Economic history of Europe (1000 AD–present)

2181:) was a system of American economic aid to Western Europe 1948–51. It played a major role in the economic recovery, modernization, and unification of Europe. In three years the ERP gave away $ 12.4 billion (about 5% of the 1948 American GDP of $ 270 billion) for modernizing the economic and financial systems and rebuilding the industrial and human capital of war-torn Europe, including Britain, Germany, France, Italy and smaller nations. It required each government to set up a national economic plan, and for the countries to cooperate in terms of financial and trade flows. The money was not a loan and there was no repayment. Washington spent such vast sums because it was believed to be cheaper than the rearmament that isolationism or rollback would entail. In the long run, the logic went, a prosperous Europe would be more peaceful, and would make its main trading partner, the US, more prosperous. Stalin refused to allow any of his satellites to participate, the plan became exclusive to western Europe. However, the US extended a similar financial aid program to Japan at the same time. 1705:

invention used an air-blast produced by a fan run by a waterwheel. In 1783, Henry Cort introduced the puddling, or reverberatory furnace, in which the final product was a pasty solid instead of a liquid. It was rolled into balls, squeezed and rolled to eliminate the impurities, or slag. The result was malleable iron in large quantities. The greatest of the early ironmasters, John Wilkinson (1728–1808) invented new machinery to process the iron. In 1779, the first cast-iron bridge was constructed across the Severn; in 1790 the first iron ship was launched. By 1830, Britain was producing 700,000 tons of iron a year; the amount quadrupled a quarter-century later, with centers in Scotland, South Wales, and Staffordshire. Railway builders were the chief customer. In 1847–48 they bought 3 million tons for rolling stock, bridge building, and station building for 2000 new miles, plus the demands of the 3000 previously built miles of railway.

1729: 1769:. Indeed, Germany and Japan depended as much or more on plunder of conquered territories than they did on their own production. Life on the home front during World War II was a significant part of the war effort for all participants and had a major impact on the outcome of the war. Governments became involved with new issues such as rationing, manpower allocation, home defense, evacuation in the face of air raids, and response to occupation by an enemy power. The morale and psychology of the people responded to leadership and propaganda. Typically women were mobilized to an unprecedented degree. The success in mobilizing economic output was a major factor in supporting combat operations. All of the powers involved had learned from their experiences on the 1574:

out—by trade barriers, regulations, and subsidies to domestic industries in order to maximize exports from and minimize imports to the realm. The government had to fight smuggling—which became a favorite American technique in the 18th century to circumvent the restrictions on trading with the French, Spanish or Dutch. The goal of mercantilism was to run trade surpluses, so that gold and silver would pour into London. The government took its share through duties and taxes, with the remainder going to merchants in Britain. The government spent much of its revenue on a superb Royal Navy, which not only protected the British colonies but threatened the colonies of the other empires, and sometimes seized them. Thus the British Navy captured

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revolution. Railways had existed as early as 1500, but in 1700s the primitive wooden rails were replaced with wrought iron. These new rails enabled horses to pull even heavier loads with relative ease. But dependence on horsepower did not last for long. In 1804, the first steam-powered locomotive pulled 10 tons of ore and 70 people at 5 miles per hour. This new technology improved dramatically; locomotives soon reached speeds of 50 miles per hour. While the railroads revolutionized transportation, they further contributed to the growth of the industrial revolution by causing a great increase in the demand for iron and coal.

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textiles, then spread to other sectors and by the mid 19th century totally transformed the British economy and society, setting up sustained growth; it spread to parts of America and Europe and modernized the world economy. Although localized to certain parts of Britain (the London area was not included), its impact was felt worldwide on migration and trade, society and politics, on cities and countryside, and affected the remotest areas. The growth rate in the British GDP was 1.5% per year (1770–1815), doubling to 3.0% (1815–1831).

39: 1161: 4581: 1646:. His factories integrated all stages of production, from engineering to the supply of raw materials, as early as 1825. By 1830, when iron became important the Belgium coal industry had long been established, and used steam-engines for pumping. Coal was sold to local mills and railways as well as to France and Prussia. The textile industry, based on cotton and flax, employed about half of the industrial workforce for much of the industrial period. 866: 1566:, Barbados, Jamaica and Bermuda. These islands, where slavery became the basis of the economy, comprised Britain's most lucrative colonies in terms of profits flowing to the absentee owners (who lived in Britain). The American colonies also utilized slave labour in the farming of tobacco, indigo and rice in the south. Britain's American empire was slowly expanded by war and colonization. Victory over the French during the 2436: 854: 4591: 2198:(1949) gave Europe the assurance of America's commitment to the security and prosperity of Western Europe, and helped the recipients avoid the pessimism and despair that characterized the aftermath of World War I. The Marshall Plan thus created in Europe an unstoppable "revolution of rising expectations," the striking phrase coined in 1950 by Harlan Cleveland, an economist and senior ERP official. 1725:. Payments ended in 1931, but in the 1950s West Germany did pay all the reparations. There was an overwhelming inflation in 1923 caused by the government's pumping out paper money. The reconstruction period was based on private investment and demand. When the stock market crashed in 1929, the investors who had been financing Germany pulled out, crippling its economy as unemployment soared to 25%. 2424:(Estonia 2011, Latvia 2014, Lithuania 2015) . Countries are only allowed to begin utilizing the Euro when they have met certain requirements set about by the EMU. The criteria includes "a low and stable inflation, exchange rate stability and sound public finances." The reason for such criteria is because the best way to achieve a successful economy is by ensuring price stability. 1417:. After 1500, New World crops appeared such as beans, corn (maize), squash, tomatoes, potatoes, and bell peppers. Production techniques remained attached to medieval traditions and produced low yields. With the rapidly expanding population, additional land suitable for farming became scarce. The situation worsened with repeated disastrous harvests in the 1550s. 1634:(French-speaking southern Belgium), starting in the middle of the 1820s, and especially after 1830. The availability of cheap coal was a main factor that attracted entrepreneurs. Numerous works comprising coke blast furnaces as well as puddling and rolling mills were built in the coal mining areas around 2237:

The decades from the 1960s saw an economic decline in the output of the more developed nations of Europe, particularly in France and the UK. These nations' positions in output of refined raw materials, e.g. steel, and in finished goods fell in contrast to Asian countries. Several Asian nations made

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It was not large enough to have significantly accelerated recovery by financing investment, aiding the reconstruction of damaged infrastructure, or easing commodity bottlenecks. We argue, however, that the Marshall Plan did play a major role in setting the stage for post-World War II Western Europe's

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No one expected that Belgium-seemingly a "sluggish" and "culturally dormant" bastion of traditionalism-would leap– to the forefront of the Industrial Revolution on the Continent. Nevertheless, Belgium was the second country, after Britain, in which the industrial revolution took place and it set the

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of their region). Educated agricultural workers were not significantly more productive than uneducated ones, and moreover, "educated workers have more incentives to migrate to urban, industrial areas than their less educated counterparts." For that reason, less industrialized regions where large land

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marched back and forth across the land; they did not massacre civilians, but they drained the food supply, disrupted agriculture and trade, and left disease and famine in their wake. Royal authority weakened, as local nobles became strongmen fighting their neighbors for control of the local region.

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The 13 decades from 1335 to 1450 spawned a series of economic catastrophes, with bad harvests, famines, plagues and wars that overwhelmed four generations of Frenchmen. The population had expanded, making the food supply more precarious. The Black Death of 1347 was echoed by several smaller plagues

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The Black Death touched every aspect of life, hastening a process of social, economic, and cultural transformation already underway.... Fields were abandoned, workplaces stood idle, international trade was suspended. Traditional bonds of kinship, village and even religion were broken and the horrors

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was an alliance of North German and Baltic cities during the Middle Ages. The Hanseatic League was founded for the purpose of joining forces for promoting mercantile interests, defensive strength and political influence. By the 14th century, the Hanseatic League held a near-monopoly on trade in the

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fertilizing properties. Crop yields peaked in the 13th century, and stayed more or less steady until the 18th century. Although the limitations of medieval farming were once thought to have provided a ceiling for the population growth in the Middle Ages, recent studies have shown that the technology

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and tried to use its lessons and avoid its possible sources of error. The home front engaged in several activities to help the British army and navy, including taking down metal fences and gates to replace them with stone or wood. The metal was then melted down, and used for battle ships or planes.

