340: 8338: 8333: 8331: 8326: 8325: 8322: 8310: 8302: 8301: 8298: 8288: 8287: 8283: 8279: 8276: 8274: 8271: 8270: 8269: 8266: 8262: 8259: 8257: 8254: 8250: 8247: 8246: 8245: 8242: 8238: 8235: 8234: 8233: 8230: 8229: 8228: 8225: 8223: 8220: 8218: 8215: 8214: 8211: 8204: 8200: 8197: 8195: 8192: 8190: 8187: 8185: 8182: 8180: 8178:(abiogenesis) 8174: 8173: 8170: 8167: 8165: 8161: 8155: 8152: 8150: 8147: 8145: 8142: 8140: 8137: 8135: 8132: 8130: 8127: 8126: 8124: 8122: 8118: 8110: 8107: 8105: 8102: 8101: 8100: 8097: 8095: 8092: 8090: 8087: 8085: 8082: 8080: 8077: 8075: 8072: 8070: 8067: 8065: 8062: 8060: 8054: 8052: 8049: 8048: 8046: 8044: 8040: 8034: 8031: 8029: 8026: 8024: 8021: 8019: 8016: 8014: 8011: 8009: 8006: 8003: 7999: 7996: 7994: 7993:Earth science 7991: 7990: 7988: 7986: 7982: 7976: 7973: 7969: 7966: 7964: 7961: 7960: 7959: 7956: 7954: 7951: 7949: 7946: 7944: 7941: 7940: 7938: 7936: 7932: 7928: 7920: 7915: 7913: 7908: 7906: 7901: 7900: 7897: 7884: 7878: 7875: 7873: 7870: 7868: 7865: 7863: 7860: 7859: 7857: 7853: 7847: 7846: 7842: 7840: 7839: 7835: 7833: 7832: 7828: 7827: 7825: 7823: 7819: 7813: 7812: 7808: 7806: 7805: 7801: 7799: 7796: 7794: 7791: 7789: 7786: 7784: 7781: 7779: 7776: 7774: 7771: 7769: 7766: 7764: 7761: 7760: 7758: 7756: 7752: 7746: 7745: 7741: 7739: 7738: 7734: 7732: 7731: 7727: 7725: 7722: 7721: 7719: 7717: 7716:Dwarf planets 7713: 7707: 7706: 7702: 7700: 7699: 7695: 7693: 7692: 7688: 7686: 7685: 7681: 7679: 7678: 7674: 7672: 7671: 7667: 7665: 7664: 7660: 7658: 7655: 7654: 7652: 7650: 7646: 7641: 7631: 7630: 7626: 7625: 7623: 7621: 7617: 7613: 7606: 7601: 7599: 7594: 7592: 7587: 7586: 7583: 7571: 7563: 7561: 7558: 7556: 7553: 7552: 7549: 7543: 7540: 7538: 7535: 7533: 7530: 7528: 7525: 7523: 7520: 7519: 7517: 7515: 7511: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7499:Pacific Ocean 7497: 7495: 7492: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7482: 7480: 7477: 7476: 7474: 7472: 7468: 7462: 7459: 7457: 7454: 7450: 7447: 7446: 7445: 7442: 7440: 7437: 7435: 7432: 7430: 7429:Earth science 7427: 7425: 7422: 7421: 7419: 7417: 7413: 7407: 7404: 7402: 7399: 7397: 7394: 7392: 7389: 7387: 7384: 7382: 7381:Magnetosphere 7379: 7377: 7374: 7372: 7369: 7367: 7364: 7363: 7361: 7359: 7355: 7349: 7348:Virtual globe 7346: 7344: 7341: 7339: 7336: 7334: 7331: 7329: 7326: 7324: 7321: 7319: 7316: 7314: 7313:Earth's orbit 7311: 7307: 7304: 7303: 7302: 7299: 7298: 7296: 7294: 7290: 7284: 7281: 7279: 7276: 7274: 7271: 7269: 7266: 7264: 7261: 7259: 7256: 7254: 7251: 7249: 7246: 7245: 7243: 7241: 7237: 7231: 7228: 7226: 7223: 7221: 7220:World history 7218: 7216: 7213: 7211: 7210:World economy 7208: 7206: 7203: 7201: 7198: 7196: 7193: 7191: 7188: 7184: 7181: 7180: 7179: 7176: 7175: 7173: 7171: 7167: 7161: 7160:South America 7158: 7156: 7155:North America 7153: 7151: 7148: 7146: 7143: 7141: 7138: 7136: 7133: 7131: 7128: 7127: 7125: 7123: 7119: 7113: 7110: 7108: 7105: 7103: 7100: 7098: 7095: 7093: 7090: 7088: 7085: 7084: 7082: 7080: 7076: 7071: 7061: 7058: 7056: 