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1323:, three to four underlying causes are driving two to three proximate causes. This means that a universal policy for controlling tropical deforestation would not be able to address the unique combination of proximate and underlying causes of deforestation in each country. Before any local, national, or international deforestation policies are written and enforced, governmental leaders must acquire a detailed understanding of the complex combination of proximate causes and underlying driving forces of deforestation in a given area or country. This concept, along with many other results of tropical deforestation from the Geist and Lambin study, can easily be applied to habitat destruction in general.
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inhabitants rely on biodiversity to recover from extreme environmental conditions. When too much biodiversity is lost, a catastrophic event such as an earthquake, flood, or volcanic eruption could cause an ecosystem to crash, and humans would obviously suffer from that. Loss of biodiversity also means that humans are losing animals that could have served as biological-control agents and plants that could potentially provide higher-yielding crop varieties, pharmaceutical drugs to cure existing or future diseases (such as cancer), and new resistant crop-varieties for agricultural species susceptible to pesticide-resistant insects or virulent strains of
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wood (logging) and food markets. Growth in these markets, in turn, progresses the commercialization of agriculture and logging industries. When these industries become commercialized, they must become more efficient by utilizing larger or more modern machinery that often has a worse effect on the habitat than traditional farming and logging methods. Either way, more land is cleared more rapidly for commercial markets. This common feedback example manifests just how closely related the proximate and underlying causes are to each other.
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available results in specific landscapes that are made of isolated patches of suitable habitat throughout a hostile environment/matrix. This process is generally due to pure habitat loss as well as fragmentation effects. Pure habitat loss refers to changes occurring in the composition of the landscape that causes a decrease in individuals. Fragmentation effects refer to an addition of effects occurring due to the habitat changes. Habitat loss can result in negative effects on the dynamic of species richness. The order
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631:(45%), which leads to wasteful logging practices. Within the broad category of cultural and sociopolitical factors are public attitudes and values (63%), individual/household behavior (53%), public unconcern toward forest environments (43%), missing basic values (36%), and unconcern by individuals (32%). Demographic factors were the in-migration of colonizing settlers into sparsely populated forest areas (38%) and growing population densityâa result of the first factorâin those areas (25%).
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Global
Warming of 1.5°C: An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to
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Durner, George M.; Douglas, David C.; Nielson, Ryan M.; Amstrup, Steven C.; McDonald, Trent L.; Stirling, Ian; Mauritzen, Mette; Born, Erik W.; Wiig, Ăystein; Deweaver, Eric; Serreze, Mark C.; Belikov, Stanislav E.; Holland, Marika M.; Maslanik, James; Aars, Jon; Bailey, David A.; Derocher, Andrew E.
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and show less concern for the environment to meet the market demand. Others will seek out new land or will convert other land-uses to agriculture. Agricultural intensification will become widespread at the cost of the environment and its inhabitants. Species will be pushed out of their habitat either
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is increasing the world's food requirement substantially. Simple logic dictates that more people will require more food. In fact, as the world's population increases dramatically, agricultural output will need to increase by at least 50%, over the next 30 years. In the past, continually moving to new
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Shoreline erosion: Coastal erosion is a natural process as storms, waves, tides and other water level changes occur. Shoreline stabilization can be done by barriers between land and water such as seawalls and bulkheads. Living shorelines are gaining attention as a new stabilization method. These can
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of destroying a given habitat. In other words, what do people lose out on with the removal of a given habitat? A country may increase its food supply by converting forest land to row-crop agriculture, but the value of the same land may be much larger when it can supply natural resources or services
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organisms with limited ranges are most affected by habitat destruction, mainly because these organisms are not found anywhere else in the world, and thus have less chance of recovering. Many endemic organisms have very specific requirements for their survival that can only be found within a certain
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There are also feedbacks and interactions among the proximate and underlying causes of deforestation that can amplify the process. Road construction has the largest feedback effect, because it interacts withâand leads toâthe establishment of new settlements and more people, which causes a growth in
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Geist and Lambin (2002) assessed 152 case studies of net losses of tropical forest cover to determine any patterns in the proximate and underlying causes of tropical deforestation. Their results, yielded as percentages of the case studies in which each parameter was a significant factor, provide a
470:, and climate change is well documented in the fossil record. One study shows that habitat fragmentation of tropical rainforests in Euramerica 300 million years ago led to a great loss of amphibian diversity, but simultaneously the drier climate spurred on a burst of diversity among reptiles.
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Currently, changes occurring in different environments around the world are changing the specific geographical habitats that are suitable for plants to grow. Therefore, the ability for plants to migrate to suitable environment areas will have a strong impact on the distribution of plant diversity.
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It is argued that the effects of habitat loss and fragmentation can be counteracted by including spatial processes in potential restoration management plans. However, even though spatial dynamics are incredibly important in the conservation and recovery of species, a limited amount of management
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and marine areas have endured high levels of habitat destruction. More than 50% of wetlands in the U.S. have been destroyed in just the last 200 years. Between 60% and 70% of
European wetlands have been completely destroyed. In the United Kingdom, there has been an increase in demand for coastal
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to slow population growth is important as greater population leads to greater human caused habitat destruction. Habitat restoration can also take place through the following processes; extending habitats or repairing habitats. Extending habitats aims to counteract habitat loss and fragmentation
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is a diverse group of plant pollinators who are highly susceptible to the negative effects of habitat loss, this could result in a domino effect between the plant-pollinator interactions leading to major conservation implications within this group. It is observed from the worlds longest running
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The period since 1950 has brought "the most rapid transformation of the human relationship with the natural world in the history of humankind". Almost one-third of the world's forests, and almost two-thirds of its grassland, have been lost to human agricultureâwhich now occupies almost half the
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Habitat loss is one of the main environmental causes of the decline of biodiversity on local, regional, and global scales. Many believe that habitat fragmentation is also a threat to biodiversity however some believe that it is secondary to habitat loss. The reduction of the amount of habitat
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Preventing an area from losing its specialist species to generalist invasive species depends on the extent of the habitat destruction that has already taken place. In areas where the habitat is relatively undisturbed, halting further habitat destruction may be enough. In areas where habitat
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may not directly affect humans, but the indirect effects of losing many species as well as the diversity of ecosystems in general are enormous. When biodiversity is lost, the environment loses many species that perform valuable and unique roles in the ecosystem. The environment and all its
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Haddad, Nick M.; Brudvig, Lars A.; Clobert, Jean; Davies, Kendi F.; Gonzalez, Andrew; Holt, Robert D.; Lovejoy, Thomas E.; Sexton, Joseph O.; Austin, Mike P.; Collins, Cathy D.; Cook, William M.; Damschen, Ellen I.; Ewers, Robert M.; Foster, Bryan L.; Jenkins, Clinton N. (6 March 2015).
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According to the Geist and Lambin (2002) study, the underlying driving forces were prioritized as follows (with the percent of the 152 cases the factor played a significant role in): economic factors (81%), institutional or policy factors (78%), technological factors (70%), cultural or
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Education of the general public is possibly the best way to prevent further human habitat destruction. Changing the dull creep of environmental impacts from being viewed as acceptable to being seen a reason for change to more sustainable practices. Education about the necessity of
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have received most of the attention concerning the destruction of habitat. From the approximately 16 million square kilometers of tropical rainforest habitat that originally existed worldwide, less than 9 million square kilometers remain today. The current rate of
2593:. In Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pörtner, H.-O.; Roberts, D.; Skea, J.; Shukla, P.R.; Pirani, A.; Moufouma-Okia, W.; Péan, C.; Pidcock, R.; Connors, S.; Matthews, J.B.R.; Chen, Y.; Zhou, X.; Gomis, M.I.; Lonnoy, E.; Maycock, T.; Tignor, M.; Waterfield, T. (eds.).
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The negative effects of habitat destruction usually impact rural populations more directly than urban populations. Across the globe, poor people suffer the most when natural habitat is destroyed, because less natural habitat means fewer natural resources
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Habitat size and numbers of species are systematically related. Physically larger species and those living at lower latitudes or in forests or oceans are more sensitive to reduction in habitat area. Conversion to "trivial" standardized ecosystems (e.g.,
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species. These hotspots are suffering from habitat loss and destruction. Most of the natural habitat on islands and in areas of high human population density has already been destroyed (WRI, 2003). Islands suffering extreme habitat destruction include
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not only more urgent but also more likely to conflict with local human interests. The high local population density in such areas is directly correlated to the poverty status of the local people, most of whom lacking an education and family planning.
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The biggest potential to solving the issue of habitat destruction comes from solving the political, economical and social problems that go along with it such as, individual and commercial material consumption, sustainable extraction of resources,
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versus rural), ecosystem type, and country; and the combined effects of poverty, age, family planning, gender, and education status of people in certain areas. Most of the exponential human population growth worldwide is occurring in or close to
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Hoegh-Guldberg, O.; Jacob, D.; Taylor, M.; Bindi, M.; Brown, S.; Camilloni, I.; Diedhiou, A.; Djalante, R.; Ebi, K.L.; Engelbrecht, F.; Guiot, J.; Hijioka, Y.; Mehrotra, S.; Payne, A.; Seneviratne, S.I.; Thomas, A.; Warren, R.; Zhou, G. (2022).
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Governmental leaders need to take action by addressing the underlying driving forces, rather than merely regulating the proximate causes. In a broader sense, governmental bodies at a local, national, and international scale need to emphasize:
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The eradication of smallpox virus is also a perfect example of habitat destruction: smallpox vaccination gives life-long immunity, and humans are the only host. Mass vaccination therefore resulted in total elimination of the habitat of the
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land and soils provided a boost in food production to meet the global food demand. That easy fix will no longer be available, however, as more than 98% of all land suitable for agriculture is already in use or degraded beyond repair.
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Agricultural land can suffer from the destruction of the surrounding landscape. Over the past 50 years, the destruction of habitat surrounding agricultural land has degraded approximately 40% of agricultural land worldwide via
223:(ESA) Rank 1 wetland is one such example, with irreversible reclamation proceeding prior to environmental impact assessment and approvals. Other such areas include the eastern coasts of Asia and Africa, northern coasts of
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The loss of trees from tropical rainforests alone represents a substantial diminishing of Earth's ability to produce oxygen and to use up carbon dioxide. These services are becoming even more important as increasing
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has been accelerating during the early twentyâfirst century, with a decline rate of 4.7% per decade (it has declined over 50% since the first satellite records). One well known example of a species affected is the
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Natural vegetation along this coastal shoreline in North
Carolina, US, is being used to reduce the effects of shoreline erosion while providing other benefits to the natural ecosystem and the human community.
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Galbraith, H.; Jones, R.; Park, R.; Clough, J.; Herrod-Julius, S.; Harrington, B.; Page, G. (1 June 2002). "Global
Climate Change and Sea Level Rise: Potential Losses of Intertidal Habitat for Shorebirds".
386:, have been somewhat degraded. But included in that 10â20% of land is the approximately 9 million square kilometers of seasonally dry-lands that humans have converted to deserts through the process of
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Tilman D.; Fargione J.; Wolff B.; D'Antonio C.; Dobson A.; Howarth R.; Schindler D.; Schlesinger W. H.; Simberloff D.; et al. (2001). "Forecasting agriculturally driven global environmental change".
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responsible for tropical deforestation. The specific categories reveal further insight into the specific causes of tropical deforestation: transport extension (64%), commercial wood extraction (52%),
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usually rely upon relatively undisturbed habitat. Many people value the complexity of the natural world and express concern at the loss of natural habitats and of animal or plant species worldwide.