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Throughout the Middle Ages iron was smelted using charcoal, however in the eighteenth century, new methods of iron production were discovered; the resulting iron was of higher quality than ever before. These advances, such as the process developed by Henry Cort in the 1780s, greatly encouraged the

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The growth of industry soon brought to light the need for a better system of transportation. While canals and roads did improve, they were soon overshadowed by a means of transportation that held great promise: the railroads. The railroads may have been that most important factor of the industrial

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Success in building larger, more efficient steam engines after 1790 meant that the cost of energy fell steadily. Entrepreneurs found uses for stationary engines in turning the machines in a factory or the pumps at a mine, while mobile engines were put into locomotives and ships (where they turned

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Mercantilism was the basic policy imposed by Britain on its colonies. Mercantilism meant that the government and the merchants became partners with the goal of increasing political power and private wealth, to the exclusion of other empires. The government protected its merchants—and kept others

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Before 1800, France was the most populated country in Europe, with a population of 17 million in 1400, 20 million in the 17th century, and 28 million in 1789. The 17th and 18th centuries saw a steady increase in urban populations, although France remained a profoundly rural country, with less than

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Historians reject the idea that it only miraculously revived Europe, since the evidence shows that a general recovery was already under way thanks to other aid programs, chiefly from the United States. Bradford De Long and Barry Eichengreen conclude it was, " History's Most Successful Structural

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In Britain, the Industrial Revolution was a period of economic transformation from the 1750s to the 1830s, characterized by the growth of a new system comprising factories, railroads, coal mining and business enterprises using new technologies that it sponsored. The new system operated first on

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Spinning, weaving, sewing and cutting were considered women's work until the mid-12th century when men began taking over some positions with more sophisticated industrial structures and technologies. In the large cities of Northern France, centers of medieval textile production, the shift to male

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By the middle of the 16th century, France's demographic growth, its increased demand for consumer goods, and its rapid influx of gold and silver from Africa and the Americas led to inflation (grain became five times as expensive from 1520 to 1600), and wage stagnation. Although many land-owning

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served as the center of France's banking and international trade markets. Market fairs occurred four times a year and facilitated the export of French goods (such as fabrics), and the import of Italian, German, Dutch, English goods. It also allowed the importation of exotic goods such as silks,

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of furriers, tailors, dyers and tapestry makers were dominated by men. Some women did participate in guilds, but it was rare. Most commercial roles were occupied by men, while women were preferred for positions within households. When women were accepted for guild membership it was usually as a

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and other taxes. The taille, which was levied mainly on the peasantry, increased from 2.5 million livres in 1515 to 6 million after 1551, and by 1589 the taille had reached a record 21 million livres. Financial crises hit the royal household repeatedly, and so in 1523, Francis I established a

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Iron was so durable that it became the preferred metal for tools and equipment until displaced by steel after 1860. Britain had iron ores but lacked a process to produce iron in quantity until in 1760 John Smeaton invented a blast furnace that could smelt iron both quickly and cheaply. His

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During the early industrial revolution and the transition from an agricultural economy to an industrial one, major conflicts arose between agricultural landholders and capitalists. Landholders did not benefit as much as industrialists from educating their workers (and thus increasing the

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age as a result of the arrival of new crops, improvements in agricultural production, and good weather conditions. However, this did not lead to the revival of urban life; in fact, urban activity further declined in the Carolingian era as a result of civil war, Arab raids, and

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with Italy due to the latter's silks and exotic goods. In subsequent decades, English, Dutch and Flemish maritime activity would create competition with French trade, which would eventually displace the major markets to the northwest, leading to the decline of Lyon.

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There were episodes of famines, and also of deadly epidemics. Soil exhaustion, overpopulation, wars, diseases and climate change caused hundreds of famines in medieval Europe. Around 1300, centuries of European prosperity and growth came to a halt. Famines such as

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unlinked the French economy from Europe. Town life and trade declined and society became based on the self-sufficient manor. Some international trade existed for luxury goods such as silk, papyrus, and silver; it was handled by foreign merchants such as the

972:, capable of turning over the heavy, wet soils of northern Europe. This led to the clearing of forests in that area and a significant increase in agricultural production, which in turn led to an increase in population. Farmers in Europe moved from a two field 1599:

paddles or, later, propellers). The use of water power was growing too, so that in 1830 steam mills and water mills were about equal (at 165,000 horsepower each); by 1879 Britain obtained 2.1 million horsepower from steam engines, and 230,000 from water.

1319:. From the 1600s, the centres of commerce and manufactures shifted definitively from the Mediterranean to the centres of shipping and colonisation on the western Atlantic coastal fringe: economic activity went into a relative decline in 17th century 1106:

fostered the development of skills and the local growth of trade in particular goods. Over the course of the centuries of this period towns grew in size and number, first in a core in England, Flanders, France, Germany and northern Italy.

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brought factories to Europe, especially England and Scotland, 1750s to 1830s. France and the U.S. experienced its industrial revolution in the early 19th century; Germany in the 19th century; and to Russia in the early-mid 20th century.

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in northeast France led to mineral mining, although France had to import copper, bronze, tin, and lead. Mines and glasswork benefited greatly from royal tax exemptions for a period of about twenty years. Silk production (introduced in

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The League was a business alliance of trading cities and their guilds that dominated trade along the coast of Northern Europe and flourished from the 1200 to 1500, and continued with lesser importance after that. The chief cities were

1185:. This facilitated the growth of trade among cities in close proximity to these two seas. Long-distance trade in the Baltic intensified, as the major trading towns came together in the Hanseatic League, under the leadership of 944:

Early in the first millennium, improvements in technique and technology began to emerge. Monasteries spread throughout Europe and became important centers for the collection of knowledge related to agriculture and forestry. The

2420:(EMU) in 1999 and installed the Euro as its currency on January 1, 2001. More European countries agreed to join the union in the following years; Slovenia (2007), Cyprus and Malta (2008), and Slovakia (2009), followed by the 1045:

Depopulation caused labor to become scarcer; the survivors were better paid and peasants could drop some of the burdens of feudalism. There was also social unrest; France and England experienced serious peasant risings: the

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in 1951. The idea was to stream-line coal and steel production. A side-benefit would be economic interdependence. Thereby, there would be less risk of Economic warfare or even a shooting war between the member nations.

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peasants and enterprising merchants had been able to grow rich during the boom, the standard of living fell greatly for rural peasants, who were forced to deal with bad harvests at the same time. This led to reduced

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to a three field crop rotation in which one field of three was left fallow every year. This resulted in increased productivity and nutrition, as the change in rotations led to different crops being planted, including

1721:. The policy angered the Germans and caused deep resentment, especially of the sort that the Nazis capitalized upon. However the sums actually paid were not large, and were financed by loans from New York in the 1608:

owners held more political power than industrialists, tended to have less educated workers than industrialized ones. The unequal distribution of land therefore has a negative correlation with the development of

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rapid growth. The conditions attached to Marshall Plan aid pushed European political economy in a direction that left its post World War II "mixed economies" with more "market" and less "controls" in the mix.

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The nations involved in the initial treaty were Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain. These nations agreed in principle to the

1480:(reigned 1547–1559), the relationships between French imports and exports to England and to Spain were in France's favor. Trade was roughly balanced with the Netherlands, but France continually ran a large 4620: 1657:

Cheap and readily available coal attracted firms producing metals and glass, both of which required considerable amounts of coal, and so regions around coal fields became highly industrialised. The

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The Cambridge Economic History of Europe from the Decline of the Roman Empire, Vol. 7, Pt. 1: The Industrial Economies: Capital, Labour and Enterprise, Britain, France, Germany and Scandinavia,

4968: 4920: 4613: 4925: 4930: 3963:, webpage linking to resources for economic historians of Europe. Contains links to major databases, technology descriptions, examples of use of data, a forum for economic historians. 1433:

in 1536) enabled the French to join a thriving market, but French products remained of lesser quality than Italian silks. Wool production was widespread, as was the production of

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Crafts also estimates that all technological innovations, including steam engines, accounted for about 18% of British economic growth from 1780 to 1830, and 31% from 1830 to 1870.

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slowly weakened the populace. Few people died of starvation because the weakest had already succumbed to a routine disease they otherwise would have survived. A plague like the

4958: 949:, which existed under different names throughout Europe and Asia, allowed large landowners significant control over both their land and its laborers, in the form of peasants or 1379:

in Britain and technological innovations in France, Prussia and England not only promoted economic changes and expansion in themselves, but also fostered the beginnings of the

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Business Annals: United States, England, France, Germany, Austria, Russia, Sweden, Netherlands, Italy, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, South Africa, Australia, India, Japan, China

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of medieval agriculture was always sufficient for the needs of the people under normal circumstances, and that it was only during exceptionally harsh times, such as the

1550:, an economic theory that stressed maximizing the trade inside the empire, and trying to weaken rival empires. The modern or "second" British Empire was based upon the 4536: 1116: 5056: 1777:

The major powers devoted 50–61 percent of their total GDP to munitions production. The Allies produced about three times as much in munitions as the Axis powers.