7053: 7051: 7048: 7046: 7043: 7041: 7038: 7036: 7033: 7031: 7028: 7026: 7023: 7022: 7020: 7018: 7014: 7010: 7003: 6998: 6996: 6991: 6989: 6984: 6983: 6980: 6968: 6965: 6963: 6960: 6958: 6955: 6954: 6951: 6945: 6941: 6938: 6936: 6933: 6931: 6928: 6926: 6923: 6922: 6919: 6913: 6910: 6908: 6905: 6903: 6900: 6898: 6895: 6893: 6890: 6889: 6886: 6882: 6875: 6870: 6868: 6863: 6861: 6856: 6855: 6852: 6846: 6843: 6839: 6838: 6832: 6827: 6823: 6822: 6803: 6799: 6792: 6778:on 2021-08-11 6774: 6770: 6763: 6759: 6753: 6746: 6741: 6734: 6728: 6722: 6717: 6709: 6705: 6700: 6695: 6691: 6687: 6683: 6679: 6676:(1): 97–106. 6675: 6671: 6667: 6660: 6652: 6648: 6644: 6640: 6636: 6632: 6628: 6624: 6620: 6616: 6609: 6602: 6596: 6589: 6583: 6575: 6571: 6566: 6561: 6557: 6553: 6549: 6545: 6541: 6537: 6530: 6528: 6519: 6515: 6511: 6507: 6503: 6499: 6492: 6484: 6480: 6475: 6470: 6466: 6462: 6458: 6454: 6450: 6446: 6445: 6440: 6433: 6418: 6417: 6412: 6405: 6391: 6387: 6381: 6367: 6363: 6357: 6349: 6345: 6341: 6339:9780471457282 6335: 6331: 6330: 6322: 6314: 6310: 6306: 6304:9780072406559 6300: 6296: 6295: 6294:Heat transfer 6287: 6272: 6266: 6260: 6259:0-13-350612-6 6256: 6252: 6246: 6238: 6234: 6230: 6226: 6221: 6216: 6212: 6208: 6204: 6200: 6193: 6187: 6182: 6171: 6164: 6158: 6150: 6146: 6140: 6132: 6128: 6122: 6107: 6103: 6097: 6089: 6085: 6079: 6071: 6064: 6049: 6045: 6043: 6035: 6028: 6024: 6020: 6013: 6005: 6001: 5994: 5986: 5984:9780416079401 5980: 5976: 5971: 5970: 5961: 5947:on 2013-10-19 5946: 5942: 5941:"stratopause" 5935: 5921:on 2010-07-01 5920: 5916: 5909: 5900: 5895: 5891: 5887: 5883: 5879: 5875: 5868: 5861: 5855: 5848: 5844: 5838: 5830: 5824: 5808: 5804: 5798: 5796: 5794: 5778: 5772: 5770: 5755: 5748: 5746: 5729: 5725: 5719: 5705: 5701: 5694: 5687: 5676: 5670: 5656: 5652: 5646: 5638: 5631: 5624: 5620: 5619:3-11-016431-0 5616: 5612: 5606: 5590: 5586: 5580: 5564: 5560: 5554: 5547: 5543: 5524: 5520: 5516: 5510: 5503: 5501:0-485-11150-0 5497: 5493: 5492: 5484: 5473: 5472: 5464: 5449: 5445: 5444:"Trace Gases" 5439: 5432: 5428: 5424: 5420: 5417: 5416: 5409: 5407: 5399: 5394: 5388: 5384: 5377: 5375: 5360: 5356: 5350: 5348: 5333: 5329: 5323: 5321: 5312: 5306: 5302: 5298: 5294: 5290: 5286: 5282: 5275: 5268: 5262: 5247: 5241: 5217: 5215:0-387-98746-0 5211: 5207: 5200: 5198: 5182: 5176: 5172: 5161: 5158: 5156: 5153: 5151: 5148: 5146: 5143: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5132: 5130: 5127: 5125: 5122: 5120: 5117: 5115: 5112: 5110: 5107: 5105: 5102: 5100: 5097: 5095: 5092: 5090: 5087: 5086: 5081: 5075: 5070: 5067: 5061: 5056: 5053: 5047: 5042: 5028: 5024: 5020: 5013: 5008: 5004: 4996: 4991: 4984: 4979: 4975: 4971: 4967: 4966:edge of space 4963: 4959: 4955: 4951: 4947: 4940: 4935: 4934: 4930: 4928: 4924: 4918: 4908: 4906: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4878: 4874: 4870: 4862: 4858: 4854: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4841:deforestation 4838: 4834: 4833:nitrous oxide 4830: 4826: 4821: 4819: 4815: 4812: 4808: 4805: 4804:stratospheric 