336:, are considered to be keystone species because they are the only seed dispersers that can carry large seeds long distances. The host-pathogen model by Janzen and Connell suggests that survivorship of seeds in the tropics greatly increases the further away from the parent tree it lands, and that trees require this dispersal in order to avoid extinction. In the pathogen latent environment of the tropics, seed dispersal only becomes more paramount to species survival. As hypothesized, McConkey and Drake found a threshold relationship between the Flying Fox Index (FFI) and the median proportion of seeds carried over five meters. Below the threshold of abundance seed dispersal was insignificant and independent of flying fox abundance; however, above the threshold, dispersal positively correlated with increased flying fox abundance (as measured by the FFI). Although they did not directly prove the cause for this relationship, McConkey and Drake proposed a behavioral mechanism. Flying foxes are known to be territorial, and in the absence of competition a flying fox will eat within one tree, effectively dropping the seeds right below it. Alternatively, if there is a high density of flying foxes feeding at one time (abundance above the threshold density) then aggressive behavior, such as stealing fruit from another individual's territory, will lead to longer average seed dispersal. In this way the seed dispersing flying fox has a disproportional effect on the overall community structure in comparison to their relative biomass. Modeling the effect of ecological extinction on communities is the first step to applying this framework into conservation work.
284:
competition was the primary cause of ecological extinction. The effect of introduction of new competitors, such as the red deer and rabbit, also served to alter the vegetation in the habitat, which could have further pronounced the intensity of competition. Guanacos and rheas have been classified as a low risk for global extinction, but this simplistic view of their demography does not take into account that they have already become functionally extinct in the
Argentine Patagonia. Novaro and his colleagues suggest "this loss could have strong effects on plant-animal interactions, nutrient dynamics, and disturbance regimes ..." This is an example of how current conservation policy has failed to protect the intended species because of its lack of a functionally sound definition for extinction.
442:
directly or indirectly, incur a loss of overall diversity, effect the reproduction or recruitment of other species, lead to a change in habitat structure, lead to a change in productivity or nutrient dynamics between ecosystems, change important ecological processes, or reduce the resilience of the ecosystem to disturbances?". After these multitudes of questions are addressed to define an interactive species, an ecologically effective density threshold must be estimated in order to maintain this interaction ecology. This process holds many of the same variables contained within viable population estimates, and thus should not be difficult to incorporate into policy. To avoid
312:
tested whether the invasion of the
Argentine ant differentially effected small and large-seeded fauna. He found that post-fire recruitment of large-seeded flora was reduced disproportionately for large seeds in sites already invaded by Argentine ants. These initial low large-seed density recruitments will eventually lead the domination of small-seeded fauna in invaded habitats. The consequences of this change in community structure highlight the struggle for dispersal of large-seeded flora that have potential reverberations around the world because ants are major ecological seed dispersers throughout the globe.
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interacts with its environment will the proper and most efficient levels of conservation work take place. This work is especially important on the limited ecosystems of islands, where there are less likely to be replacement species for specific niches. With species diversity and available habitat decreasing rapidly worldwide, identifying the systems that are most crucial to the ecosystem will be the crux of conservation work.
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223:. These algal blooms have competitively excluded any other species from surviving, including the rich diversity in faunal life that once flourished such as dolphins, manatees, river otters, sea turtles, alligators, sharks, and rays. This highlights the top-down loss of diversity commercial fishing has on marine ecosystems by removing the keystone species of the environment.
365:(such as body size), and shifts in genetic frequencies. They found that there have been an average phenological shift of 5.1 days earlier in the spring for a broad range of over a thousand compiled studies. This shift was also, as predicted, more pronounced in the upper latitudes that have concurrently had the largest shift in local average temperatures.
372:, loss of pollinator mutualisms, and the effect of introduced species all have distinct pressures on native populations, these effects must be looked underneath a synergistic and not an independent framework. Climate change has the potential to exacerbate all of these processes. Nehring (1999) found a total of 16 non-indigenous thermophilic
131:, reduced species number in the treatment plots. Paine defined the concept of a keystone species as a species that has a disproportionate effect on the community structure of an environment in relation to its total biomass. This keystone species effect forms the basis for the concept of ecological extinction.
