1038:. Physical capital earns a return because people are willing to pay to use a piece of physical capital in work as it allows them to produce more output. To measure the productive value of physical capital, we can simply measure how much of a return it commands in the market. In the case of human capital calculating returns is more complicated – after all, we cannot separate education from the person to see how much it rents for. To get around this problem, the returns to human capital are generally inferred from differences in wages among people with different levels of education. Hall and Jones have calculated from international data that on average the returns on education are 13.4% per year for first four years of schooling (grades 1–4), 10.1% per year for the next four years (grades 5–8) and 6.8% for each year beyond eight years. Thus someone with 12 years of schooling can be expected to earn, on average, 1.134 × 1.101 × 1.068 = 3.161 times as much as someone with no schooling at all.
1042:
significantly higher at lower levels of educational attainment than at higher levels (1,200.8% for an
Associate's degree vs. 287.7% for a Bachelor's degree). While higher levels of degree attainment can increase lifetime earnings, the ROI decreases at the doctoral level compared to a master's degree. In higher education, ROI also varies significantly depending on the degree concentration. Degree concentration matters when examining the ROI of Bachelor's degrees, with choice of major accounting for half of the variation in ROI between majors. College degrees with the highest ROI are in engineering, medicine, business, and other sciences. While nearly 40% of degree programs do not deliver a financial return, a bachelor's degree can also have social benefits that can increase ROI, which is often not accounted for in typical ROI calculations.
1204:
wealth of a community affects school district funding. Wealthier communities are able to afford to pay more in income and property taxes, while poorer communities cannot, causing inequalities in public education. One notable inequality that arises from differences in funding is the ability of wealthier schools to afford more qualified educators who are more experienced and can improve student test results. Since many
European countries finance education primarily through federal taxes, there is less inequality among schools compared to the US as education spending is more uniform. Equal distribution of education resources has the ability to reduce variation in income by creating a more uniform educational system, which can benefit human capital in the long term.
1229:
1166:
scholarship" where education should serve as a propaganda for the struggle of the working class. The classical
Marxian paradigm sees education as serving the interest of capital and is seeking alternative modes of education that would prepare students and citizens for more progressive socialist mode of social organizations. Marx and Engels understood education and free time as essential to developing free individuals and creating many-sided human beings, thus for them education should become a more essential part of the life of people unlike capitalist society which is organized mainly around work and the production of commodities.
1142:(1910–1950). There also seems to be a correlation between gender differences in education with the level of growth; more development is observed in countries that have an equal distribution of the percentage of women versus men who graduated from high school. When looking at correlations in the data, education seems to generate economic growth; however, it could be that we have this causality relationship backwards. For example, if education is seen as a luxury good, it may be that richer households are seeking out educational attainment as a symbol of status, rather than the relationship of education leading to wealth.
1022:
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part because the findings have directly influenced policy debates. Two separate lines of study have been particularly widely debated. The overall question of whether added funds to schools are likely to produce higher achievement (the “money doesn’t matter” debate) has entered into legislative debates and court consideration of school finance systems. Additionally, policy discussions about class size reduction heightened academic study of the relationship of class size and achievement.
1216:, globally comparable data on pre-primary education financing remain scarce. While much of existing non-formal and private programmes may not be fully accounted for, it can be deduced from the level of provision that pre-primary financing remains inadequate, especially when considered against expected benefits. Globally, pre-primary education accounts for the lowest proportion of the total public expenditure on education, in spite of the much-documented positive impact of quality
1131:). An increase in human capital can follow technological progress as knowledgeable employees are in demand due to the need for their skills, whether it be in understanding the production process or in operating machines. Studies from 1958 attempted to calculate the returns from additional schooling (the percent increase in income acquired through an additional year of schooling). Later results attempted to allow for different returns across persons or by level of education.
1018:
to the higher wages of high school graduates. Over the past decade, the cost of in-state tuition for a 4-year education increased by one-third, with tuition inflation rates decreasing in the recent decade. A 2014 study by economists Jaison Abel and
Richard Deitz found that the opportunity cost of attending college amounts to $ 120,000 due to forgone wages, with the total cost of college amounting to an estimated $ 150,000 when also factoring in out-of-pocket expenses.
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932:, including the demand for education, the financing and provision of education, and the comparative efficiency of various educational programs and policies. From early works on the relationship between schooling and labor market outcomes for individuals, the field of the economics of education has grown rapidly to cover virtually all areas with linkages to education.