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killed its victims in one locality in a matter of days or even hours, reducing the population of some areas by half as many survivors fled. Kishlansky reports:

1086:, for navigation, greatly aided long-distance travel over the seas. The improvements in travel in turn increased trade and the diffusion of consumer items. 4627: 4406: 2671:

Campbell, Bruce M. S.; M. Overton (1993). "A New Perspective on Medieval and Early Modern Agriculture: Six Centuries of Norfolk Farming, c. 1250–c. 1850".

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Six European nations, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands took a step toward economic integration with the formation of a

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France's population plunged from 17 million, down to 12 million in 130 years. Finally, starting in the 1450s, a long cycle of recuperation began.

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Mokyr, Joel (1974). "The Industrial Revolution in the Low Countries in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century: A Comparative Case Study".

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Meanwhile, France's military ventures in Italy and disastrous civil wars demanded huge sums of cash, which were raised with through the

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in the North Atlantic, in which raw materials were imported to the metropolis and then processed and redistributed to other colonies.

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of death, flight, and failed expectations. "People cared no more for dead men that we care for dead goats," wrote one survivor.

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Economic activity over a broad geographic range began to intensify in both northern and southern Europe in the 13th century.

1299:(notably spices and fine cloth) from eastern and southern Asia switching from crossing Islamic territory in the present-day 4594: 4556: 4546: 4456: 1578:(New York) in 1664. The colonies were captive markets for British industry, and the goal was to enrich the mother country. 1308: 3114:

Baten, Jörg; Hippe, Ralph (2017). "Geography, land inequality and regional numeracy in Europe in historical perspective".

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Cornelius Walford, "An Outline History of the Hanseatic League, More Particularly in Its Bearings upon English Commerce,"

999:, and were provided the power needed to grind grains into flour, cut wood and process flax and wool, and irrigate fields. 964:

allowed for increased production, leading to developments in the production of farm tools such as ploughs, hand tools and

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The Industrial Revolution in the Eighteenth Century: An Outline of the Beginnings of the Modern Factory System in England

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The Rise of the European Economy: An Economic History of Continental Europe from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth Century

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saw a continuation of the agricultural boom of the Carolingian age. In addition, urban life grew during this period;

1145:), particularly by the 13th century. Leading the trade in Mediterranean Europe were traders from the port cities of 5762: 5722: 5631: 5355: 5131: 4506: 3927: 3584:

The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present

5712: 5616: 5583: 5545: 5370: 5330: 5086: 4877: 3498: 2520: 2267: 889: 2941:. Cambridge Concise Histories (3 ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (published 2014). p. 29. 5621: 5385: 5295: 5280: 5106: 5096: 5004: 4807: 4670: 4379: 2242:

and specialized in producing certain goods, utilizing comparably cheaper labor forces. First this occurred in

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Field crops included wheat, rye, barley and oats; they were used for bread and animal fodder. Peas, beans, and

939: 1562:, and the control of sugar plantation islands of the Caribbean, notably Trinidad and Tobago, the Bahamas, the 5662: 5578: 5505: 5365: 5340: 5305: 5232: 5177: 5020: 4782: 2515: 1770: 1029: 1016: 227: 489: 5737: 5555: 5530: 5520: 5443: 5390: 5345: 5335: 5325: 5285: 5242: 5202: 5182: 5156: 5066: 5051: 4862: 4857: 4832: 4690: 4584: 4332: 3974: 2565: 2495: 2485: 1328: 1287:

resulted in Europe adopting new crops, as well as shaking up traditional cultural ideas and practices. The

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A major technological advance came in long-distance navigation, from the 8th century to the 12th century.

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Small amounts of steel were produced before the 1860s, but it was five times stronger than cast iron.

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The Industrial Revolution in Iron; The impact of British Coal Technology in Nineteenth-Century Europe

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invasions of the Middle East led to the diffusion of and refinement of technology instrumental to

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Trade flourished in Italy (albeit not united, but rather ruled by different princes in different

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were initially developed by the Romans, but were improved throughout the Middle Ages, along with

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Documents of European Economic History Volume 2 Industrial Power and National Rivalry 1870–1914

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The Great Frontier War: Britain, France, and the Imperial Struggle for North America, 1607–1755

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was the premier industrial city in Belgium until the 1880s, when the center of growth moved to

1135:. This system continued until it was supplanted by industrial capitalism in the 18th century. 684: 529: 267: 207: 164: 111: 3574:

The Fibre That Changed the World: The Cotton Industry in International Perspective, 1600–1990s

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A House Divided: Catholics, Socialists, and Flemish Nationalists in Nineteenth-Century Belgium

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Schama, Simon (1972). "The Rights of Ignorance: Dutch Educational Policy in Belgium 1815–30".

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Documents of European Economic History, Volume 1: The Process of Industrialization 1750–1870

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France and the Economic Development of Europe, 1800–1914: Conquests of Peace and Seeds of War

3660: 3563: 2645: 2587: 2266:); by the latter half of the 1980s the shift of industrial production began occurring in the 2239: 1587: 1406:

was the largest city in Europe, in 1754, with 650,000 people by the end of the 18th century.

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C.H. Feinstein, "National Statistics, 1760–1920", in C.H. Feinstein and S. Pollard, (eds.),

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Before Command: An Economic History of Russia from Emancipation to the First Five-Year Plan

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The Hanseatic cities each had its own legal system and a degree of political autonomy. The

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and a decline in manufacturing. The monetary crisis led France to abandon (in 1577) the

1473: 1396: 1154: 1128: 1051: 795: 604: 426: 367: 292: 282: 252: 179: 87: 3834: 3377:

The Marshall Plan: America, Britain, and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947–1952

1460:, dyes. Lyon also contained houses of most of Europe's banking families, including the 464: 4348: 4011: 3890: 3493: 3460: 3173: 3095: 2870: 2623: 1559: 1477: 1372: 1368: 1284: 1280: 1198: 1194: 823: 779: 584: 421: 416: 396: 347: 287: 277: 222: 217: 189: 184: 154: 22: 3910: 3873: 3668: 2294: 2282:. The shift of international industrial production out of Europe is a key outcome of 5667: 4193: 3844: 3821: 3673: 3528:

An Economic History of Europe: Knowledge, Institutions and Growth, 600 to the Present

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which first took shape in the early 18th century, with the English settlement of the

1409:

Agricultural production of a variety of food items expanded: olive oil, wine, cider,

1304: 1267: 1011: 922: 714: 689: 599: 479: 436: 372: 337: 327: 159: 121: 77: 3783: 3686:(1926) capsule summary of conditions in each country for each quarter-year 1790–1925 2194:

Historians also emphasize its political impact. The powerful combination of ERP and

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Documents of European Economic History Volume 3 The End of the Old Europe 1914–1939

3655: 3579: 3165: 3138: 3087: 2680: 2535: 2441: 1534: 1490: 1403: 1364: 1259: 1255: 1209: 1182: 1075: 918: 764: 709: 694: 679: 664: 594: 574: 554: 509: 382: 332: 302: 297: 3695:(1953). 1268 pp. tables, maps, analysis covering most industrial powers, 1800–1950 1392: 644: 4240: 4173: 4163: 4026: 3689: 2936: 2840: 2774: 1714: 1563: 946: 858: 769: 734: 699: 634: 559: 544: 431: 406: 401: 377: 149: 144: 4989: 1094:

From the 11th century to the 13th century, farmers and small-scale producers of

5742: 4566: 4091: 3602: 2540: 2395:

members on January 1, 2001. The currency was signed into effect in 1992 in the

2392: 1360: 1283:, seen from the European point of view, introduced major economic changes. The 1251: 789: 774: 739: 724: 704: 674: 494: 411: 101: 97: 3169: 524: 5777: 5752: 4605: 4226: 4178: 4081: 4056: 3775: 3142: 2421: 2400: 2283: 2213: 2164: 1609: 1604: 1575: 1481: 1098:

increasingly met in towns to trade their goods. They met in either seasonal

982: 973: 754: 744: 719: 659: 654: 649: 629: 619: 589: 579: 484: 387: 3345:"The Marshall Plan: History's Most Successful Structural Adjustment Program" 3072: 2964:

550.000, and by the end of the following century this had grown to 650,000 .