328:
The McConkey and Drake (2006) study is unique because it was one of the first attempts to model a density-dependent threshold relationship that described ecological extinction. They studied a seed dispersal interaction between flying foxes and trees with large seeds on the tropical
Pacific Islands.
356:
using midline estimates for climate warming over the next 50 years suggests that 15ā37% of species will be "committed to extinction" by 2050. Although the average global temperature has risen .6Ā°C, individual populations and habitats will only respond to their local changes in climate. Root et al.
155:
was evaluated by Estes et al. in a 1978 study. They compared the Rat and Near islands in the
Aleutian islands to test if "sea otter predation controls epibenthic invertebrate populations (specifically sea urchins), and in turn releases the vegetation association from intense grazing". Estes and his
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of 1973, fails to acknowledge any benefit for protecting highly interactive species that may help maintain overall species diversity. Policy must first assess whether the species in question is considered highly interactive by asking the questions "does the absence or loss of this species, either
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plants because they bury the large seeds away from the dangers of predation and fire damage. It is also crucial for seeds to be buried, because nearly all seed germination takes place in the first season after a fire. Argentine ants, a recent invader, do not disperse even small seeds. Christian
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as a prey base. They also suggested that the lesser rhea and guanaco had already passed their ecological effective density as a prey species, and thus were ecologically extinct. It is possible that the niches of introduced species as herbivores too closely mirrored those of the natives, and thus
339:
While ecologists are just starting to get a grapple on the significant interactions within an ecosystem, they must continue to find an effective density threshold that can maintain the level of equilibrium species diversity. Only with this knowledge of where and to what extent a specific species
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established in habitats northwards of their normal range in the North Sea. He likened these changes in range of more southerly phytoplankton to climatic shifts in ocean temperature. All of these effects have additive effects to the stress on populations within an environment, and with the
200:). This results shows another example of how the ecological extinction of a keystone predator can reduce species diversity in an ecosystem. The threshold of ecological extinction has passed due to over fishing so that local extinctions of the California spiny lobster are common.
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colleagues found that different size structures and densities of sea urchins were correlated with the presence of sea otter populations, and because they are the principal prey of this keystone predator, the sea otters were most likely the main determinants of the differences in
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has historically lagged behind current science all over the world, but at this critical juncture politicians must make the effort to catch up before massive extinctions occur on our planet. For example, the pinnacle of
American conservation policy, the
188:, is a keystone predator that has a distinct role in maintaining species diversity in its habitat. Robles (1987) demonstrated experimentally that the exclusion of spiny lobsters from the intertidal zone habitats led to the competitive dominance of
33:
Ecological extinction stands out because it is the interaction ecology of a species that is important for conservation work. They state that "unless the species interacts significantly with other species in the community (e.g. it is an important
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between algal species the main determinant in survival. However, when sea otters were absent, herbivory of the sea urchins was greatly intensified to the point of decimation of the kelp forest community. This loss of heterogeneity serves as a
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Seed dispersal mechanisms play a fundamental role in the regeneration and continuation of community structure, and a recent study by
Christian (2001) demonstrated a shift in the composition of the plant community in the
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on a global scale unlike anyone has seen before, scientists must understand all of the mechanisms driving the process. It is now that the governments of the world must act in order to prevent this catastrophe of the
279:, as well as conduct their survey in non-protected areas that represent the majority of southern South America. Novaro and his colleagues found that the entire assemblage of native carnivores relied primarily on
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has produced numerous shifts in the distributions and abundances of species. Thomas et al. (2004) went on to assess the extinction risk due to these shifts over a broad range of global habitats. Their
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of sea otter furs has severely restricted their once wide-ranging habitat, and only today are scientists starting to see the implications of these local extinctions.
710:
626:
Novaro, AndrĆ©s J.; Funes, MartıĢn C.; Susan Walker, R. (2000). "Ecological extinction of native prey of a carnivore assemblage in
Argentine Patagonia".
263:; the cumulative damage from the increased herbivory by introduced species has also served to accelerate destruction of the already dwindling Argentine
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additionally fragile and more complete definition of ecological extinction must be taken into account into preventative conservation measures.
