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632:, the local model was improved with fine-scale data and tested; the research team found thriving kelp forests in all eight of their sampled sites, all of which had been predicted by the model, thus validating their approach. This suggests that their global model might actually be fairly accurate, and if so, kelp forests would be prolific in tropical subsurface waters worldwide. The importance of this contribution has been rapidly acknowledged within the scientific community and has prompted an entirely new trajectory of kelp forest research, highlighting the potential for kelp forests to provide marine organisms spatial refuge under climate change and providing possible explanations for evolutionary patterns of kelps worldwide.
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stretched from northeast Asia to the
American Pacific coast would have provided many benefits to ancient boaters The kelp forests would have provided many sustenance opportunities, as well as acting as a type of buffer from rough water. Besides these benefits, researchers believe that the kelp forests might have helped early boaters navigate, acting as a type of "kelp highway". Theorists also suggest that the kelp forests would have helped these ancient colonists by providing a stable way of life and preventing them from having to adapt to new ecosystems and develop new survival methods even as they traveled thousands of miles.
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281:"I can only compare these great aquatic forests...with the terrestrial ones in the intertropical regions. Yet if in any country a forest was destroyed, I do not believe so nearly so many species of animals would perish as would here, from the destruction of kelp. Amidst the leaves of this plant numerous species of fish live, which nowhere else could find food or shelter; with their destruction the many cormorants and other fishing birds, the otters, seals and porpoise, would soon perish also; and lastly, the Fuegian...would...decrease in numbers and perhaps cease to exist.
859:), particularly the understanding and top-down trophic processes. Bottom-up processes are generally driven by the abiotic conditions required for primary producers to grow, such as availability of light and nutrients, and the subsequent transfer of energy to consumers at higher trophic levels. For example, the occurrence of kelp is frequently correlated with oceanographic upwelling zones, which provide unusually high concentrations of nutrients to the local environment. This allows kelp to grow and subsequently support herbivores, which in turn support consumers at higher
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1131:(MPAs) offer a unique solution that encompasses not only target species for harvesting, but also the interactions surrounding them and the local environment as a whole. Direct benefits of MPAs to fisheries (for example, spillover effects) have been well documented around the world. Indirect benefits have also been shown for several cases among species such as abalone and fishes in Central California. Most importantly, MPAs can be effective at protecting existing kelp forest ecosystems and may also allow for the regeneration of those that have been affected.
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270:
899:’) is a widespread phenomenon, often resulting from trophic cascades like those described above; the two phases are regarded as alternative stable states of the ecosystem. The recovery of kelp forests from barren states has been documented following dramatic perturbations, such as urchin disease or large shifts in thermal conditions. Recovery from intermediate states of deterioration is less predictable and depends on a combination of abiotic factors and biotic interactions in each case.
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when drift subsidies are unavailable, grazers directly impact the physical structure of the ecosystem. Many studies in
Southern California have demonstrated that the availability of drift kelp specifically influences the foraging behavior of sea urchins. Drift kelp and kelp-derived particulate matter have also been important in subsidizing adjacent habitats, such as sandy beaches and the rocky intertidal.
888:. The effect of removing one predatory species in this system differs from Alaska because redundancy exists in the trophic levels and other predatory species can continue to regulate urchins. However, the removal of multiple predators can effectively release urchins from predator pressure and allow the system to follow trajectories towards kelp forest degradation. Similar examples exist in
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863:. By contrast, in top-down processes, predators limit the biomass of species at lower trophic levels through consumption. In the absence of predation, these lower-level species flourish because resources that support their energetic requirements are not limiting. In a well-studied example from Alaskan kelp forests,
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Catastrophic storms can remove surface kelp canopies through wave activity, but usually leave understory kelps intact; they can also remove urchins when little spatial refuge is available. Interspersed canopy clearings create a seascape mosaic where sunlight penetrates deeper into the kelp forest and
1228:. The report underscores the urgency of implementing global conservation efforts and emphasizes the need for international cooperation to adopt area-based management strategies. These strategies aim to mitigate the aforementioned impacts and enhance the resilience and sustainability of kelp forests.
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through predation. When sea otters are removed from the ecosystem (for example, by human exploitation), urchin populations are released from predatory control and grow dramatically. This leads to increased herbivore pressure on local kelp stands. Deterioration of the kelp itself results in the loss
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Kelp forest restoration, practiced in 16 countries over 300 years, has gained momentum, particularly from 2009 to 2019, involving diverse societal sectors such as academia, governments, and businesses. Large-scale restoration successes demonstrate its feasibility, with the best outcomes often near
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fishes. In many cases, these organisms feed on kelp that has been dislodged from substrate and drifts near the ocean floor rather than expend energy searching for intact thalli on which to feed. When sufficient drift kelp is available, herbivorous grazers do not exert pressure on attached thalli;
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reaches upward only a few meters. Beneath these kelps, a benthic assemblage of foliose red algae may occur. The dense vertical infrastructure with overlying canopy forms a system of microenvironments similar to those observed in a terrestrial forest, with a sunny canopy region, a partially shaded
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In addition to ecological monitoring of kelp forests before, during, and after such disturbances, scientists try to tease apart the intricacies of kelp forest dynamics using experimental manipulations. By working on smaller spatial-temporal scales, they can control for the presence or absence of
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species that are normally light-limited in the understory can flourish. Similarly, substrate cleared of kelp holdfasts can provide space for other sessile species to establish themselves and occupy the seafloor, sometimes directly competing with juvenile kelp and even inhibiting their settlement.
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Another major area of kelp forest research has been directed at understanding the spatial-temporal patterns of kelp patches. Not only do such dynamics affect the physical landscape, but they also affect species that associate with kelp for refuge or foraging activities. Large-scale environmental
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can increase the susceptibility of kelp to storm damage and herbivorous grazing, sometimes even prompting phase shifts to urchin-dominated landscapes. In general, oceanographic conditions (that is, water temperature, currents) influence the recruitment success of kelp and its competitors, which
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Kelp forests have been important to human existence for thousands of years. Indeed, many now theorise that the first colonisation of the
Americas was due to fishing communities following the Pacific kelp forests during the last ice age. One theory contends that the kelp forests that would have
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is recognized as a way of generally stabilizing ecosystems and their services through mechanisms such as functional compensation and reduced susceptibility to foreign species invasions. More recently, the 2022 IPCC report states that kelp and other seaweeds in most regions are undergoing mass
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Given the complexity of kelp forests – their variable structure, geography, and interactions – they pose a considerable challenge to environmental managers. Extrapolating even well-studied trends to the future is difficult because interactions within the ecosystem will change under variable
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Overfishing higher trophic levels that naturally regulate herbivore populations is also recognized as an important stressor in kelp forests. As described in the previous section, the drivers and outcomes of trophic cascades are important for understanding spatial-temporal patterns of kelp
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waters. One recent study spatially overlaid the requisite physical parameters for kelp with mean oceanographic conditions and produced a model predicting the existence of subsurface kelps throughout the tropics worldwide to depths of 200 m (660 ft). For a hotspot in the
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Christie, H., Jørgensen, N.M., Norderhaug, K.M., Waage-Nielsen, E., 2003. Species distribution and habitat exploitation of fauna associated with kelp (Laminaria hyperborea) along the
Norwegian coast. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the UK 83,
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Researchers at the Bodega Marine
Laboratory of UC Davis are developing replanting strategies, and volunteers of the Orange County Coastkeeper group are replanting giant kelp. Humboldt State University began cultivating bull kelp in its research farm in 2021.
685:
The architecture of a kelp forest ecosystem is based on its physical structure, which influences the associated species that define its community structure. Structurally, the ecosystem includes three guilds of kelp and two guilds occupied by other algae:
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Kelp forests grow in rocky places along the shore that are constantly eroding carrying material out to the deep sea. The kelp then sinks to the ocean floor and store the carbon where is it unlikely to be disturbed by human activity. Researchers from the
553:, living for more than 20 years. In perennial kelp forests, maximum growth rates occur during upwelling months (typically spring and summer) and die-backs correspond to reduced nutrient availability, shorter photoperiods, and increased storm frequency.
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existing kelp forests, emphasizing the importance of preventing their decline. However, challenges persist, including the need for cost-effective methods, funding mechanisms, and adaptations to climate change. This restoration work not only supports
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Erlandson, J.M., M.H. Graham, B.J. Bourque, D. Corbett, J.A. Estes, R.S. Steneck. 2007. The kelp highway hypothesis: Marine ecology, the coastal migration theory, and the peopling of the
Americas. Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology
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Norwegian Blue
Forests Network 2023 report titled 'Into the Blue: Securing a Sustainable Future for Kelp Forests' documents a global decline in kelp forests, with an annual reduction rate of 1.8%. Over the past 50 years, 40-60% of these
892:, South Africa, Australia, and Chile. The relative importance of top-down versus bottom-up control in kelp forest ecosystems and the strengths of trophic interactions continue to be the subject of considerable scientific investigation.
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In many places, managers have opted to regulate the harvest of kelp and/or the taking of kelp forest species by fisheries. While these may be effective in one sense, they do not necessarily protect the entirety of the ecosystem.
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events have been shown to impact southern
California kelp forests, though the intensity of the impact seems to depend on both the nature of the contaminants and duration of exposure. Pollution can include sediment deposition and
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middle, and darkened seafloor. Each guild has associated organisms, which vary in their levels of dependence on the habitat, and the assemblage of these organisms can vary with kelp morphologies. For example, in
California,
2228:, T.P. Hughes, S. Kidwell, C.B. Lange, H.S. Lenihan, J.M. Pandolfi, C.H. Peterson, R.S. Steneck, M.J. Tegner and R.R. Warner. 2002. Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystems. Science 293: 629-638.