2684: 2274:. Then, this shift occurred in higher-technology goods, such "durables" as 2270:. First, the shift occurred in cheaper, lower technology products, such as 1498: 1359:

from Siberia and rivalled the Scandinavian and German states in the Baltic.

38: 4426: 4221: 3652:

How the West Grew Rich: The Economic Transformation of the Industrial World

3606: 3505:: Environments, economies and geopolitics in the history of Europe and Asia 3406: 3362: 3315:

The economics of World War II: six great powers in international comparison

2275: 1754: 1547: 1524: 1296: 1292: 1230: 870: 784: 729: 624: 614: 609: 534: 82: 3907:

Economic and social history of Europe in the later Middle Ages (1300–1530)

2857:

Economic and Social History of Europe in the Later Middle Ages (1300–1530)

1627:

pace for all of continental Europe, while leaving the Netherlands behind.

1371:

from the Americas came to play a role in the European economy. Meanwhile,

1160: 4071: 3630: 3548: 2801:

Times of feast, times of famine: a history of climate since the year 1000

2251: 1766: 1469: 1316: 1300: 1242: 1218: 1111:

dominated production started even earlier, in the 11th century, when the

1033: 1007: 759: 749: 539: 174: 3596:

The Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why Some Are So Rich and Some So Poor

3531: 3508: 3073:"Steam as a General Purpose Technology: a Growth Accounting Perspective" 4205: 4201: 4183: 4158: 4046: 3900: 3638: 3483: 3177: 2890: 2279: 1749: 1732:

Salvage – Help put the lid on Hitler by saving your old metal and paper

1722: 1178: 1142: 1099: 965: 954: 669: 469: 3966: 3790:

The first industrial nation: The economic history of Britain 1700–1914

3770:

France and the International Economy: from Vichy to the Treaty of Rome

4153: 4086: 2263: 2259: 1758: 1674: 1669: 1639: 1472:

linked Lyon, Paris and Rouen to the rest of the country. Under King

1356: 1235: 1174: 1083: 1047: 992: 519: 450: 30: 2960:

Paris by the middle of the seventeenth century had a population of

1761:

that was ultimately decided in the factories and workplaces of the

1511:

government bond system in Paris, the "rentes sur l'Hôtel de Ville".

1186: 4280: 3635:

The lever of riches: technological creativity and economic progress

3347:. In Dornbusch, Rudiger; Nolling, Wilhelm; Layard, Richard (eds.). 2404: 2318: 2271: 1872: 1631: 1214: 1079: 1071: 996: 961: 921:

of Europe from about 1000 AD to the present. For the context, see

3567:

The European Economy since 1945: Coordinated Capitalism and Beyond

3390:

Europe's Coal and Steel Community: an experiment in economic union

3243:

Railways and the Economic Development of Western Europe, 1830–1914

1651: 1635: 1529: 4234: 3625:

The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe: 1850–1914

2776:

The Great Famine: Northern Europe in the Early Fourteenth Century

2368: 2328: 1414: 1003: 978: 953:. There were exchanges with distant regions mediated through the 1266:

at 15 year intervals. The French and English armies during the

4076: 3645:

Encyclopedia of the Age of the Industrial Revolution, 1700–1920

2922: 2918: 2914: 2435: 2358: 2308: 2255: 1783:(Expenditures in billions of dollars, US 1944 munitions prices) 1506: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1348: 1247: 1202: 1150: 1120: 1102:

or they traded in an ongoing basis. Craft associations called

1095: 1067: 981:, such as peas, lentils and beans. Inventions such as improved 853: 3349:

Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today

3338: 3336: 1311:, but incompetent at converting its new wealth into a vibrant 3717:

Economic history of the United Kingdom § Further reading

3059:

Studies in Capital Formation in the United Kingdom, 1750–1920

2348: 2338: 2243: 2221: 1647: 1434: 1426: 1421: 1146: 1103: 968:. The plough was significantly improved, developing into the 3818:

The Oxford Handbook of the Italian Economy since Unification

2752:. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 20–23. 1558:

which in 1776 became the United States, as well as Canada's

1124:

second-rank member (similar to young boys or disabled men).

1006:

became common from the 13th century onward as food and as a

3333: 3289:

Economic Crisis and Political Collapse: The Weimar Republic

2388: 2217: 2195: 1753:

covers the activities of the civilians in a nation at war.

1453: 1449: 1444: 1438: 1430: 1410: 950: 2399:. The initial idea behind the Euro was that it eliminates 1713:

After the war, Germany was supposed to pay all of the war

1546:

The basis of the British Empire was founded in the age of

3756:

British Economic Growth, 1688–1959: Trends and Structure,

1677:, were the center of the steel industry until the 1940s. 3618:

The Economic Development of Continental Europe 1780–1870

1078:. People made improvements in ships, particularly the 913:

Real GDP per capita development in Europe, 1820 to 2018

2015:

Source: Goldsmith data in Harrison (1988) p. 172

1570:

gave Britain control over what is now most of Canada.

1533:

Mercantilism helped create trade patterns such as the

3897:

An historical geography of Europe: 450 B.C.–A.D. 1330

3015: 2838: 1581: 1501:

in circulation, and banning most foreign currencies.

1019:, that the needs of the population could not be met. 3831:

An Introduction to the Industrial History of England

3478:

Clough, Shepard Bancroft and Charles Woolsey Cole.

3431:

European Commission – Economic and Financial Affairs

2431: 2201: 1375:(especially in the Netherlands and in England), the 4354:

Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf

3737:(1961), awide-ranging economic and business history 3700:

World commerce and governments;: Trends and outlook

3693:

World Population and Production: Trends and Outlook

2839:Owen-Crocker, Gale; Netherton, Robin, eds. (2006). 3802:Stolper, Gustav, Karl Häuser, and Knut Borchardt. 3713:Economic history of Germany § Further reading 2992:Seeds of Liberty: The Genesis of the American Mind 2670: 5019: 4375:Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa 3721:Economic history of France § Further reading 3342: 1274: 5775: 4323:Customs Union of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Russia 4307:South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation 3863:A social and economic history of medieval Europe 3751:(1949), Abridged version of three volume history 3343:DeLong, J. Bradford; Eichengreen, Barry (1993). 3811:An Economic History of Liberal Italy, 1850–1918 3797:An economic history of modern France, 1730–1914 2875:. Longmans, Green, and Company. pp. 252ff. 2481:Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815) 1765:, which had a much better performance than the 1402:10% of the population located in urban areas. 4635: 3870:Economic and social history of medieval Europe 2471:Economic history of Greece and the Greek world 1309:plundering the gold and silver of the Americas 5005: 4621: 3982: 3572:Farnie, Douglas Antony, and David J. Jeremy. 2887:Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 2585: 1241:Agricultural output began to increase in the 890: 3304:(1995), has short articles on every country. 3220:. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 44–46. 2748:John Langdon (2010). Robert E. Bjork (ed.). 2747: 2613: 1205:on the North Sea, and Lübeck on the Baltic. 1153:. The wealth generated in Italy fueled the 4302:Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership 3924:a Source Book for Medieval Economic History 2988: 2622:. San Jose State University. Archived from 2588:"Islamic Influences on Western Agriculture" 2382: 1708: 1642:. The leader was a transplanted Englishman 1164:Main trading routes of the Hanseatic League 5012: 4998: 4628: 4614: 3989: 3975: 3922:Cave, Roy C. and Herbert H. Coulson, eds. 3677:The Industrial Revolution in World History 3513:Kellenbenz, Hermann, and Gerhard Benecke. 3215: 3190: 3113: 2814:Civilization in the West: Volume 1 to 1715 2700:English Seigniorial Agriculture, 1250–1450 2559: 1541: 1089: 897: 883: 2868: 2702:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2148:Japan's Economy in War and Reconstruction 1497:as its money of account, in favor of the 1420:The introduction of the high-temperature 4385:West African Economic and Monetary Union 3841:The Economic History of Italy, 1860–1990 3820:(Oxford University Press, 2013) 785 pp. 3728:An economic history of England 1870–1939 3665:Was the Industrial Revolution Necessary? 3457:An economic history of Europe, 1760-1939 2977:The Oxford Handbook of the Ancien Régime 2750:The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages 2697: 2691: 2664: 2609: 2607: 2391:became the official currency of certain 2293: 1727: 1528: 1159: 908: 3996: 3946:Pollard, Sidney and Colin Holmes, eds. 3939:Pollard, Sidney and Colin Holmes, eds. 3932:Pollard, Sidney and Colin Holmes, eds. 3804:The German economy, 1870 to the present 3650:Rosenberg, Nathan, and L. E. Birdzell. 3240: 2842:Medieval Clothing and Textiles Volume 2 2725:Decision-Making in Medieval Agriculture 2564:. Ohio State University. Archived from 5776: 4297:Association of Southeast Asian Nations 4117:UN Conference on Trade and Development 3887:An economic history of medieval Europe 3749:A concise economic history of Britain. 3470:The Fontana Economic history of Europe 3128: 3070: 3032: 2772: 2643: 1701:use of machinery in other industries. 1521:Economic history of the United Kingdom 1022: 4993: 4609: 4062:Import substitution industrialization 3970: 3276:An Economic History of Modern Britain 3155: 2934: 2722: 2716: 2604: 2410: 2232: 1781:Munitions Production in World War II 1291:continued, with Europeans developing 989:also changed methods of cultivation. 960:By 900 AD in Europe, developments in 4590: 4316:Europe, Central Asia, and North Asia 3742:An economic history of modern France 3555:The Industrial Revolution, 1760–1830 3403:"Introduction - The Euro Task Force" 3328:The Marshall Plan: Fifty Years After 3302:The Oxford Companion to World War II 2616:"Part 1 – Medieval European history" 2153: 1622:Industrial Revolution § Belgium 1127:The economic system of this era was 1054:. These events have been called the 4276:Central American Integration System 3961:EHE – An Economic History of Europe 3706: 3300:I.C.B. Dear, and M.R.D. Foot, eds. 3191:Evans, Chris; Rydén, Göran (2005). 2827:The civilization of the Middle Ages 2727:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2562:"Medieval Horticulture/Agriculture" 2403:between European nations and makes 2298:European 10 year bonds, before the 1168: 13: 3916: 3765:(Princeton University Press, 2014) 3449: 3317:(Cambridge University Press, 2000) 1582:Industrial Revolution: 1750s–1840s 1181:a trade monopoly developed in the 14: 5800: 4139:International Chamber of Commerce 4042:Export-oriented industrialization 3954: 3623:Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul. 3616:Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul. 2302:bonds floated together in parity 2226:European Coal and Steel Community 2208:European Coal and Steel Community 2202:European Coal and Steel Community 2185:Adjustment Program." They state: 1695: 5057:Democratic Republic of the Congo 4589: 4580: 4579: 3855: 3637:(Oxford University Press, 1990) 3092:10.1111/j.1468-0297.2003.00200.x 2773:Jordan, William Chester (1997). 2434: 2158: 1630:Industrialization took place in 1514: 864: 852: 37: 3545:The European Economy: 1914–2000 3435: 3424: 3413: 3395: 3382: 3369: 3351:. MIT Press. pp. 189–230. 3320: 3307: 3294: 3281: 3268: 3259: 3234: 3209: 3184: 3149: 3122: 3107: 3064: 3051: 3026: 3009: 2982: 2969: 2928: 2908: 2895: 2879: 2862: 2849: 2832: 2819: 2806: 2793: 2521:Economic history of World War I 2268:newly industrializing countries 1736: 139:Concepts, theory and techniques 4380:Southern African Customs Union 3895:Pounds, Norman John Greville. 3016:George Otto Trevelyan (1899). 2779:. Princeton University Press. 2766: 2741: 2637: 2579: 2553: 1743:Home front during World War II 1441:(both major export products). 1377:second agricultural revolution 1315:, and declined as an economic 1275:Early modern Europe: 1500–1800 1056:Crisis of the Late Middle Ages 940:Agriculture in the Middle Ages 933: 928: 1: 5698:Confederate States of America 5021:Economic histories by country 3537: 3287:Kruedener, Jurgen Baron von. 3019:The American Revolution vol 1 2961: 2698:Campbell, Bruce M.S. (2000). 2647:Daily Life in the Middle Ages 2547: 2516:Economic history of the world 2019:Real Value Consumer Spending 1771:Home front during World War I 1476:(reigned 1515–1547) and King 1373:changes in financial practice 1061: 4537:Telecommunications equipment 4342:Middle East and North Africa 4333:European Union Customs Union 2496:Economic history of Scotland 2486:Economic history of Portugal 1413:(a source of blue dye), and 7: 5758:Scotland in the Middle Ages 5627:Mongolian People's Republic 4637:Economic history of Europe 4266:Andean Community of Nations 4144:Bilateral investment treaty 4112:International Monetary Fund 3880:Mediaeval Trade and Finance 3195:. Ashgate. pp. 37–38. 3158:Journal of Economic History 3033:Nester, William R. (2000). 