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This view stems from the neutral model of communities that assumes there is little to no interaction within species unless otherwise proven.
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46:, or prey) its loss may result in little to no adjustment to the abundance and population structure of other species".
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was assessed by a study by Novaro in 2000. These native species are being replaced by introduced species such as the
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Establishment of thermophilic phytoplankton species in the North Sea: biological indicators of climatic changes?
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for both fish and eagle populations that depend on the richly productive kelp forest environment. Historical
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The pisaster-tegula interaction: Prey patches, predator food preference, and intertidal community structure
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habitats. This was the first study to take into account a large number of diverse predators, ranging from
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from progressing further and wasting all of the time and money spent on previous conservation efforts.
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357:(2002) suggests that local changes in climate may account for density changes in regions, shifts in
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307:. Ants disperse up to 30% of the flora in the shrublands and are vital to the survival of
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Below a certain density threshold, flying foxes are no longer effective seed dispersers.
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Sea otter predation and community organization in the western
Aleutian Islands, Alaska
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Estes, Duggins, and
Rathburn (1989) recognize two other distinct types of extinction:
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Consequences of biological invasion the importance of mutualism for plant communities
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Predator foraging characteristics and prey population structure on a sheltered shore
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is characterized by "the disappearance of a species from part of its natural range".
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Paine first established the concept of a keystone species by studying the sea star.
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Flying foxes cease to function as seed dispersers long before they become rare
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ecosystem until mechanical dredges were utilized in the 1870s, resulting in
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for two years. He found that removing the top predator, in this case being
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by adding information on neglected viewpoints, or discuss the issue on the
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Strongly interacting species: conservation policy, management, and ethics
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Christian found
Argentine ants to disrupt large seed dispersal mutualisms.
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Sea otters maintain the overall biodiversity of the kelp forest community.
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of sea urchins in these kelp forest was severely limited, and this made
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Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystems
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to such low abundance that, although it is still present in the
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247:) as a prey source for native omnivores and predators in the
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30:, it no longer interacts significantly with other species".
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is defined as "the ubiquitous disappearance of a species".
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Fingerprints of global warming on wild animals and plants
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due to algal blooms, and the resulting water is highly
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673:
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in 8m x 10m plots weekly while noting the response of
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The ecology of extinctions in kelp forest communities
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ICES Journal of Marine Science. 55: 818-823. 1998.
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105:, on the abundance of the herbivorous gastropod,
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160:populations. With high sea otter densities the
1195:International Union for Conservation of Nature
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215:of the oysters. The bay today is plagued by
96:while studying the effects of the predatory
92:(1969) first came up with the concept of a
2275:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
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2047:
1314:
1300:
1252:The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History
777:
763:
733:
616:
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546:Conservation Biology. 3: 252-264. 1989.
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2173:Predatorāprey (LotkaāVolterra) equations
1812:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
319:
300:shrublands following an invasion by the
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138:
80:
2205:Random generalized LotkaāVolterra model
231:The potential ecological extinction of
151:as the keystone predator in near-shore
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2013:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
679:McConkey, K. R., & Drake, D. R.
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1295:
758:
2028:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
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697:Extinction risk from climate change.
613:Science. 293(5530): 629-638. 2001.
384:
381:Implications for conservation policy
2478:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
1210:Voluntary Human Extinction Movement
959:Extinction risk from climate change
749:Bioscience. 55(2): 168-176. 2005.
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70:
13:
2231:Ecological effects of biodiversity
14:
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1567:Generalist and specialist species
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2290:Occupancyāabundance relationship
1275:
1266:
1265:
1231:Decline in amphibian populations
1200:IUCN Species Survival Commission
853:
686:Ecology. 87(2): 271-276. 2006.
389:
111:. This study took place in the
2310:Relative abundance distribution
2023:Plant defense against herbivory
1890:Competitive exclusion principle
1602:Mesopredator release hypothesis
906:Human impact on the environment
718:
702:
597:Ecology. 65: 1502-1514. 1987.