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Tegner, M.J., P.K. Dayton, P.B. Edwards, K.L. Riser, D.B. Chadwick, T.A. Dean and L. Deysher. 1995. Effects of a large sewage spill on a kelp forest community: catastrophe or disturbance? Marine
Environmental Research 40:
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Airamé, S., J.E. Dugan, K.D. Lafferty, H. Leslie, D.A. MacArdle and R.R. Warner. 2003. Applying ecological criteria to marine reserve design: a case study from the California Channel Islands. Ecological Applications 13:
533:. Water flow and turbulence facilitate nutrient assimilation across kelp fronds throughout the water column. Water clarity affects the depth to which sufficient light can be transmitted. In ideal conditions, giant kelp (
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Graham, M.H., B.P. Kinlan, L.D. Druehl, L.E. Garske, and S. Banks. 2007. Deep-water kelp refugia as potential hotspots of tropical marine diversity and productivity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104:
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Erlandson, J.M. T.J. Braje, K.M. Gill, M. Graham. 2015. Ecology of the kelp highway: Did marine resources facilitate human dispersal from northeast Asia to the Americas? Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology 10:
1118:. The most pressing threat to kelp forest preservation may be the overfishing of coastal ecosystems, which by removing higher trophic levels facilitates their shift to depauperate urchin barrens. The maintenance of
1846:
Byrnes, J., J.J. Stachowicz, K.M. Hultgren, A.R. Hughes, S.V. Olyarnik and C.S. Thornber. 2006. Predator diversity strengthens trophic cascades in kelp forests by modifying herbivore behavior. Ecology Letters 9:
299:, kelp forests provide a unique habitat for marine organisms and are a source for understanding many ecological processes. Over the last century, they have been the focus of extensive research, particularly in
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Duggins, D.O., J.E. Eckman and A.T. Sewell. 1990. Ecology of understory kelp environments. II. Effects of kelps on recruitment of benthic invertebrates. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 143:
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mortalities from high temperature extremes and range shifts from warming, as they are stationary and cannot adapt quick enough to deal with the rapidly increasing temperature of the Earth and thus, the ocean.
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Druehl, L.D. 1981. The distribution of Laminariales in the North Pacific with reference to environmental influences. Proceedings of the International Congress on Systematic Evolution and Biology 2: 248-256.
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Kaehler, S., E.A. Pakhomov, R.M. Kalin and S. Davis. 2006. Trophic importance of kelp-derived suspended particulate matter in a through-flow sub-Antarctic system. Marine Ecology Progress Series 316: 17-22.
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Elmqvist, T., C. Folke, M. Nyström, G. Peterson, J. Bengtsson, B. Walker and J. Norberg. 2003. Response diversity, ecosystem change and resilience. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 1: 488-494.
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Vásquez, J.A., J.M. Alonso Vega and A.H. Buschmann. 2006. Long term variability in the structure of kelp communities in northern Chile and the 1997-98 ENSO. Journal of Applied Phycology 18: 505-519.
884:. In Southern California, kelp forests persist without sea otters and the control of herbivorous urchins is instead mediated by a suite of predators including lobsters and large fishes, such as the
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Carpenter, S.R., R.F. Caraco, D.F. Cornell, R.W. Howarth, A.N. Sharpley and V.N. Smith. 1998. Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen. Ecological Applications 8: 559-568.
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Williams, Jonathan P.; Claisse, Jeremy T.; Ii, Daniel J. Pondella; Williams, Chelsea M.; Robart, Matthew J.; Scholz, Zoe; Jaco, Erin M.; Ford, Tom; Burdick, Heather; Witting, David (2021-04-15).
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have been known to occur exclusively in tropical deep waters. This general absence of kelp from the tropics is believed to be mostly due to insufficient nutrient levels associated with warm,
518:, or gas-filled bladders, usually located at the base of fronds near the stipe. These structures provide the necessary buoyancy for kelp to maintain an upright position in the water column.
1450:
Sala, E., C.F. Bourdouresque and M. Harmelin-Vivien. 1998. Fishing, trophic cascades, and the structure of algal assemblages: evaluation of an old but untested paradigm. Oikos 82: 425-439.
1041:; the industries that support these sports represent one benefit related to the ecosystem and the enjoyment derived from these activities represents another. All of these are examples of
42:
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specific biotic and abiotic factors to discover the operative mechanisms. For example, in southern Australia, manipulations of kelp canopy types demonstrated that the relative amount of
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archipelagos, and in patches around Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. The region with the greatest diversity of kelps (>20 species) is the northeastern Pacific, from north of
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is one management strategy useful for addressing such issues, since it may limit the impacts of fishing and buffer the ecosystem from additive effects of other environmental stressors.
1959:
Dayton, P.K., M.J. Tegner, P.E. Parnell and P.B. Edwards. 1992. Temporal and spatial patterns of disturbance and recovery in a kelp forest community. Ecological Monographs 62: 421-445.
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Dayton, P.K. M.J. Tegner, P.B. Edwards and K.L. Riser. 1999. Temporal and spatial scales of kelp demography: the role of the oceanographic climate. Ecological Monographs 69: 219-250.
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Fowler-Walker, M.J., B. M. Gillanders, S.D. Connell and A.D. Irving. 2005. Patterns of association between canopy-morphology and understory assemblages across temperate Australia.
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Babcock, R.C., S. Kelly, N.T. Shears, J.W. Walker and T.J. Willis. 1999. Changes in community structure in temperate marine reserves. Marine Ecology Progress Series 189: 125-134.
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Sala, E. and M.H. Graham. 2002. Community-wide distribution of predator-prey interaction strength in kelp forests. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 99: 3678-3683.
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is a root-like mass that anchors the thallus to the sea floor, though unlike true roots it is not responsible for absorbing and delivering nutrients to the rest of the thallus.
2198:
Edwards, M.S. and G. Hernández-Carmona. 2005. Delayed recovery of giant kelp near its southern range limit in the North Pacific following El Niño. Marine Biology 147: 273-279.
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Ebeling, A.W., D.R. Laur and R.J. Rowley. 1985. Severe storm disturbances and reversal of community structure in a southern California kelp forest. Marine Biology 84: 287-294.
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Tilman, D., C.L. Lehman, and C.E. Bristow. 1998. Diversity-stability relationships: statistical inevitability or ecological consequence? The American Naturalist 151: 277-282.
1801:
Velimirov, B., J.G. Field, C.L. Griffiths and P. Zoutendyk. 1977. The ecology of kelp bed communities in the Benguela upwelling system. Helgoland Marine Research 30: 495-518.
521:
The environmental factors necessary for kelp to survive include hard substrate (usually rock or sand), high nutrients (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus), and light (minimum annual
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spp. are closely associated with the kelp holdfast, while various herbivores, such as sea urchins and abalone, live under the prostrate canopy; many seastars, hydroids, and
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Bustamante, R.H., G.M. Branch and S. Eekhout. 1995. Maintenance of exceptional intertidal grazer biomass in South Africa: subsidy by subtidal kelps. Ecology 76: 2314-2329.
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Santelices, B. 2007. The discovery of kelp forests in deep-water habitats of tropical regions. Proceedings of the NationalAwan Riak Academy of Sciences 104: 19163-19164.
384:). Though not considered a taxonomically diverse order, kelps are highly diverse structurally and functionally. The most widely recognized species are the giant kelps (
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975:(ENSO) events involve the depression of oceanographic thermoclines, severe reductions of nutrient input, and changes in storm patterns. Stress due to warm water and
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assemblage is composed of other algal species (e.g., filamentous and foliose functional groups, articulated corallines) and sessile organisms along the ocean bottom.
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At the federal level, H.R. 4458, the Keeping Ecosystems Living and Productive (KELP) Act, introduced July 29, 2021, seeks to establish a new grant program within
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of physical ecosystem structure and subsequently, the loss of other species associated with this habitat. In Alaskan kelp forest ecosystems, sea otters are the
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are leaf- or blade-like attachments extending from the stipe, sometimes along its full length, and are the sites of nutrient uptake and photosynthetic activity.
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Pessarrodona, A; Assis, J; Filbee-Dexter, K; Burrows, M T; Gattuso, J-P; Duarte, C.M.; Krause-Jensen, D; Moore, P.J.; Smale, D.A.; Wernberg, T (23 July 2020).
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Allison, G.A., J. Lubchenco and M.H. Carr. 1998. Marine reserves are necessary but not sufficient for marine conservation. Ecological Applications 8: S79-S92.
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and D.O. Duggins. 1995. Sea otters and kelp forests in Alaska: generality and variation in a community ecological paradigm. Ecological Monographs 65: 75-100.
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Graham, M.H. 2004. Effects of local deforestation on the diversity and structure of Southern California giant kelp forest food webs. Ecosystems 7: 341-357.
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Stekoll, M.S., L.E. Deysher and M. Hess. 2006. A remote sensing approach to estimating harvestable kelp biomass. Journal of Applied Phycology 18: 323-334.
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Foster, M.S. and D.R. Schiel. 1985. The ecology of giant kelp forests in California: a community profile. US Fish and Wildlife Service Report 85: 1-152.
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Irving, A.D. and S.D. Connell. 2006. Predicting understory structure from the presence and composition of canopies: an assembly rule for marine algae.
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Dayton, P.K. and M.J. Tegner. 1984. Catastrophic storms, El Niño, and patch stability in a southern California kelp community. Science 224: 283-285.
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Gell, F.R. and C.M. Roberts. 2003. Benefits beyond boundaries: the fishery effects of marine reserves. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 18: 448-455.
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Grigg, R.W. and R.S. Kiwala. 1970. Some ecological effects of discharged wastes on marine life. California Department of Fish and Game 56: 145-155.
1207:-based company, secured $ 4.5 million in U.S. government funding to grow giant kelp on an 86-acre farm off the coast of Santa Barbara, California.
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Halpern, B.S., K. Cottenie and B.R. Broitman. 2006. Strong top-down control in Southern California kelp forest ecosystems. Science 312: 1230-1232.
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Jones, C.G., J. H. Lawton and M. Shachak. 1997. Positive and negative effects of organisms as physical ecosystem engineers. Ecology 78: 1946-1957.
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ecology, and continue to provoke important ideas that are relevant beyond this unique ecosystem. For example, kelp forests can influence coastal
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2603:. 2000. Kelp forest fish populations in marine reserves and adjacent exploited areas of Central California. Ecological Applications 10: 855-870.
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Lawrence, J.M. 1975. On the relationships between marine plants and sea urchins. Oceanography and Marine Biology, An Annual Review. 13: 213-286.
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Stachowicz, J.J., R.B. Whitlatch and R.W. Osman. 1999. Species diversity and invasion resistance in a marine ecosystem. Science 286: 1577-1579.
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2921:"Sonoma-Mendocino Bull Kelp Recovery Plan, for Greater Farallones National Marine Sanctuary and California Department of Fish & Wildlife"
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Rogers-Bennett, L. and J.S. Pearse. 2001. Indirect benefits of marine protected areas for juvenile abalone. Conservation Biology 15: 642-647.