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youths, as these organisms would have a higher possibility of mating with related organisms within their population, or different species. One of the most famous examples is the impact upon China's
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following deforestation) effectively destroys habitat for the more diverse species. Even the simplest forms of agriculture affect diversity â through clearing or draining the land, discouraging
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Data: Historical data on forests from
Williams (2003) - Deforesting the Earth. Historical data on agriculture from The History Database of Global Environment (HYDE). Modern data from the FAO
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1296:. Any efforts to protect the world's remaining natural habitat and biodiversity will compete directly with humans' growing demand for natural resources, especially new agricultural lands.
434:. About one-fifth (20%) of marine coastal areas have been highly modified by humans. One-fifth of coral reefs have also been destroyed, and another fifth has been severely degraded by
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are frequently generalists that are able to survive in much more diverse habitats. Habitat destruction leading to climate change offsets the balance of species keeping up with the
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Barbault, R. and S. D. Sastrapradja. 1995. Generation, maintenance and loss of biodiversity. Global
Biodiversity Assessment, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge pp. 193â274.
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Kauffman, J. B. and D. A. Pyke. 2001. Range ecology, global livestock influences. In S. A. Levin (ed.), Encyclopedia of
Biodiversity 5: 33â52. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
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were significantly threatened by habitat loss. Most amphibian species are also threatened by native habitat loss, and some species are now only breeding in modified habitat.
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Ravenga, C., J. Brunner, N. Henninger, K. Kassem, and R. Payne. 2000. Pilot
Analysis of Global Ecosystems: Wetland Ecosystems. World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C.
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reduce damage and erosion while simultaneously providing ecosystem services such as food production, nutrient and sediment removal, and water quality improvement to society
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recycles rainwater and maintains constant annual rainfall; on a global scale, plants (especially trees in tropical rainforests) around the world counter the accumulation of
2288:
Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and
Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
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Cincotta, R.P., and R. Engelman. 2000. Nature's place: human population density and the future of biological diversity. Population Action
International. Washington, D.C.
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will be a major source of habitat destruction. Commercial farmers are going to become desperate to produce more food from the same amount of land, so they will use more
967:. Habitat destruction can also decrease the range of certain organism populations. This can result in the reduction of genetic diversity and perhaps the production of
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Areas of high agricultural output tend to have the highest extent of habitat destruction. In the U.S., less than 25% of native vegetation remains in many parts of the
55:
is no longer able to support its native species. The organisms once living there have either moved to elsewhere or are dead, leading to a decrease in biodiversity and
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Stein, B. A., L. S. Kutner, and J. S. Adams (eds.). 2000. Precious Heritage: The Status of Biodiversity in the United States. Oxford University Press, New York.
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quantitative prioritization of which proximate and underlying causes were the most significant. The proximate causes were clustered into broad categories of
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White, R. P., S. Murray, and M. Rohweder. 2000. Pilot Assessment of Global Ecosystems: Grassland Ecosystems. World Resources Institute, Washington, D. C.
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However, at the moment, the rates of plant migration that are influenced by habitat loss and fragmentation are not as well understood as they could be.
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122:. Fragmentation and loss of habitat have become one of the most important topics of research in ecology as they are major threats to the survival of
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Ecosystem services in Southern Africa: a regional assessment. The regional scale component of the Southern African Millennium Ecosystem Assessment.
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Evangelista, Paul H.; Kumar, Sunil; Stohlgren, Thomas J.; Jarnevich, Catherine S.; Crall, Alycia W.; Norman III, John B.; Barnett, David T. (2008).
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report on "Making Peace with Nature" released in 2021 found that most of these efforts had failed to meet their internationally agreed upon goals.
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and food. But 70â90% of today's warm-water coral reefs will disappear even if warming is kept to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F). For example, Caribbean
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WRI. 2003. World Resources 2002â2004: Decisions for the Earth: Balance, voice, and power. 328 pp. World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C.
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are aspects of habitat destruction caused by humans that do not necessarily involve over destruction of habitat, yet result in habitat collapse.
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Liao, Jinbao; Bearup, Daniel; Wang, Yeqiao; Nijs, Ivan; Bonte, Dries; Li, Yuanheng; Brose, Ulrich; Wang, Shaopeng; Blasius, Bernd (2 May 2017).
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McKee J. K.; Sciulli P.W.; Fooce C. D.; Waite T. A. (2003). "Forecasting global biodiversity threats associated with human population growth".
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on a Hawaiian coral reef. Although the endangered species is protected, habitat loss from human development is a major reason for the loss of
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Primack, R. B. 2006. Essentials of Conservation Biology. 4th Ed. Habitat destruction, pages 177â188. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA.
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ecosystem, resulting in their extinction. Extinction may also take place very long after the destruction of habitat, a phenomenon known as
2200:"Potential effects of sea level rise on the terrestrial habitats of endangered and endemic megafauna in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands"
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can link isolated populations and increase pollination. Corridors are also known to reduce the negative impacts of habitat destruction.
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practices can reduce the chance of these events happening, or will at least mitigate adverse impacts. Eliminating swampsâthe habitat of
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Sahney S.; Benton M.J.; Falcon-Lang H.J. (2010). "Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica".
2020:
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Fig. 3.67(j): loss of tropical rainforest and woodland, as estimated for tropical Africa, Latin America and South and Southeast Asia.
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Beebee, Trevor J.C.; Griffiths, Richard A. (31 May 2005). "The amphibian decline crisis: A watershed for conservation biology?".
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The rate of global tree cover loss has approximately doubled since 2001, to an annual loss approaching an area the size of Italy.
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also has a great benefit. When women have the same education (decision-making power), this generally leads to smaller families.
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1581:"Habitat Destruction, Fragmentation, and Disturbance Promote Invasion by Habitat Generalists in a Multispecies Metapopulation"
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of North America, on the other hand, have less than 3% of natural habitat remaining that has not been converted to farmland.
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fragmentation experiment over 35 years that habitat fragmentation has caused a decrease in biodiversity from 13% to 75%.
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have extremely dense human populations that allow little room for natural habitat. Marine areas close to highly populated
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fragmentation is a process by which large and contiguous habitats get divided into smaller, isolated patches of habitats.
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is 160,000 square kilometers per year, which equates to a loss of approximately 1% of original forest habitat each year.
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3591:"Robustness of metacommunities with omnivory to habitat destruction: disentangling patch fragmentation from patch loss"
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areas of South America are the main regions with unsustainable agricultural practices and/or government mismanagement.
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3711:"Where does biodiversity go from here? A grim business-as-usual forecast and a hopeful portfolio of partial solutions"
538:, economic, sociopolitical, scientific and technological, and cultural drivers all contribute to habitat destruction.
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979:. Now it is only found in fragmented and isolated regions in the southwest of the country, as a result of widespread
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71:
3328:(1997). "Surveillance and Control of Urban Dengue Vectors". In Gubler, Duane J.; Ooi, Eng Eong; Vasudevan, Subhash;
2083:"Deforestation and Forest Loss / Humanity destroyed one third of the world's forests by expanding agricultural land"
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2657:"Genetic effects of anthropogenic habitat fragmentation on remnant animal and plant populations: a meta-analysis"
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Example of human caused habitat destruction likely capable of reversing if further disturbance is halted. Uganda.
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Making Peace with Nature: A scientific blueprint to tackle the climate, biodiversity and pollution emergencies
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595:(38%); low domestic costs for land, labor, fuel, and timber (32%); and increases in product prices mainly for
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Map of the world's biodiversity hot spots, all of which are heavily threatened by habitat loss and degradation
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1174:. Other ecosystem services that are diminished or lost altogether as a result of habitat destruction include
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or unstable governments, which may go hand-in-hand, typically experience high rates of habitat destruction.
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Habitat loss is perhaps the greatest threat to organisms and biodiversity. Temple (1986) found that 82% of
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offsets from a combination of habitat generalists and specialists to a population primarily consisting of
494:, and other anthropogenic changes to the characteristics of land. Habitat degradation, fragmentation, and
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is not the primary cause of deforestation in all world regions, while transport extension (including the
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Finding ecological ways to increase agricultural output without increasing the total land in production.
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2380:"Constraining Uncertainties in CMIP5 Projections of September Arctic Sea Ice Extent with Observations"
2313:"Thicker Clouds and Accelerated Arctic Sea Ice Decline: The Atmosphere-Sea Ice Interactions in Spring"
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Probably the most profound impact that habitat destruction has on people is the loss of many valuable
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across 114 countries, providing indisputable evidence that people play the largest role in decreasing
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94:. Environmental factors can contribute to habitat destruction more indirectly. Geological processes,
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3781:"Countering the effects of habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation through habitat restoration"
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Read "Transforming the Workforce for Children Birth Through Age 8: A Unifying Foundation" at NAP.edu
2108:"The imprint of the geographical, evolutionary and ecological context on species-area relationships"
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1111:. Humans also lose direct uses of natural habitat when habitat is destroyed. Aesthetic uses such as
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1448:"Effect of habitat degradation on competition, carrying capacity, and species assemblage stability"
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Banks-Leite, Cristina; Mark Ewers, Robert; Folkard-Tapp, Hollie; Fraser, Adam (18 December 2020).
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Constable, A.J., S. Harper, J. Dawson, K. Holsman, T. Mustonen, D. Piepenburg, and B. Rost, 2022:
861: – will be lost within the century if global warming continues at the current rate.
562:. This may explain why human population density accounts for 87.9% of the variation in numbers of
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3338:. CAB books (2, revised ed.). Wallingford, Oxfordshire: CABI (published 2014). p. 504.
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plans are taking the spatial effects of habitat restoration and conservation into consideration.
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570:. The boom in human population and migration of people into such species-rich regions are making
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Schlaepfer, Daniel R.; Braschler, Brigitte; Rusterholz, Hans-Peter; Baur, Bruno (October 2018).
1251:, yet wealthier people and countries can simply pay more to continue to receive more than their
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2311:; Xi, Baike; DuVivier, Alice K.; Kay, Jennifer E.; Landrum, Laura L.; Deng, Yi (19 June 2019).
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2491:(2009). "Predicting 21st-century polar bear habitat distribution from global climate models".
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housing and tourism which has caused a decline in marine habitats over the last 60 years. The
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3917:"Microsite availability and establishment of native species on degraded and reclaimed sites"
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Calizza, Edoardo; Costantini, Maria Letizia; Careddu, Giulio; Rossi, Loreto (17 June 2017).
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Attempts to address habitat destruction are in international policy commitments embodied by
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999:
940:
858:
721:
571:
542:
155:
1896:
442:; 90% of the Philippines' coral reefs alone have been destroyed. Finally, over 35% of the
8:
6780:
6558:
6389:
6340:
6283:
6223:
5867:
5718:
5711:
5651:
5548:
5218:
4949:
4712:
4594:
4589:
4498:
4441:
4264:
Sanderson E. W.; Jaiteh M.; Levy M. A.; Redford K. H.; Wannebo A. V.; Woolmer G. (2002).
2882:"Description of a seminatural habitat of the endangered Suweon treefrog Hyla suweonensis"
1352:
1211:
1056:
807:
contributes to destruction of some habitats, endangering various species. For example:
771:
289:
56:
4395:
4248:
4198:
4117:
3981:
3932:
3796:
3726:
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3184:
3128:
2964:
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2504:
2452:
2395:
2328:
2123:
1817:
1674:
1596:
1540:
1463:
6684:
6622:
6410:
6399:
6377:
6372:
6361:
5895:
5890:
5877:
5820:
5733:
5691:
5686:
5646:
5598:
5362:
5258:
5134:
4415:
4364:
4339:
4220:
4001:
3873:
3753:
3710:
3436:
3401:
3399:
3246:"Ecosystem Management: The Need to Adopt a Different Approach Under a Changing Climate"
3209:
3168:
3041:
3008:
2986:
2903:
2782:
2562:
2535:
2516:
2472:
2417:
2360:
2265:
2044:
Chart in section titled "Annual rates of global tree cover loss have risen since 2000".