361:(timing) of events, changes in
1895:Consumerāresource interactions
886:Climate variability and change
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689:
654:
600:
584:
549:
316:Modeling ecological extinction
1:
2741:Biological data visualization
2568:Environmental niche modelling
2295:Population viability analysis
1236:Decline in insect populations
1179:IUCN Red List extinct species
699:Nature. 427: 145-149. 2004.
667:Nature. 413: 635-640. 2001.
648:10.1016/S0006-3207(99)00065-8
581:Ecology. 59: 822-833. 1978.
207:fishing had not affected the
2226:Density-dependent inhibition
562:Ecology. 6: 950-961. 1969.
7:
2695:Liebig's law of the minimum
2530:Resource selection function
1421:Metabolic theory of ecology
715:Nature. 421: 57-60. 2003.
454:
134:
10:
2892:
2595:Niche apportionment models
2315:Relative species abundance
1519:Primary nutritional groups
1416:List of feeding behaviours
800:Background extinction rate
147:The potential role of the
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2844:
2776:Ecosystem based fisheries
2718:
2618:
2543:
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2388:Interspecific competition
2353:
2280:Minimum viable population
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2138:Maximum sustainable yield
2123:Intraspecific competition
2118:Effective population size
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1998:Anti-predator adaptations
1983:
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1509:Photosynthetic efficiency
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1122:End-Jurassic or Tithonian
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1001:
992:
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851:
792:
404:toward certain viewpoints
115:habitat off the coast of
2766:Ecological stoichiometry
2731:Alternative stable state
1174:Lists of extinct species
513:
467:California spiny lobster
182:California spiny lobster
2871:Ecological connectivity
2610:Ontogenetic niche shift
2473:Ideal free distribution
2383:Ecological facilitation
2133:Malthusian growth model
2103:Consumer-resource model
1960:Paradox of the plankton
1925:Energy systems language
1645:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
1612:Optimal foraging theory
1587:Heterotrophic nutrition
628:Biological Conservation
22:is "the reduction of a
2756:Ecological forecasting
2700:Marginal value theorem
2498:Landscape epidemiology
2433:Cross-boundary subsidy
2368:Biological interaction
1718:Microbial intelligence
1406:Green world hypothesis
979:Latent extinction risk
439:Endangered Species Act
329:Insular flying foxes (
325:
292:
144:
86:
2761:Ecological humanities
2660:Ecological energetics
2605:Niche differentiation
2468:Habitat fragmentation
2236:Ecological extinction
2183:Small population size
1935:Feed conversion ratio
1915:Ecological succession
1847:San Francisco Estuary
1761:Ecological efficiency
1703:Microbial cooperation
936:Paradox of enrichment
825:Functional extinction
815:Ecological extinction
323:
290:
186:Panulirus interruptus
142:
84:
20:Ecological extinction
2786:Evolutionary ecology
2751:Ecological footprint
2746:Ecological economics
2670:Ecological threshold
2665:Ecological indicator
2535:Sourceāsink dynamics
2488:Land change modeling
2483:Insular biogeography
2335:Species distribution
2074:Modelling ecosystems
1733:Microbial metabolism
1572:Intraguild predation
1361:Biogeochemical cycle
1327:Modelling ecosystems
1205:Extinction Rebellion
1147:PlioceneāPleistocene