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Multiple kelp species often co-exist within a forest; the term understory canopy refers to the stipitate and prostrate kelps. For example, a
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Kennelly, S.J. 1987. Physical disturbances in an Australian kelp community. I. Temporal effects. Marine Ecology Progress Series 40: 145-153.
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into benthic systems of north-central Chile: sustainability assessment. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 17: 89-105.
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uses gas-filled floats to keep the thallus suspended, allowing the kelp blades near the ocean surface to capture light for photosynthesis.
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Willis, T.J., R.B. Millar and R.C. Babcock. 2003. Protection of exploited fish in temperate regions: high density and biomass of snapper
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is analogous to a plant stalk, extending vertically from the holdfast and providing a support framework for other morphological features.
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Stull, J.K. 1989. Contaminants in sediments near a major marine outfall: history, effects and future. OCEANS ’89 Proceedings 2: 481-484.
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in Nova Scotia: evidence for a link with large-scale meteor logic and oceanographic events. Marine Ecology Progress Series 152: 155-165.
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conditions, not all relationships in the ecosystem are understood, and the nonlinear thresholds to transitions are not yet recognized.
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Norderhaug, K.M., Christie, H., 2009. Sea urchin grazing and kelp re-vegetation in the NE Atlantic. Marine Biology Research 5, 515-528
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and M.J. Tegner. 2002. Kelp forest ecosystems: biodiversity, stability, resilience and future. Environmental Conservation 29: 436-459.
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Steneck, R.S. and M.N. Dethier. 1994. A functional group approach to the structure of algal-dominated communities. Oikos 69: 476-498.
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Classic studies in kelp forest ecology have largely focused on trophic interactions (the relationships between organisms and their
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A wide range of sea life uses kelp forests for protection or food, including fish. In the North Pacific kelp forests, particularly
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Harrold, C. and D.C. Reed. 1985. Food availability, sea urchin grazing and kelp forest community structure. Ecology 66: 1160-1169.
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Frost, T.M., S.R. Carpenter, A.R. Ives, and T.K. Kratz. 1995. "Species compensation and complementarity in ecosystem function."
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Lafferty, K.D. 2004. Fishing for lobsters indirectly increases epidemics in sea urchins. Ecological Applications 14: 1566-1573.
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Scheffer, M., S. Carpenter, J.A. Foley, C. Folke and B. Walter. 2001. Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems. Nature 413: 591-596.
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Gutierrez, A., T. Correa, V. Muñoz, A. Santibañez, R. Marcos, C. Cáceres and A.H. Buschmann. 2006. Farming of the giant kelp
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Bohnsack, J.A. 1998. Application of marine reserves to reef fisheries management. Australian Journal of Ecology 23: 298-304.
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Hughes, T.P. 1994. Catastrophes, phase shifts and large-scale degradation of a Caribbean coral reef. Science 265: 1547-1551.
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Dayton, P.K. 1985b. The structure and regulation of some South American kelp communities. Ecological Monographs 55: 447-468.
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estimated kelp forest around Australia sequestered 1.3-2.8 teragrams of carbon per year which is 27–34% of the total annual
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are loosely associated with kelp forests, usually interacting near the edges as they visit to feed on resident organisms.
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provided specifically by kelp forests. The Monterey Bay aquarium was the first aquarium to exhibit an alive kelp forest.
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Canopy kelps include the largest species and often constitute floating canopies that extend to the ocean surface (e.g.,
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1898:"The present is the key to the past: linking regime shifts in kelp beds to the distribution of deep-living sea urchins"
207:
1033:, which is used in products like toothpaste and antacids. Kelp forests are valued for recreational activities such as
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Jackson, G.A. and C.D. Winant. 1983. Effect of a kelp forest on coastal currents. Continental Shelf Report 2: 75-80.
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dose > 50 E m). Especially productive kelp forests tend to be associated with areas of significant oceanographic
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Jackson, J.B.C, M.X. Kirby, W.H. Berger, K.A. Bjorndal, L.W. Botsford, B.J. Bourque, R.H. Bradbury, R. Cooke, J.
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Siversten, K. 2006. Overgrazing of kelp beds along the coast of Norway. Journal of Applied Phycology 18: 599-610.
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Halpern, B.S. and R.R. Warner. 2002. Marine reserves have rapid and lasting effects. Ecology Letters 5: 361-366.
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Carr, M.H. 1994. Effects of macroalgal dynamics on recruitment of a temperate reef fish. Ecology 75: 1320-1333.
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Research efforts at the state level to prevent kelp forest collapse in California were announced in July 2020.
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canopy may extend many meters above the seafloor towards the ocean surface, while an understory of the kelps
200:
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Stipitate kelps generally extend a few meters above the sea floor and can grow in dense aggregations (e.g.,
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Though urchins are usually the dominant herbivores, others with significant interaction strengths include
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Excellent general information on kelp forests, as well as specific information on Tasmanian kelp forests.
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and K.W. Kenyon. 1978. Aleuts, sea otters, and alternate stable-state communities. Science 200: 403-411.
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Dayton, P.K. 1985a. Ecology of kelp communities. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 16: 215-245.
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The transition from macroalgal (i.e. kelp forest) to denuded landscapes dominated by sea urchins (or ‘
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in a canopy could be used to predict understory species assemblages; consequently, the proportion of
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2480:: C. Jones and J. Lawton, editors. Linking species and ecosystems. Chapman and Hall, London. 387pp.
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Ortiz, M. and W. Stotz. 2007. Ecological and eco-social models for the introduction of the abalone
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in southern Chile for development of novel food products. Journal of Applied Phycology 18: 259-267.
1897:
1622:
Wheeler, W.N. 1980. Effect of boundary layer transport on the fixation of carbon by the giant kelp
1179:
52:
1074:. Every year 200 million tons of carbon dioxide are being sequestered by macroalgae such as kelp.
4753:
4024:
3835:
3729:
3457:
3447:
962:
234:, which covers a large part of the world's coastlines. Smaller areas of anchored kelp are called
110:
476:, kelp provides a physical substrate and habitat for kelp forest communities. In algae (kingdom
3850:
3840:
3542:
3527:
2978:
1775:
Pearse, J.S. and A.H. Hines. 1987. Expansion of a central California kelp forest following the
1144:
1128:
666:
351:
119:
1178:
is an important keystone species which helps control sea urchin abundance, but an outbreak of
1098:
frond (California): Marine protected areas are one way to guard kelp forests as an ecosystem.
4738:
4269:
4196:
4131:
3996:
3971:
3946:
3830:
3577:
3357:
3240:
847:
640:
488:). The morphological structure of a kelp thallus is defined by three basic structural units:
1590:
Kelp forests provide habitat for a variety of invertebrates, fish, marine mammals, and birds
1270:
Mann, K.H. 1973. Seaweeds: their productivity and strategy for growth. Science 182: 975-981.
4882:
4851:
4831:
4773:
4733:
4728:
4349:
4004:
3966:
3297:
2777:
2590:(Sparidae) in northern New Zealand marine reserves. Journal of Applied Ecology 40: 214-227.
2417:
2360:
1991:
1909:
1506:
1151:
In the 2010s, Northern California lost 95% of its kelp ecosystems due to marine heatwaves.
929:
885:
648:
2189:
McPhaden, M.J. 1999. Genesis and evolution of the 1997-1998 El Niño. Science 283: 950-954.
2099:
Koop, K., R.C. Newell and M.I. Lucas. 1982. Biodegradation and carbon flow based on kelp (
953:
from agricultural areas, anti-fouling chemicals used in harbors and marinas (for example,
8:
4804:
4645:
4461:
4226:
3880:
3689:
3647:
3417:
3377:
2720:
1788:
Scheibiling, R.E. and A.W. Hennigar. 1997. Recurrent outbreaks of disease in sea urchins
347:
2781:
2765:
2421:
2364:
1995:
1913:
1510:
1494:
1025:
and rockfish. Humans can also harvest kelp directly to feed aquaculture species such as
4672:
4662:
4146:
4141:
4009:
3951:
3845:
3694:
3612:
3497:
3477:
3387:
3330:
2801:
2381:
2348:
1316:
1281:
1175:
1042:
976:
820:
779:
493:
473:
315:
308:
247:
3199:
342:, kelp forests have all but disappeared in many especially vulnerable places, such as
4841:
4763:
4692:
4682:
4605:
4156:
4034:
3981:
3900:
3567:
3532:
3472:
3432:
3402:
3372:
3283:
2805:
2793:
2454:"95pc of Tasmania's giant kelp is gone, scientists are in a race to save what's left"
2386:
2007:
1979:
1933:
1925:
1522:
1321:
1236:
recovery but also offers significant social and economic benefits, aligning with the
1167:
1139:
1005:
629:
168:
96:
1589:
1566:
457:. Many marine mammals and birds are also found, including seals, sea lions, whales,
4702:
4264:
3956:
3860:
3812:
3724:
3617:
3315:
3244:
3174:
United Nations Environment Programme, & Norwegian Blue Forests Network (2023).
3072:
2785:
2425:
2376:
2368:
1999:
1917:
1514:
1353:
1311:
1301:
1293:
1111:
950:
877:
726:
Encrusting coralline algae directly and often extensively cover geologic substrate.
613:
466:
300:
537:
spp.) can grow as much as 30–60 cm vertically per day. Some species, such as
4677:
4667:
4570:
4342:
4334:
4234:
4201:
4062:
4014:
3890:
3865:
3674:
3627:
3552:
3397:
3382:
2824:
USC Sea Grant - USC Dana and David Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences
1071:
1067:
928:
disturbances have offered important insights concerning mechanisms and ecosystem
881:
757:
550:
404:
377:
188:
124:
81:
76:
66:
2894:
1657:
Petrov, J.E., M.V. Suchovejeva and G.V. Avdejev. 1973. New species of the genus
1389:. The Harvard Classics Volume 29. New York, USA: P.F. Collier & Son Company.
4718:
4697:
4687:
4098:
4052:
4047:
4019:
3986:
3855:
3714:
3642:
3632:
3482:
3427:
3345:
3340:
3335:
2600:
2372:
2251:
2225:
2152:) in Orange and San Diego Counties, California. Hydrobiologia 260/261: 277-283.
2103:) debris in a sandy beach microcosm. Marine Ecology Progress Series 7: 315-326.
1968:
Pearse, J.S. 2006. Ecological role of purple sea urchins. Science 314: 940-941.