4801: 4797: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4781: 4778: 4774: 4770: 4766: 4762: 4758: 4754: 4749:Air pollution 4748: 4745: 4744:Air pollution 4737: 4709:Air pollution 4706: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4681: 4677: 4673: 4670: 4666: 4665:Carboniferous 4661: 4659: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4613:known as the 4612: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4564:atmosphere. O 4563: 4559: 4555: 4551: 4547: 4543: 4539: 4534: 4532: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4498: 4489: 4480: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4467: 4463: 4462:isotope ratio 4459: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4432: 4430: 4425: 4421: 4416: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4405:crustal rocks 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4345:precipitating 4342: 4338: 4337:heat transfer 4335: 4331: 4330:Earth's crust 4327: 4321: 4311: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4282:and numerous 4281: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4261: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4245: 4241: 4238: 4234: 4223: 4219: 4209: 4207: 4203: 4195: 4190: 4180: 4178: 4173: 4171: 4167: 4162: 4156: 4150: 4142: 4137: 4128: 4117: 4112: 4105: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4082: 4072: 4070: 4066: 4065:radio windows 4062: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4035:The combined 4033: 4026: 4011: 4010:visible light 4007: 4006:transmittance 4002: 3997: 3987: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3959: 3949: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3929: 3909: 3904: 3895: 3890: 3881: 3872: 3867: 3862: 3857: 3856: 3850: 3845: 3836: 3831: 3822: 3813: 3808: 3803: 3798: 3797: 3788: 3783: 3774: 3769: 3760: 3751: 3746: 3741: 3736: 3735: 3726: 3721: 3712: 3707: 3698: 3689: 3684: 3679: 3674: 3673: 3664: 3659: 3650: 3645: 3636: 3627: 3622: 3617: 3612: 3611: 3602: 3597: 3588: 3583: 3574: 3565: 3560: 3555: 3550: 3549: 3543: 3538: 3529: 3524: 3515: 3506: 3501: 3496: 3491: 3490: 3481: 3476: 3467: 3462: 3453: 3444: 3439: 3434: 3429: 3428: 3419: 3414: 3405: 3400: 3391: 3382: 3377: 3372: 3367: 3366: 3357: 3352: 3343: 3338: 3329: 3320: 3315: 3310: 3305: 3304: 3295: 3290: 3281: 3276: 3267: 3258: 3253: 3248: 3243: 3242: 3233: 3228: 3219: 3214: 3205: 3196: 3191: 3186: 3181: 3180: 3171: 3166: 3157: 3152: 3143: 3134: 3129: 3124: 3119: 3118: 3109: 3104: 3095: 3090: 3081: 3072: 3067: 3062: 3057: 3056: 3047: 3042: 3033: 3028: 3019: 3010: 3005: 3000: 2995: 2994: 2985: 2980: 2971: 2966: 2957: 2948: 2943: 2938: 2933: 2932: 2926: 2921: 2912: 2904: 2895: 2886: 2877: 2872: 2867: 2866: 2857: 2852: 2843: 2835: 2826: 2817: 2808: 2803: 2798: 2797: 2788: 2783: 2774: 2766: 2757: 2748: 2739: 2734: 2729: 2728: 2719: 2714: 2705: 2697: 2688: 2679: 2670: 2665: 2660: 2659: 2650: 2645: 2636: 2628: 2619: 2610: 2601: 2596: 2591: 2590: 2581: 2576: 2567: 2559: 2550: 2541: 2532: 2527: 2522: 2521: 2512: 2507: 2498: 2493: 