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Education bears with it major positive externalities: giving one person more education raises not only his or her output but also the output of those around him or her. Educated workers can bring new technologies, methods and information to the consideration of others. They can teach things to others
1017:
nations. Schools in the US spend approximately $ 17,000 per student, but public education spending varies significantly at the state level. At the college level, increasing tuition and out-of-pocket costs have increased the cost of attending college. The opportunity cost of college also increased due
1101:
Positive externalities from human capital are one explanation for why governments are involved in education. If people were left on their own, they would not take into account the full social benefit of education – in other words, the rise in the output and wages of others – so the amount they would
1012:
K-12 public education in the United States is primarily funded by state and local governments, while the federal government provides a smaller percentage of funding through grant programs for at-risk youth. In 2018, the US spent approximately 5% of its GDP on K-12 public education, placing the US as
1203:
countries, compensation for teachers drives education spending at all education levels. At the college and university level, spending on instruction decreases but still consumes the majority of education expenditures. Since a majority of public education is funded through local taxes in the US, the
1275:
A large number of successive studies, increasingly involving economists, produced inconsistent results about the impact of school resources on student performance, leading to considerable controversy in policy discussions. The interpretation of the various studies has been very controversial, in
1145:
Educational advance is not the only variable for economic growth, though, as it only explains about 14% of the average annual increase in labor productivity over the period 1915-2005. From lack of a more significant correlation between formal educational achievement and productivity growth, some
1081:
program and matched controls have been followed for decades since. The Perry
Preschool participants had substantially fewer teenage pregnancies, fewer high school dropouts, less crime and higher incomes on average as adults. And the results have been intergenerational: The children of the Perry
1073:
Of course, correlation does not imply causation: It's possible that richer countries choose to spend more on education. However, Hanushek found that scores on internationally standardized tests of student achievement do better in explaining economic growth than years of schooling, as discussed
1093:
should be considered. Usually when speaking of externalities one thinks of the negative effects of economic activities that are not included in market prices, such as pollution. These are negative externalities. However, there are also positive externalities – that is, positive effects of which
1085:
To distinguish the part of GDP explained with education from other causes, Weil has calculated how much one would expect each country's GDP to be higher based on the data on average schooling. This was based on the above-mentioned calculations of Hall and Jones on the returns on education. GDPs
1008:
of forgone wages as students cannot work while they study. It has been estimated that the total costs, including opportunity costs, of education are as much as double the direct costs. Including opportunity costs investments in education can be estimated to have been around 10% of GDP in the EU
1041:
Higher levels of educational attainment can increase lifetime earnings, impacting the return on investment (ROI) of education. In the US at the college and university level, each level of degree attainment significantly increases lifetime earnings as more education is achieved. Lifetime ROI is
1070:. The higher productivity of well-educated workers is one of the factors that explain higher GDPs and, therefore, higher incomes in developed countries. A strong correlation between GDP and education is clearly visible among the countries of the world, as is shown by the upper left figure.
1165:
Although Marx and Engels did not write widely about the social functions of education, their concepts and methods are theorized and criticized by the influence of Marx as education being used in reproduction of capitalist societies. Marx and Engels approached scholarship as "revolutionary
1182:. Although there is wide agreement on the principle that education, at least at school level, should be financed mainly by governments, there is considerable debate over the desirable extent of public provision of education. Supporters of
5733:
1248:. It relates various inputs affecting a student's learning (schools, families, peers, neighborhoods, etc.) to measured outputs including subsequent labor market success, college attendance, graduation rates, and, most frequently,
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Since the 1960s, government expenditure on education for low and middle-income countries generally increased while spending on education for high-income countries remained relatively constant. Based on educational funding in
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Preschool children have similarly had fewer school suspensions, higher levels of education and employment, and lower levels of participation in crime, compared with the children of those in the control group.
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predicted by Weil's calculations can be plotted against actual GDPs, as is done in the figure on the left, demonstrating that the variation in education explains some, but not all, of the variation in GDP.
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Multiple studies have found that investing in the education of poor children on average substantially reduces their risk of poverty as adults and increases their life expectancy. Children in the
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on education in 2005, the average being 5%. However, measuring the spending this way alone greatly underestimates the costs because a more subtle form of costs is completely overlooked: the
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economists see reason to believe that in today's world many skills and capabilities come by way of learning outside of traditional education, or outside of schooling altogether.
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1260:, published in 1966, concluded that the marginal effect of various school inputs on student achievement was small compared to the impact of families and friends. Later work, by
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Predicted versus actual GDP per worker. The figure shows how much one would expect each country's GDP to be higher based on the data on average years of schooling
5155:
5087:
4709:
2730:
Nye, B.; Hedges, L. V.; Konstantopoulos, S. (2000). "The
Effects of Small Classes on Academic Achievement: The Results of the Tennessee Class Size Experiment".
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4383:
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Human capital in the form of education shares many characteristics with physical capital. Both require an investment to create and, once created, both have
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argue that universal public provision promotes equality of opportunity and social cohesion. Opponents of public provision advocate alternatives such as
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and act as an example. The positive externalities of education include the effects of personal networks and the roles educated workers play in them.
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Roland BĂ©nabou, 1996."Heterogeneity, Stratification, and Growth: Macroeconomic
Implications of Community Structure and School Finance,"
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scores. The original study that eventually prompted interest in the idea of education production functions was by a sociologist,
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1268:, and other economists introduced the structure of "production" to the consideration of student learning outcomes. Hanushek
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countries in 2005. In comparison, investments in physical capital were 20% of GDP. Thus, the two are of similar magnitude.
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Statistics have shown that countries with high enrollment/graduation rates have grown faster than countries without. The
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education is predominantly financed and provided by governments. Public funding and provision also plays a major role in
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Stephen A. Hoenack, 1996. "The
Economics of Education in Developing Countries: An Assessment of the State of the Art,"
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Annual growth rate in real GDP per capita vs. scores on tests of student achievement, both adjusted for GDP per capita
5723:
5606:
5470:
2475:
2088:
2064:
2169:
Kling, Arnold and John
Merrifield. 2009." Goldin and Katz and Education Policy Failings in Historical Perspective".
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2828:"Education and Economic Growth: It's not just going to school, but learning something while there that matters"
2554:
2502:"Education and Economic Growth: It's not just going to school, but learning something while there that matters"
1782:
3009:
Schoolhouses, Courthouses, and
Statehouses: Solving the Funding-Achievement Puzzle in America's Public Schools
2979:
2205:"Douglas Kellner, Marxian Perspectives on Educational Philosophy: From Classical Marxism to Critical Pedagogy"
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5533:
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1905:
Thriving in college and beyond : research-based strategies for academic success and personal development
235:
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George Psacharopoulos and Harry A. Patrinos, 2004. "Returns to Investment in Education: A Further Update,"
1272:. (2008, 2015) reported a very high correlation between "adjusted growth rate" and "adjusted test scores".