1694:
1624:
1490:
1447:
1388:
1187:
1131:
955:
944:
901:
processes that slowly alter the layout of the physical environment (suspected of being
850:
846:
563:
550:
443:
251:
167:
123:
107:
99:
4156:
4135:
3885:
1580:
881:
describes the emergence of discontinuities (fragmentation) in an organism's preferred
6801:
6659:
6533:
6426:
6335:
6218:
5608:
5483:
5429:
5228:
5213:
4919:
4805:
4795:
4548:
4508:
4407:
4369:
4324:
4212:
4045:
4024:
3993:
3989:
3946:
3941:
3916:
3889:
3842:
3758:
3740:
3690:
3636:
3628:
3623:
3538:
3498:
3490:
3485:
3460:
3441:
3339:
3282:
3214:
3196:
3148:
3140:
3093:
3085:
3081:
3046:
3028:
2978:
2973:
2948:
2774:
2686:
2609:
2567:
2476:
2464:
2421:
2409:
2364:
2352:
2257:
2221:
2180:
2170:
2137:
2132:
2107:
1839:
1825:
1686:
1682:
1616:
1608:
1604:
1495:
1477:
1368:
1227:
1179:
1052:
1028:
987:
936:
886:
725:
690:
615:
and infrastructure improvement (34%), and subsidies for land-based activities (26%);
584:
546:
391:
325:
60:
27:
Process by which a natural habitat becomes incapable of supporting its native species
4419:
4005:
2990:
2907:
2786:
2709:"Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica"
2520:
2269:
1698:
1628:
1522:"Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica"
841:
are very sensitive to global warming and ocean acidification. Coral reefs provide a
6806:
6735:
6730:
6516:
6511:
6394:
6350:
6198:
5563:
5558:
5533:
5332:
5305:
4924:
4672:
4647:
4604:
4574:
4523:
4518:
4399:
4359:
4351:
4316:
4277:
4252:
4224:
4202:
4152:
4131:
4087:
3985:
3965:
3936:
3881:
3834:
3800:
3748:
3730:
3682:
3618:
3610:
3480:
3431:
3421:
3370:
3204:
3188:
3132:
3077:
3065:
3036:
3020:
2968:
2893:
2862:
2809:
2766:
2731:
2676:
2601:
2557:
2547:
2508:
2456:
2399:
2342:
2332:
2291:
2249:
2211:
2162:
2127:
2054:
Steffen, Will; Sanderson, Angelina; Tyson, Peter; JĂ€ger, Jill; et al. (2004).
1829:
1821:
1801:
1678:
1658:
1600:
1544:
1485:
1467:
1401:
1259:
1036:
995:
627:(42%). The main technological factor was the poor application of technology in the
604:
439:
431:
427:
328:
stands have lost more than 98% of their previous area because of human activities.
103:
4970:
2898:
2881:
2290:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2319â2368,
1263:
such as clean water, timber, ecotourism, or flood regulation and drought control.
1258:
Another way to view the negative effects of habitat destruction is to look at the
166:
species and, when all hotspots are combined, may contain over half of the world's
6745:
6506:
6028:
5696:
5613:
5593:
5573:
5473:
5322:
4632:
4569:
4320:
4298:
4171:
3804:
3546:
3426:
3333:
3310:
3276:
2866:
2600:. Cambridge, UK and New York City: Cambridge University Press. pp. 175â312.
1409:
1360:
1191:
1096:
1064:
1019:
964:
894:
741:
705:
697:
686:
616:
608:
507:
499:
479:
387:
337:
269:. Only 15% of land area remains unmodified by human activities in all of Europe.
247:
115:
111:
2436:
1515:
1513:
1511:
1509:
6750:
5946:
5723:
5618:
5518:
5446:
5233:
4785:
4760:
4263:
3113:"Habitat loss alters the architecture of plantâpollinator interaction networks"
2460:
2308:
1376:
1223:
1219:
1203:
1171:
1163:
1151:
1023:
The draining and development of coastal wetlands that previously protected the
812:
804:
744:, and encouraging just a limited set of domesticated plant and animal species.
709:
419:
402:
333:
95:
4825:
4034:
Burke, L.; Y. Kura; K. Kassem; C. Ravenga; M. Spalding; D. McAllister (2000).
3686:
2605:
2295:
1027:
contributed to severe flooding in New Orleans, Louisiana, in the aftermath of
6795:
6489:
6438:
5951:
5840:
5706:
5661:
5641:
5463:
5238:
4662:
4513:
4488:
4142:
3997:
3950:
3846:
3744:
3632:
3494:
3329:
3252:. United Nations Environment Programme/Macaulay Land Use Research Institute.
3200:
3144:
3089:
3032:
2982:
2778:
2690:
2468:
2413:
2404:
2379:
2356:
2261:
2225:
1843:
1690:
1612:
1506:
1481:
1439:
1405:
1195:
1159:
1158:. On a local scale, trees provide windbreaks and shade; on a regional scale,
1092:
980:
787:
640:
628:
600:
503:
294:
228:
224:
4403:
4380:
3735:
2949:"Modelling invasion for a habitat generalist and a specialist plant species"
2552:
1717:
Newsroom. Photo taken from the International Space Station on April 16, 2001
1154:. One ecosystem service whose significance is becoming better understood is
32:
6538:
6248:
5399:
5394:
5382:
5342:
5327:
5015:
4904:
4483:
4411:
4373:
4216:
4104:
Laurance W. F. (1999). "Reflections on the tropical deforestation crisis".
3915:
Elmarsdottir, Asrun; Aradottir, Asa L.; Trlica, M. J. (26 September 2003).
3762:
3640:
3502:
3445:
3218:
3192:
3152:
3097:
3066:"Slow response of plant species richness to habitat loss and fragmentation"
3050:
3024:
2571:
2184:
2156:
2141:
2082:
1620:
1499:
1135:
1112:
1108:
1048:
612:
567:
491:
487:
423:
407:
139:
79:
75:
4076:"Proximate causes and underlying driving forces of tropical deforestation"
3823:"An Experimental Test of Whether Habitat Corridors Affect Pollen Transfer"
6421:
5513:
5468:
5337:
5310:
4765:
4750:
4533:
3325:
3013:
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences
3009:"Climate change and habitat destruction: a deadly anthropogenic cocktail"
2749:
Fahrig, Lenore (2019). "Habitat fragmentation: A long and tangled tale".
2631:"Caribbean coral reefs 'will be lost within 20 years' without protection"
2337:
2312:
2061:. International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP). pp. 131, 133.
1520:
Sahney, S; Benton, Michael J.; Falcon-Lang, Howard J. (1 December 2010).
1280:
1183:
1143:
1080:
1007:
972:
733:
580:
535:
483:
435:
313:
204:
180:
172:
4355:
3681:, Encyclopedia of Earth Science, Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 308â309,
2347:
2198:
Baker, Jason D.; Littnan, Charles L.; Johnston, David W. (24 May 2006).
1338:
728:) is the largest single proximate factor responsible for deforestation.
370:
areas have been degraded to a lesser extent. Only 10â20% of the world's
351:
6306:
5922:
5862:
5578:
4464:
3778:
2378:
Senftleben, Daniel; Lauer, Axel; Karpechko, Alexey (15 February 2020).
1834:
1802:"Estimating plant migration rates under habitat loss and fragmentation"
1284:
1124:
1024:
948:
914:
906:
898:
854:
838:
828:
620:
596:
519:
305:
243:
212:
176:
64:
3590:
3400:
Benoßt Geslin; Benoit Gauzens; Elisa Thébault; Isabelle Dajoz (2013).
3136:
2800:
Fahrig, L (2003). "Effects of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity".
2770:
2681:
2656:
2512:
2287:
2216:
2199:
1472:
355:
Farmers near newly cleared land within Taman Nasional Kerinci Seblat (
6476:
5789:
5701:
5347:
4770:
4256:
4207:
4182:
3822:
3614:
2735:
1897:"United Kingdom: Environmental Issues, Policies and Clean Technology"
1548:
1427:
Impacts of shipping on marine wildlife and habitats in Southeast Asia
1293:
1147:
1139:
1104:
968:
717:
591:(68%), which are driven by national and international demands; urban
495:
379:
301:
200:
4234:
3878:
Sustainable Resource Management: Global Trends, Visions and Policies
3838:
3305:
It was drainage of swampland which eradicated the disease from the
3169:"Habitat fragmentation and its lasting impact on Earth's ecosystems"
3112:
1800:
Higgins, Steven I.; Lavorel, Sandra; Revilla, Eloy (25 April 2003).
1657:
WIEGAND, THORSTEN; REVILLA, ELOY; MOLONEY, KIRK A. (February 2005).
1134:. Habitat destruction has altered nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and
6548:
6471:
6432:
4800:
4033:
3306:
2166:
2018:
1240:
1076:
1068:
1035:
Habitat destruction can vastly increase an area's vulnerability to
959:
694:
371:
196:
163:
159:
91:
2946:
1961:
1659:"Effects of Habitat Loss and Fragmentation on Population Dynamics"
454:
5528:
5478:
3244:
Mumba, Musonda; Munang, Richard; Rivington, Mike (27 June 2013).
3064:
Helm, Aveliina; Hanski, Ilkka; Partel, Meelis (9 November 2005).
2707:
Sahney, S.; Benton, M. J.; Falcon-Lang, H. J. (1 December 2010).
2654:
1155:
1120:
1116:
1088:
1072:
1044:
976:
918:
842:
819:
466:
Habitat destruction through natural processes such as volcanism,
414:
360:
317:
148:
118:
are some examples. Loss of habitat can be preceded by an initial
87:
52:
2793:
2056:"Global Change and the Climate System / A Planet Under Pressure"
1288:
directly by habitat destruction or indirectly by fragmentation,
397:
147:. Originally dry tropical forest, the land is being cleared for
6453:
6213:
5352:
1579:
Marvier, Michelle; Kareiva, Peter; Neubert, Michael G. (2004).
1207:
1083:, for exampleâcan result in eradicating that infectious agent.
835:
can also be affected when it grows on the underside of sea ice.
515:
511:
367:
281:
232:
83:
4174:. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Island Press, Covelo, CA.
2588:"Impacts of 1.5°C Global Warming on Natural and Human Systems"
2584:
1379:, restoration of degraded land and addressing climate change.
619:
and land-tenure insecurity (44%); and policy failures such as
6275:
6208:
6116:
4433:
2437:"Dramatic decline of Arctic sea ice linked to global warming"
1445:
1236:
1232:
1199:
1040:
913:, which can alter the environment much faster and causes the
832:
530:
The forces that cause humans to destroy habitat are known as
208:
192:
188:
184:
3461:"Understanding ecosystem dynamics for conservation of biota"
3402:"Plant Pollinator Networks along a Gradient of Urbanisation"
2594:
2534:
Riebesell, Ulf; Körtzinger, Arne; Oschlies, Andreas (2009).
2106:
Drakare, Stina; Lennon, Jack J.; Hillebrand, Helmut (2006).
1150:
in rivers and oceans and contributed tremendously to global
599:(25%). Institutional and policy factors included formal pro-
4283:
10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052[0891:thfatl]2.0.co;2
4093:
10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052[0143:PCAUDF]2.0.CO;2
3914:
2533:
2489:
2254:
10.1675/1524-4695(2002)025[0173:GCCASL]2.0.CO;2
737:
510:
are specific types of habitat destruction for those areas (
467:
340:
than tropical rainforests; consequently, less than 0.1% of
3165:
2053:
815:
which will threaten natural habitats and species globally.