2484: 2475: 2466: 2461: 2456: 2455: 2446: 2441: 2432: 2424: 2415: 2406: 2397: 2392: 2387: 2386: 2377: 2372: 2363: 2355: 2346: 2337: 2328: 2323: 2318: 2317: 2308: 2303: 2294: 2289: 2280: 2271: 2262: 2257: 2252: 2251: 2245: 2240: 2231: 2223: 2214: 2205: 2196: 2191: 2186: 2185: 2176: 2171: 2162: 2154: 2145: 2136: 2127: 2122: 2117: 2116: 2110: 2105: 2096: 2088: 2079: 2070: 2065: 2060: 2055: 2054: 2045: 2040: 2031: 2023: 2014: 2005: 2000: 1995: 1990: 1989: 1980: 1975: 1966: 1958: 1949: 1940: 1931: 1926: 1921: 1920: 1914: 1909: 1900: 1892: 1883: 1874: 1865: 1860: 1855: 1854: 1848: 1843: 1834: 1826: 1817: 1808: 1799: 1794: 1789: 1788: 1779: 1774: 1765: 1757: 1748: 1739: 1730: 1725: 1720: 1719: 1713: 1708: 1699: 1691: 1682: 1673: 1664: 1659: 1654: 1653: 1649: 1646: 1643: 1640: 1637: 1634: 1631: 1628: 1626:Temperature 1625: 1624: 1621: 1613: 1612:10 kg." 1595: 1591: 1582: 1580: 1576: 1575:ideal gas law 1569: 1561: 1558: 1553: 1544: 1541: 1537: 1531: 1521: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1485: 1480: 1470: 1468: 1467:orbital decay 1464: 1460: 1456: 1455:Space Shuttle 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1437:still occur. 1436: 1431: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1416:Mount Everest 1409: 1405: 1401: 1398: 1395: 1394: 1393: 1390: 1388: 1384: 1379: 1375: 1373: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1354:(760.00 1353: 1349: 1343: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1305: 1296: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1281: 1276: 1272: 1271: 1267: 1263: 1262:edge of space 1259: 1258: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1241: 1240:magnetosphere 1237: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1216: 1215: 1207: 1205: 1201: 1195: 1192: 1188: 1182: 1181:with height. 1180: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1131: 1126: 1116: 1114: 1110: 1104: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1089: 1087: 1083: 1077: 1067: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1052:thunderclouds 1049: 1044: 1039: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1020: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 993: 988: 978: 976: 972: 968: 963: 961: 957: 952: 950: 946: 941: 934: 924: 922: 918: 914: 910: 905: 903: 902:magnetosphere 899: 896: 892: 886: 884: 880: 874: 872: 868: 864: 860: 853: 840: 837: 834: 831: 828: 827: 826: 824: 820: 816: 805: 796: 793: 791: 779: 776: 772: 762: 754: 749: 745: 744: 742: 738: 735: 731: 730:Mole fraction 728: 727: 726: 722: 718: 715: 708: 706: 702: 697: 693: 690: 687: 685: 681: 677: 674: 668: 664: 660: 656: 653: 650: 648: 644: 640: 637: 634: 632: 628: 624: 621: 615: 613:(April 2022) 611: 607: 603: 600: 597: 595: 591: 587: 584: 578: 576: 572: 568: 565: 559: 557: 553: 550: 546: 544: 543: 538: 535: 532: 531: 528: 527:Mole fraction 521: 516: 513: 505: 500: 496: 490: 486: 482: 478: 474: 470: 466: 462: 458: 454: 450: 446: 442: 438: 434: 430: 426: 422: 418: 414: 410: 406: 392: 387: 377: 375: 371: 367: 363: 359: 355: 350: 