1776:
1758:
1431:
1358:
1341:
1183:
1115:
1088:
942:
896:
800:
752:
619:
Although kelp forests are unknown in tropical surface waters, a few species of
605:
569:
500:
422:
339:
287:
269:
33:
1980:"Sea urchin barrens as alternative stable states of collapsed kelp ecosystems"
1493:
Filbee-Dexter, Karen; Feehan, Colette J.; Scheibling, Robert E. (2016-02-03).
529:, a process that delivers cool, nutrient-rich water from depth to the ocean's
4866:
4615:
4565:
4528:
4412:
4312:
4206:
4171:
4072:
4067:
4042:
3572:
3537:
3512:
3362:
3325:
2974:"An Orange County marine biologist wants to weed the ocean to help kelp grow"
2797:
2221:
2011:
1929:
1814:, and habitat structure on reefs in temperate Australia. Ecology 74: 292-302.
1526:
1427:
1224:
have degraded due to factors such as climate change, poor water quality, and
1204:
1107:
860:
774:
601:
416:
334:
where relatively few species persist. Already due to the combined effects of
331:
178:
61:
2870:"New Study Finds Hope for Restoration of Kelp Beds and Commercial Fisheries"
4723:
4600:
4595:
4590:
4298:
4077:
4057:
3961:
3699:
3582:
3502:
3462:
3452:
3422:
3222:: Department of Primary Industries, Water & Environment. Archived from
2641:"Hitting Rock Bottom: The Disappearance of California's Underwater Forests"
2405:
2390:
1937:
1325:
1297:
1119:
1034:
1030:
997:
can be used as an indicator of other species occurring in the environment.
796:
593:
542:
515:
454:
450:
446:
434:
373:
304:
255:
183:
145:
140:
101:
2692:"The collapse of Northern California kelp forests will be hard to reverse"
1542:"The dead sea: Tasmania's underwater forests disappearing in our lifetime"
246:
only cover 0.1% of Earth's total surface, they account for 0.9% of global
41:
4211:
4186:
4181:
3934:
3910:
3875:
3684:
3587:
3507:
3467:
3320:
3148:"Ocean rainforest secures $ 4.5 m to ramp up Californian kelp production"
1540:
Morton, Adam; Cordell, Marni; Fanner, David; Ball, Andy; Evershed, Nick.
1495:"Large-scale degradation of a kelp ecosystem in an ocean warming hotspot"
1225:
1094:
1063:
1059:
954:
915:
889:
872:
792:
589:
530:
462:
410:
386:
335:
327:
319:
1567:"What Will It Take to Bring Back the Kelp Forest? - Bay Nature Magazine"
1306:
980:
clearly affect subsequent species interactions and kelp forest dynamics.
841:
4809:
4585:
4191:
4126:
3915:
3895:
3679:
3652:
3437:
3350:
1155:
864:
835:
788:
773:
spp., and many other fishes are found within the stipitate understory;
748:
678:
654:
644:
624:
522:
430:
381:
296:
243:
91:
4307:
2789:
2517:
2003:
1518:
1240:(SDGs), and underscores the importance of multi-sector collaboration.
1171:, an invasive species first spotted in 2003, has also been a concern.
4799:
4794:
4610:
4216:
4121:
3905:
3669:
3662:
3637:
3547:
3252:
3219:
2716:"5 Reasons to Protect Kelp, the West Coast's Powerhouse Marine Algae"
2429:
2238:
2054:
1921:
1279:
1221:
1159:
1018:
937:
856:
831:
585:
557:
526:
458:
392:
323:
251:
239:
173:
3124:"Huffman-sponsored bill seeks grant funding to restore kelp forests"
2766:"Sea urchin mass mortality rapidly restores kelp forest communities"
2148:
North, W.J., D.E. James and L.G. Jones. 1993. History of kelp beds (
787:
fishes live among the benthic assemblages; solitary corals, various
4631:
4575:
4538:
4166:
3976:
3522:
3517:
3442:
3223:
3215:
3000:"Sunflower Sea Star Proposed for Endangered Species Act Protection"
2689:
1038:
958:
903:
769:
477:
438:
398:
343:
330:
of kelp and other algae. This can rapidly result in transitions to
259:
163:
1722:, off southern California. Limnology and Oceanography 22: 979-995.
1154:
Kelp bed recovery efforts in California are primarily focusing on
4533:
4176:
4136:
4106:
4084:
3704:
3492:
3392:
1811:
1233:
1026:
1022:
907:
784:
720:
674:
485:
481:
263:
71:
3925:
3295:
811:
238:. They are recognized as one of the most productive and dynamic
4507:
4397:
4161:
3487:
2645:
The Bill Lane Center for the American West, Stanford University
2406:"Substantial role of macroalgae in marine carbon sequestration"
2349:"Substantial blue carbon in overlooked Australian kelp forests"
561:
507:
442:
314:
However, the influence of humans has often contributed to kelp
154:
258:
coastal oceans. In 2007, kelp forests were also discovered in
4402:
4373:
3176:
Into the Blue: Securing a Sustainable Future for Kelp Forests
2404:
Krause-Jensen, Dorte; M. Duarte, Carlos (12 September 2016).
1492:
911:
763:
are closely associated with surface canopies; the kelp perch
577:
573:
2518:"Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability"
1896:
Filbee-Dexter, Karen; Scheibling, Robert E. (January 2017).
1718:
Jackson, G.A. 1977. Nutrients and production of giant kelp,
1661:
from the Philippine Sea. Nov Sistem. Nizch. Rast. 10: 59-61.
670:
A kelp forest off of the coast of Anacapa Island, California
4560:
3657:
1082:
946:
659:
369:
363:
231:
3099:"New research to address kelp forest crisis in California"
2715:
1978:
Filbee-Dexter, Karen; Scheibling, Robert E. (2014-01-09).
326:
from their normal population regulation and result in the
3719:
3709:
2948:"Marine Invasive Species - Channel Islands National Park"
2848:
2763:
1592:
NOAA. Updated 11 January 2013. Retrieved 15 January 2014.
945:
from sewage, industrial byproducts and contaminants like
1644:
Joly, A.B. and E.C. Oliveira Filho. 1967. Two Brazilian
1134:
949:
and heavy metals (for example, copper, zinc), runoff of
712:
Prostrate kelps lie near and along the sea floor (e.g.,
2347:
Filbee-Dexter, Karen; Wernberg, Thomas (23 July 2020).
1977:
1895:
795:
live over the encrusting coralline algae. In addition,
2403:
1426:
Steneck, R.S., M.H. Graham, B.J. Bourque, D. Corbett,
2346:
1810:
Andrew, N.L. 1993. Spatial heterogeneity, sea urchin
1342:"Non-Flat Earth Recalibrated for Terrain and Topsoil"
1106:
Major issues of concern include marine pollution and
1371:
1369:
600:
occurs throughout the northeastern and southeastern
480:), the body of an individual organism is known as a
1771:
1769:
1767:
1539:
242:on Earth. Although algal kelp forest combined with
4364:
2690:University of California Santa Cruz (2021-03-05).
2323:"How Kelp Naturally Combats Global Climate Change"
2310:Monterey Bay Aquarium celebrates its 37th birthday
1833:
1831:
1829:
932:. Examples of environmental disturbances include:
1366:
4864:
2751:Smithsonian Contributions to the Marine Sciences
1764:
819:can damage kelp forests by chewing through kelp
3249:Watch a live feed from the kelp forest exhibit.
3028:Coastal and Marine Sciences Institute, UC Davis
1826:
1470:
1468:
1466:
1464:
1462:
1460:
1458:
1456:
564:waters worldwide. Of the more dominant genera,
469:, and cormorants, as well as some shore birds.
2216:
2214:
2077:
2075:
1855:
1853:
1680:
1678:
1676:
1609:
1607:
1422:
1420:
1418:
1416:
1414:
1210:
390:spp.), although numerous other genera such as
4350:
3558:Stable isotope analysis in aquatic ecosystems
3268:
3178:. https://wedocs.unep.org/20.500.11822/42255.
1955:
1953:
1951:
1949:
1947:
1730:
1728:
1692:
1690:
1266:
1264:
208:
3121:
1754:
1752:
1453:
1238:United Nations Sustainable Development Goals
568:is mainly associated with both sides of the
230:are underwater areas with a high density of
4498:Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub
3623:Freshwater environmental quality parameters
3192:"Kelp Forest & Rocky Subtidal Habitats"
2211:
2072:
2045:Cowen, R.K. 1983. The effect of sheephead (
1850:
1673:
1648:. Instituto de Pesquisas da Marinha 4: 1-7.
1604:
1411:
1062:sequestered in the Australian continent by
318:. Of particular concern are the effects of
4357:
4343:
3275:
3261:
2065:
2063:
2032:
2030:
1944:
1725:
1687:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1440:
1261:
250:. Kelp forests occur worldwide throughout
215:
201:
2820:"New Findings on Kelp Forest Restoration"
2451:
2380:
2320:
2053:) populations: an experimental analysis.
1779:of sea urchins. Marine Biology 51: 83-91.
1749:
1357:
1339:
1315:
1305:
1077:
635:
3096:
1138:
1081:
1004:
840:
825:
810:
673:
665:
653:
639:
322:nearshore ecosystems, which can release
268:
2971:
2060:
2027:
1742:
1740:
1437:
1048:
27:Underwater areas highly dense with kelp
14:
4865:
3282:
3170:
3168:
2918:
2741:
2664:
1564:
1186:has led to its critical endangerment.
1158:removal, both by scuba divers, and by
290:, 1 June 1834, Tierra del Fuego, Chile
4338:
3811:
3810:
3294:
3256:
1135:Kelp forest restoration in California
871:) control populations of herbivorous
4482:Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
4444:Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
3024:"Kelp: California's Coastal Forests"
1737:
1707:Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science
1217:United Nations Environment Programme
556:Kelps are primarily associated with
514:In addition, many kelp species have
3886:Oceanic physical-biological process
3748:List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)
3165:
2667:"California's Crashing Kelp Forest"
1021:of kelp-associated species such as
274:Global distribution of kelp forests
24:
3122:Bittenbender, Steve (2021-08-10).
3097:Leitzell, Katherine (2020-07-06).
2844:"Saving California's kelp forests"
806:
662:forest off the coast of California
25:
4894:
4408:Montane grasslands and shrublands
3184:
2321:Hurlimann, Sylvia (4 July 2019).