2938:A Concise History of France 2903:A Concise History of France 2889:Vol. 9, (1881), pp. 82–136 2531:History of economic thought 2466:Economic history of Germany 2456:Economic history of Britain 2427: 2407:fluctuation risks minimal. 2289: 1680: 1654:, with its steel industry. 1386: 1017:terrible weather of 1315–17 1010:for animals; they also had 10: 5805: 5784:Economic history of Europe 5708:England in the Middle Ages 4132:International Trade Centre 3905:Thompson, James Westfall. 3754:Deane, P. and Cole, W. A. 3744:(2nd ed. Routledge, 2014) 3710: 3490:Economic History Of Europe 3480:Economic History of Europe 3116:Journal of Economic Growth 2511:Economic history of Venice 2506:Economic history of Sweden 2491:Economic history of Russia 2461:Economic history of France 2451:Economic history of Africa 2375: 2205: 2162: 2115: 2086: 2057: 1982: 1956: 1930: 1899: 1871: 1845: 1819: 1740: 1684: 1619: 1615: 1518: 1390: 1327:- but to the advantage of 1133:simple commodity producers 937: 5650: 5592: 5571: 5409: 5266: 5165: 5027: 4939: 4901: 4643: 4575: 4407:Aircraft & Spacecraft 4397: 4362: 4341: 4315: 4289: 4258: 4249: 4192: 4100: 4052:Foreign exchange reserves 4004: 3241:O’Brien, Patrick (1983). 3216:Strikwerda, Carl (1997). 3170:10.1017/S0022050700080116 3071:Crafts, Nicholas (2004). 2855:James Westfall Thompson, 2799:Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, 2650:. McFarland. p. 88. 2501:Economic history of Spain 2476:Economic history of Italy 2300:Great Recession in Europe 2175:European Recovery Program 2026: 2023: 1791: 1788: 1687:History of rail transport 1667:), and in particular the 1224: 1030:Great Famine of 1315–1317 4127:World Trade Organization 3143:10.1080/0046760720010106 2812:Mark Kishlansky et al. 2644:Newman, Paul B. (2001). 2383:Introduction of the Euro 2146:Source: Jerome B Cohen, 1709:Germany between the wars 1468:. Regional markets and 1307:. Spain proved adept at 1295:and European imports of 1213:Baltic, especially with 1173:In cities linked to the 917:This article covers the 127:JEL classification codes 4328:Eurasian Economic Union 4216:Repeal of the Corn Laws 3532:excerpt and text search 3509:excerpt and text search 3037:. Praeger. p. 54. 2418:European Monetary Union 1542:Mercantilism and empire 1357:commerce in luxury furs 1262:expanded dramatically. 1117:horizontal treadle loom 1090:Crafts and urban growth 313:Industrial organization 170:Computational economics 5439:Bosnia and Herzegovina 4686:Bosnia and Herzegovina 4370:East African Community 4251:Regional organizations 3643:Rider, Christine, ed. 3620:(2nd ed. 1979), 552 pp 3589:online at ACLS e-books 2586:Janick, Jules (2008). 2373: 1763:Allies of World War II 1733: 1538: 1165: 914: 165:Experimental economics 5632:Serbia and Montenegro 5593:Former industrialized 4211:The Wealth of Nations 4169:Special economic zone 4032:Comparative advantage 3816:Toniolo, Gianni, ed. 3682:Thorp, William Long. 3661:Snooks, Graeme Donald 3564:Eichengreen, Barry J. 3507:(2nd edition; 1987). 3245:. London: MacMillan. 2935:Price, Roger (1993). 2872:A History of Commerce 2816:(5th ed. 2003) p. 316 2723:Stone, David (2005). 2685:10.1093/past/141.1.38 2620:History of Technology 2297: 2240:comparative advantage 1731: 1685:Further information: 1620:Further information: 1588:Industrial Revolution 1532: 1381:Industrial Revolution 1347:. In eastern Europe, 1289:commercial revolution 1250:invasions. (See also 1163: 938:Further information: 912: 5651:Historical economies 4231:Economic nationalism 4149:Economic integration 3843:(1993) 413 pp. 3827:Usher, Abbott Payson 3524:Persson, Karl Gunnar 3503:The European Miracle 3326:Martin Schain, ed., 3131:History of Education 2989:Max Savelle (1948). 2397:Treaty of Maastricht 2378:European debt crisis 1719:Treaty of Versailles 1229:The collapse of the 1197:on the Rhine River, 1115:was replaced by the 392:Social choice theory 5494:Republic of Ireland 5173:Antigua and Barbuda 4902:States with limited 4487:Integrated circuits 4271:Caribbean Community 4067:Net capital outflow 4017:Balance of payments 3998:International trade 3861:Hodgett, Gerald A. 3726:Ashworth, William. 3543:Aldcroft, Derek H. 3313:Mark Harrison, ed. 2975:William Doyle, ed. 2593:. Purdue University 2150:(1949) p. 354 2020: 1785: 1397:Early modern France 1155:Italian Renaissance 1129:merchant capitalism 1023:Famines and plagues 859:Business portal 180:Operations research 160:National accounting 4399:Exports by product 4349:Arab Customs Union 4012:Absolute advantage 3375:Michael J. Hogan, 3291:. (1990) pp. 4–30. 2995:. pp. 204ff. 2869:Clive Day (1914). 2614:Backer, Patricia. 2411:Countries involved 2374: 2233:Industrial decline 2224:. They formed the 2018: 1780: 1734: 1560:Maritime provinces 1539: 1285:Columbian exchange 1281:age of exploration 1166: 915: 190:Industrial complex 185:Middle income trap 5789:Economy of Europe 5771: 5770: 5723:Habsburg monarchy 5691:Republic of China 4987: 4986: 4603: 4602: 4393: 4392: 4363:Subsaharan Africa 4194:Political economy 3878:Postan, Michael. 3865:(Routledge, 2013) 3833:(1920) 529 pages 3809:Toniolo, Gianni. 3799:(Macmillan, 1981) 3792:(Routledge, 2013) 3772:(Routledge, 2006) 3761:Gregory, Paul R. 3740:Caron, François. 3730:(Routledge, 2013) 3674:Stearns, Peter N. 3593:Landes, David S. 3488:Heaton, Herbert. 3472:(10 vol 1973–80) 3466:Cipolla, Carlo M. 3358:978-0-262-04136-2 3252:978-0-333-33000-5 3227:978-0-8476-8526-4 3202:978-0-7546-3390-7 3044:978-0-275-96772-7 3022:. pp. 128ff. 2859:(1931) pp. 146–79 2759:978-0-19-866262-4 2734:978-0-19-924776-9 2709:978-0-521-30412-2 2526:Economy of Europe 2154:Post–World War II 2144: 2143: 2013: 2012: 1717:according to the 1665:Industrial Valley 1660:Sillon industriel 1556:Thirteen Colonies 1353:Tatar slave-trade 1305:Cape of Good Hope 1268:Hundred Years War 1119:. Especially the 1012:nitrogen-fixation 970:mouldboard plough 923:History of Europe 907: 906: 5796: 5713:Ethiopian Empire 5668:Byzantine Empire 5617:Empire of Brazil 5014: 5007: 5000: 4991: 4990: 4940:Dependencies and 4644:Sovereign states 4630: 4623: 4616: 4607: 4606: 4593: 4592: 4583: 4582: 4256: 4255: 4122:World Bank Group 4022:Balance of trade 3991: 3984: 3977: 3968: 3967: 3868:Pirenne, Henri. 3788:Mathias, Peter. 3768:Lynch, Frances. 3733:Cameron, Rondo. 3707:National studies 3698:Woytinsky, W.S. 3580:Landes, David S. 3455:Birnie, Arthur. 3444: 3439: 3433: 3428: 3422: 3417: 3411: 3410: 3405:. Archived from 3399: 3393: 3386: 3380: 3373: 3367: 3366: 3340: 3331: 3324: 3318: 3311: 3305: 3298: 3292: 3285: 3279: 3278:(1952) 1:425–28 3272: 3266: 3263: 3257: 3256: 3238: 3232: 3231: 3213: 3207: 3206: 3188: 3182: 3181: 3153: 3147: 3146: 3126: 3120: 3119: 3111: 3105: 3103: 3080:Economic Journal 3077: 3068: 3062: 3055: 3049: 3048: 3030: 3024: 3023: 3013: 3007: 3006: 2986: 2980: 2973: 2967: 2966: 2963: 2957: 2955: 2932: 2926: 2917:(from Calicut), 2912: 2906: 2905:(1993) pp. 41–46 2899: 2893: 2883: 2877: 2876: 2866: 2860: 2853: 2847: 2846: 2836: 2830: 2823: 2817: 2810: 2804: 2797: 2791: 2790: 2770: 2764: 2763: 2745: 2739: 2738: 2720: 2714: 2713: 2695: 2689: 2688: 2673:Past and Present 2668: 2662: 2661: 2641: 2635: 2634: 2632: 2631: 2611: 2602: 2601: 2599: 2598: 2592: 2583: 2577: 2576: 2574: 2573: 2560:Jourdan, Pablo. 