348: 344: 340: 336: 332: 328: 324: 320: 316: 312: 302: 300: 296: 292: 288: 284: 283:deforestation 280: 276: 272: 269:). Recently, 268: 264: 260: 256: 255:impact events 252: 248: 244: 239: 237: 233: 229: 225: 221: 217: 213: 209: 205: 201: 197: 193: 189: 185: 184:mole fraction 180: 178: 175:to exist and 174: 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 146: 142: 139: 135: 131: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 107: 104: 100: 96: 92: 88: 84: 81: 77: 69: 65: 61: 57: 53: 49: 45: 40: 33: 27: 19: 9514:Environments 9483:Solar System 9384: / 9258:Exploitation 9143:Conservation 9086:Desalination 9021: 8914:conservation 8749:Biodiversity 8697:conservation 8544:Agricultural 8472:Fossil fuels 8358: 8284: 8217:Biodiversity 8203:astrobiology 8055: 7925:Elements of 7843: 7836: 7829: 7809: 7802: 7742: 7735: 7728: 7703: 7696: 7689: 7682: 7675: 7669: 7668: 7661: 7627: 7542:Solar System 7504:Oceanography 7494:Indian Ocean 7484:Arctic Ocean 7424:Age of Earth 7376:Geomagnetism 7050:Thermosphere 7040:Stratosphere 7024: 7016: 6907:Thermosphere 6897:Stratosphere 6880: 6835: 6805:. Retrieved 6801: 6791: 6780:. Retrieved 6773:the original 6769:IPCC AR6 WG1 6768: 6752: 6740: 6727: 6716: 6673: 6669: 6659: 6618: 6614: 6608: 6600: 6595: 6587: 6586:B. Windley: 6582: 6547: 6543: 6536:Schaefer, L. 6534:Zahnle, K.; 6504:(2): 71–80. 6501: 6497: 6491: 6451:(10): 5197. 6448: 6442: 6432: 6420:. Retrieved 6414: 6404: 6393:. Retrieved 6389: 6380: 6369:. Retrieved 6365: 6356: 6328: 6321: 6293: 6286: 6275:. Retrieved 6265: 6250: 6245: 6202: 6198: 6192: 6181: 6170:the original 6157: 6149:the original 6139: 6131:the original 6121: 6110:. Retrieved 6096: 6088:the original 6078: 6063: 6052:. Retrieved 6041: 6034: 6026: 6018: 6012: 6006:. p. 4. 5999: 5993: 5968: 5960: 5949:. Retrieved 5945:the original 5934: 5923:. Retrieved 5919:the original 5908: 5884:(1): 66–77. 5881: 5877: 5867: 5859: 5854: 5846: 5837: 5823: 5811:. Retrieved 5781:. Retrieved 5757:. Retrieved 5732:. Retrieved 5728:the original 5718: 5707:. Retrieved 5703: 5693: 5685: 5679:. Retrieved 5669: 5658:. Retrieved 5654: 5645: 5636: 5630: 5610: 5605: 5593:. Retrieved 5591:. April 2022 5589:NASA Climate 5588: 5579: 5567:. Retrieved 5565:. April 2022 5563:NASA Climate 5562: 5553: 5545: 5541: 5522: 5518: 5514: 5509: 5490: 5483: 5470: 5463: 5452:. Retrieved 5448:the original 5438: 5414: 5397: 5382: 5363:, retrieved 5358: 5336:, retrieved 5331: 5284: 5274: 5266: 5261: 5250:. Retrieved 5248:. 2024-05-13 5240: 5205: 5185:. Retrieved 5175: 5080:World portal 4970:thermosphere 4954:stratosphere 4920: 4822: 4773:motorization 4747: 4669:evolution of 4662: 4546:ferrous iron 4535: 4500: 4470: 4466:carbon cycle 4455:stromatolite 4433: 4417: 4323: 4246:, primarily 4244:solar nebula 4230: 4201: 4200: 4174: 4158: 4113: 4106: 4096:(5,730 4085: 4084: 4034: 4014: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3961: 3946:ice crystals 3931: 1619: 1583: 1571: 1533: 1518:thermosphere 1506:stratosphere 1502: 1432: 1413: 1391: 1387:scale height 1380: 