4311:
Temple S. A. (1986). "The Problem of Avian Extinctions".
4180:
4037:
Pilot Assessment of Global Ecosystems: Coastal Ecosystems
2435:
Yadav, Juhi; Kumar, Avinash; Mohan, Rahul (21 May 2020).
2377:
2238:
1394:
Protecting remaining intact sections of natural habitat.
943:
plants, animals, and other organisms is reduced so that
4340:"Louisiana's Wetlands: A Lesson in Nature Appreciation"
4073:
2706:
2536:"Sensitivities of marine carbon fluxes to ocean change"
2105:
1519:
1071:âhas contributed to the prevention of diseases such as
6670:
International Conference on Population and Development
3278:
A Growing Problem: Pesticides and the Third World Poor
3111:
Spiesman, Brian J.; Inouye, Brian D. (December 2013).
2306:
720:
extraction for domestic use (28%). One result is that
304:
have suffered as much or more destruction as tropical
59:. Habitat destruction is in fact the leading cause of
3459:
Sinclair, A. R. E.; Byrom, Andrea E. (January 2006).
2075:
1799:
1656:
1578:
1364:
whereas repairing habitats counteracts degradation.
70:
Humans contribute to habitat destruction through the
3679:
Environmental Geology. Encyclopedia of Earth Science
3243:
3057:
2802:
Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
2197:
1138:, which has increased the frequency and severity of
822:
destroys habitat for some species. For example, the
5000:
4163:Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (Program). 2005.
1059:. On the other hand, a healthy ecosystem with good
634:
3880:, Greenleaf Publishing Limited, pp. 155â215,
3588:
583:factors (61%). The main economic factors included
3964:Huxel, Gary R.; Hastings, Alan (September 1999).
3821:Townsend, Patricia A.; Levey, Douglas J. (2002).
3709:Ehrlich, P. R.; Pringle, R. M. (11 August 2008).
2047:
1652:
1650:
1222:levels is one of the main contributors to global
473:
6793:
3816:
3814:
3668:
3666:
3664:
3662:
3063:
285:Jungle burned for agriculture in southern Mexico
6264:Pre-2001 categories and subcategories shown in
3715:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2844:
2434:
4874:International Union for Conservation of Nature
4266:"The human footprint and the last of the wild"
4103:
3966:"Habitat Loss, Fragmentation, and Restoration"
3708:
3110:
3002:
3000:
2880:Borzée, Amaël; Jang, Yikweon (28 April 2015).
1647:
1574:
1572:
1570:
1404:and expansion. Apart from improving access to
1273:rapid expansion of the global human population
1002:leading to a higher likelihood of extinction.
986:As habitat destruction of an area occurs, the
478:Habitat destruction caused by humans includes
376:temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
342:dry forests in Central America's Pacific Coast
6291:
5805:
4986:
4449:
4337:
3963:
3820:
3811:
3659:
3536:United Nations Environment Programme (2021).
3458:
2307:Huang, Yiyi; Dong, Xiquan; Bailey, David A.;
4310:
4290:Scholes, R. J. and R. Biggs (eds.). 2004.
831:, whose habitat in the Artic is threatened.
162:regions that feature high concentrations of
6695:United Nations world population conferences
5830:Template: Threatened species by region
2997:
2038:. World Resources Institute. 4 April 2024.
2036:"Indicators of Forest Extent / Forest Loss"
1855:
1853:
1567:
689:(67%). Therefore, according to this study,
219:, a township in southern Malaysia built on
6608:Population and housing censuses by country
6298:
6284:
5812:
5798:
4993:
4979:
4931:The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History
4456:
4442:
2879:
2154:
1746:
1744:
1742:
897:. Causes of habitat fragmentation include
336:and are more suitable for agriculture and
5504:Environmental issues in the United States
4363:
4281:
4206:
4125:
4091:
3940:
3752:
3734:
3622:
3514:
3512:
3484:
3435:
3425:
3208:
3040:
2972:
2897:
2680:
2561:
2551:
2527:
2403:
2346:
2336:
2215:
2131:
1833:
1774:
1772:
1770:
1768:
1766:
1764:
1762:
1760:
1758:
1756:
1489:
1471:
1319:Tropical deforestation: In most cases of
74:, agriculture, industrial production and
6331:Estimates of historical world population
5489:Effects of climate change on agriculture
3871:
3672:
2814:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132419
2005:
2003:
2001:
1999:
1997:
1995:
1850:
1337:
1329:
1018:
930:
865:
453:
396:
350:
320:have severely disturbed at least 94% of
280:
138:
31:
6176:The world's 100 most threatened species
6171:The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates
3874:"Visions of a sustainable resource use"
2922:"The Panda's Forest: Biodiversity Loss"
1951:Millennium Ecological Assessment, 2005.
1786:
1784:
1739:
845:for thousands of species. They provide
276:
14:
6794:
5819:
5494:Effects of climate change on livestock
3509:
3324:
3239:
3237:
3006:
2928:from the original on 23 September 2011
2799:
2748:
2628:
2089:from the original on 7 November 2022.
2021:"Global forest loss increases in 2020"
1947:
1945:
1943:
1941:
1939:
1937:
1935:
1933:
1931:
1753:
1713:"Tierras Bajas Deforestation, Bolivia"
1014:
525:
211:cities also face degradation of their
6279:
5793:
4974:
4437:
4183:"Biodiversity: Extinction by numbers"
3774:
3772:
2101:
2099:
1992:
462:10 years after a forest fire occurred
6764:
5748:
5604:Tropical cyclones and climate change
4955:
4181:Pimm Stuart L.; Raven Peter (2000).
3274:
2284:Cross-Chapter Paper 6: Polar Regions
2068:from the original on 19 March 2017.
1781:
1555:from the original on 11 October 2011
1314:United Nations Environment Programme
1079:(such as a virus) of its habitatâby
917:of many species. More specifically,
348:remain from their original extents.
6700:Voluntary Human Extinction Movement
5637:Alternative fuel vehicle propulsion
4889:Voluntary Human Extinction Movement
4638:Extinction risk from climate change
3335:Dengue and Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever
3234:
2428:
2371:
1928:
762:Effects of climate change on biomes
579:socio-political factors (66%), and
24:
4074:Geist H. J.; Lambin E. E. (2002).
3769:
3570:from the original on 18 March 2021
3381:from the original on 25 April 2021
3295:from the original on 24 April 2021
3256:from the original on 15 April 2021
2835:Barbault & Sastrapradja, 1995.
2622:
2578:
2096:
2031:from the original on 1 April 2021.
2019:Butler, Rhett A. (31 March 2021).
1907:from the original on 30 March 2019
25:
6833:
6592:Population and Development Review
5284:pharmaceuticals and personal care
4315:. Vol. 3. pp. 453â485.
3886:10.9774/gleaf.978-1-907643-07-1_5
3853:from the original on 23 July 2021
3675:"Habitat and habitat destruction"
3647:from the original on 23 July 2021
3007:Travis, J. M. J. (7 March 2003).
2042:from the original on 27 May 2024.
1972:from the original on 23 July 2021
1635:from the original on 23 July 2021
1367:The preservation and creation of
1312:"Life Below Water". However, the
935:When a habitat is destroyed, the
751:
449:
187:. South and East Asiaâespecially
6776:
6775:
6763:
6640:Population concern organizations
6346:Projections of population growth
6254:Vulnerability and susceptibility
6142:Decline in amphibian populations
6024:
6023:
5759:
5758:
5747:
5435:decline in amphibian populations
5140:Deforestation and climate change
4954:
4945:
4944:
4910:Decline in amphibian populations
4879:IUCN Species Survival Commission
4532:
3990:10.1046/j.1526-100x.1999.72024.x
3942:10.1046/j.1365-2664.2003.00848.x
3486:10.1111/j.1365-2656.2006.01036.x
3082:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00841.x
2974:10.1111/j.1472-4642.2008.00486.x
2155:Allen, L.; Kelly, B. B. (2015).
2133:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00848.x
1826:10.1034/j.1600-0706.2003.12141.x
1683:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00208.x
1605:10.1111/j.0272-4332.2004.00485.x
871:This section is an excerpt from
824:decline of sea ice in the Arctic
786:
770:
661:
649:
635:Forest conversion to agriculture
541:Demographic drivers include the
430:, and loss of quality in the UK
6741:Human impact on the environment
6675:Population Action International
5569:Land surface effects on climate
5026:Environmental impact assessment
5002:Human impact on the environment
4585:Human impact on the environment
4165:Ecosystems and Human Well-Being
4058:from the original on 4 May 2018
3957:
3908:
3865:
3702:
3582:
3552:
3530:
3521:
3452:
3393:
3363:
3318:
3268:
3225:
3159:
3104:
2940:
2914:
2873:
2838:
2829:
2820:
2751:Global Ecology and Biogeography
2742:
2648:
2629:Aldred, Jessica (2 July 2014).
2483:
2300:
2276:
2232:
2191:
2148:
2012:
1983:
1954:
1919:
1889:
1880:
1871:
1862:
1723:. 16 April 2001. Archived from
1310:Sustainable Development Goal 14
1306:Sustainable Development Goal 15
947:, sometimes up to the level of
446:worldwide have been destroyed.
129:
6822:Environmental impact by effect
6690:United Nations Population Fund
6305:
5930:Conservation Dependent (LR/cd)
4565:Climate variability and change
4463:
1793:
1750:Cincotta & Engelman, 2000.
1705:
1387:Considering the irreplaceable
975:, once found in many areas of
909:), and human activity such as
474:Causes due to human activities
330:Tropical deciduous dry forests
221:Environmentally Sensitive Area
203:, and Japanâand many areas in
13:
1:
6234:Ecoregion conservation status
6137:Decline in insect populations
5440:decline in insect populations
4915:Decline in insect populations
4858:IUCN Red List extinct species
4157:10.1016/s0006-3207(03)00099-5
4136:10.1016/S0006-3207(99)00088-9
4016:
3721:(Supplement 1): 11579â11586.
2899:10.1080/19768354.2015.1028442
1391:provided by natural habitats.
1347:destruction is more extreme (
422:and temperatures have caused
256:Amazonian tropical rainforest
6229:Conservation-reliant species
4321:10.1007/978-1-4615-6784-4_11
3805:10.1016/j.oneear.2020.11.016
3427:10.1371/journal.pone.0063421
2867:10.1016/j.biocon.2005.04.009
2317:Geophysical Research Letters
2085:. Our World in Data (OWID).
1563:– via GeoScienceWorld.
1299:
1255:share of natural resources.
857: – which are
460:Grands-Jardins National Park
357:Kerinci Seblat National Park
134:
82:). Other activities include
7:
6715:World Population Foundation
6705:World Population Conference
6618:World population milestones
2953:Diversity and Distributions
2204:Endangered Species Research
1420:
693:to agriculture is the main
553:of people in a given area (
322:temperate broadleaf forests
10:
6838:
6812:Environmental conservation
6587:Population and Environment
5886:Critically Endangered (CR)
4479:Background extinction rate
3921:Journal of Applied Ecology
2826:Scholes & Biggs, 2004.
2461:10.1007/s11069-020-04064-y
1962:"File:Burnt forest GJ.jpg"
1868:Kauffman & Pyke, 2001.