1029:CretaceousāPaleogene
974:Hypothetical species
964:Extinction threshold
921:Overabundant species
477:Ecological threshold
449:loss of biodiversity
363:morphology (biology)
305:(Linepithema humile)
119:; Paine removed all
2876:Ecology terminology
2836:Theoretical ecology
2811:Natural environment
2675:Ecosystem diversity
2645:Ecological collapse
2635:Bateman's principle
2590:Limiting similarity
2503:Landscape limnology
2325:Species homogeneity
2163:Population modeling
2158:Population dynamics
1975:Trophic state index
1132:Cenomanian-Turonian
1077:CambrianāOrdovician
1009:OrdovicianāSilurian
916:Mutational meltdown
901:Habitat destruction
820:Extinct in the wild
640:2000BCons..92...25N
434:Conservation policy
410:improve the article
249:Argentine Patagonia
245:Pterocnemia pennata
2847:Outline of ecology
2796:Industrial ecology
2791:Functional ecology
2655:Ecological deficit
2600:Niche construction
2563:Ecosystem engineer
2340:Speciesāarea curve
2261:Introduced species
2076:: Other components
2008:Deimatic behaviour
1910:Ecological network
1842:North Pacific Gyre
1827:hydrothermal vents
1766:Ecological pyramid
1713:Microbial food web
1524:Primary production
1469:Foundation species
540:2018-08-07 at the
326:
293:
281:introduced species
145:
102:Pisaster ochraceus
87:
2853:
2852:
2736:Balance of nature
2493:Landscape ecology
2378:Community ecology
2320:Species diversity
2256:Indicator species
2251:Gradient analysis
2128:Logistic function
2036:
2035:
1993:Animal coloration
1970:Trophic mutualism
1708:Microbial ecology
1499:Photoheterotrophs
1484:Myco-heterotrophy
1396:Ecosystem ecology
1381:Carrying capacity
1346:Abiotic component
1289:
1288:
1241:Extinction symbol
1160:
1159:
1024:TriassicāJurassic
994:Extinction events
870:Extinction vortex
830:Genetic pollution
660:Christian, C. E.
431:
430:
332:Pteropus tonganus
108:Tegula funebralis
2883:
2553:Ecological niche
2525:selection theory
2345:Umbrella species
2330:Species richness
2266:Invasive species
2246:Flagship species
2153:Population cycle
2148:Overexploitation
2113:Ecological yield
2063:
2056:
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2040:
2039:
1945:Mesotrophic soil
1885:Climax community
1817:Marine food webs
1756:Biomagnification
1557:Chemoorganotroph
1411:Keystone species
1371:Biotic component
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1246:Human extinction
1137:EoceneāOligocene
1019:PermianāTriassic
999:
998:
969:Field of Bullets
926:Overexploitation
911:Muller's ratchet
896:Invasive species
857:
845:Pseudoextinction
840:Local extinction
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354:predictive model
227:Invasive species
198:M. californianus
113:rocky intertidal
94:keystone species
77:Keystone species
71:Keystone species
64:Local extinction
2891:
2890:
2886:
2885:
2884:
2882:
2881:
2880:
2856:
2855:
2854:
2849:
2840:
2826:Systems ecology
2714:
2685:Extinction debt
2650:Ecological debt
2640:Bioluminescence
2621:
2614:
2583:marine habitats
2558:Ecological trap
2539:
2419:
2412:
2355:
2349:
2305:Rapoport's rule
2300:Priority effect
2241:Endemic species
2209:
2168:Population size
2084:
2077:
2067:
2037:
2032:
1985:
1979:
1965:Trophic cascade
1875:Bioaccumulation
1858:
1785:
1742:
1664:
1631:
1528:
1440:
1401:Ecosystem model
1334:
1320:
1290:
1285:
1257:
1214:
1183:
1166:Extinct species
1156:
1112:Carnian Pluvial
1057:Great Oxidation
1045:
988:
954:Extinction debt
946:
940:
891:Genetic erosion
874:
858:
849:
788:
783:
753:
741:
734:
723:
719:
707:
703:
695:Thomas et al.