1790:Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis
1110:, kelp harvesting and fisheries,
922:
4319:
4318:
4306:
4292:
3924:
3596:
3413:Colored dissolved organic matter
3233:"Monterey Bay Aquarium Kelp Cam"
3140:
3115:
3090:
3065:
3041:
3016:
2992:
2965:
2940:
2912:
2887:
961:) and land-based pathogens like
851:grazing on a blade of giant kelp
484:rather than as a plant (kingdom
40:
4524:Flooded grasslands and savannas
3758:Latin America and the Caribbean
3004:Center for Biological Diversity
2972:Ritchie, Erika I (2020-09-08).
2862:
2836:
2812:
2757:
2735:
2708:
2683:
2658:
2633:
2624:
2615:
2606:
2593:
2580:
2571:
2562:
2552:
2543:
2534:
2510:
2501:
2492:
2483:
2470:
2445:
2436:
2397:
2340:
2314:
2303:
2290:
2277:
2267:
2257:
2244:
2231:
2201:
2192:
2183:
2174:
2165:
2155:
2142:
2133:
2124:
2115:
2106:
2093:
2084:
2051:Strongylocentrotus franciscanus
2049:) predation on red sea urchin (
2039:
2018:
1971:
1962:
1889:
1880:
1871:
1862:
1840:
1817:
1804:
1795:
1782:
1712:
1699:
1664:
1651:
1638:
1629:
1616:
1595:
1583:
1558:
1533:
1486:
1477:
1162:, which are natural predators.
1056:University of Western Australia
346:'s east coast and the coast of
4837:Ecological land classification
4366:Biogeographic regionalisations
4240:Ecological values of mangroves
3783:North Pacific Subtropical Gyre
2928:Greater Farallones Association
2770:Marine Ecology Progress Series
2452:MacDonald, Lucy (2019-02-06).
1984:Marine Ecology Progress Series
1499:Marine Ecology Progress Series
1402:
1392:
1379:
1332:
1273:
1017:Modern economies are based on
13:
1:
2899:SeaTrees, by Sustainable Surf
1626:. Marine Biology 56: 103-110.
1282:"Global Seaweed Productivity"
1255:
1200:for kelp forest restoration.
4503:Deserts and xeric shrublands
4260:Marine conservation activism
4245:Fisheries and climate change
3049:"Kelp Reforestation Program"
2744:"Kelp Forests in California"
1029:and to extract the compound
1009:A diver measures kelp growth
1000:
973:El Niño-Southern Oscillation
834:is an important predator of
7:
4744:Temperate Northern Atlantic
4434:Broadleaf and mixed forests
4255:Human impact on marine life
4132:Davidson Seamount § Ecology
3368:Aquatic population dynamics
1243:
1211:Global Conservation Efforts
295:Physically formed by brown
10:
4899:
4847:Vegetation classifications
4749:Temperate Northern Pacific
2952:U.S. National Park Service
2742:Foster, Michael S (2013).
2665:Kerlin, Kat (2019-10-21).
2373:10.1038/s41598-020-69258-7
1359:10.3390/soilsystems2040064
1340:Blakemore, Robert (2018).
361:
307:patterns and provide many
4824:
4782:
4759:Temperate Southern Africa
4711:
4655:
4644:
4624:
4551:
4516:
4490:
4452:
4421:
4390:
4381:
4372:
4286:
4225:
4097:
4033:
3995:
3942:
3933:
3922:
3871:Marine primary production
3823:
3819:
3806:
3765:List of marine ecoregions
3740:
3605:
3594:
3308:
3304:
3290:
3053:Orange County Coastkeeper
1250:Aquaculture of giant kelp
610:San Francisco, California
472:Frequently considered an
4769:Tropical Eastern Pacific
4719:Antarctic/Southern Ocean
4117:Coastal biogeomorphology
4112:Marine coastal ecosystem
1387:The Voyage of the Beagle
1180:Sea star wasting disease
350:. The implementation of
4790:Biogeographic provinces
4754:Temperate South America
4472:Moist broadleaf forests
4025:Paradox of the plankton
3836:Diel vertical migration
3730:Freshwater swamp forest
3448:GIS and aquatic science
3296:General components and
2895:"Project: Palos Verdes"
1182:and a vulnerability to
963:fecal coliform bacteria
545:, while others such as
357:
3851:Large marine ecosystem
3543:Shoaling and schooling
2979:Orange County Register
2298:Haliotis discus hannai
1298:10.1126/sciadv.abn2465
1148:
1129:Marine protected areas
1099:
1078:Threats and management
1010:
852:
845:The jeweled top snail
838:
823:
815:Sea urchins like this
682:
671:
663:
651:
636:Ecosystem architecture
380:Laminariales (phylum:
352:marine protected areas
283:
276:
4852:Zoogeographic regions
4810:Global 200 ecoregions
4739:Temperate Australasia
4477:Dry broadleaf forests
4270:Marine protected area
4197:Salt pannes and pools
3972:Marine larval ecology
3947:Census of Marine Life
3831:Deep scattering layer
3788:San Francisco Estuary
3753:Africa and Madagascar
3578:Underwater camouflage
3358:Aquatic biomonitoring
3298:freshwater ecosystems
3241:Monterey Bay Aquarium
2047:Semicossyphus pulcher
1147:through a kelp forest
1142:
1085:
1008:
848:Calliostoma annulatum
844:
829:
814:
765:Brachyistius frenatus
677:
669:
657:
643:
279:
272:
4832:Altitudinal zonation
4774:Western Indo-Pacific
4734:Eastern Indo-Pacific
4729:Central Indo-Pacific
4005:Marine bacteriophage
3967:Marine invertebrates
3103:California Sea Grant
3073:"Kelp is on the Way"
2285:Macrocystis pyrifera
1720:Macrocystis pyrifera
1624:Macrocystis pyrifera
1203:Ocean Rainforest, a
1049:As carbon sequesters
886:California sheephead
761:Caprella californica
745:Macrocystis pyrifera
248:primary productivity
4805:Lists of ecoregions
4462:Tropical rainforest
3881:Ocean fertilization
3690:Trophic state index
3648:Lake stratification
3378:Aquatic respiration
2782:2021MEPS..664..117W
2721:Pew Research Center
2671:Science and Climate
2422:2016NatGe...9..737K
2365:2020NatSR..1012341F
2327:Science in the News
1996:2014MEPS..495....1F
1914:2017Ecol...98..253F
1565:Steinbauer, James.
1511:2016MEPS..543..141F
880:that mediates this
531:mixed surface layer
348:Northern California
4842:Floristic kingdoms
4606:Hydrothermal vents
4467:Coniferous forests
4429:Coniferous forests
4147:Intertidal wetland
4142:Intertidal ecology
4010:Marine prokaryotes
3952:Deep-sea community
3846:Iron fertilization
3769:Specific examples
3695:Upland and lowland
3613:Freshwater biology
3478:Microbial food web
3388:Aquatic toxicology
3331:Aquatic adaptation
3284:Aquatic ecosystems
3077:Humboldt State Now
2919:Hohman, R (2019).
2599:Paddack, M.J. and
2353:Scientific Reports
1176:Sunflower sea star
1149:
1100:
1043:ecosystem services
1011:
977:nutrient depletion
936:Acute and chronic
853:
839:
824:
777:and turban snails
683:
672:
664:
652:
572:and the coasts of
474:ecosystem engineer
316:forest degradation
309:ecosystem services
277:
169:Hydrothermal vents
120:Surface microlayer
4860:
4859:
4820:
4819:
4764:Tropical Atlantic
4640:
4639:
4547:
4546:
4439:Deciduous forests
4332:
4331:
4313:Oceans portal
4282:
4281:
4278:
4277:
4157:Hydrothermal vent
4093:
4092:
3982:Seashore wildlife
3813:Marine ecosystems
3802:
3801:
3798:
3797:
3568:Thermal pollution
3533:Ramsar Convention
3473:Microbial ecology
3433:Fisheries science
3373:Aquatic predation
2790:10.3354/meps13680
2410:Nature Geoscience
2250:Simenstad, C.A.,
2004:10.3354/meps10573
1519:10.3354/meps11554
1385:Darwin, C. 1909.
1168:Sargassum horneri
817:purple sea urchin
630:Galapagos Islands
467:great blue herons
376:belonging to the
332:barren landscapes
225:
224:
97:Continental shelf
16:(Redirected from
4890:
4878:Fishing industry
4653:
4652:
4388:
4387:
4379:
4378:
4359:
4352:
4345:
4336:
4335:
4322:
4321:
4315:
4311:
4310:
4301:
4299:Lakes portal
4297:
4296:
4295:
4265:Marine pollution
3957:Deep-water coral
3940:
3939:
3928:
3861:Marine chemistry
3821:
3820:
3808:
3807:
3725:Freshwater marsh
3618:Freshwater biome
3600:
3316:Acoustic ecology
3306:
3305:
3292:
3291:
3277:
3270:
3263:
3254:
3253:
3248:
3243:. Archived from
3227:
3203:
3198:. Archived from
3179:
3172:
3163:
3162:
3160:
3159:
3144:
3138:
3137:
3135:
3134:
3119:
3113:
3112:
3110:
3109:
3094:
3088:
3087:
3085:
3084:
3069:
3063:
3062:
3060:
3059:
3045:
3039:
3038:
3036:
3035:
3020:
3014:
3013:
3011:
3010:
2996:
2990:
2989:
2987:
2986:
2969:
2963:
2962:
2960:
2959:
2944:
2938:
2937:
2935:
2934:
2925:
2916:
2910:
2909:
2907:
2906:
2891:
2885:
2884:
2882:
2881:
2866:
2860:
2859:
2857:
2856:
2840:
2834:
2833:
2831:
2830:
2816:
2810:
2809:
2761:
2755:
2754:
2748:
2739:
2733:
2732:
2730:
2729:
2712:
2706:
2705:
2703:
2702:
2687:
2681:
2680:
2678:
2677:
2662:
2656:
2655:
2653:
2652:
2637:
2631:
2628:
2622:
2619:
2613:
2610:
2604:
2597:
2591:
2584:
2578:
2575:
2569:
2566:
2560:
2556:
2550:
2547:
2541:
2538:
2532:
2531:
2529:
2528:
2514:
2508:
2505:
2499:
2496:
2490:
2487:
2481:
2474:
2468:
2467:
2465:
2464:
2449:
2443:
2440:
2434:
2433:
2430:10.1038/ngeo2790
2401:
2395:
2394:
2384:
2344:
2338:
2337:
2335:
2333:
2318:
2312:
2307:
2301:
2294:
2288:
2281:
2275:
2271:
2265:
2261:
2255:
2248:
2242:
2235:
2229:
2218:
2209:
2205:
2199:
2196:
2190:
2187:
2181:
2178:
2172:
2169:
2163:
2159:
2153:
2146:
2140:
2137:
2131:
2128:
2122:
2119:
2113:
2110:
2104:
2097:
2091:
2088:
2082:
2079:
2070:
2067:
2058:
2043:
2037:
2034:
2025:
2022:
2016:
2015:
1975:
1969:
1966:
1960:
1957:
1942:
1941:
1922:10.1002/ecy.1638
1893:
1887:
1884:
1878:
1875:
1869:
1866:
1860:
1857:
1848:
1844:
1838:
1835:
1824:
1821:
1815:
1808:
1802:
1799:
1793:
1786:
1780:
1773:
1762:
1756:
1747:
1744:
1735:
1732:
1723:
1716:
1710:
1703:
1697:
1694:
1685:
1682:
1671:
1668:
1662:
1655:
1649:
1642:
1636:
1633:
1627:
1620:
1614:
1611:
1602:
1599:
1593:
1587:
1581:
1580:
1578:
1577:
1562:
1556:
1555:
1553:
1552:
1537:
1531:
1530:
1490:
1484:
1481:
1475:
1472:
1451:
1448:
1435:
1424:
1409:
1406:
1400:
1396:
1390:
1383:
1377:
1373:
1364:
1363:
1361:
1336:
1330:
1329:
1319:
1309:
1292:(37): eabn2465.