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3114:
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Economy-wide, the effect of human capital on incomes has been estimated to be rather significant: 65% of
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948:. With investments in human capital, such as education, three major economic effects can be expected:
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78:
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Investments in human capital entail an investment cost, just as any investment does. Typically in
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1908:. Viki Sox Fecas, Aaron Thompson, Michele Campagna (4th ed.). Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt.
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1127:, or provide long-term benefits such as an appreciation of literature (sometimes referred to as
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Caroline M. Hoxby, 1999. "The Productivity of Schools and Other Local Public Goods Producers,"
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996:, although some costs are also borne by individuals. These investments can be rather costly.
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2827:
2585:
Does Money Matter? The Effect of School Resources on Student Achievement and Adult Success
2501:
1486:
Investing against Evidence: The Global State of Early Childhood Care and Education
1157:. The central idea is that the successful completion of education is a signal of ability.
8:
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Hanushek, Eric A.; Jamison, Dean T.; Jamison, Eliot A.; Woessmann, Ludger (Spring 2008).
2500:
Hanushek, Eric A.; Jamison, Dean T.; Jamison, Eliot A.; Woessmann, Ludger (Spring 2008).
2414:
2364:"Public Education Financing Systems, Earnings Inequality, and Intergenerational Mobility"
1937:
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as the accumulation of human capital requires investments just as physical capital does,
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30:
1974:"Intergenerational and Intragenerational Externalities of the Perry Preschool Project"
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_____, 2000. "Does Competition among Public Schools Benefit Students and Taxpayers?"
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2608:; Laine, Richard D. (1996). "The Effect of School Resources on Student Achievement".
2426:
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2138:
2091:
2084:
2060:
2029:
1996:
1919:
1909:
1780:(1999). "Why Do Some Countries Produce So Much More Output per Worker than Others?".
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1345:
1249:
722:
697:
607:
487:
444:
380:
345:
335:
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129:
85:
2804:, 1986. "The economics of schooling: Production and efficiency in public schools."
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2081:
The Economics of Education: NYUMBANI Human Capital, Family Background and Inequality
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3482:
3477:
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3319:
3224:
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2617:
2552:(1986). "The Economics of Schooling: Production and Efficiency in Public Schools".
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2004:
1988:
1951:
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582:
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Investing against Evidence: The Global State of Early Childhood Care and Education
652:
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3585:
3467:
3462:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3354:
3314:
2700:
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2643:
Hanushek, Eric A. (1996). "A More Complete Picture of School Resource Policies".
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as people gain characteristics that enable them to produce more output and hence
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2580:
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2015:
2000:
1969:
1946:
1923:
1683:"U.S. Public Education Spending Statistics [2022]: per Pupil + Total"
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another form of capital that is no less critical as a means of production –
46:
3783:
3713:
3575:
3047:
OECD's Education GPS: a review of education policy analysis and statistics.
2713:
2271:
The Economics of Education: Human Capital, Family Background and Inequality
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1419:
1379:
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963:
878:
792:
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632:
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90:
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An alternative model of the demand for education, commonly referred to as
4798:
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2901:, and John F. Kain, 2005. "Teachers, Schools, and Academic Achievement,"
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1350:
1340:
767:
757:
547:
182:
2419:
The knowledge capital of nations: Education and the economics of growth
1825:"Is College Worth it? | Return on Investment Analysis of College Degree"
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has been the world leader in educational advances, beginning with the
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3339:
3082:
2716:, and J. Douglas Willms, 2001. "Class size and student achievement,"
2422:
1983:. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series (25889).
1245:
1078:
929:
527:
458:
38:
2874:
2819:
2772:
2336:"A Research Synthesis / Unequal School Funding in the United States"
1855:"Is College Worth It? A Comprehensive Return on Investment Analysis"
1732:"College Tuition Inflation [2022]: Rate Increase Statistics"
3214:
1992:
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925:
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1968:
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in the acquisition of skills and knowledge which will increase
989:
976:
861:
1656:"Government expenditure on education, total (% of GDP) | Data"
1489:, 15, Marope, P.T.M., Kaga, Y., UNESCO. UNESCO.
2814:, 1992. "The Trade-off between Child Quantity and Quality,"
2409:
2134:
Structural Determinants of Graduation Rates A Causal Analysis
3051:
2981:
Endangering Prosperity: A Global View of the American School
1025:
Average years of schooling versus GDP per capita (US$ 2005).
2059:. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. pp. 46–55.
1200:
1115:
The dominant model of the demand for education is based on
1059:
1014:
2781:, 1985. "Where Are We Now in the Economics of Education?"
1119:
theory. The central idea is that undertaking education is
1981:
National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series
1102:
choose to obtain would be lower than the social optimum.
1001:
2729:
2308:"Data: Breaking Down the Where and Why of K-12 Spending"
992:
countries, most education expenditure takes the form of
2199:
2197:
1757:"Do the Benefits of College Still Outweigh the Costs?"
1193:
1013:
the 7th highest spender per student compared to other
2935:"human capital, fertility and growth" by Oded Galor.
2929:"education in developing countries" by Paul Glewwe.
2885:
International Handbook on the Economics of Education
2603:
2194:
2184:Johannes Hörner, 2008. "signalling and screening."
1936:
1542:"5% of EU GDP is spent by governments on education"
1519:(Second ed.). Boston: Pearson Addison-Wesley.
2941:"intergenerational transmission" by Lance Lochner.