1376: 1345: 1294: 1255: 1251:heterosphere 1213: 1210:Other layers 1196: 1186: 1183: 1156: 1143:stratosphere 1105: 1090: 1079: 1076:Stratosphere 1070:Stratosphere 1040: 1021: 1017: 1004:stratosphere 964: 953: 936: 933:Thermosphere 927:Thermosphere 906: 898:trajectories 887: 875: 863:thermosphere 855: 811: 794: 788:The average 787: 774: 724: 539: 526: 511: 465:volcanic ash 402: 351: 339:thermosphere 331:stratosphere 303: 247:solar nebula 240: 181: 161:air currents 110:particulates 98: 75: 73: 56:stratosphere 44: 26: 9471:Spaceflight 9377:Nationalism 9349:Common-pool 8990:Hydrosphere 8983:remediation 8968:Groundwater 8563:Degradation 8268:Prokaryotes 8056:Atmosphere 8051:Meteorology 7838:HD 209458 b 7612:Atmospheres 7301:Cartography 7240:Environment 7107:Climatology 7035:Troposphere 6957:Ozone layer 6940:Thermopause 6930:Stratopause 6892:Troposphere 6599:J. Schopf: 6474:11603/13118 6023:McGraw-Hill 5477:, p. 3 5433:. Chapter 1 5109:Lithosphere 5104:Hydrosphere 4950:troposphere 4895:events and 4865:1.1 °C 4845:destruction 4814:ultraviolet 4807:ozone layer 4699:terrestrial 4635:Phanerozoic 4631:bilaterians 4578:Precambrian 4531:Proterozoic 4385:inert gases 4363:during the 4286:with large 4268:water vapor 4266:), notably 4233:Early Earth 4183:Circulation 4069:radio waves 4049:ultraviolet 1557:NRLMSISE-00 1510:ultraviolet 1473:Temperature 1404:Kármán line 1329:temperature 1317:air density 1220:ozone layer 1137:at low and 1135:cloud types 1125:Troposphere 1119:Troposphere 1097:ozone layer 1086:stratopause 1034:; 190 1030:(−120 1000:troposphere 940:thermopause 859:thermopause 815:temperature 705:Water vapor 421:noble gases 380:Composition 358:climatology 327:troposphere 315:Kármán line 311:outer space 287:fossil fuel 232:respiration 212:water vapor 208:trace gases 138:ultraviolet 130:outer space 60:troposphere 39:Air quality 9493:Categories 9372:Extraction 9331:Wilderness 9292:accounting 9275:Management 9241:ecological 9229:tragedy of 9148:Peak water 9133:Efficiency 9106:Sanitation 9048:Stormwater 9041:harvesting 9017:Irrigation 8919:management 8877:gene banks 8818:management 8796:management 8712:resilience 8678:phosphorus 8634:industrial 8612:Management 8588:soundscape 8494:Geothermal 8149:Wilderness 8002:geological 7822:Exoplanets 7406:Tomography 7391:Seismology 7358:Geophysics 7333:Navigation 7225:Time zones 7190:In culture 7135:Antarctica 7122:Continents 7045:Mesosphere 7017:Atmosphere 6967:Ionosphere 6962:Turbopause 6925:Tropopause 6902:Mesosphere 6807:2015-10-21 6782:2021-11-20 6498:Metrologia 6395:2023-06-13 6371:2023-06-13 6277:2014-06-10 6205:(6): 864. 6112:2010-10-16 6054:2010-10-16 6042:homosphere 5951:2013-10-18 5925:2012-04-18 5783:2012-04-18 5759:2013-10-18 5709:2017-02-20 5681:2017-07-04 5660:2021-04-27 5621:, S. 173. 