1286:Science Advances
1277:
1271:
1268:
1112:invasive species
1068:mangrove forests
991:Ecklonia radiata
951:organophosphates
878:keystone species
647:swimming around
614:Aleutian Islands
461:, gulls, terns,
291:
217:
210:
203:
82:Seagrass meadows
77:Mangrove forests
53:Coastal habitats
44:
30:
29:
21:
4898:
4897:
4893:
4892:
4891:
4889:
4888:
4887:
4873:Aquatic ecology
4863:
4862:
4861:
4856:
4816:
4778:
4707:
4647:
4636:
4632:Endolithic zone
4620:
4553:
4543:
4512:
4486:
4454:
4448:
4417:
4383:
4368:
4363:
4333:
4328:
4305:
4304:
4293:
4291:
4290:
4274:
4235:Coral bleaching
4221:
4202:Seagrass meadow
4099:Marine habitats
4089:
4063:Coral reef fish
4029:
4015:Marine protists
3991:
3929:
3920:
3891:Ocean turbidity
3866:Marine food web
3815:
3794:
3736:
3675:River ecosystem
3628:Freshwater fish
3601:
3592:
3398:Bioluminescence
3383:Aquatic science
3300:
3286:
3281:
3231:
3206:
3190:
3187:
3182:
3173:
3166:
3157:
3155:
3146:
3145:
3141:
3132:
3130:
3120:
3116:
3107:
3105:
3095:
3091:
3082:
3080:
3071:
3070:
3066:
3057:
3055:
3047:
3046:
3042:
3033:
3031:
3022:
3021:
3017:
3008:
3006:
2998:
2997:
2993:
2984:
2982:
2970:
2966:
2957:
2955:
2946:
2945:
2941:
2932:
2930:
2923:
2917:
2913:
2904:
2902:
2893:
2892:
2888:
2879:
2877:
2868:
2867:
2863:
2854:
2852:
2842:
2841:
2837:
2828:
2826:
2818:
2817:
2813:
2762:
2758:
2746:
2740:
2736:
2727:
2725:
2714:
2713:
2709:
2700:
2698:
2688:
2684:
2675:
2673:
2663:
2659:
2650:
2648:
2639:
2638:
2634:
2629:
2625:
2620:
2616:
2611:
2607:
2598:
2594:
2585:
2581:
2576:
2572:
2567:
2563:
2557:
2553:
2548:
2544:
2539:
2535:
2526:
2524:
2516:
2515:
2511:
2506:
2502:
2497:
2493:
2488:
2484:
2475:
2471:
2462:
2460:
2450:
2446:
2441:
2437:
2416:(10): 737–742.
2402:
2398:
2345:
2341:
2331:
2329:
2319:
2315:
2308:
2304:
2295:
2291:
2282:
2278:
2272:
2268:
2262:
2258:
2249:
2245:
2236:
2232:
2219:
2212:
2206:
2202:
2197:
2193:
2188:
2184:
2179:
2175:
2170:
2166:
2160:
2156:
2147:
2143:
2138:
2134:
2129:
2125:
2120:
2116:
2111:
2107:
2101:Ecklonia maxima
2098:
2094:
2089:
2085:
2080:
2073:
2068:
2061:
2044:
2040:
2035:
2028:
2023:
2019:
1976:
1972:
1967:
1963:
1958:
1945:
1894:
1890:
1885:
1881:
1876:
1872:
1867:
1863:
1858:
1851:
1845:
1841:
1836:
1827:
1822:
1818:
1809:
1805:
1800:
1796:
1787:
1783:
1774:
1765:
1757:
1750:
1745:
1738:
1733:
1726:
1717:
1713:
1704:
1700:
1695:
1688:
1683:
1674:
1669:
1665:
1656:
1652:
1643:
1639:
1634:
1630:
1621:
1617:
1612:
1605:
1600:
1596:
1588:
1584:
1575:
1573:
1563:
1559:
1550:
1548:
1538:
1534:
1491:
1487:
1482:
1478:
1473:
1454:
1449:
1438:
1425:
1412:
1407:
1403:
1397:
1393:
1384:
1380:
1374:
1367:
1337:
1333:
1278:
1274:
1269:
1262:
1258:
1246:
1213:
1137:
1086:The nudibranch
1080:
1051:
1003:
925:
882:trophic cascade
809:
807:Trophic ecology
758:skeleton shrimp
638:
426:are described.
366:
360:
293:
285:
275:
221:
189:Marine sediment
125:Epipelagic zone
67:Intertidal zone
47:
34:Marine habitats
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4896:
4886:
4885:
4880:
4875:
4858:
4857:
4855:
4854:
4849:
4844:
4839:
4834:
4828:
4826:
4822:
4821:
4818:
4817:
4815:
4814:
4813:
4812:
4807:
4797:
4792:
4786:
4784:
4780:
4779:
4777:
4776:
4771:
4766:
4761:
4756:
4751:
4746:
4741:
4736:
4731:
4726:
4721:
4715:
4713:
4709:
4708:
4706:
4705:
4700:
4695:
4690:
4685:
4680:
4675:
4670:
4665:
4659:
4657:
4650:
4646:Biogeographic
4642:
4641:
4638:
4637:
4635:
4634:
4628:
4626:
4622:
4621:
4619:
4618:
4613:
4608:
4603:
4598:
4593:
4588:
4583:
4578:
4573:
4568:
4563:
4557:
4555:
4549:
4548:
4545:
4544:
4542:
4541:
4536:
4531:
4526:
4520:
4518:
4514:
4513:
4511:
4510:
4505:
4500:
4494:
4492:
4488:
4487:
4485:
4484:
4479:
4474:
4469:
4464:
4458:
4456:
4450:
4449:
4447:
4446:
4441:
4436:
4431:
4425:
4423:
4419:
4418:
4416:
4415:
4410:
4405:
4400:
4394:
4392:
4385:
4376:
4370:
4369:
4362:
4361:
4354:
4347:
4339:
4330:
4329:
4327:
4326:
4316:
4302:
4287:
4284:
4283:
4280:
4279:
4276:
4275:
4273:
4272:
4267:
4262:
4257:
4252:
4247:
4242:
4237:
4231:
4229:
4223:
4222:
4220:
4219:
4214:
4209:
4204:
4199:
4194:
4189:
4184:
4179:
4174:
4169:
4164:
4159:
4154:
4149:
4144:
4139:
4134:
4129:
4124:
4119:
4114:
4109:
4103:
4101:
4095:
4094:
4091:
4090:
4088:
4087:
4082:
4081:
4080:
4075:
4070:
4065:
4060:
4053:Saltwater fish
4050:
4048:Marine reptile
4045:
4039:
4037:
4031:
4030:
4028:
4027:
4022:
4020:Marine viruses
4017:
4012:
4007:
4001:
3999:
3997:Microorganisms
3993:
3992:
3990:
3989:
3987:Wild fisheries
3984:
3979:
3974:
3969:
3964:
3959:
3954:
3949:
3943:
3937:
3931:
3930:
3923:
3921:
3919:
3918:
3913:
3908:
3903:
3901:Thorson's rule
3898:
3893:
3888:
3883:
3878:
3873:
3868:
3863:
3858:
3856:Marine biology
3853:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3833:
3827:
3825:
3817:
3816:
3804:
3803:
3800:
3799:
3796:
3795:
3793:
3792:
3791:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3767:
3762:
3761:
3760:
3755:
3744:
3742:
3738:
3737:
3735:
3734:
3733:
3732:
3727:
3722:
3717:
3715:Brackish marsh
3712:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3687:
3682:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3666:
3665:
3655:
3650:
3645:
3643:Lake ecosystem
3640:
3635:
3633:Hyporheic zone
3630:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3609:
3607:
3603:
3602:
3595:
3593:
3591:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3535:
3530:
3525:
3520:
3515:
3510:
3505:
3500:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3483:Microbial loop
3480:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3460:
3455:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3428:Eutrophication
3425:
3420:
3415:
3410:
3408:Cascade effect
3405:
3400:
3395:
3390:
3385:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3355:
3354:
3353:
3348:
3343:
3336:Aquatic animal
3333:
3328:
3323:
3318:
3312:
3310:
3302:
3301:
3288:
3287:
3280:
3279:
3272:
3265:
3257:
3251:
3250:
3247:on 1999-11-28.
3229:
3226:on 2004-12-04.
3204:
3202:on 2007-03-22.
3186:
3185:External links
3183:
3181:
3180:
3164:
3139:
3114:
3089:
3064:
3040:
3015:
2991:
2964:
2939:
2911:
2886:
2861:
2835:
2811:
2756:
2734:
2707:
2682:
2657:
2632:
2623:
2614:
2605:
2592:
2588:Pagrus auratus
2579:
2570:
2561:
2551:
2542:
2533:
2509:
2500:
2491:
2482:
2469:
2444:
2435:
2396:
2339:
2313:
2302:
2289:
2276:
2266:
2256:
2243:
2230:
2210:
2200:
2191:
2182:
2173:
2164:
2154:
2141:
2132:
2123:
2114:
2105:
2092:
2083:
2071:
2059:
2038:
2026:
2017:
1970:
1961:
1943:
1908:(1): 253–264.