2557: 2536:Price revolution 2444: 2442:Economics portal 2439: 2438: 2422:Baltic countries 2366: 2356: 2346: 2336: 2326: 2316: 2306: 2173:(officially the 2021: 2017: 1789:Country/Alliance 1786: 1779: 1568:Seven Years' War 1535:triangular trade 1491:purchasing power 1313:domestic economy 1256:High Middle Ages 1210:Hanseatic League 1183:Hanseatic League 1169:Hanseatic League 1052:Peasants' Revolt 919:Economic history 899: 892: 885: 871:Money portal 869: 868: 867: 857: 856: 353:Natural resource 145:Economic systems 41: 18: 17: 5804: 5803: 5799: 5798: 5797: 5795: 5794: 5793: 5774: 5773: 5772: 5767: 5646: 5622:Empire of Japan 5602:Austria-Hungary 5594: 5588: 5567: 5405: 5361:Solomon Islands 5262: 5161: 5023: 5018: 4988: 4983: 4941: 4935: 4921:Northern Cyprus 4903: 4897: 4818:North Macedonia 4639: 4634: 4604: 4599: 4571: 4517:Pharmaceuticals 4389: 4358: 4337: 4311: 4285: 4245: 4241:Dedollarisation 4188: 4174:Trade agreement 4164:Free-trade zone 4105: 4103: 4096: 4037:Current account 4027:Capital account 4000: 3995: 3957: 3919: 3917:Primary sources 3885:Pounds, N.J.G. 3858: 3839:Zamagni, Vera. 3747:Clapham, John. 3723: 3711:Main articles: 3709: 3690:Woytinsky, W.S. 3553:Ashton, T. S. 3547:328 pp. (2001) 3540: 3452: 3450:Further reading 3447: 3440: 3436: 3429: 3425: 3418: 3414: 3401: 3400: 3396: 3387: 3383: 3374: 3370: 3359: 3341: 3334: 3325: 3321: 3312: 3308: 3299: 3295: 3286: 3282: 3273: 3269: 3264: 3260: 3253: 3239: 3235: 3228: 3214: 3210: 3203: 3189: 3185: 3154: 3150: 3127: 3123: 3112: 3108: 3086:(495): 338–51. 3075: 3069: 3065: 3061:(1988) table X. 3056: 3052: 3045: 3031: 3027: 3014: 3010: 3003: 2987: 2983: 2974: 2970: 2953: 2951: 2949: 2933: 2929: 2913: 2909: 2900: 2896: 2884: 2880: 2867: 2863: 2854: 2850: 2837: 2833: 2825:Norman Cantor, 2824: 2820: 2811: 2807: 2798: 2794: 2787: 2771: 2767: 2760: 2746: 2742: 2735: 2721: 2717: 2710: 2696: 2692: 2669: 2665: 2658: 2642: 2638: 2629: 2627: 2612: 2605: 2596: 2594: 2590: 2584: 2580: 2571: 2569: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2545: 2440: 2433: 2430: 2413: 2385: 2380: 2372: 2364: 2362: 2354: 2352: 2344: 2342: 2334: 2332: 2324: 2322: 2314: 2312: 2304: 2292: 2235: 2210: 2204: 2167: 2161: 2156: 1784: 1782: 1745: 1739: 1711: 1698: 1689: 1683: 1624: 1618: 1584: 1564:Leeward Islands 1544: 1527: 1519:Main articles: 1517: 1429:in 1470 and in 1399: 1391:Main articles: 1389: 1351:suppressed the 1345:England/Britain 1303:to passing the 1277: 1227: 1171: 1092: 1076:overseas travel 1064: 1025: 983:horse harnesses 947:manorial system 942: 936: 931: 903: 865: 863: 851: 844: 843: 814: 804: 803: 802: 801: 565:von Böhm-Bawerk 453: 442: 441: 203: 195: 194: 150:Economic growth 140: 132: 131: 73: 71:classifications 12: 11: 5: 5802: 5792: 5791: 5786: 5769: 5768: 5766: 5765: 5760: 5755: 5750: 5748:Ottoman Empire 5745: 5740: 5735: 5730: 5725: 5720: 5715: 5710: 5705: 5703:Dutch Republic 5700: 5695: 5694: 5693: 5688: 5683: 5678: 5670: 5665: 5663:Ashanti Empire 5660: 5658:Ancient Greece 5654: 5652: 5648: 5647: 5645: 5644: 5639: 5634: 5629: 5624: 5619: 5614: 5609: 5607:Czechoslovakia 5604: 5598: 5596: 5590: 5589: 5587: 5586: 5581: 5575: 5573: 5569: 5568: 5566: 5565: 5564: 5563: 5558: 5551:United Kingdom 5548: 5543: 5538: 5533: 5528: 5523: 5518: 5513: 5508: 5503: 5498: 5497: 5496: 5486: 5481: 5476: 5471: 5466: 5461: 5456: 5454:Czech Republic 5451: 5446: 5441: 5436: 5431: 5426: 5421: 5413: 5411: 5407: 5406: 5404: 5403: 5398: 5393: 5388: 5383: 5378: 5373: 5368: 5363: 5358: 5353: 5348: 5343: 5338: 5333: 5328: 5323: 5318: 5313: 5308: 5303: 5298: 5293: 5288: 5283: 5278: 5270: 5268: 5264: 5263: 5261: 5260: 5255: 5250: 5245: 5240: 5235: 5230: 5225: 5220: 5215: 5210: 5205: 5200: 5195: 5190: 5185: 5180: 5175: 5169: 5167: 5163: 5162: 5160: 5159: 5154: 5149: 5144: 5139: 5134: 5129: 5124: 5119: 5114: 5109: 5104: 5099: 5094: 5089: 5084: 5079: 5074: 5069: 5064: 5059: 5054: 5049: 5044: 5039: 5031: 5029: 5025: 5024: 5017: 5016: 5009: 5002: 4994: 4985: 4984: 4982: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4966: 4961: 4956: 4951: 4945: 4943: 4942:other entities 4937: 4936: 4934: 4933: 4928: 4923: 4918: 4913: 4907: 4905: 4899: 4898: 4896: 4895: 4893:United Kingdom 4890: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4870: 4865: 4860: 4855: 4850: 4845: 4840: 4835: 4830: 4825: 4820: 4815: 4810: 4805: 4800: 4795: 4790: 4785: 4780: 4775: 4770: 4765: 4760: 4758: 4753: 4748: 4743: 4738: 4733: 4728: 4723: 4718: 4713: 4708: 4706:Czech Republic 4703: 4698: 4693: 4688: 4683: 4678: 4673: 4668: 4663: 4658: 4653: 4647: 4645: 4641: 4640: 4633: 4632: 4625: 4618: 4610: 4601: 4600: 4598: 4597: 4587: 4576: 4573: 4572: 4570: 4569: 4564: 4559: 4554: 4549: 4544: 4539: 4534: 4529: 4524: 4519: 4514: 4509: 4504: 4499: 4494: 4489: 4484: 4479: 4474: 4469: 4464: 4459: 4454: 4449: 4444: 4439: 4434: 4429: 4424: 4419: 4414: 4412:Aircraft parts 4409: 4403: 4401: 4395: 4394: 4391: 4390: 4388: 4387: 4382: 4377: 4372: 4366: 4364: 4360: 4359: 4357: 4356: 4351: 4345: 4343: 4339: 4338: 4336: 4335: 4330: 4325: 4319: 4317: 4313: 4312: 4310: 4309: 4304: 4299: 4293: 4291: 4287: 4286: 4284: 4283: 4278: 4273: 4268: 4262: 4260: 4253: 4247: 4246: 4244: 4243: 4238: 4224: 4219: 4198: 4196: 4190: 4189: 4187: 4186: 4181: 4176: 4171: 4166: 4161: 4156: 4151: 4146: 4141: 4136: 4135: 4134: 4124: 4119: 4114: 4108: 4106: 4101: 4098: 4097: 4095: 4094: 4092:Trading nation 4089: 4084: 4079: 4074: 4069: 4064: 4059: 4054: 4049: 4044: 4039: 4034: 4029: 4024: 4019: 4014: 4008: 4006: 4002: 4001: 3994: 3993: 3986: 3979: 3971: 3965: 3964: 3956: 3955:External links 3953: 3952: 3951: 3944: 3937: 3930: 3918: 3915: 3914: 3913: 3903: 3901:online edition 3893: 3883: 3876: 3866: 3857: 3854: 3853: 3852: 3837: 3835:online edition 3824: 3814: 3807: 3800: 3795:Price, Roger. 3793: 3786: 3784:online edition 3773: 3766: 3759: 3752: 3745: 3738: 3731: 3708: 3705: 3704: 3703: 3702:(1955), 907 pp 3696: 3687: 3680: 3671: 3669:online edition 3658: 3656:online edition 3648: 3641: 3639:online edition 3628: 3621: 3614: 3603:Mathias, Peter 3600: 3591: 3577: 3570: 3561: 3559:online edition 3551: 3549:online edition 3539: 3536: 3535: 3534: 3521: 3511: 3496: 3486: 3484:online edition 3482:(1952) 920 pp 3476: 3463: 3451: 3448: 3446: 3445: 3434: 3423: 3412: 3409:on 2000-06-01. 3394: 3388:Louis Lister, 3381: 3368: 3357: 3332: 3319: 3306: 3293: 3280: 3274:John Clapham, 3267: 3258: 3251: 3233: 3226: 3208: 3201: 3183: 3148: 3121: 3106: 3063: 3050: 3043: 3025: 3008: 3001: 2981: 2968: 2947: 2927: 2925:, for example. 2907: 2894: 2878: 2861: 2848: 2831: 2829:(1993) p. 480. 2818: 2805: 2792: 2786:978-1400822133 2785: 2765: 2758: 2740: 2733: 2715: 2708: 2690: 2663: 2656: 2636: 2603: 2578: 2551: 2549: 2546: 2544: 2543: 2541:Social history 2538: 2533: 2528: 2523: 2518: 2513: 2508: 2503: 2498: 2493: 2488: 2483: 2478: 2473: 2468: 2463: 2458: 2453: 2447: 2446: 2445: 2429: 2426: 2412: 2409: 2401:exchange rates 2393:European Union 2384: 2381: 2363: 2353: 2343: 2333: 2323: 2313: 2303: 2291: 2288: 2246:and the four " 2234: 2231: 2206:Main article: 2203: 2200: 2192: 2191: 2163:Main article: 2160: 2157: 2155: 2152: 2142: 2141: 2138: 2135: 2132: 2129: 2126: 2123: 2120: 2117: 2113: 2112: 2109: 2106: 2103: 2100: 2097: 2094: 2091: 2088: 2084: 2083: 2080: 2077: 2074: 2071: 2068: 2065: 2062: 2059: 2055: 2054: 2051: 2048: 2045: 2042: 2039: 2036: 2033: 2029: 2028: 2025: 2011: 2010: 2007: 2004: 2001: 1998: 1995: 1992: 1989: 1980: 1979: 1976: 1973: 1970: 1967: 1964: 1961: 1958: 1954: 1953: 1950: 1947: 1944: 1941: 1938: 1935: 1932: 1928: 1927: 1924: 1921: 1918: 1915: 1912: 1909: 1906: 1897: 1896: 1893: 1890: 1887: 1884: 1881: 1878: 1875: 1869: 1868: 1865: 1862: 1859: 1856: 1853: 1850: 1847: 1843: 1842: 1839: 1836: 1833: 1830: 1827: 