1266:
1075:. Completely depriving an
925:
870:
793:Decline in arctic sea ice
777:Decline in arctic sea ice
755:
638:
543:expanding human population
492:infrastructure development
6817:Environmental terminology
6759:
6723:
6648:
6600:
6579:
6497:Human population planning
6462:
6408:
6359:
6321:Demographics of the world
6313:
6262:
6184:
6114:
6080:
6022:
5971:
5964:
5939:
5904:
5876:
5855:
5848:
5836:
5827:
5742:
5677:Environmental engineering
5627:
5524:Environmental degradation
5415:
5301:fishing down the food web
5078:
5008:
4940:
4897:
4866:
4843:
4801:End-Jurassic or Tithonian
4728:
4680:
4671:
4623:
4557:
4541:
4530:
4471:
4304:, Pretoria, South Africa.
4042:World Resources Institute
3872:Bringezu, Stefan (2009),
3687:10.1007/1-4020-4494-1_165
3624:10067/1418100151162165141
3465:Journal of Animal Ecology
3375:World Wildlife Foundation
2606:10.1017/9781009157940.005
2296:10.1017/9781009325844.023
2009:Geist & Lambin, 2002.
1115:, recreational uses like
758:Effects of climate change
726:construction of new roads
215:or other marine habitat.
6502:Compulsory sterilization
6194:Biodiversity action plan
5868:Extinct in the Wild (EW)
5682:Environmental mitigation
5539:Greenhouse gas emissions
5499:Environmental insecurity
4853:Lists of extinct species
2886:Animal Cells and Systems
2405:10.1175/jcli-d-19-0075.1
1458:(15). Wiley: 5784â5796.
1432:
891:population fragmentation
781:(area) from 1979 to 2022
683:infrastructure expansion
534:of habitat destruction.
145:deforestation in Bolivia
143:Satellite photograph of
72:use of natural resources
51:) occurs when a natural
6444:Malthusian growth model
5729:Sustainable consumption
5070:Social ecology (ethics)
4404:10.1126/science.1057544
4344:Environ Health Perspect
4145:Biological Conservation
4106:Biological Conservation
3807:– via Cell Press.
3736:10.1073/pnas.0801911105
3673:Morrison, M.L. (1999),
3527:Sanderson et al., 2002.
2847:Biological Conservation
2553:10.1073/pnas.0813291106
956:endangered bird species
903:one of the major causes
714:subsistence agriculture
669:world's habitable land.
240:sustainable agriculture
6571:Zero population growth
6566:Sustainable population
6490:Malthusian catastrophe
6449:Overshoot (population)
6326:Demographic transition
6244:Latent extinction risk
5672:Ecological engineering
5452:runaway climate change
4658:Latent extinction risk
4338:Tibbetts John (2006).
3564:NOAA Habitat Blueprint
3193:10.1126/sciadv.1500052
3025:10.1098/rspb.2002.2246
1721:NASA Earth Observatory
1343:
1335:
1321:tropical deforestation
1198:and immobilization of
1032:
839:Warm-water coral reefs
811:Climate change causes
679:agricultural expansion
508:coral reef degradation
482:from forests, etc. to
463:
411:
363:
286:
152:
37:
6680:Population Connection
6544:Mere addition paradox
6383:Physiological density
6129:Endangered arthropods
6125:Threatened arthropods
6047:Critically Endangered
5989:Critically Endangered
5055:List of global issues
4615:Paradox of enrichment
4504:Functional extinction
4494:Ecological extinction
3281:. OXFAM. p. 29.
2493:Ecological Monographs
1886:Ravenga et al., 2000.
1452:Ecology and Evolution
1408:globally, furthering
1341:
1333:
1279:The impending global
1182:, oxygen production,
1166:in the atmosphere by
1022:
983:in the 20th century.
931:On animals and plants
879:Habitat fragmentation
873:Habitat fragmentation
866:Habitat fragmentation
859:biodiversity hotspots
712:) cultivation (41%),
702:permanent cultivation
639:Further information:
560:biodiversity hotspots
457:
400:
354:
284:
156:Biodiversity hotspots
142:
120:habitat fragmentation
35:
6710:World Population Day
6665:Church of Euthanasia
6554:Non-identity problem
6529:Political demography
6485:Human overpopulation
6204:Conservation biology
6199:Biodiversity threats
5912:Near Threatened (NT)
5657:Community resilience
5457:in the United States
5425:Biodiversity threats
5098:cannabis cultivation
5065:Planetary boundaries
5031:Environmental issues
5021:Ecological footprint
4884:Extinction Rebellion
4826:PlioceneâPleistocene
4708:CretaceousâPaleogene
4653:Hypothetical species
4643:Extinction threshold
4600:Overabundant species
3518:Tilman et al., 2001.
3275:Bull, David (1982).
2338:10.1029/2019gl082791
1727:on 20 September 2008
1663:Conservation Biology
1228:loss of biodiversity
1176:watershed management
1000:extinction threshold
722:shifting cultivation
572:conservation efforts
551:spatial distribution
344:and less than 8% in
290:Tropical rainforests
277:By type of ecosystem
6559:Reproductive rights
6390:Population dynamics
6341:Population momentum
6239:Habitat destruction
6224:Conservation status
6042:Extinct in the Wild
5984:Extinct in the Wild
5947:Data Deficient (DD)
5719:Restoration ecology
5652:Climate engineering
5589:Ocean acidification
5579:Loss of green belts
5549:Holocene extinction
5544:Habitat destruction
5219:Environmental crime
4811:Cenomanian-Turonian
4756:CambrianâOrdovician
4688:OrdovicianâSilurian
4595:Mutational meltdown
4580:Habitat destruction
4499:Extinct in the wild
4396:2001Sci...292..281T
4356:10.1289/ehp.114-a40
4313:Current Ornithology
4249:2010Geo....38.1079S
4199:2000Natur.403..843P
4118:1999BCons..91..109L
4044:, Washington, D.C.
3982:1999ResEc...7..309H
3970:Restoration Ecology
3933:2003JApEc..40..815E
3797:2020OEart...3..672B
3727:2008PNAS..10511579E
3607:2017Ecol...98.1631L
3560:"Living Shorelines"
3477:2006JAnEc..75...64S
3418:2013PLoSO...863421G
3309:in Britain and the
3185:2015SciA....1E0052H
3129:2013Ecol...94.2688S
2965:2008DivDi..14..808E
2859:2005BCons.125..271B
2763:2019GloEB..28...33F
2728:2010Geo....38.1079S
2673:2018Ecosp...9E2488S
2546:(49): 20602â20609.
2505:2009EcoM...79...25D
2453:2020NatHa.103.2617Y
2396:2020JCli...33.1487S
2329:2019GeoRL..46.6980H
2124:2006EcolL...9..215D
1989:McKee et al., 2003.
1925:Burke et al., 2000.
1877:White et al., 2000.
1818:2003Oikos.101..354H
1790:Stein et al., 2000.
1675:2005ConBi..19..108W
1597:2004RiskA..24..869M
1541:2010Geo....38.1079S
1464:2017EcoEv...7.5784C
1353:restoration ecology
1308:"Life on Land" and
1212:agricultural runoff
1168:sequestering carbon
1160:plant transpiration
1057:water contamination
1015:On human population
945:populations decline
547:population increase
526:Overarching drivers
444:mangrove ecosystems
231:and its associated
41:Habitat destruction
6685:Population Matters
6400:Population pyramid
6378:Population density
6373:Population decline
5952:Not Evaluated (NE)
5940:Not fully assessed
5917:Least Concern (LC)
5821:Threatened species
5734:Waste minimization
5692:Mitigation banking
5687:Industrial ecology
5647:Cleaner production
5599:Resource depletion
5135:Corporate behavior
5093:animal agriculture
4297:2020-10-02 at the
4170:2016-06-10 at the
3545:2021-03-23 at the
2924:. 24 August 2011.
2384:Journal of Climate
2309:Holland, Marika M.
1389:ecosystem services
1377:conservation areas
1344:
1336:
1204:nutrient recycling
1188:pollinator decline
1156:climate regulation
1132:ecosystem services
1101:nutrient depletion
1033:
992:generalist species
851:coastal protection
847:ecosystem services
623:, lawlessness, or
564:threatened species
464:
412:
392:tallgrass prairies
364:
287:
252:Sub-Saharan Africa
153:
124:endangered species
108:nutrient depletion
38:
6789:
6788:
6660:7 Billion Actions
6534:Population ethics
6427:Carrying capacity
6336:Population growth
6273:
6272:
6219:Bird conservation
6110:
6109:
6106:
6105:
5960:
5959:
5787:
5786:
5609:Water degradation
5484:Ecological crisis
5430:biodiversity loss
5229:Industrialisation
5214:Genetic pollution
5060:Impact assessment
4968:
4967:
4920:Extinction symbol
4839:
4838:
4703:TriassicâJurassic
4673:Extinction events
4549:Extinction vortex
4509:Genetic pollution
4390:(5515): 281â284.
4330:978-1-4615-6786-8
4243:(12): 1079â1082.
4193:(6772): 843â845.
3895:978-1-907643-07-1
3137:10.1890/13-0977.1
3123:(12): 2688â2696.
3019:(1514): 467â473.
2771:10.1111/geb.12839
2722:(12): 1079â1082.
2682:10.1002/ecs2.2488
2615:978-1-009-15794-0
2597:eradicate poverty
2513:10.1890/07-2089.1
2323:(12): 6980â6989.
2217:10.3354/esr002021
2176:978-0-309-32485-4
1535:(12): 1079â1082.
1473:10.1002/ece3.2977
1369:habitat corridors
1202:pollutants), and
1180:nitrogen fixation
1053:spread of disease
1037:natural disasters
1029:Hurricane Katrina
988:species diversity
937:carrying capacity
813:rising sea levels
797:from 1979 to 2022
708:(46%), shifting (
691:forest conversion
593:industrial growth
585:commercialization
438:, pollution, and
420:rising sea levels
384:deciduous forests
326:old growth forest
61:biodiversity loss
49:habitat reduction
16:(Redirected from
6829:
6779:
6778:
6767:
6766:
6736:Green Revolution
6517:Two-child policy
6512:One-child policy
6435:
6395:Population model
6351:World population
6300:
6293:
6286:
6277:
6276:
6027:
6026:
5969:
5968:
5853:
5852:
5846:
5845:
5814:
5807:
5800:
5791:
5790:
5762:
5761:
5751:
5750:
5584:Phosphorus cycle
5564:Land consumption
5559:Land degradation
5534:Freshwater cycle
5333:Overexploitation
5306:marine pollution
5113:cocoa production
4995:
4988:
4981:
4972:
4971:
4958:
4957:
4948:
4947:
4925:Human extinction
4816:EoceneâOligocene
4698:PermianâTriassic
4678:
4677:
4648:Field of Bullets
4605:Overexploitation
4590:Muller's ratchet
4575:Invasive species
4536:
4524:Pseudoextinction
4519:Local extinction
4458:
4451:
4444:
4435:
4434:
4423:
4377:
4367:
4334:
4287:
4285:
4260:
4257:10.1130/G31182.1
4228:
4210:
4208:10.1038/35002708
4160:
4139:
4129:
4112:(2â3): 109â117.
4097:
4095:
4067:
4065:
4063:
4010:
4009:
3961:
3955:
3954:
3944:
3912:
3906:
3905:
3904:
3902:
3869:
3863:
3862:
3860:
3858:
3818:
3809:
3808:
3776:
3767:
3766:
3756:
3738:
3706:
3700:
3699:
3670:
3657:
3656:
3654:
3652:
3626:
3615:10.1002/ecy.1830
3601:(6): 1631â1639.