2234:William A. Fischel, 2008. "educational finance,"
1577:
1207:
1094:someone can benefit without having to pay for it.
2953:"population health, economic implications of" by
2472:U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
2287:
1066:is payments to human capital and only 35% to raw
5798:
2288:Roser, Max; Ortiz-Ospina, Esteban (2016-06-22).
1223:
940:Economics distinguishes in addition to physical
2587:. Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution.
1479:work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0 (
1279:
1240:is an application of the economic concept of a
5630:
5185:
2493:
3067:
2793:Modern Classics In The Economics Of Education
2014:
1220:on later learning and other social outcomes.
935:
898:
5735:South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
2947:"local public finance" by John M. Quigley.
2718:Psychological Science in the Public Interest
2155:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1475: This article incorporates text from a
2913:The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics
2532:, 2008. "education production functions,"
1706:Abel, Jaison; Dietz, Richard (2019-06-03).
3074:
3060:
2703:Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute.
2379:
2361:
1169:
1053:
905:
891:
2712:Ehrenberg, Ronald G., Dominic J. Brewer,
2362:Herrington, Christopher (February 2013).
2253:, 2008. "school choice and competition,"
1795:
1772:
1705:
1580:The Formation and Stocks of Total Capital
5437:
3002:
2974:
2922:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics
2642:
2548:
2534:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics
2255:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics
2236:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics
2186:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics
2115:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics
1708:"The Cost of College Continues to Climb"
1604:
1575:
1539:
1227:
1044:
1029:
1020:
4812:
4040:
4029:
2462:
1584:. New York: Columbia University Press.
1105:
1000:governments spent between 3% and 8% of
5799:
1879:"The Economic Value of College Majors"
1852:
1819:
1817:
1815:
1507:
1505:
1503:
1501:
5629:
5436:
5184:
4811:
4432:
4431:
4039:
4028:
3730:
3093:
3055:
2732:American Educational Research Journal
2688:, and Richard Rothstein, eds., 2002.
2357:
2355:
2330:
2328:
2283:
2281:
2279:
2137:. Distributed by ERIC Clearinghouse.
2020:"A Way to Break the Cycle of Poverty"
1901:
1848:
1846:
1844:
1754:
1153:, is based on the economic theory of
1110:
2054:
1985:National Bureau of Economic Research
1942:"To end poverty, invest in children"
1677:
1675:
1511:
1284:
5781:
2919:Selected entries on education from
2465:Equality of Educational Opportunity
1812:
1498:
1194:Inequalities in education financing
1160:
983:
13:
2968:
2373:
2352:
2325:
2276:
2130:
1841:
1218:early childhood care and education
14:
5818:
3031:
2808:24, no. 3 (September): 1141-1177.
2380:Marope, P.T.M.; Kaga, Y. (2015).
1972:; Ganesh Karapakula (June 2019).
1672:
5780:
5771:
5770:
5758:
5299:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
4793:
4784:
4783:
4341:Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
4111:Democratic Republic of the Congo
4005:
1607:"GDP expenditure and investment"
1470:
872:
860:
45:
2723:
2706:
2679:
2636:
2597:
2574:
2542:
2523:
2480:U.S. Government Printing Office
2456:
2403:
2300:
2273:, ch. 5, "Education Financing."
2263:
2244:
2228:
2178:
2163:
2124:
2103:
2073:
2048:
1962:
1930:
1895:
1871:
1766:
1748:
1632:"How Is K-12 Education Funded?"
1208:Pre-primary education financing
147:Concepts, theory and techniques
5456:Federated States of Micronesia
4751:British Indian Ocean Territory
2806:Journal of Economic Literature
2645:Review of Educational Research
2610:Review of Educational Research
2591:and scroll to chapter preview
2555:Journal of Economic Literature
2131:C., Morrison, Michael (2006).
1853:Cooper, Preston (2022-05-12).
1783:Quarterly Journal of Economics
1755:Abel, Jaison; Dietz, Richard.
1724:
1699:
1648:
1624:
1598:
1569:
1533:
1:
3081:
2851:Economics of Education Review
2791:Clive R. Belfield, ed., 2006.
2783:Economics of Education Review
2761:
2389:. Paris, UNESCO. p. 15.
1238:education production function
1224:Education production function
5424:United States Virgin Islands
3094:
2883:and Jill Johnes, ed., 2004.
2853:, 15(4), pp. 327–338.
2816:Journal of Political Economy
1549:Statistics in Focus 117/2008
1481:license statement/permission
1280:Notable education economists
7:
5186:Education in North America
2861:Journal of Public Economics
1438:
1212:Compared to other areas of
10:
5823:
5631:Education in South America
3731:
3014:Princeton University Press
2905:, 73(2), pp. 417–458.
2894:, 12(2), pp. 111–134.
2463:Coleman, James S. (1966).
1465:
1460:The Case Against Education
936:Education as an investment
18:
5752:
5709:
5636:
5547:
5524:
5443:
5399:Saint Pierre and Miquelon
5317:
5191:
5164:
5116:
5078:
4820:
4779:
4738:
4698:
4440:
4354:
4329:
4048:
4035:
4024:
4000:
3954:
3920:
3879:
3861:
3822:
3804:
3770:
3746:Early childhood education
3739:
3726:
3676:
3506:
3453:
3275:
3128:
3100:
3089:
2911:, 1987. "human capital,"
2744:10.3102/00028312037001123
2657:10.3102/00346543066003397
2622:10.3102/00346543066003361
2112:"returns to schooling,"
1902:Cuseo, Joseph B. (2016).