1888:
1879:
1870:
1861:
1849:
1839:
1825:
1816:
1803:
1794:
1781:
1777:mass mortality
1763:
1748:
1736:
1724:
1711:
1698:
1686:
1672:
1663:
1650:
1637:
1628:
1615:
1603:
1594:
1582:
1557:
1532:
1485:
1476:
1452:
1436:
1428:J.M. Erlandson
1410:
1401:
1391:
1378:
1365:
1338:See Fig. 3 in
1331:
1272:
1259:
1257:
1254:
1253:
1252:
1245:
1242:
1212:
1209:
1184:climate change
1165:A brown alga,
1136:
1133:
1116:climate change
1089:Melibe leonina
1079:
1076:
1050:
1047:
1002:
999:
986:
985:
981:
970:
966:
943:eutrophication
924:
923:Patch dynamics
921:
897:urchin barrens
869:Enhydra lutris
861:trophic levels
808:
805:
801:marine mammals
797:pelagic fishes
753:Melibe leonina
728:
727:
724:
717:
710:
699:
637:
634:
606:Southern Ocean
570:Atlantic Ocean
512:
511:
504:
497:
362:Main article:
359:
356:
340:climate change
288:Charles Darwin
278:
273:
223:
222:
220:
219:
212:
205:
197:
194:
193:
192:
191:
186:
181:
176:
171:
166:
158:
157:
151:
150:
149:
148:
143:
135:
134:
130:
129:
128:
127:
122:
114:
113:
107:
106:
105:
104:
99:
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
69:
64:
56:
55:
49:
48:
45:
37:
36:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4895:
4884:
4881:
4879:
4876:
4874:
4871:
4870:
4868:
4853:
4850:
4848:
4845:
4843:
4840:
4838:
4835:
4833:
4830:
4829:
4827:
4823:
4811:
4808:
4806:
4803:
4802:
4801:
4798:
4796:
4793:
4791:
4788:
4787:
4785:
4781:
4775:
4772:
4770:
4767:
4765:
4762:
4760:
4757:
4755:
4752:
4750:
4747:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4737:
4735:
4732:
4730:
4727:
4725:
4722:
4720:
4717:
4716:
4714:
4710:
4704:
4701:
4699:
4696:
4694:
4691:
4689:
4686:
4684:
4681:
4679:
4676:
4674:
4671:
4669:
4666:
4664:
4661:
4660:
4658:
4654:
4651:
4649:
4643:
4633:
4630:
4629:
4627:
4623:
4617:
4616:Demersal zone
4614:
4612:
4609:
4607:
4604:
4602:
4599:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4574:
4572:
4569:
4567:
4564:
4562:
4559:
4558:
4556:
4550:
4540:
4537:
4535:
4532:
4530:
4527:
4525:
4522:
4521:
4519:
4515:
4509:
4506:
4504:
4501:
4499:
4496:
4495:
4493:
4489:
4483:
4480:
4478:
4475:
4473:
4470:
4468:
4465:
4463:
4460:
4459:
4457:
4451:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4437:
4435:
4432:
4430:
4427:
4426:
4424:
4420:
4414:
4413:Alpine tundra
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4396:
4395:
4393:
4391:Polar/montane
4389:
4386:
4380:
4377:
4375:
4371:
4367:
4360:
4355:
4353:
4348:
4346:
4341:
4340:
4337:
4325:
4317:
4314:
4309:
4303:
4300:
4289:
4288:
4285:
4271:
4268:
4266:
4263:
4261:
4258:
4256:
4253:
4251:
4248:
4246:
4243:
4241:
4238:
4236:
4233:
4232:
4230:
4228:
4224:
4218:
4215:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4207:Sponge ground
4205:
4203:
4200:
4198:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4188:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4178:
4175:
4173:
4172:Marine biomes
4170:
4168:
4165:
4163:
4160:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4138:
4135:
4133:
4130:
4128:
4125:
4123:
4120:
4118:
4115:
4113:
4110:
4108:
4105:
4104:
4102:
4100:
4096:
4086:
4083:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4073:Demersal fish
4071:
4069:
4068:Deep-sea fish
4066:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4055:
4054:
4051:
4049:
4046:
4044:
4043:Marine mammal
4041:
4040:
4038:
4036:
4032:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4013:
4011:
4008:
4006:
4003:
4002:
4000:
3998:
3994:
3988:
3985:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3948:
3945:
3944:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3932:
3927:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3879:
3877:
3874:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3828:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3814:
3809:
3805:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3770:
3768:
3766:
3763:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3750:
3749:
3746:
3745:
3743:
3739:
3731:
3728:
3726:
3723:
3721:
3718:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3708:
3707:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3664:
3661:
3660:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3610:
3608:
3604:
3599:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3573:Trophic level
3571:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3539:
3538:Sediment trap
3536:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3524:
3521:
3519:
3516:
3514:
3513:Phytoplankton
3511:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3461:
3459:
3456:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3424:
3421:
3419:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3363:Aquatic plant
3361:
3359:
3356:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3338:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3326:Anoxic waters
3324:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3314:
3313:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3278:
3273:
3271:
3266:
3264:
3259:
3258:
3255:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3225:
3221:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3188:
3177:
3171:
3169:
3153:
3152:The Fish Site
3149:
3143:
3129:
3128:SeafoodSource
3125:
3118:
3104:
3100:
3093:
3078:
3074:
3068:
3054:
3050:
3044:
3029:
3025:
3019:
3005:
3001:
2995:
2981:
2980:
2975:
2968:
2953:
2949:
2943:
2929:
2922:
2915:
2900:
2896:
2890:
2875:
2871:
2865:
2851:
2850:
2845:
2839:
2825:
2821:
2815:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2760:
2752:
2745:
2738:
2723:
2722:
2717:
2711:
2697:
2693:
2686:
2672:
2668:
2661:
2646:
2642:
2636:
2627:
2618:
2609:
2602:
2596:
2589:
2583:
2574:
2565:
2555:
2546:
2537:
2523:
2519:
2513:
2504:
2495:
2486:
2479:
2473:
2459:
2455:
2448:
2439:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2400:
2392:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2343:
2328:
2324:
2317:
2311:
2306:
2299:
2293:
2286:
2280:
2270:
2260:
2253:
2247:
2241:148: 491-502.
2240:
2234:
2227:
2223:
2217:
2215:
2204:
2195:
2186:
2177:
2168:
2158:
2151:
2145:
2136:
2127:
2118:
2109:
2102:
2096:
2087:
2078:
2076:
2066:
2064:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2042:
2033:
2031:
2021:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1974:
1965:
1956:
1954:
1952:
1950:
1948:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1892:
1883:
1874:
1865:
1856:
1854:
1843:
1834:
1832:
1830:
1820:
1813:
1807:
1798:
1791:
1785:
1778:
1772:
1770:
1768:
1760:
1755:
1753:
1743:
1741:
1731:
1729:
1721:
1715:
1708:
1702:
1693:
1691:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1667:
1660:
1654:
1647:
1641:
1632:
1625:
1619:
1610:
1608:
1598:
1591:
1586:
1572:
1568:
1561:
1547:
1543:
1536:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1489:
1480:
1471:
1469:
1467:
1465:
1463:
1461:
1459:
1457:
1447:
1445:
1443:
1441:
1433:
1429:
1423:
1421:
1419:
1417:
1415:
1405:
1395:
1388:
1382:
1372:
1370:
1360:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1335:
1327:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1308:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1276:
1267:
1265:
1260:
1251:
1248:
1247:
1241:
1239:
1235:
1229:
1227:
1223:
1218:
1208:
1206:
1205:Faroe Islands
1201:
1199:
1194:
1191:
1187:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1172:
1170:
1169:
1163:
1161:
1157:
1152:
1146:
1141:
1132:
1130:
1124:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1108:water quality
1104:
1097:
1096:
1091:
1090:
1084:
1075:
1073:
1072:seagrass beds
1069:
1065:
1064:tidal marshes
1061:
1057:
1046:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1015:
1007:
998:
996:
992:
982:
978:
974:
971:
967:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
939:
935:
934:
933:
931:
920:
917:
913:
909:
905:
900:
898:
893:
891:
887:
883:
879:
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
850:
849:
843:
837:
833:
828:
822:
818:
813:
804:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
781:
776:
775:brittle stars
772:
771:
766:
762:
759:
755:
754:
750:
747:forests, the
746:
741:
737:
733:
725:
722:
718:
715:
711:
708:
704:
700:
697:
693:
689:
688:
687:
680:
676:
668:
661:
658:A diver in a
656:
650:
646:
642:
633:
631:
626:
622:
617:
615:
611:
607:
603:
602:Pacific Ocean
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
563:
559:
554:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
519:
517:
516:pneumatocysts
509:
505:
502:
498:
495:
491:
490:
489:
487:
483:
479:
475:
470:
468:
464:
460:
456:
455:brittle stars
452:
451:bristle worms
448:
447:marine snails
444:
440:
436:
435:invertebrates
432:
427:
425:
424:
419:
418:
413:
412:
407:
406:
401:
400:
395:
394:
389:
388:
383:
379:
375:
371:
365:
355:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
333:
329:
325:
321:
317:
312:
310:
306:
305:oceanographic
302:
298:
292:
289:
282:
271:
267:
265:
261:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
218:
213:
211:
206:
204:
199:
198:
196:
195:
190:
187:
185:
182:
180:
179:Demersal zone
177:
175:
172:
170:
167:
165:
162:
161:
160:
159:
156:
153:
152:
147:
144:
142:
139:
138:
137:
136:
132:
131:
126:
123:
121:
118:
117:
116:
115:
112:
111:Ocean surface
109:
108:
103:
100:
98:
95:
93:
90:
88:
85:
83:
80:
78:
75:
73:
70:
68:
65:
63:
62:Littoral zone
60:
59:
58:
57:
54:
51:
50:
43:
39:
38:
35:
32:
31:
19:
4783:Subdivisions
4673:Australasian
4663:Afrotropical
4625:Other biomes
4601:Benthic zone
4596:Pelagic zone
4591:Neritic zone
4581:Kelp forests
4580:
4453:Tropical and
4227:Conservation
4151:
4078:Pelagic fish
4058:Coastal fish
3962:Marine fungi
3700:Water garden
3583:Water column
3528:Productivity
3503:Pelagic zone
3463:Macrobenthos
3453:Hydrobiology
3423:Ecohydrology
3245:the original
3236:
3224:the original
3211:
3208:"Kelp Watch"
3200:the original
3195:
3175:
3156:. Retrieved
3154:. 2023-10-12
3151:
3142:
3131:. Retrieved
3127:
3117:
3106:. Retrieved
3102:
3092:
3081:. Retrieved
3079:. 2021-07-12
3076:
3067:
3056:. Retrieved
3052:
3043:
3032:. Retrieved
3030:. 2021-01-12
3027:
3018:
3007:. Retrieved
3003:
2994:
2983:. Retrieved
2977:
2967:
2956:. Retrieved
2954:. 2017-04-17
2951:
2942:
2931:. Retrieved
2927:
2914:
2903:. Retrieved
2898:
2889:
2878:. Retrieved
2876:. 2021-06-21
2873:
2864:
2853:. Retrieved
2847:
2838:
2827:. Retrieved
2823:
2814:
2773:
2769:
2759:
2750:
2737:
2726:. Retrieved
2724:. 2020-05-27
2719:
2710:
2699:. Retrieved
2695:
2685:
2674:. Retrieved
2670:
2660:
2649:. Retrieved
2647:. 2021-03-18
2644:
2635:
2626:
2617:
2608:
2595:
2587:
2582:
2573:
2564:
2554:
2545:
2536:
2525:. Retrieved
2521:
2512:
2503:
2494:
2485:
2477:
2472:
2461:. Retrieved
2457:
2447:
2438:
2413:
2409:
2399:
2359:(1): 12341.