3586:
3580:
3579:
3577:
3575:
3556:
3550:
3534:
3528:
3525:
3519:
3516:
3507:
3506:
3488:
3456:
3450:
3449:
3439:
3429:
3397:
3391:
3390:
3388:
3386:
3371:"Valuing nature"
3367:
3361:
3360:
3354:
3352:
3322:
3316:
3315:
3302:
3300:
3272:
3266:
3265:
3263:
3261:
3250:Resources Report
3241:
3232:
3229:
3223:
3222:
3212:
3173:Science Advances
3163:
3157:
3156:
3108:
3102:
3101:
3061:
3055:
3054:
3044:
3004:
2995:
2994:
2976:
2944:
2938:
2937:
2935:
2933:
2918:
2912:
2911:
2901:
2877:
2871:
2870:
2842:
2836:
2833:
2827:
2824:
2818:
2817:
2797:
2791:
2790:
2746:
2740:
2739:
2736:10.1130/G31182.1
2713:
2704:
2695:
2694:
2684:
2652:
2646:
2645:
2643:
2641:
2626:
2620:
2619:
2592:
2582:
2576:
2575:
2565:
2555:
2531:
2525:
2524:
2487:
2481:
2480:
2447:(2): 2617â2621.
2432:
2426:
2425:
2407:
2390:(4): 1487â1503.
2375:
2369:
2368:
2350:
2340:
2304:
2298:
2280:
2274:
2273:
2236:
2230:
2229:
2219:
2195:
2189:
2188:
2152:
2146:
2145:
2135:
2103:
2094:
2093:
2079:
2073:
2072:
2067:
2060:
2051:
2045:
2043:
2032:
2016:
2010:
2007:
1990:
1987:
1981:
1980:
1979:
1977:
1958:
1952:
1949:
1926:
1923:
1917:
1916:
1914:
1912:
1901:AZoCleantech.com
1893:
1887:
1884:
1878:
1875:
1869:
1866:
1860:
1857:
1848:
1847:
1837:
1797:
1791:
1788:
1779:
1776:
1751:
1748:
1737:
1736:
1734:
1732:
1709:
1703:
1702:
1654:
1645:
1644:
1642:
1640:
1576:
1565:
1564:
1562:
1560:
1549:10.1130/G31182.1
1526:
1517:
1504:
1503:
1493:
1475:
1443:
1402:human population
1351:or patch loss),
1260:opportunity cost
1170:dioxide through
1164:greenhouse gases
1077:infectious agent
996:Invasive species
790:
774:
665:
653:
605:land development
440:invasive species
432:marine ecosystem
428:coastal flooding
410:nesting beaches.
374:, which include
104:invasive species
21:
6837:
6836:
6832:
6831:
6830:
6828:
6827:
6826:
6792:
6791:
6790:
6785:
6755:
6719:
6653:
6651:
6644:
6596:
6575:
6524:Overconsumption
6507:Family planning
6464:
6458:
6431:
6415:
6412:
6404:
6366:
6363:
6355:
6309:
6304:
6274:
6269:
6258:
6180:
6102:
6076:
6062:Near Threatened
6018:
6004:Near Threatened
5956:
5935:
5923:Lower Risk (LR)
5900:
5896:Vulnerable (VU)
5891:Endangered (EN)
5872:
5832:
5823:
5818:
5788:
5783:
5738:
5697:Organic farming
5623:
5614:Water pollution
5594:Ozone depletion
5574:Loss and damage
5474:Desertification
5411:
5323:Overconsumption
5244:cleaning agents
5145:Energy industry
5108:meat production
5074:
5004:
4999:
4969:
4964:
4936:
4893:
4862:
4845:Extinct species
4835:
4791:Carnian Pluvial
4736:Great Oxidation
4724:
4667:
4633:Extinction debt
4625:
4619:
4570:Genetic erosion
4553:
4537:
4528:
4467:
4462:
4432:
4331:
4299:Wayback Machine
4276:(10): 891â904.
4172:Wayback Machine
4127:10.1.1.501.3004
4061:
4059:
4052:
4019:
4014:
4013:
3962:
3958:
3913:
3909:
3900:
3898:
3896:
3870:
3866:
3856:
3854:
3839:10.1890/03-0607
3819:
3812:
3777:
3770:
3707:
3703:
3697:
3671:
3660:
3650:
3648:
3587:
3583:
3573:
3571:
3558:
3557:
3553:
3547:Wayback Machine
3535:
3531:
3526:
3522:
3517:
3510:
3457:
3453:
3398:
3394:
3384:
3382:
3369:
3368:
3364:
3350:
3348:
3346:
3323:
3319:
3311:Pontine marshes
3298:
3296:
3289:
3273:
3269:
3259:
3257:
3242:
3235:
3231:Tibbetts, 2006.
3230:
3226:
3179:(2): e1500052.
3164:
3160:
3109:
3105:
3070:Ecology Letters
3062:
3058:
3005:
2998:
2945:
2941:
2931:
2929:
2920:
2919:
2915:
2878:
2874:
2843:
2839:
2834:
2830:
2825:
2821:
2798:
2794:
2747:
2743:
2711:
2705:
2698:
2653:
2649:
2639:
2637:
2627:
2623:
2616:
2590:
2583:
2579:
2532:
2528:
2488:
2484:
2441:Natural Hazards
2433:
2429:
2376:
2372:
2305:
2301:
2281:
2277:
2237:
2233:
2196:
2192:
2177:
2153:
2149:
2112:Ecology Letters
2104:
2097:
2081:
2080:
2076:
2065:
2058:
2052:
2048:
2034:
2017:
2013:
2008:
1993:
1988:
1984:
1975:
1973:
1960:
1959:
1955:
1950:
1929:
1924:
1920:
1910:
1908:
1903:. 8 June 2015.
1895:
1894:
1890:
1885:
1881:
1876:
1872:
1867:
1863:
1859:Laurance, 1999.
1858:
1851:
1798:
1794:
1789:
1782:
1777:
1754:
1749:
1740:
1730:
1728:
1711:
1710:
1706:
1655:
1648:
1638:
1636:
1577:
1568:
1558:
1556:
1524:
1518:
1507:
1444:
1440:
1435:
1423:
1410:gender equality
1361:family planning
1355:may be needed.
1302:
1269:
1192:waste treatment
1017:
965:extinction debt
933:
928:
923:
922:
911:land conversion
895:ecosystem decay
876:
868:
802:
801:
800:
799:
798:
791:
783:
782:
775:
764:
754:
706:cattle ranching
687:wood extraction
674:
673:
672:
671:
670:
666:
658:
657:
654:
643:
637:
617:property rights
609:economic growth
528:
500:Desertification
480:land conversion
476:
452:
388:desertification
338:cattle ranching
279:
248:Central America
137:
132:
116:noise pollution
57:species numbers
28:
23:
22:
18:Loss of habitat
15:
12:
11:
5:
6835:
6825:
6824:
6819:
6814:
6809:
6804:
6787:
6786:
6784:
6783:
6773:
6760:
6757:
6756:
6754:
6753:
6751:Sustainability
6748:
6743:
6738:
6733:
6727:
6725:
6724:Related topics
6721:
6720:
6718:
6717:
6712:
6707:
6702:
6697:
6692:
6687:
6682:
6677:
6672:
6667:
6662:
6656:
6654:
6649:
6646:
6645:
6643:
6642:
6637:
6636:
6635:
6630:
6625:
6615:
6613:Largest cities
6610:
6604:
6602:
6598:
6597:
6595:
6594:
6589:
6583:
6581:
6577:
6576:
6574:
6573:
6568:
6563:
6562:
6561:
6556:
6551:
6546:
6541:
6531:
6526:
6521:
6520:
6519:
6514:
6509:
6504:
6494:
6493:
6492:
6482:
6474:
6468:
6466:
6460:
6459:
6457:
6456:
6451:
6446:
6441:
6436:
6433:I = P Ă Aâ Ă T
6429:
6424:
6418:
6416:
6409:
6406:
6405:
6403:
6402:
6397:
6392:
6387:
6386:
6385:
6375:
6369:
6367:
6360:
6357:
6356:
6354:
6353:
6348:
6343:
6338:
6333:
6328:
6323:
6317:
6315:
6311:
6310:
6303:
6302:
6295:
6288:
6280:
6271:
6270:
6263:
6260:
6259:
6257:
6256:
6251:
6246:
6241:
6236:
6231:
6226:
6221:
6216:
6211:
6206:
6201:
6196:
6190:
6188:
6182:
6181:
6179:
6178:
6173:
6168:
6144:
6139:
6121:
6119:
6112:
6111:
6108:
6107:
6104:
6103:
6101:
6100:
6095:
6090:
6084:
6082:
6078:
6077:
6075:
6074:
6072:Data Deficient
6069:
6064:
6059:
6054:
6049:
6044:
6039:
6033:
6031:
6020:
6019:
6017:
6016:
6014:Data Deficient
6011:
6006:
6001:
5996:
5991:
5986:
5981:
5975:
5973:
5966:
5962:
5961:
5958:
5957:
5955:
5954:
5949:
5943:
5941:
5937:
5936:
5934:
5933:
5926:
5919:
5914:
5908:
5906:
5902:
5901:
5899:
5898:
5893:
5888:
5882:
5880:
5874:
5873:
5871:
5870:
5865:
5859:
5857:
5850:
5843:
5834:
5833:
5828:
5825:
5824:
5817:
5816:
5809:
5802:
5794:
5785:
5784:
5782:
5781:
5776:
5771:
5766:
5755:
5743:
5740:
5739:
5737:
5736:
5731:
5726:
5724:Sustainability
5721:
5716:
5715:
5714:
5704:
5699:
5694:
5689:
5684:
5679:
5674:
5669:
5664:
5659:
5654:
5649:
5644:
5639:
5633:
5631:
5625:
5624:
5622:
5621:
5619:Water scarcity
5616:
5611:
5606:
5601:
5596:
5591:
5586:
5581:
5576:
5571:
5566:
5561:
5556:
5554:Nitrogen cycle
5551:
5546:
5541:
5536:
5531:
5526:
5521:
5519:Forest dieback
5516:
5511:
5506:
5501:
5496:
5491:
5486:
5481:
5476:
5471:
5466:
5461:
5460:
5459:
5454:
5447:Climate change
5444:
5443:
5442:
5437:
5432:
5421:
5419:
5413:
5412:
5410:
5409:
5404:
5403:
5402:
5392:
5391:
5390:
5385:
5380:
5375:
5365:
5360:
5355:
5350:
5345:
5340:
5335:
5330:
5325:
5320:
5315:
5314:
5313:
5308:
5303:
5298:
5288:
5287:
5286:
5281:
5276:
5271:
5266:
5264:nanotechnology
5261:
5256:
5251:
5246:
5236:
5231:
5226:
5221:
5216:
5211:
5210:
5209:
5204:
5199:
5194:
5189:
5184:
5179:
5169:
5168:
5167:
5162:
5157:
5152:
5142:
5137:
5132:
5127:
5126:
5125:
5120:
5115:
5110:
5105:
5100:
5095:
5084:
5082:
5076:
5075:
5073:
5072:
5067:
5062:
5057:
5052:
5051:
5050:
5048:on marine life
5040:
5039:
5038:
5036:list of issues
5028:
5023:
5018:
5012:
5010:
5006:
5005:
4998:
4997:
4990:
4983:
4975:
4966:
4965:
4963:
4962:
4952:
4941:
4938:
4937:
4935:
4934:
4927:
4922:
4917:
4912:
4907:
4901:
4899:
4895:
4894:
4892:
4891:
4886:
4881:
4876:
4870:
4868:
4864:
4863:
4861:
4860:
4855:
4849:
4847:
4841:
4840:
4837:
4836:
4834:
4833:
4828:
4823:
4821:Middle Miocene
4818:
4813:
4808:
4803:
4798:
4793:
4788:
4786:End-Capitanian
4783:
4778:
4773:
4768:
4763:
4758:
4753:
4748:
4743:
4738:
4732:
4730:
4726:
4725:
4723:
4722:
4721:
4720:
4710:
4705:
4700:
4695:
4690:
4684:
4682:
4675:
4669:
4668:
4666:
4665:
4660:
4655:
4650:
4645:
4640:
4635:
4629:
4627:
4621:
4620:
4618:
4617:
4612:
4607:
4602:
4597:
4592:
4587:
4582:
4577:
4572:
4567:
4561:
4559:
4555:
4554:
4552:
4551:
4545:
4543:
4539:
4538:
4531:
4529:
4527:
4526:
4521:
4516:
4511:
4506:
4501:
4496:
4491:
4486:
4481:
4475:
4473:
4469:
4468:
4461:
4460:
4453:
4446:
4438:
4431:
4430:
4427:
4424:
4378:
4350:(1): A40âA43.