1829:Education Data Initiative
1736:Education Data Initiative
1687:Education Data Initiative
5602:Northern Mariana Islands
5419:Turks and Caicos Islands
4500:East Timor (Timor-Leste)
4096:Central African Republic
3042:"Economics of Education"
2915:, v. 2, pp. 681–90.
2871:American Economic Review
2785:, 4(1), pp. 17–28.
2769:American Economic Review
2476:U.S. Office of Education
2055:Burt, Ronald S. (2005).
1712:Liberty Street Economics
1492:
135:JEL classification codes
19:Not to be confused with
5567:Cocos (Keeling) Islands
4761:Cocos (Keeling) Islands
2863:, 74(1), pp. 1–30
2269:Daniele Checchi, 2006.
2079:Daniele Checchi, 2006.
1806:10.1162/003355399555954
1483:). Text taken from
1455:Educational devaluation
1170:Financing and provision
1089:Finally, the matter of
1054:Effects on productivity
321:Industrial organization
178:Computational economics
5349:British Virgin Islands
4863:Bosnia and Herzegovina
2925:, 2008), 2nd Edition:
1233:
1050:
1026:
994:government consumption
975:in the form of higher
922:economics of education
173:Experimental economics
5550:and other territories
5289:Saint Kitts and Nevis
4256:SĂŁo TomĂ© and PrĂncipe
4116:Republic of the Congo
2986:Brookings Institution
2690:The Class Size Debate
2290:"Financing Education"
2057:Brokerage and Closure
1576:Kendrick, J. (1976).
1231:
1048:
1030:Returns on investment
1024:
5438:Education in Oceania
4814:Education in Europe
4675:United Arab Emirates
4042:Education in Africa
3265:Instructional design
1316:Karthik Muralidharan
1140:high school movement
1106:Demand for education
1079:1962 Perry Preschool
972:return on investment
400:Social choice theory
5807:Education economics
5304:Trinidad and Tobago
5199:Antigua and Barbuda
5079:States with limited
4702:limited recognition
4331:States with limited
4030:Education by region
3756:Secondary education
3668:Teaching philosophy
3571:Pedagogical pattern
3514:21st century skills
3493:Religious education
3136:Aims and objectives
2892:Education Economics
2018:(2 December 2021).
1940:(20 October 2021).
1938:Olivier De Schutter
1242:production function
1064:developed countries
928:issues relating to
918:Education economics
867:Business portal
188:Operations research
168:National accounting
21:Economics education
16:Academic discipline
5765:Schools portal
5239:Dominican Republic
4434:Education in Asia
3761:Tertiary education
3699:Learning resources
3190:Education sciences
2897:Steven G. Rivkin,
2720:, 2(1), pp. 1-30.
2699:2010-07-22 at the
2171:Econ Journal Watch
2025:The New York Times
1660:data.worldbank.org
1445:Academic inflation
1395:Charles Clotfelter
1375:Bridget Terry Long
1356:Morton O. Schapiro
1234:
1174:In most countries
1111:Liberal approaches
1051:
1027:
198:Industrial complex
193:Middle income trap
5794:
5793:
5748:
5747:
5744:
5743:
5716:other territories
5625:
5624:
5617:Wallis and Futuna
5525:Associated states
5432:
5431:
5321:other territories
5180:
5179:
4807:
4806:
4744:other territories
4427:
4426:
4358:other territories
4131:Equatorial Guinea
4020:
4019:
3995:
3994:
3991:
3990:
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3985:
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3976:
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3905:
3904:
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3855:
3854:
3850:
3849:
3846:
3845:
3841:
3840:
3798:
3797:
3793:
3792:
3751:Primary education
3722:
3721:
3611:Dialogic learning
3581:Teacher retention
3534:Critical thinking
3529:Class arrangement
3498:Special education
3173:Standardized test
3156:Course evaluation
3023:978-0-691-13000-2
2995:978-0-8157-0373-0
2550:Hanushek, Eric A.
2432:978-0-262-02917-9
2396:978-92-3-100113-0
2294:Our World in Data
2096:978-0-521-79310-0
1915:978-1-4652-9095-3
1778:Jones, Charles I.
1605:Eurostat (2008).
1591:978-0-87014-271-0
1540:Eurostat (2008).
1526:978-0-321-41662-9
1435:
1434:
1346:Philip Oreopoulos
1250:standardized test
1074:further below.
915:
914:
5814:
5784:
5783:
5774:
5773:
5763:
5762:
5761:
5736:
5724:Falkland Islands
5638:Sovereign states
5627:
5626:
5607:Pitcairn Islands
5577:French Polynesia
5562:Christmas Island
5491:Papua New Guinea
5471:Marshall Islands
5444:Sovereign states
5434:
5433:
5389:Saint Barthélemy
5319:Dependencies and
5192:Sovereign states
5182:
5181:
5117:Dependencies and
4821:Sovereign states
4809:
4808:
4797:
4787:
4786:
4756:Christmas Island
4442:Sovereign states
4429:
4428:
4419:
4418:(United Kingdom)
4414:Tristan da Cunha
4410:Ascension Island
4402:
4389:
4380:
4356:Dependencies and
4049:Sovereign states
4037:
4036:
4026:
4025:
4009:
3957:
3956:
3952:
3951:
3927:Higher education
3923:
3922:
3918:
3917:
3882:
3881:
3877:
3876:
3868:Secondary school
3864:
3863:
3859:
3858:
3825:
3824:
3820:
3819:
3807:
3806:
3802:
3801:
3773:
3772:
3768:
3767:
3742:
3741:
3728:
3727:
3656:Student-centered
3641:Phenomenon-based
3631:Peer instruction
3596:Blended learning
3519:Bloom's taxonomy
3483:Gifted education
3478:Education reform
3310:Computer science
3091:
3090:
3076:
3069:
3062:
3053:
3052:
3027:
2999:
2899:Eric A. Hanushek
2846:
2844:
2843:
2812:Eric A. Hanushek
2802:Eric A. Hanushek
2756:
2755:
2727:
2721:
2710:
2704:
2683:
2677:
2676:
2640:
2634:
2633:
2606:Hedges, Larry V.