694:
690:
678:
671:
659:
655:
624:
617:
605:
601:
589:
585:
573:
566:
554:
550:
542:Wayback Machine
531:
520:
516:
511:
457:
444:mass extinction
427:
421:
418:
407:
394:
390:
383:
370:loss of habitat
346:
318:
261:domestic cattle
253:European rabbit
229:
175:over harvesting
171:loss of habitat
137:
79:
73:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2889:
2879:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2851:
2850:
2845:
2842:
2841:
2839:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2806:Microecosystem
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2722:
2720:
2716:
2715:
2713:
2712:
2707:
2705:Thorson's rule
2702:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2630:Assembly rules
2626:
2624:
2616:
2615:
2613:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2586:
2585:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2549:
2547:
2541:
2540:
2538:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2515:
2513:Patch dynamics
2510:
2508:Metapopulation
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2424:
2422:
2414:
2413:
2411:
2410:
2405:
2403:Storage effect
2400:
2395:
2390:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2359:
2357:
2351:
2350:
2348:
2347:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2285:Neutral theory
2282:
2277:
2272:
2270:Native species
2263:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2217:
2215:
2211:
2210:
2208:
2207:
2202:
2201:
2200:
2195:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2143:Overpopulation
2140:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2089:
2087:
2079:
2078:
2066:
2065:
2058:
2051:
2043:
2034:
2033:
2031:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1989:
1987:
1981:
1980:
1978:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1962:
1957:
1952:
1950:Nutrient cycle
1947:
1942:
1940:Feeding frenzy
1937:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1920:Energy quality
1917:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1882:
1880:Cascade effect
1877:
1872:
1866:
1864:
1860:
1859:
1857:
1856:
1855:
1854:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1834:
1829:
1824:
1814:
1809:
1804:
1799:
1793:
1791:
1787:
1786:
1784:
1783:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1752:
1750:
1744:
1743:
1741:
1740:
1735:
1730:
1725:
1723:Microbial loop
1720:
1715:
1710:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1688:Lithoautotroph
1685:
1680:
1674:
1672:
1670:Microorganisms
1666:
1665:
1663:
1662:
1657:
1652:
1647:
1641:
1639:
1633:
1632:
1630:
1629:
1627:Prey switching
1624:
1619:
1614:
1609:
1604:
1599:
1594:
1589:
1584:
1579:
1574:
1569:
1564:
1559:
1554:
1549:
1544:
1538:
1536:
1530:
1529:
1527:
1526:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1506:
1504:Photosynthesis
1501:
1496:
1491:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1471:
1466:
1461:
1459:Chemosynthesis
1456:
1450:
1448:
1442:
1441:
1439:
1438:
1433:
1428:
1423:
1418:
1413:
1408:
1403:
1398:
1393:
1388:
1383:
1378:
1373:
1368:
1363:
1358:
1353:
1351:Abiotic stress
1348:
1342:
1340:
1336:
1335:
1319:
1318:
1311:
1304:
1296:
1287:
1286:
1284:
1283:
1273:
1262:
1259:
1258:
1256:
1255:
1248:
1243:
1238:
1233:
1228:
1222:
1220:
1216:
1215:
1213:
1212:
1207:
1202:
1197:
1191:
1189:
1185:
1184:
1182:
1181:
1176:
1170:
1168:
1162:
1161:
1158:
1157:
1155:
1154:
1149:
1144:
1142:Middle Miocene
1139:
1134:
1129:
1124:
1119:
1114:
1109:
1107:End-Capitanian
1104:
1099:
1094:
1089:
1084:
1079:
1074:
1069:
1064:
1059:
1053:
1051:
1047:
1046:
1044:
1043:
1042:
1041:
1031:
1026:
1021:
1016:
1011:
1005:
1003:
996:
990:
989:
987:
986:
981:
976:
971:
966:
961:
956:
950:
948:
942:
941:
939:
938:
933:
928:
923:
918:
913:
908:
903:
898:
893:
888:
882:
880:
876:
875:
873:
872:
866:
864:
860:
859:
852:
850:
848:
847:
842:
837:
832:
827:
822:
817:
812:
807:
802:
796:
794:
790:
789:
782:
781:
774:
767:
759:
752:
751:
732:
717:
701:
688:
669:
653:
615:
599:
583:
564:
555:Paine, R. T.