2356:
2352:
2342:
2330:. Retrieved
2326:
2316:
2305:
2297:
2292:
2284:
2279:
2269:
2259:
2246:
2233:
2203:
2194:
2185:
2176:
2167:
2157:
2149:
2144:
2135:
2126:
2117:
2108:
2100:
2095:
2086:
2057:58: 249-255.
2050:
2046:
2041:
2020:
1987:
1983:
1973:
1964:
1905:
1901:
1891:
1882:
1873:
1864:
1842:
1819:
1806:
1797:
1789:
1784:
1719:
1714:
1709:63: 133-141.
1701:
1666:
1658:
1653:
1645:
1640:
1631:
1623:
1618:
1597:
1585:
1574:. Retrieved
1570:
1560:
1549:. Retrieved
1546:the Guardian
1545:
1535:
1502:
1498:
1488:
1479:
1404:
1394:
1386:
1381:
1376:16576-16580.
1349:
1346:Soil Systems
1345:
1334:
1307:10754/681467
1289:
1285:
1275:
1230:
1214:
1202:
1195:
1192:
1188:
1173:
1166:
1164:
1153:
1150:
1125:
1120:biodiversity
1105:
1101:
1093:
1087:
1052:
1035:SCUBA diving
1031:alginic acid
1016:
1012:
994:
990:
987:
926:
901:
894:
868:
854:
846:
778:
768:
764:
760:
751:
744:
740:Pterygophora
739:
735:
731:
729:
713:
706:
702:
695:
691:
684:
625:oligotrophic
620:
618:
597:
594:South Africa
584:is found in
581:
565:
555:
546:
538:
534:
520:
513:
471:
463:snowy egrets
428:
421:
415:
409:
403:
397:
391:
385:
374:marine algae
367:
313:
294:
284:
280:
262:waters near
235:
228:Kelp forests
227:
226:
184:Benthic zone
146:Oceanic zone
141:Pelagic zone
102:Neritic zone
87:Kelp forests
86:
18:Kelp forests
4883:Brown algae
4693:Neotropical
4683:Indomalayan
4656:Terrestrial
4586:Coral reefs
4455:subtropical
4382:Terrestrial
4212:Sponge reef
4187:Rocky shore
4182:Oyster reef
4152:Kelp forest
4035:Vertebrates
3935:Marine life
3911:Viral shunt
3876:Marine snow
3778:Maharashtra
3685:Stream pool
3588:Zooplankton
3508:Photic zone
3468:Meiobenthos
3321:Algal bloom
2874:PolyCentric
2776:: 117–131.
2522:www.ipcc.ch
2150:Macrocystis
1759:Estes, J.A.
1505:: 141–152.
1226:overfishing
1095:Macrocystis
1060:blue carbon
916:herbivorous
890:Nova Scotia
873:sea urchins
836:sea urchins
793:echinoderms
767:, rockfish
732:Macrocystis
692:Macrocystis
598:Macrocystis
590:New Zealand
539:Nereocystis
535:Macrocystis
433:, and many
411:Nereocystis
387:Macrocystis
336:overfishing
328:overgrazing
320:overfishing
244:coral reefs
92:Coral reefs
46:Kelp forest
4867:Categories
4800:Ecoregions
4795:Bioregions
4703:Palearctic
4611:Cold seeps
4571:Intertidal
4192:Salt marsh
4127:Coral reef
3916:Whale fall
3896:Photophore
3773:Everglades
3741:Ecoregions
3680:Stream bed
3653:Macrophyte
3606:Freshwater
3438:Food chain
3351:Water bird
3237:mbayaq.org
3212:tas.gov.au
3158:2024-07-22
3133:2021-08-11
3108:2021-08-11
3083:2021-08-11
3058:2021-08-11
3034:2021-08-11
3009:2023-11-30
2985:2021-08-11
2958:2021-08-11
2933:2021-08-11
2905:2021-08-11
2880:2021-08-11
2855:2021-08-11
2829:2021-08-11
2728:2021-08-11
2701:2021-08-11
2676:2021-08-11
2651:2021-08-11
2601:J.A. Estes
2559:S170-S184.
2527:2022-02-28
2463:2020-02-09
2264:2:161-174.
2252:J.A. Estes
2226:J.A. Estes
1646:Laminarias
1576:2020-10-22
1571:Bay Nature
1551:2020-10-22
1432:J.A. Estes
1256:References
1234:ecological
1222:ecosystems
1160:sea otters
1156:sea urchin
995:E. radiata
930:resilience
865:sea otters
789:gastropods
749:nudibranch
679:Giant kelp
649:giant kelp
616:, Alaska.
551:perennials
523:irradiance
459:sea otters
437:, such as
382:Ochrophyta
372:refers to
324:herbivores
297:macroalgae
240:ecosystems
174:Cold seeps
133:Open ocean
4678:Holarctic
4668:Antarctic
4576:Mangroves
4422:Temperate
4217:Tide pool
4122:Cold seep
3906:Upwelling
3670:Rheotaxis
3663:Fish pond
3638:Limnology
3563:Substrate
3548:Siltation
3418:Dead zone
3220:Australia
2806:234106934
2798:0171-8630
2239:Oecologia
2222:Erlandson
2055:Oecologia
2012:0171-8630
1930:0012-9658
1659:Laminaria
1527:0171-8630
1352:(4): 64.
1019:fisheries
1001:Human use
938:pollution
857:food webs
832:sea otter
821:holdfasts
714:Laminaria
621:Laminaria
612:, to the
586:Australia
566:Laminaria
558:temperate
527:upwelling
439:amphipods
393:Laminaria
368:The term
252:temperate
236:kelp beds
164:Seamounts
155:Sea floor
72:Estuaries
4825:See also
4698:Oceanian
4688:Nearctic
4566:Littoral
4539:Mangrove
4529:Riparian
4324:Category
4250:HERMIONE
4167:Mangrove
3977:Seagrass
3523:Pleuston
3518:Plankton
3498:Particle
3443:Food web
3216:Tasmania
3196:noaa.gov
2696:phys.org
2458:ABC News
2391:32703990
2274:392-411.
2162:181-224.
1990:: 1–25.
1938:28052391
1399:687-699.
1326:36103524
1244:See also
1145:swarming
1039:kayaking
984:forests.
959:creosote
904:seastars
770:Sebastes
707:Ecklonia
645:Rockfish
582:Ecklonia
494:holdfast
478:Protista
431:rockfish
405:Lessonia
399:Ecklonia
344:Tasmania
260:tropical
4552:Aquatic
4534:Wetland
4177:Mudflat
4137:Estuary
4107:Bay mud
4085:Seabird
3841:f-ratio
3824:General
3705:Wetland
3493:Neuston
3458:Hypoxia
3403:Biomass
3393:Benthos
3309:General
2778:Bibcode
2418:Bibcode
2382:7378163
2361:Bibcode
2332:21 June
1992:Bibcode
1910:Bibcode
1902:Ecology
1812:grazing
1507:Bibcode
1317:9473579
1027:abalone
1023:lobster
910:, kelp
908:isopods
785:benthic
736:Eisenia
721:benthic
703:Eisenia
547:Eisenia
543:annuals
486:Plantae
482:thallus
423:Eisenia
301:trophic
264:Ecuador
4724:Arctic
4712:Marine
4648:realms
4554:biomes
4508:Steppe
4398:Tundra
4384:biomes
4374:Biomes
4162:Lagoon
3488:Nekton
3346:Mammal
3341:Insect
2901:. 2021
2804:
2796:
2389:
2379:
2208:27-45.
2010:
1936:
1928:
1847:61-71.
1525:
1324:
1314:
1114:, and
914:, and
791:, and
780:Tegula
756:, and
696:Alaria
596:; and
592:, and
562:arctic
541:, are
508:fronds
453:, and
443:shrimp
420:, and
417:Alaria
4403:Taiga
3553:Spawn
2924:(PDF)
2802:S2CID
2747:(PDF)
1143:Fish
1092:on a
912:crabs
578:Japan
574:China
501:stipe
378:order
256:polar
4561:Pond
3658:Pond
2794:ISSN
2387:PMID
2334:2022
2008:ISSN
1934:PMID
1926:ISSN
1523:ISSN
1322:PMID
1215:The
1198:NOAA
1174:The
1070:and
1037:and
957:and
947:PCBs
830:The
799:and
738:and
719:The
705:and
694:and
660:kelp
576:and
560:and
549:are
506:The
499:The
492:The
370:kelp
364:Kelp
358:Kelp
338:and
254:and
232:kelp
4517:Wet
4491:Dry
3720:Fen
3710:Bog
2849:CNN
2786:doi
2774:664
2426:doi
2377:PMC
2369:doi
2000:doi
1988:495
1918:doi
1515:doi
1503:543
1354:doi
1312:PMC
1302:hdl
1294:doi
955:TBT
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