4335:
4329:
4308:
4305:
4288:
4261:
4232:
4229:
4178:
4175:
4161:
4140:
4101:
4098:
4086:(2): 143â150.
4071:
4068:
4050:
4031:
4020:
4018:
4015:
4012:
4011:
3976:(3): 309â315.
3956:
3927:(5): 815â823.
3907:
3894:
3864:
3833:(2): 466â475.
3810:
3791:(6): 672â676.
3768:
3701:
3695:
3658:
3581:
3551:
3529:
3520:
3508:
3451:
3392:
3362:
3344:
3330:Farrar, Jeremy
3317:
3287:
3267:
3233:
3224:
3158:
3103:
3056:
2996:
2959:(5): 808â817.
2939:
2913:
2872:
2837:
2828:
2819:
2792:
2741:
2696:
2647:
2621:
2614:
2577:
2526:
2482:
2427:
2370:
2299:
2275:
2248:(2): 173â183.
2231:
2190:
2175:
2167:10.17226/19401
2147:
2118:(2): 215â227.
2095:
2074:
2046:
2011:
1991:
1982:
1953:
1927:
1918:
1888:
1879:
1870:
1861:
1849:
1812:(2): 354â366.
1792:
1780:
1778:Primack, 2006.
1752:
1738:
1704:
1669:(1): 108â121.
1646:
1591:(4): 869â878.
1566:
1505:
1437:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1430:
1429:
1422:
1419:
1414:
1413:
1398:
1395:
1392:
1301:
1298:
1268:
1265:
1224:climate change
1220:carbon dioxide
1172:photosynthesis
1152:climate change
1016:
1013:
932:
929:
927:
924:
877:
869:
867:
864:
863:
862:
836:
816:
805:Climate change
792:
785:
784:
776:
769:
768:
767:
766:
765:
753:
752:Climate change
750:
710:slash and burn
667:
660:
659:
655:
648:
647:
646:
645:
644:
636:
633:
589:timber markets
587:and growth of
527:
524:
475:
472:
451:
450:Natural causes
448:
403:Chelonia mydas
334:clear and burn
332:are easier to
278:
275:
136:
133:
131:
128:
96:climate change
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6834:
6823:
6820:
6818:
6815:
6813:
6810:
6808:
6805:
6803:
6800:
6799:
6797:
6782:
6774:
6772:
6771:
6762:
6761:
6758:
6752:
6749:
6747:
6744:
6742:
6739:
6737:
6734:
6732:
6731:Bennett's law
6729:
6728:
6726:
6722:
6716:
6713:
6711:
6708:
6706:
6703:
6701:
6698:
6696:
6693:
6691:
6688:
6686:
6683:
6681:
6678:
6676:
6673:
6671:
6668:
6666:
6663:
6661:
6658:
6657:
6655:
6652:organizations
6647:
6641:
6638:
6634:
6631:
6629:
6626:
6624:
6621:
6620:
6619:
6616:
6614:
6611:
6609:
6606:
6605:
6603:
6599:
6593:
6590:
6588:
6585:
6584:
6582:
6578:
6572:
6569:
6567:
6564:
6560:
6557:
6555:
6552:
6550:
6547:
6545:
6542:
6540:
6537:
6536:
6535:
6532:
6530:
6527:
6525:
6522:
6518:
6515:
6513:
6510:
6508:
6505:
6503:
6500:
6499:
6498:
6495:
6491:
6488:
6487:
6486:
6483:
6481:
6479:
6475:
6473:
6470:
6469:
6467:
6461:
6455:
6452:
6450:
6447:
6445:
6442:
6440:
6439:Kaya identity
6437:
6434:
6430:
6428:
6425:
6423:
6420:
6419:
6417:
6414:
6407:
6401:
6398:
6396:
6393:
6391:
6388:
6384:
6381:
6380:
6379:
6376:
6374:
6371:
6370:
6368:
6365:
6358:
6352:
6349:
6347:
6344:
6342:
6339:
6337:
6334:
6332:
6329:
6327:
6324:
6322:
6319:
6318:
6316:
6312:
6308:
6301:
6296:
6294:
6289:
6287:
6282:
6281:
6278:
6267:
6261:
6255:
6252:
6250:
6247:
6245:
6242:
6240:
6237:
6235:
6232:
6230:
6227:
6225:
6222:
6220:
6217:
6215:
6212:
6210:
6207:
6205:
6202:
6200:
6197:
6195:
6192:
6191:
6189:
6187:
6183:
6177:
6174:
6172:
6169:
6167:
6163:
6159:
6155:
6151:
6150:
6145:
6143:
6140:
6138:
6135: /
6134:
6130:
6126:
6123:
6122:
6120:
6118:
6113:
6099:
6096:
6094:
6091:
6089:
6086:
6085:
6083:
6079:
6073:
6070:
6068:
6067:Least Concern
6065:
6063:
6060:
6058:
6055:
6053:
6050:
6048:
6045:
6043:
6040:
6038:
6035:
6034:
6032:
6030:
6029:WP categories
6021:
6015:
6012:
6010:
6009:Least Concern
6007:
6005:
6002:
6000:
5997:
5995:
5992:
5990:
5987:
5985:
5982:
5980:
5977:
5976:
5974:
5970:
5967:
5963:
5953:
5950:
5948:
5945:
5944:
5942:
5938:
5932:
5931:
5927:
5925:
5924:
5920:
5918:
5915:
5913:
5910:
5909:
5907:
5903:
5897:
5894:
5892:
5889:
5887:
5884:
5883:
5881:
5879:
5875:
5869:
5866:
5864:
5861:
5860:
5858:
5854:
5851:
5847:
5844:
5842:
5839:
5835:
5831:
5826:
5822:
5815:
5810:
5808:
5803:
5801:
5796:
5795:
5792:
5780:
5777:
5775:
5772:
5770:
5767:
5765:
5756:
5754:
5745:
5744:
5741:
5735:
5732:
5730:
5727:
5725:
5722:
5720:
5717:
5713:
5710:
5709:
5708:
5707:Reforestation
5705:
5703:
5700:
5698:
5695:
5693:
5690:
5688:
5685:
5683:
5680:
5678:
5675:
5673:
5670:
5668:
5665:
5663:
5662:Cultured meat
5660:
5658:
5655:
5653:
5650:
5648:
5645:
5643:
5642:Birth control
5640:
5638:
5635:
5634:
5632:
5630:
5626:
5620:
5617:
5615:
5612:
5610:
5607:
5605:
5602:
5600:
5597:
5595:
5592:
5590:
5587:
5585:
5582:
5580:
5577:
5575:
5572:
5570:
5567:
5565:
5562:
5560:
5557:
5555:
5552:
5550:
5547:
5545:
5542:
5540:
5537:
5535:
5532:
5530:
5527:
5525:
5522:
5520:
5517:
5515:
5512:
5510:
5507:
5505:
5502:
5500:
5497:
5495:
5492:
5490:
5487:
5485:
5482:
5480:
5477:
5475:
5472:
5470:
5467:
5465:
5464:Deforestation
5462:
5458:
5455:
5453:
5450:
5449:
5448:
5445:
5441:
5438:
5436:
5433:
5431:
5428:
5427:
5426:
5423:
5422:
5420:
5418:
5414:
5408:
5405:
5401:
5398:
5397:
5396:
5393:
5389:
5386:
5384:
5381:
5379:
5376:
5374:
5371:
5370:
5369:
5366:
5364:
5361:
5359:
5356:
5354:
5351:
5349:
5346:
5344:
5341:
5339:
5336:
5334:
5331:
5329:
5326:
5324:
5321:
5319:
5316:
5312:
5309:
5307:
5304:
5302:
5299:
5297:
5294:
5293:
5292:
5289:
5285:
5282:
5280:
5277:
5275:
5272:
5270:
5267:
5265:
5262:
5260:
5257:
5255:
5252:
5250:
5247:
5245:
5242:
5241:
5240:
5239:Manufacturing
5237:
5235:
5232:
5230:
5227:
5225:
5222:
5220:
5217:
5215:
5212:
5208:
5205:
5203:
5200:
5198:
5195:
5193:
5190:
5188:
5187:nuclear power
5185:
5183:
5182:fracking (US)
5180:
5178:
5175:
5174:
5173:
5170:
5166:
5163:
5161:
5158:
5156:
5153:
5151:
5148:
5147:
5146:
5143:
5141:
5138:
5136:
5133:
5131:
5128:
5124:
5121:
5119:
5116:
5114:
5111:
5109:
5106:
5104:
5101:
5099:
5096:
5094:
5091:
5090:
5089:
5086:
5085:
5083:
5081:
5077:
5071:
5068:
5066:
5063:
5061:
5058:
5056:
5053:
5049:
5046:
5045:
5044:
5041:
5037:
5034:
5033:
5032:
5029:
5027:
5024:
5022:
5019:
5017:
5014:
5013:
5011:
5007:
5003:
4996:
4991:
4989:
4984:
4982:
4977:
4976:
4973:
4961:
4953:
4951:
4943:
4942:
4939:
4933:
4932:
4928:
4926:
4923:
4921:
4918:
4916:
4913:
4911:
4908:
4906:
4903:
4902:
4900:
4896:
4890:
4887:
4885:
4882:
4880:
4877:
4875:
4872:
4871:
4869:
4867:Organizations
4865:
4859:
4856:
4854:
4851:
4850:
4848:
4846:
4842:
4832:
4829:
4827:
4824:
4822:
4819:
4817:
4814:
4812:
4809:
4807:
4804:
4802:
4799:
4797:
4794:
4792:
4789:
4787:
4784:
4782:
4779:
4777:
4776:Carboniferous
4774:
4772:
4769:
4767:
4764:
4762:
4759:
4757:
4754:
4752:
4749:
4747:
4744:
4742:
4741:End-Ediacaran
4739:
4737:
4734:
4733:
4731:
4727:
4719:
4716:
4715:
4714:
4711:
4709:
4706:
4704:
4701:
4699:
4696:
4694:
4693:Late Devonian
4691:
4689:
4686:
4685:
4683:
4679:
4676:
4674:
4670:
4664:
4663:Living fossil
4661:
4659:
4656:
4654:
4651:
4649:
4646:
4644:
4641:
4639:
4636:
4634:
4631:
4630:
4628:
4622:
4616:
4613:
4611:
4608:
4606:
4603:
4601:
4598:
4596:
4593:
4591:
4588:
4586:
4583:
4581:
4578:
4576:
4573:
4571:
4568:
4566:
4563:
4562:
4560:
4556:
4550:
4547:
4546:
4544:
4540:
4535:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4514:Lazarus taxon
4512:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4497:
4495:
4492:
4490:
4489:De-extinction
4487:
4485:
4482:
4480:
4477:
4476:
4474:
4470:
4466:
4459:
4454:
4452:
4447:
4445:
4440:
4439:
4436:
4428:
4425:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4409:
4405:
4401:
4397:
4393:
4389:
4385:
4379:
4375:
4371:
4366:
4361:
4357:
4353:
4349:
4345:
4341:
4336:
4332:
4326:
4322:
4318:
4314:
4309:
4306:
4303:
4300:
4296:
4293:
4289:
4284:
4279:
4275:
4271:
4267:
4262:
4258:
4254:
4250:
4246:
4242:
4238:
4233:
4230:
4226:
4222:
4218:
4214:
4209:
4204:
4200:
4196:
4192:
4188:
4184:
4179:
4176:
4173:
4169:
4166:
4162:
4158:
4154:
4150:
4146:
4141:
4137:
4133:
4128:
4123:
4119:
4115:
4111:
4107:
4102:
4099:
4094:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4077:
4072:
4069:
4057:
4053:
4051:9781569734582
4047:
4043:
4039:
4038:
4032:
4030:
4029:9780521564816
4026:
4022:
4021:
4007:
4003:
3999:
3995:
3991:
3987:
3983:
3979:
3975:
3971:
3967:
3960:
3952:
3948:
3943:
3938:
3934:
3930:
3926:
3922:
3918:
3911:
3897:
3891:
3887:
3883:
3879:
3875:
3868:
3852:
3848:
3844:
3840:
3836:
3832:
3828:
3824:
3817:
3815:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3775:
3773:
3764:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3746:
3742:
3737:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3705:
3698:
3696:0-412-74050-8
3692:
3688:
3684:
3680:
3676:
3669:
3667:
3665:
3663:
3646:
3642:
3638:
3634:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3592:
3585:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3555:
3549:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3533:
3524:
3515:
3513:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3478:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3462:
3455:
3447:
3443:
3438:
3433:
3428:
3423:
3419:
3415:
3412:(5): e63421.