548:
517:
515:
512:
510:
509:
504:
499:
494:
489:
484:
479:
474:
472:Climate change
469:
464:
458:
456:
453:
429:
428:
397:
395:
388:
382:
379:
349:Climate change
345:
344:Climate change
342:
317:
314:
228:
225:
217:eutrophication
209:Chesapeake Bay
194:Mytilus edulis
136:
133:
75:Main article:
72:
69:
68:
67:
61:
38:, competitor,
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2888:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2863:
2861:
2848:
2843:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2831:Urban ecology
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2723:
2721:
2717:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2690:Kleiber's law
2688:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2627:
2625:
2623:
2617:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2584:
2581:
2580:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2550:
2548:
2546:
2542:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2463:Foster's rule
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2425:
2423:
2421:
2415:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2396:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2360:
2358:
2352:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2218:
2216:
2212:
2206:
2203:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2190:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2090:
2088:
2086:
2080:
2075:
2071:
2064:
2059:
2057:
2052:
2050:
2045:
2044:
2041:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1990:
1988:
1982:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1867:
1865:
1861:
1853:
1850:
1848:
1845:
1843:
1840:
1838:
1835:
1833:
1830:
1828:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1819:
1818:
1815:
1813:
1810:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1798:
1795:
1794:
1792:
1788:
1782:
1781:Trophic level
1779:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1753:
1751:
1749:
1745:
1739:
1738:Phage ecology
1736:
1734:
1731:
1729:
1728:Microbial mat
1726:
1724:
1721:
1719:
1716:
1714:
1711:
1709:
1706:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1684:
1683:Bacteriophage
1681:
1679:
1676:
1675:
1673:
1671:
1667:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1651:
1650:Decomposition
1648:
1646:
1643:
1642:
1640:
1638:
1634:
1628:
1625:
1623:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1603:
1600:
1598:
1597:Mesopredators
1595:
1593:
1590:
1588:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1578:
1575:
1573:
1570:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1558:
1555:
1553:
1550:
1548:
1545:
1543:
1542:Apex predator
1540:
1539:
1537:
1535:
1531:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1517:
1515:
1512:
1510:
1507:
1505:
1502:
1500:
1497:
1495:
1492:
1490:
1487:
1485:
1482:
1480:
1477:
1475:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1465:
1462:
1460:
1457:
1455:
1452:
1451:
1449:
1447:
1443:
1437:
1434:
1432:
1429:
1427:
1424:
1422:
1419:
1417:
1414:
1412:
1409:
1407:
1404:
1402:
1399:
1397:
1394:
1392:
1389:
1387:
1384:
1382:
1379:
1377:
1376:Biotic stress
1374:
1372:
1369:
1367:
1364:
1362:
1359:
1357:
1354:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1343:
1341:
1337:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1317:
1312:
1310:
1305:
1303:
1298:
1297:
1294:
1282:
1274:
1272:
1264:
1263:
1260:
1254:
1253:
1249:
1247:
1244:
1242:
1239:
1237:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1223:
1221:
1217:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1203:
1201:
1198:
1196:
1193:
1192:
1190:
1188:Organizations
1186:
1180:
1177:
1175:
1172:
1171:
1169:
1167:
1163:
1153:
1150:
1148:
1145:
1143:
1140:
1138:
1135:
1133:
1130:
1128:
1125:
1123:
1120:
1118:
1115:
1113:
1110:
1108:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1098:
1097:Carboniferous
1095:
1093:
1090:
1088:
1085:
1083:
1080:
1078:
1075:
1073:
1070:
1068:
1065:
1063:
1062:End-Ediacaran
1060:
1058:
1055:
1054:
1052:
1048:
1040:
1037:
1036:
1035:
1032:
1030:
1027:
1025:
1022:
1020:
1017:
1015:
1014:Late Devonian
1012:
1010:
1007:
1006:
1004:
1000:
997:
995:
991:
985:
984:Living fossil
982:
980:
977:
975:
972:
970:
967:
965:
962:
960:
957:
955:
952:
951:
949:
943:
937:
934:
932:
929:
927:
924:
922:
919:
917:
914:
912:
909:
907:
904:
902:
899:
897:
894:
892:
889:
887:
884:
883:
881:
877:
871:
868:
867:
865:
861:
856:
846:
843:
841:
838:
836:
835:Lazarus taxon
833:
831:
828:
826:
823:
821:
818:
816:
813:
811:
810:De-extinction
808:
806:
803:
801:
798:
797:
795:
791:
787:
780:
775:
773:
768:
766:
761:
760:
757:
748:
746:
742:SoulƩ et al.
739:
737:
729:
728:
724:Nehring, S.
721:
714:
712:
708:Root et al.