5454:2010-10-16 5365:2019-05-31 5338:2019-05-31 5252:2024-06-18 5187:2018-01-29 5167:References 5023:deep space 4958:mesosphere 4792:acid rains 4784:pollutants 4658:metabolism 4655:locomotive 4627:placozoans 4623:cnidarians 4597:Cryogenian 4582:eukaryotic 4523:substrates 4503:continents 4440:Neoarchean 4409:carbonates 4401:weathering 4353:outgassing 4351:. Further 4349:superocean 4318:See also: 4288:meteorites 4256:gas giants 4216:See also: 4153:See also: 4090:black body 4027:. Water (H 4025:nanometres 3990:Absorption 3968:scattering 3952:Scattering 3926:See also: 1443:ionosphere 1408:astronauts 1350:as 101325 1257:turbopause 1247:homosphere 1232:ionosphere 1179:isothermal 1171:tropopause 1082:tropopause 1012:spacecraft 987:Mesosphere 981:Mesosphere 949:ionosphere 867:solar wind 819:lapse rate 469:pollutants 343:ionosphere 335:mesosphere 277:, such as 259:weathering 218:vary with 179:on Earth. 134:meteoroids 9459:Astronomy 9382:Renewable 9367:Depletion 9354:Conflict 9236:Economics 9214:enclosure 9173:Resources 9153:Pollution 9070:Watershed 8973:pollution 8904:Seed bank 8899:Rangeland 8781:Fisheries 8766:Biosphere 8759:biopiracy 8702:fertility 8578:cityscape 8573:Landscape 8480:peak coal 8467:Resources 8418:Emissions 8227:Eukaryota 8194:Hierarchy 8189:Biosphere 8154:Wildfires 8144:Radiation 8134:Ecosystem 8074:Moonlight 8008:Structure 7963:particles 7845:Kepler-7b 7831:GJ 1132 b 7788:Enceladus 7323:Geomatics 7268:Ecosystem 7253:Biosphere 7215:Etymology 7195:Earth Day 7145:Australia 7055:Exosphere 6935:Mesopause 6912:Exosphere 6690:1880-6546 6483:109930589 6215:CiteSeerX 5813:April 19, 5734:April 19, 5099:Biosphere 5027:Apollo 12 4946:afterglow 4897:wildfires 4800:depletion 4780:societies 4753:chemicals 4608:Ediacaran 4593:red algae 4562:oxidizing 4538:oxidation 4511:carbonate 4413:sediments 4397:magnesium 4389:dissolved 4361:asteroids 4357:volcanism 4341:condensed 4334:advective 4304:outgassed 4170:curvature 3934:radiation 1629:Density 1536:ideal gas 1420:airliners 1311:graph of 1153:sunlight. 1024:mesopause 996:Afterglow 895:ballistic 883:geocorona 852:Exosphere 846:Exosphere 759:has been 716:0–30,000 694:0.000114 678:0.000191 657:0.000524 641:0.001818 461:sea spray 347:exosphere 289:-related 251:volcanism 194:, 20.95% 188:molecules 103:suspended 9408:Category 9341:Resource 9280:adaptive 9178:improved 9138:Conflict 9123:Security 9118:Scarcity 9111:improved 9101:Leaching 8978:recharge 8958:Drinking 8909:Wildlife 8776:Bushmeat 8771:Bushfood 8724:planning 8629:gemstone 8624:Minerals 8605:property 8593:viewshed 8583:seascape 8514:sunlight 8488:peak oil 8484:peak gas 8309:Category 8278:bacteria 8261:protista 8222:Organism 8089:Sunlight 7935:Universe 7855:See also 7783:Callisto 7778:Ganymede 7737:Makemake 7570:Category 7522:The Moon 6828:(1878). 6760:(2021). 6708:27848144 6643:24553238 6574:20573713 6348:62532755 6313:46959719 6237:16754900 6106:Archived 6048:Archived 6025:. 1984. 