3411:
3407:
3403:
3396:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3366:
3359:
3347:
3345:9781845939649
3341:
3337:
3336:
3331:
3327:
3321:
3314:
3312:
3308:
3294:
3290:
3288:9780855980641
3284:
3280:
3279:
3271:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3240:
3238:
3228:
3220:
3216:
3211:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3162:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3107:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3060:
3052:
3048:
3043:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3003:
3001:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2975:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2943:
2927:
2923:
2917:
2909:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2876:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2841:
2832:
2823:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2796:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2745:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2710:
2703:
2701:
2692:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2651:
2636:
2632:
2625:
2617:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2598:
2589:
2581:
2573:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2530:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2486:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2431:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2406:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2374:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2303:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2279:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2235:
2227:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2194:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2159:
2151:
2143:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2102:
2100:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2078:
2071:
2064:
2057:
2050:
2041:
2037:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2015:
2006:
2004:
2002:
2000:
1998:
1996:
1986:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1957:
1948:
1946:
1944:
1942:
1940:
1938:
1936:
1934:
1932:
1922:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1892:
1883:
1874:
1865:
1856:
1854:
1845:
1841:
1836:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1796:
1787:
1785:
1775:
1773:
1771:
1769:
1767:
1765:
1763:
1761:
1759:
1757:
1747:
1745:
1743:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1708:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1653:
1651:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1585:Risk Analysis
1582:
1575:
1573:
1571:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1523:
1516:
1514:
1512:
1510:
1501:
1497:
1492:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1474:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1442:
1438:
1428:
1425:
1424:
1418:
1411:
1407:
1406:contraception
1403:
1399:
1396:
1393:
1390:
1386:
1385:
1384:
1380:
1378:
1372:
1370:
1365:
1362:
1356:
1354:
1350:
1349:fragmentation
1340:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1322:
1317:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1297:
1295:
1291:
1286:
1282:
1277:
1274:
1264:
1261:
1256:
1254:
1250:
1244:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1215:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1196:breaking down
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1136:carbon cycles
1133:
1128:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1084:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1030:
1026:
1021:
1012:
1009:
1003:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
984:
982:
981:deforestation
978:
974:
970:
966:
961:
957:
952:
950:
946:
942:
938:
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
900:
896:
892:
888:
884:
880:
874:
860:
856:
852:
848:
844:
840:
837:
834:
830:
825:
821:
817:
814:
810:
809:
808:
806:
796:
789:
780:
773:
763:
759:
749:
745:
743:
739:
735:
729:
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
707:
703:
699:
696:
692:
688:
684:
680:
664:
652:
642:
641:Deforestation
632:
630:
629:wood industry
626:
625:mismanagement
622:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
601:deforestation
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
576:
573:
569:
565:
561:
556:
552:
548:
544:
539:
537:
533:
523:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
504:deforestation
501:
497:
493:
489:
485:
481:
471:
469:
461:
456:
447:
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
416:
409:
405:
404:
399:
395:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
362:
358:
353:
349:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
310:Deforestation
307:
303:
300:Other forest
298:
296:
295:deforestation
291:
283:
274:
270:
268:
264:
259:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
238:Regions of un
236:
234:
230:
229:Caribbean Sea
226:
225:South America
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
169:
165:
161:
157:
150:
146:
141:
127:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
68:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
43:(also termed
42:
34:
30:
19:
6768:
6580:Publications
6539:Antinatalism
6477:
6454:World3 model
6314:Major topics
6265:
6249:Rare species
6238:
6186:Conservation
6164: /
6160: /
6156: /
6152: /
6148:
6131: /
6127: /
6098:Appendix III
5928:
5921:
5863:Extinct (EX)
5543:
5400:urban sprawl
5395:Urbanization
5343:Particulates
5328:Overdrafting
5043:Human impact
5016:Anthropocene
4929:
4905:Anthropocene
4746:End-Botomian
4626:and concepts
4579:
4484:Coextinction
4387:
4383:
4347:
4343:
4312:
4273:
4269:
4240:
4236:
4190:
4186:
4148:
4144:
4109:
4105:
4083:
4079:
4060:. Retrieved
4036:
3973:
3969:
3959:
3924:
3920:
3910:
3899:, retrieved
3877:
3867:
3855:. Retrieved
3830:
3826:
3788:
3784:
3718:
3714:
3704:
3678:
3649:. Retrieved
3598:
3594:
3584:
3572:. Retrieved
3563:
3554:
3537:
3532:
3523:
3471:(1): 64â79.
3468:
3464:
3454:
3409:
3405:
3395:
3383:. Retrieved
3374:
3365:
3356:
3351:30 September
3349:. Retrieved
3334:
3326:Reiter, Paul
3320:
3304:
3297:. Retrieved
3277:
3270:
3258:. Retrieved
3249:
3227:
3176:
3172:
3161:
3120:
3116:
3106:
3076:(1): 72â77.
3073:
3069:
3059:
3016:
3012:
2956:
2952:
2942:
2930:. Retrieved
2916:
2889:
2885:
2875:
2850:
2846:
2840:
2831:
2822:
2805:
2801:
2795:
2757:(1): 33â41.
2754:
2750:
2744:
2719:
2715:
2664:
2660:
2650:
2638:. Retrieved
2635:The Guardian
2634:
2624:
2595:
2580:
2543:
2539:
2529:
2499:(1): 25â58.
2496:
2492:
2485:
2444:
2440:
2430:
2387:
2383:
2373:
2348:10150/634665
2320:
2316:
2302:
2278:
2245:
2241:
2234:
2207:
2203:
2193:
2157:
2150:
2115:
2111:
2090:
2077:
2069:
2049:
2033:â Data from
2024:
2014:
1985:
1974:, retrieved
1965:
1956:
1921:
1909:. Retrieved
1900:
1891:
1882:
1873:
1864:
1809:
1805:
1795:
1729:. Retrieved
1725:the original
1716:
1707:
1666:
1662:
1637:. Retrieved
1588:
1584:
1557:. Retrieved
1532:
1528:
1455:
1451:
1441:
1415:
1381:
1373:
1366:
1357:
1345:
1325:
1318:
1303:
1278:
1270:
1257:
1252:
1248:
1245:
1216:
1144:algal blooms
1129:
1113:birdwatching
1109:urbanization
1093:salinization
1085:
1049:crop failure
1034:
1004:
985:
953:
934:
803:
794:
778:
746:
730:
675:
613:colonization
603:policies on
577:
568:biodiversity
540:
531:
529:
488:urban sprawl
477:
465:
424:soil erosion
413:
408:green turtle
401:
365:
299:
288:
271:
260:
237:
158:are chiefly
154:
151:cultivation.
130:Observations
106:, ecosystem
100:introduction
80:urban sprawl
76:urbanization
69:
63:and species
48:
45:habitat loss
44:
40:
39:
29:
6463:Society and
6422:Biocapacity
6147:Threatened
6093:Appendix II
5514:Externality
5509:Coral reefs
5469:Defaunation
5338:Overgrazing
5311:overfishing
5291:Marine life
5165:electricity
5088:Agriculture
4751:Dresbachian
4151:: 161â164.
4062:19 February
3541:. Nairobi.
2932:6 September
2808:: 487â515.
1911:12 December
1835:10261/51883
1559:29 November
1290:degradation
1285:fertilizers
1281:food crisis
1194:(i.e., the
1184:pollination
1081:vaccination
1008:Hymenoptera
973:giant panda
889:), causing
883:environment
855:coral reefs
734:monoculture
716:(40%), and
685:(72%), and
581:demographic
549:over time;
536:Demographic
520:coral reefs
484:arable land
436:overfishing
366:Plains and
306:rainforests
217:Forest City
213:coral reefs
205:West Africa
181:Philippines
173:New Zealand
168:terrestrial
67:worldwide.
6796:Categories
6650:Events and
6465:population
6411:Population
6362:Population
6307:Population
6088:Appendix I
6057:Vulnerable
6052:Endangered
5999:Vulnerable
5994:Endangered
5905:Lower risk
5878:Threatened
5849:Categories
5779:mitigation
5774:assessment
5769:by country
5667:Decoupling
5629:Mitigation
5358:Reservoirs
5279:pesticides
5224:Explosives
5202:reservoirs
5103:irrigation
4831:Quaternary
4465:Extinction
4270:BioScience
4080:BioScience
4017:References
2892:(3): 216.
2853:(3): 271.
2640:9 November
2242:Waterbirds
1253:per capita
1249:per capita
1148:fish kills
1125:ecotourism
1097:compaction
1069:mosquitoes
1061:management
1025:Gulf Coast
949:extinction
941:indigenous
915:extinction
907:speciation
899:geological
829:polar bear
756:See also:
621:corruption
611:including
597:cash crops
545:; rate of
458:Forest in
346:Madagascar
302:ecosystems
254:, and the
244:South Asia
227:, and the
177:Madagascar
65:extinction
6746:Migration
6623:6 billion
6166:Chromista
5702:Recycling
5368:Transport
5353:Quarrying
5348:Pollution
5207:transport
5197:petroleum
5192:oil shale
5155:biodiesel
4610:Overshoot
4472:Phenomena
4122:CiteSeerX
3998:1061-2971
3951:0021-8901
3847:0012-9658
3785:One Earth
3745:0027-8424
3633:0012-9658
3495:0021-8790
3313:of Italy.
3201:2375-2548
3145:0012-9658
3090:1461-023X
3033:0962-8452
2983:1366-9516
2779:1466-8238
2691:2150-8925
2661:Ecosphere
2477:218762126
2469:0921-030X
2422:210273007
2414:0894-8755
2365:189968828
2357:0094-8276
2262:1524-4695
2226:1863-5407
2210:: 21â30.
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