705:
698:
692:
685:
683:
676:
674:
666:
664:
657:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
629:
622:
620:
612:
610:
603:
596:
594:
587:
580:
578:
574:Estes et al.
571:
569:
561:
559:
552:
545:
543:
539:
536:
532:Estes et al.
529:
527:
525:
523:
518:
508:
505:
503:
500:
498:
495:
493:
490:
488:
485:
483:
480:
478:
475:
473:
470:
468:
465:
463:
462:Argentine ant
460:
459:
452:
450:
445:
440:
435:
425:
415:
411:
405:
403:
398:This section
396:
387:
386:
378:
375:
374:phytoplankton
371:
366:
364:
360:
355:
350:
341:
337:
335:
333:
322:
313:
310:
306:
303:
302:Argentine ant
299:
298:South African
289:
285:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
237:Lama guanicoe
234:
224:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
201:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
178:
176:
172:
167:
163:
159:
154:
150:
141:
132:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
109:
104:
103:
99:
95:
91:
83:
78:
65:
62:
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2098:Allee effect
1837:kelp forests
1790:Example webs
1655:Detritivores
1494:Organotrophs
1474:Kinetotrophs
1426:Productivity
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1067:End-Botomian
947:and concepts
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2453:Disturbance
2356:interaction
2178:Recruitment
2108:Depensation
1900:Copiotrophs
1771:Energy flow
1693:Lithotrophy
1637:Decomposers
1617:Planktivore
1592:Insectivore
1582:Heterotroph
1547:Bacterivore
1514:Phototrophs
1464:Chemotrophs
1436:Restoration
1386:Competition
1072:Dresbachian
213:overfishing
203:Commercial
166:competition
2866:Extinction
2860:Categories
2821:Sexecology
2398:Parasitism
2363:Antibiosis
2198:Resistance
2193:Resilience
2083:Population
2003:Camouflage
1955:Oligotroph
1870:Ascendency
1832:intertidal
1822:cold seeps
1776:Food chain
1577:Herbivores
1552:Carnivores
1479:Mixotrophs
1454:Autotrophs
1333:components
1152:Quaternary
786:Extinction
487:Flying fox
482:Extinction
402:unbalanced
368:While the
158:sea urchin
117:Washington
58:extinction
2726:Allometry
2680:Emergence
2408:Symbiosis
2393:Mutualism
2188:Stability
2093:Abundance
1905:Dominance
1863:Processes
1852:tide pool
1748:Food webs
1622:Predation
1607:Omnivores
1534:Consumers
1489:Mycotroph
1446:Producers
1391:Ecosystem
1356:Behaviour
931:Overshoot
793:Phenomena
507:Sea otter
414:talk page
359:phenology
162:herbivory
149:sea otter
44:mutualist
28:community
2781:Endolith
2710:Xerosere
2622:networks
2438:Ecocline
1984:Defense,
1660:Detritus
1562:Foraging
1431:Resource
1271:Category
1219:See also
1117:Toarcian
1082:Ireviken
1039:Timeline
1034:Holocene
945:Theories
538:Archived
455:See also
257:red deer
233:guanacos
135:Examples
129:Pisaster
121:Pisaster
98:sea star
40:symbiont
36:predator
2771:Ecopath
2578:Habitat
2448:Ecotype
2443:Ecotone
2420:ecology
2418:Spatial
2354:Species
2214:Species
2085:ecology
2070:Ecology
2018:Mimicry
1986:counter
1930:f-ratio
1678:Archaea
1366:Biomass
1339:General
1331:Trophic
1323:Ecology
1281:Commons
1102:Olson's
636:Bibcode
492:Guanaco
408:Please
400:may be
221:hypoxic
190:mussels
56:Global
24:species
1802:Rivers
1698:Marine
1127:Aptian
879:Causes
863:Models
309:fynbos
273:skunks
269:steppe
265:pampas
259:, and
239:) and
205:oyster
125:Tegula
2719:Other
2620:Other
2573:Guild
2545:Niche
1797:Lakes
1087:Mulde
1050:Other
1002:Major
514:Notes
277:pumas
184:, or
1807:Soil
502:Rhea
267:and
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180:The
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644:doi
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