5807:Archived 5419:Archived 5038:See also 5025:onboard 4875:such as 4849:wetlands 4811:ionizing 4653:, whose 4643:Cambrian 4619:metazoan 4407:to form 4373:nitrogen 4252:hydrides 4248:hydrogen 4086:Emission 4075:Emission 4061:infrared 4057:infrared 3980:overcast 3928:Sunlight 1447:HF radio 1321:pressure 1315:against 1200:aviation 1159:altitude 585:209,460 566:780,840 556:Nitrogen 536:Formula 518:Dry air 477:fluorine 473:chlorine 445:aerosols 405:nitrogen 261:and the 243:accreted 220:altitude 202:, 0.03% 198:, 0.93% 192:nitrogen 165:chemical 106:aerosols 9519:Climate 9447:Weather 9421:Portals 9209:Commons 9198:Related 9163:Quality 9079:Aspects 9005:glacial 8946:Aquifer 8852:Pasture 8803:Forests 8729:reserve 8504:Nuclear 8474: ( 8430:Trading 8425:Airshed 8286:Viruses 8273:archaea 8249:animals 8201: ( 8199:Biology 8176:Origin 8129:Ecology 8104:tornado 8064:Climate 8058:(Earth) 8043:Weather 8013:Geology 8000: ( 7998:History 7705:Neptune 7684:Jupiter 7657:Mercury 7649:Planets 7560:History 7555:Outline 7416:Geology 7328:Gravity 7293:Geodesy 7263:Ecology 7079:Climate 7060:Weather 6944:Exobase 6699:5138252 6651:4443958 6623:Bibcode 6565:2944365 6506:Bibcode 6453:Bibcode 6207:Bibcode 5886:Bibcode 5289:Bibcode 5119:Airshed 5114:Airglow 5029:in 1969 5019:eclipse 4974:aurorae 4962:airglow 4853:logging 4645:, more 4574:euxinia 4474:in the 4458:fossils 4399:during 4393:calcium 4381:methane 4369:Archean 4347:into a 4284:impacts 4276:ammonia 4272:methane 4260:Jupiter 4166:horizon 4041:opacity 3964:photons 1459:F-layer 1439:Meteors 1435:auroras 1372:weather 1352:pascals 1236:auroras 1167:Equator 1147:horizon 1056:meteors 1014:reentry 998:of the 945:exobase 923:Earth. 913:auroras 775:by mass 684:Krypton 666:(2022) 663:Methane 625:0.0417 604:0.9340 588:20.946 569:78.084 481:mercury 433:krypton 169:climate 114:weather 83:mixture 9219:global 9183:policy 9128:Supply 9091:Floods 9058:Sewage 9031:Marine 9023:huerta 8857:Plants 8847:Meadow 8707:health 8685:rights 8673:copper 8651:mining 8549:arable 8449:Energy 8389:Indoor 8237:plants 8069:Clouds 8033:Future 8023:Oceans 7975:Change 7958:Matter 7953:Energy 7927:nature 7811:Triton 7773:Europa 7698:Uranus 7691:Saturn 7471:Oceans 7439:Future 7283:Nature 7205:Symbol 7150:Europe 7130:Africa 6706: 6696: 6688: 6649: 6641: 6615:Nature 6572: 6562: 6481: 6422:20 May 6346: 6336: 6311: 6301: 6257: 6235: 6217: 5981: 5617: 5569:16 May 5498: 5429: 5389: 5361:, 2019 5334:, 2019 5307: 5212: 5183:. NASA 5141:(CIRA) 4798:. The 4691:pyrite 4683:faunae 4680:animal 4672:plants 4639:period 4611:period 4560:to an 4550:sulfur 4527:ferric 4264:Saturn 4237:Hadean 4177:mirage 3932:Solar 3864:0.1135 3852:0.0004 3805:0.1394 3743:0.1458 3681:0.1538 3619:0.1602 3557:0.1682 3545:0.0005 3498:0.1762 3436:0.1858 3312:0.2082 3250:0.2211 3216:0.0946 3188:0.2355 3154:0.0891 3126:0.2515 3092:0.0837 3064:0.2707 3030:0.0782 3002:0.2947 2968:0.0732 2940:0.3204 2874:0.3524 2805:0.3716 2736:0.3925 2667:0.4149 2598:0.4405 2529:0.4709 2495:0.0523 2325:0.5879 2291:0.0436 2259:0.6423 2193:0.7048 2124:0.7833 2112:0.0025 2062:0.8826 1928:1.1774 1862:1.4128 1796:1.7684 1727:2.3675 1590:tonnes 1323:, the 1187:tropos 960:oxygen 808:layer. 725:notes: 647:Helium 638:18.18 601:9,340 575:Oxygen 463:, and 457:spores 453:pollen 435:, and 429:helium 411:, and 409:oxygen 345:) and 323:layers 313:. 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