1824: 1821: 1817: 1816: 1815:Total 1939–44 1813: 1810: 1807: 1804: 1801: 1798: 1794: 1793: 1790: 1741:Main article: 1738: 1735: 1710: 1707: 1697: 1696:Iron and steel 1694: 1682: 1679: 1644:John Cockerill 1617: 1614: 1583: 1580: 1552:English Empire 1543: 1540: 1516: 1513: 1388: 1385: 1361:Colonial goods 1341:Dutch Republic 1276: 1273: 1252:Pirenne thesis 1226: 1223: 1170: 1167: 1091: 1088: 1070:raids and the 1063: 1060: 1043: 1042: 1024: 1021: 935: 932: 930: 927: 905: 904: 902: 901: 894: 887: 879: 876: 875: 874: 873: 861: 846: 845: 842: 841: 836: 826: 821: 815: 810: 809: 806: 805: 800: 799: 792: 787: 782: 777: 772: 767: 762: 757: 752: 747: 742: 737: 732: 727: 722: 717: 712: 707: 702: 697: 692: 687: 682: 677: 672: 667: 662: 657: 652: 647: 642: 637: 632: 627: 622: 617: 612: 607: 602: 597: 592: 587: 582: 577: 572: 567: 562: 557: 552: 547: 542: 537: 532: 527: 522: 517: 512: 507: 502: 497: 492: 487: 482: 477: 472: 467: 462: 456: 455: 454: 448: 447: 444: 443: 440: 439: 434: 429: 424: 419: 414: 409: 404: 399: 394: 385: 380: 375: 370: 365: 360: 358:Organizational 355: 350: 345: 340: 335: 330: 325: 320: 315: 310: 305: 300: 295: 290: 285: 280: 275: 270: 265: 260: 255: 250: 245: 240: 235: 230: 225: 220: 215: 210: 204: 202:By application 201: 200: 197: 196: 193: 192: 187: 182: 177: 172: 167: 162: 157: 152: 147: 141: 138: 137: 134: 133: 130: 129: 124: 119: 114: 109: 104: 95: 90: 85: 80: 74: 68: 67: 64: 63: 62: 61: 56: 51: 43: 42: 34: 33: 27: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5801: 5790: 5787: 5785: 5782: 5781: 5779: 5764: 5763:Tamil Country 5761: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5741: 5739: 5738:Mongol Empire 5736: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5721: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5709: 5706: 5704: 5701: 5699: 5696: 5692: 5689: 5687: 5684: 5682: 5679: 5677: 5674: 5673: 5671: 5669: 5666: 5664: 5661: 5659: 5656: 5655: 5653: 5649: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5625: 5623: 5620: 5618: 5615: 5613: 5610: 5608: 5605: 5603: 5600: 5599: 5597: 5591: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5576: 5574: 5570: 5562: 5559: 5557: 5554: 5553: 5552: 5549: 5547: 5544: 5542: 5539: 5537: 5534: 5532: 5529: 5527: 5524: 5522: 5519: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5495: 5492: 5491: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5482: 5480: 5477: 5475: 5472: 5470: 5467: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5455: 5452: 5450: 5447: 5445: 5442: 5440: 5437: 5435: 5432: 5430: 5427: 5425: 5422: 5420: 5419: 5415: 5414: 5412: 5408: 5402: 5399: 5397: 5394: 5392: 5389: 5387: 5384: 5382: 5379: 5377: 5374: 5372: 5369: 5367: 5364: 5362: 5359: 5357: 5354: 5352: 5349: 5347: 5344: 5342: 5339: 5337: 5334: 5332: 5329: 5327: 5324: 5322: 5319: 5317: 5314: 5312: 5309: 5307: 5304: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5294: 5292: 5289: 5287: 5284: 5282: 5279: 5277: 5276: 5272: 5271: 5269: 5265: 5259: 5256: 5254: 5253:United States 5251: 5249: 5246: 5244: 5241: 5239: 5236: 5234: 5231: 5229: 5226: 5224: 5221: 5219: 5216: 5214: 5211: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5201: 5199: 5196: 5194: 5191: 5189: 5186: 5184: 5181: 5179: 5176: 5174: 5171: 5170: 5168: 5164: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5133: 5130: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5115: 5113: 5110: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5093: 5090: 5088: 5085: 5083: 5080: 5078: 5075: 5073: 5070: 5068: 5065: 5063: 5060: 5058: 5055: 5053: 5050: 5048: 5045: 5043: 5040: 5038: 5037: 5033: 5032: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5015: 5010: 5008: 5003: 5001: 4996: 4995: 4992: 4980: 4977: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4954:Faroe Islands 4952: 4950: 4947: 4946: 4944: 4938: 4932: 4929: 4927: 4926:South Ossetia 4924: 4922: 4919: 4917: 4914: 4912: 4909: 4908: 4906: 4900: 4894: 4891: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4874: 4871: 4869: 4866: 4864: 4861: 4859: 4856: 4854: 4851: 4849: 4846: 4844: 4841: 4839: 4836: 4834: 4831: 4829: 4826: 4824: 4821: 4819: 4816: 4814: 4811: 4809: 4806: 4804: 4801: 4799: 4796: 4794: 4791: 4789: 4786: 4784: 4781: 4779: 4778:Liechtenstein 4776: 4774: 4771: 4769: 4766: 4764: 4761: 4759: 4757: 4754: 4752: 4749: 4747: 4744: 4742: 4739: 4737: 4734: 4732: 4729: 4727: 4724: 4722: 4719: 4717: 4714: 4712: 4709: 4707: 4704: 4702: 4699: 4697: 4694: 4692: 4689: 4687: 4684: 4682: 4679: 4677: 4674: 4672: 4669: 4667: 4664: 4662: 4659: 4657: 4654: 4652: 4649: 4648: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4631: 4626: 4624: 4619: 4617: 4612: 4611: 4608: 4596: 4588: 4586: 4578: 4577: 4574: 4568: 4565: 4563: 4560: 4558: 4555: 4553: 4550: 4548: 4545: 4543: 4540: 4538: 4535: 4533: 4530: 4528: 4525: 4523: 4522:Photovoltaics 4520: 4518: 4515: 4513: 4510: 4508: 4505: 4503: 4500: 4498: 4495: 4493: 4490: 4488: 4485: 4483: 4480: 4478: 4475: 4473: 4470: 4468: 4465: 4463: 4460: 4458: 4455: 4453: 4450: 4448: 4445: 4443: 4440: 4438: 4435: 4433: 4430: 4428: 4425: 4423: 4420: 4418: 4415: 4413: 4410: 4408: 4405: 4404: 4402: 4400: 4396: 4386: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4367: 4365: 4361: 4355: 4352: 4350: 4347: 4346: 4344: 4340: 4334: 4331: 4329: 4326: 4324: 4321: 4320: 4318: 4314: 4308: 4305: 4303: 4300: 4298: 4295: 4294: 4292: 4288: 4282: 4279: 4277: 4274: 4272: 4269: 4267: 4264: 4263: 4261: 4257: 4254: 4252: 4248: 4242: 4239: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4227:Protectionism 4225: 4223: 4220: 4217: 4213: 4212: 4207: 4203: 4200: 4199: 4197: 4195: 4191: 4185: 4182: 4180: 4179:Trade barrier 4177: 4175: 4172: 4170: 4167: 4165: 4162: 4160: 4157: 4155: 4152: 4150: 4147: 4145: 4142: 4140: 4137: 4133: 4130: 4129: 4128: 4125: 4123: 4120: 4118: 4115: 4113: 4110: 4109: 4107: 4102:Organizations 4099: 4093: 4090: 4088: 4085: 4083: 4082:Trade justice 4080: 4078: 4075: 4073: 4070: 4068: 4065: 4063: 4060: 4058: 4057:Globalization 4055: 4053: 4050: 4048: 4045: 4043: 4040: 4038: 4035: 4033: 4030: 4028: 4025: 4023: 4020: 4018: 4015: 4013: 4010: 4009: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3992: 3987: 3985: 3980: 3978: 3973: 3972: 3969: 3962: 3959: 3958: 3949: 3945: 3942: 3938: 3935: 3931: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3920: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3881: 3877: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3864: 3860: 3859: 3850: 3849:0-19-828773-9 3846: 3842: 3838: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3825: 3823: 3822:online review 3819: 3815: 3812: 3808: 3805: 3801: 3798: 3794: 3791: 3787: 3785: 3782:(1928, 1961) 3781: 3777: 3776:Mantoux, Paul 3774: 3771: 3767: 3764: 3760: 3758:(2nd ed 1967) 3757: 3753: 3750: 3746: 3743: 3739: 3736: 3732: 3729: 3725: 3724: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3701: 3697: 3694: 3691: 3688: 3685: 3681: 3678: 3675: 3672: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3659: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3646: 3642: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3629: 3626: 3622: 3619: 3615: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3601: 3598: 3597: 3592: 3590: 3586: 3585: 3581: 3578: 3575: 3571: 3568: 3565: 3562: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3541: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3522: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3510: 3506: 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