2604:Greenwald, Rob;
2601:
2595:
2578:
2572:
2571:
2562:(3): 1141–1177.
2546:
2540:
2536:, 2nd Edition.
2530:Eric A. Hanushek
2527:
2521:
2520:
2518:
2517:
2497:
2491:
2490:
2488:
2486:
2469:
2460:
2454:
2452:
2415:Ludger Woessmann
2407:
2401:
2400:
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2320:
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2298:
2297:
2285:
2274:
2267:
2261:
2257:, 2nd Edition,
2248:
2242:
2232:
2226:
2225:
2223:
2222:
2216:
2210:. Archived from
2209:
2201:
2192:
2182:
2176:
2167:
2161:
2160:
2154:
2146:
2128:
2122:
2118:, 2nd Edition.
2107:
2101:
2077:
2071:
2070:
2052:
2046:
2045:
2012:
1978:
1970:James J. Heckman
1966:
1960:
1959:
1934:
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1666:
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1645:
1643:
1642:
1628:
1622:
1621:
1619:
1618:
1609:. Archived from
1602:
1596:
1595:
1583:
1573:
1567:
1566:
1564:
1563:
1557:
1551:. Archived from
1546:
1537:
1531:
1530:
1509:
1474:
1450:Education policy
1296:Lawrence F. Katz
1285:
1262:Eric A. Hanushek
1254:James S. Coleman
1244:to the field of
1184:public education
1180:higher education
1161:Marxist critique
1129:cultural capital
1006:opportunity cost
984:Investment costs
924:is the study of
907:
900:
893:
879:Money portal
877:
876:
875:
865:
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361:Natural resource
153:Economic systems
49:
26:
25:
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5501:Solomon Islands
5439:
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5322:
5320:
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5187:
5176:
5160:
5118:
5112:
5098:Northern Cyprus
5080:
5074:
4995:North Macedonia
4816:
4803:
4775:
4743:
4734:
4715:Northern Cyprus
4701:
4694:
4436:
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4417:
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4359:
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3987:
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3929:
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3893:
3888:
3870:
3851:
3842:
3834:
3829:
3813:
3794:
3786:
3779:
3735:
3718:
3672:
3591:Active learning
3586:Teaching method
3561:Learning theory
3502:
3468:Autodidacticism
3463:Adult education
3449:
3390:Performing arts
3271:
3178:Teacher quality
3168:Standards-based
3124:
3096:
3085:
3080:
3034:
3024:
2996:
2971:
2969:Further reading
2841:
2839:
2764:
2759:
2728:
2724:
2711:
2707:
2701:Wayback Machine
2686:Lawrence Mishel
2684:
2680:
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2238:, 2nd Edition.
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1797:10.1.1.337.3070
1774:Hall, Robert E.
1771:
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1517:Economic Growth
1510:
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1441:
1436:
1425:Sarah E. Turner
1410:Richard Murnane
1385:Jesse Rothstein
1336:Bruce Sacerdote
1306:Douglas Staiger
1282:
1266:Richard Murnane
1226:
1214:basic education
1210:
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573:von Böhm-Bawerk
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158:Economic growth
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79:classifications
24:
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5557:American Samoa
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5366:
5361:
5356:
5354:Cayman Islands
5351:
5346:
5341:
5336:
5331:
5325:
5323:
5318:
5315:
5314:
5312:
5311:
5306:
5301:
5296:
5291:
5286:
5281:
5276:
5271:
5266:
5261:
5256:
5251:
5246:
5241:
5236:
5231:
5226:
5221:
5216:
5211:
5206:
5201:
5195:
5193:
5189:
5188:
5178:
5177:
5175:
5174:
5172:European Union
5168:
5166:
5165:Other entities
5162:
5161:
5159:
5158:
5153:
5148:
5143:
5138:
5133:
5128:
5122:
5120:
5119:other entities
5114:
5113:
5111:
5110:
5105:
5100:
5095:
5090:
5084:
5082:
5076:
5075:
5073:
5072:
5070:United Kingdom
5067:
5062:
5057:
5052:
5047:
5042:
5037:
5032:
5027:
5022:
5017:
5012:
5007:
5002:
4997:
4992:
4987:
4982:
4977:
4972:
4967:
4962:
4957:
4952:
4947:
4942:
4937:
4935:
4930:
4925:
4920:
4915:
4910:
4905:
4900:
4895:
4890:
4885:
4883:Czech Republic
4880:
4875:
4870:
4865:
4860:
4855:
4850:
4845:
4840:
4835:
4830:
4824:
4822:
4818:
4817:
4805:
4804:
4802:
4801:
4791:
4780:
4777:
4776:
4774:
4773:
4768:
4763:
4758:
4753:
4747:
4745:
4736:
4735:
4733:
4732:
4727:
4722:
4717:
4712:
4706:
4704:
4696:
4695:
4693:
4692:
4687:
4682:
4677:
4672:
4667:
4662:
4657:
4652:
4647:
4642:
4637:
4632:
4627:
4622:
4617:
4612:
4607:
4602:
4597:
4592:
4587:
4582:
4577:
4572:
4567:
4562:
4557:
4552:
4547:
4542:
4537:
4532:
4527:
4522:
4517:
4512:
4507:
4502:
4497:
4492:
4487:
4482:
4477:
4472:
4467:
4462:
4457:
4452:
4446:
4444:
4438:
4437:
4425:
4424:
4421:
4420:
4403:
4390:
4381:
4367:Canary Islands
4363:
4362:
4360:
4355:
4352:
4351:
4349:
4348:
4343:
4337:
4335:
4330:
4327:
4326:
4324:
4323:
4318:
4313:
4308:
4303:
4298:
4293:
4288:
4283:
4278:
4273:
4268:
4263:
4258:
4253:
4248:
4243:
4238:
4233:
4228:
4223:
4218:
4213:
4208:
4203:
4198:
4193:
4188:
4183:
4178:
4173:
4168:
4163:
4158:
4153:
4148:
4143:
4138:
4133:
4128:
4123:
4118:
4113:
4108:
4103:
4098:
4093:
4088:
4083:
4078:
4073:
4068:
4063:
4058:
4052:
4050:
4046:
4045:
4033:
4032:
4022:
4021:
4018:
4017:
4014:
4013:
4002:
4001:
3998:
3997:
3993:
3992:
3989:
3988:
3984:
3983:
3980:
3979:
3975:
3973:
3972:
3965:
3955:
3948:
3947:
3936:
3931:
3921:
3915:
3912:
3911:
3907:
3906:
3903:
3902:
3898:
3896:
3895:
3890:
3880:
3873:
3872:
3862:
3856:
3853:
3852:
3848:
3847:
3844:
3843:
3839:
3837:
3836:
3831:
3823:
3816:
3815:
3811:Primary school
3805:
3799:
3796:
3795:
3791:
3789:
3788:
3781:
3771:
3764:
3763:
3758:
3753:
3748:
3740:
3737:
3736:
3724:
3723:
3720:
3719:
3717:
3716:
3711:
3706:
3701:
3696:
3691:
3686:
3680:
3678:
3674:
3673:
3671:
3670:
3665:
3664:
3663:
3658:
3653:
3648:
3643:
3638:
3633:
3628:
3623:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3593:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3568:
3563:
3558:
3557:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3524:Cognitive load
3521:
3516:
3510:
3508:
3504:
3503:
3501:
3500:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3459:
3457:
3451:
3450:
3448:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3281:
3279:
3273:
3272:
3270:
3269:
3268:
3267:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3202:
3197:
3195:Evidence-based
3192:
3187:
3182:
3181:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3159:
3158:
3143:
3138:
3132:
3130:
3129:By perspective
3126:
3125:
3123:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3106:
3104:
3098:
3097:
3087:
3086:
3079:
3078:
3071:
3064:
3056:
3050:
3049:
3044:
3033:
3032:External links
3030:
3029:
3028:
3022:
3004:Hanushek, Eric
3000:
2994:
2976:Hanushek, Eric
2970:
2967:
2966:
2965:
2959:David E. Bloom
2951:
2945:
2939:
2933:
2917:
2916:
2906:
2895:
2888:
2881:Geraint Johnes
2878:
2867:
2857:
2847:
2832:Education Next
2823:
2809:
2799:
2789:
2776:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2757:
2738:(1): 123–151.
2722:
2705:
2678:
2651:(3): 397–409.
2635:
2616:(3): 361–396.
2596:
2573:
2541:
2522:
2506:Education Next
2492:
2455:
2431:
2402:
2395:
2372:
2351:
2324:
2312:Education Week
2299:
2275:
2262:
2251:Caroline Hoxby
2243:
2227:
2193:
2177:
2162:
2123:
2102:
2072:
2065:
2047:
1993:10.3386/W25889
1961:
1929:
1914:
1894:
1883:CEW Georgetown
1870:
1840:
1811:
1765:
1747:
1723:
1698:
1671:
1647:
1623:
1597:
1590:
1568:
1532:
1525:
1513:Weil, David N.
1496:
1494:
1491:
1467:
1464:
1463:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1447:
1440:
1437:
1433:
1432:
1428:
1427:
1422:
1417:
1412:
1407:
1405:Claudia Goldin
1402:
1397:
1392:
1390:Joshua Angrist
1387:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1367:
1360:
1359:
1358:
1353:
1348:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1331:Caroline Hoxby
1328:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1311:Ludger Wößmann
1308:
1303:
1301:Stephen Machin
1298:
1293:
1283:
1281:
1278:
1258:Coleman Report
1225:
1222:
1209:
1206:
1195:
1192:
1171:
1168:
1162:
1159:
1112:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1055:
1052:
1036:economic value
1031:
1028:
985:
982:
981:
980:
968:
959:
937:
934:
913:
912:
910:
909:
902:
895:
887:
884:
883:
882:
881:
869:
854:
853:
850:
849:
844:
834:
829:
823:
818:
817:
814:
813:
808:
807:
800:
795:
790:
785:
780:
775:
770:
765:
760:
755:
750:
745:
740:
735:
730:
725:
720:
715:
710:
705:
700:
695:
690:
685:
680:
675:
670:
665:
660:
655:
650:
645:
640:
635:
630:
625:
620:
615:
610:
605:
600:
595:
590:
585:
580:
575:
570:
565:
560:
555:
550:
545:
540:
535:
530:
525:
520:
515:
510:
505:
500:
495:
490:
485:
480:
475:
470:
464:
463:
462:
456:
455:
452:
451:
448:
447:
442:
437:
432:
427:
422:
417:
412:
407:
402:
393:
388:
383:
378:
373:
368:
366:Organizational
363:
358:
353:
348:
343:
338:
333:
328:
323:
318:
313:
308:
303:
298:
293:
288:
283:
278:
273:
268:
263:
258:
253:
248:
243:
238:
233:
228:
223:
218:
212:
210:By application
209:
208:
205:
204:
201:
200:
195:
190:
185:
180:
175:
170:
165:
160:
155:
149:
146:
145:
142:
141:
138:
137:
132:
127:
122:
117:
112:
103:
98:
93:
88:
82:
76:
75:
72:
71:
70:
69:
64:
59:
51:
50:
42:
41:
35:
34:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5819:
5808:
5805:
5804:
5802:
5787:
5779:
5777:
5769:
5767:
5766:
5755:
5754:
5751:
5737:
5732:
5730:
5729:French Guiana
5727:
5725:
5722:
5721:
5719:
5713:
5708:
5702:
5699:
5697:
5694:
5692:
5689:
5687:
5684:
5682:
5679:
5677:
5674:
5672:
5669:
5667:
5664:
5662:
5659:
5657:
5654:
5652:
5649:
5647:
5644:
5643:
5641:
5639:
5635:
5628:
5618:
5615:
5613:
5610:
5608:
5605:
5603:
5600:
5598:
5595:
5593:
5592:New Caledonia
5590:
5588:
5585:
5583:
5580:
5578:
5575:
5573:
5572:Easter Island
5570:
5568:
5565:
5563:
5560:
5558:
5555:
5554:
5552:
5546:
5540:
5537:
5535:
5532:
5531:
5529:
5523:
5517:
5514:
5512:
5509:
5507:
5504:
5502:
5499:
5497:
5494:
5492:
5489:
5487:
5484:
5482:
5479:
5477:
5474:
5472:
5469:
5467:
5464:
5462:
5459:
5457:
5454:
5452:
5449:
5448:
5446:
5442:
5435:
5425:
5422:
5420:
5417:
5415:
5412:
5410:
5407:
5405:
5402:
5400:
5397:
5395:
5392:
5390:
5387:
5385:
5382:
5380:
5377:
5375:
5372:
5370:
5367:
5365:
5362:
5360:
5357:
5355:
5352:
5350:
5347:
5345:
5342:
5340:
5337:
5335:
5332:
5330:
5327:
5326:
5324:
5316:
5310:
5309:United States
5307:
5305:
5302:
5300:
5297:
5295:
5292:
5290:
5287:
5285:
5282:
5280:
5277:
5275:
5272:
5270:
5267:
5265:
5262:
5260:
5257:
5255:
5252:
5250:
5247:
5245:
5242:
5240:
5237:
5235:
5232:
5230:
5227:
5225:
5222:
5220:
5217:
5215:
5212:
5210:
5207:
5205:
5202:
5200:
5197:
5196:
5194:
5190:
5183:
5173:
5170:
5169:
5167:
5163:
5157:
5154:
5152:
5149:
5147:
5144:
5142:
5139:
5137:
5134:
5132:
5131:Faroe Islands
5129:
5127:
5124:
5123:
5121:
5115:
5109:
5106:
5104:
5103:South Ossetia
5101:
5099:
5096:
5094:
5091:
5089:
5086:
5085:
5083:
5077:
5071:
5068:
5066:
5063:
5061:
5058:
5056:
5053:
5051:
5048:
5046:
5043:
5041:
5038:
5036:
5033:
5031:
5028:
5026:
5023:
5021:
5018:
5016:
5013:
5011:
5008:
5006:
5003:
5001:
4998:
4996:
4993:
4991:
4988:
4986:
4983:
4981:
4978:
4976:
4973:
4971:
4968:
4966:
4963:
4961:
4958:
4956:
4955:Liechtenstein
4953:
4951:
4948:
4946:
4943:
4941:
4938:
4936:
4934:
4931:
4929:
4926:
4924:
4921:
4919:
4916:
4914:
4911:
4909:
4906:
4904:
4901:
4899:
4896:
4894:
4891:
4889:
4886:
4884:
4881:
4879:
4876:
4874:
4871:
4869:
4866:
4864:
4861:
4859:
4856:
4854:
4851:
4849:
4846:
4844:
4841:
4839:
4836:
4834:
4831:
4829:
4826:
4825:
4823:
4819:
4815:
4810:
4800:
4796:
4792:
4790:
4782:
4781:
4778:
4772:
4769:
4767:
4764:
4762:
4759:
4757:
4754:
4752:
4749:
4748:
4746:
4741:
4737:
4731:
4728:
4726:
4725:South Ossetia
4723:
4721:
4718:
4716:
4713:
4711:
4708:
4707:
4705:
4703:
4697:
4691:
4688:
4686:
4683:
4681:
4678:
4676:
4673:
4671:
4668:
4666:
4663:
4661:
4658:
4656:
4653:
4651:
4648:
4646:
4643:
4641:
4638:
4636:
4633:
4631:
4628:
4626:
4623:
4621:
4618:
4616:
4613:
4611:
4608:
4606:
4603:
4601:
4598:
4596:
4593:
4591:
4588:
4586:
4583:
4581:
4578:
4576:
4573:
4571:
4568:
4566:
4563:
4561:
4558:
4556:
4553:
4551:
4548:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4538:
4536:
4533:
4531:
4528:
4526:
4523:
4521:
4518:
4516:
4513:
4511:
4508:
4506:
4503:
4501:
4498:
4496:
4493:
4491:
4488:
4486:
4483:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4471:
4468:
4466:
4463:
4461:
4458:
4456:
4453:
4451:
4448:
4447:
4445:
4443:
4439:
4435:
4430:
4415:
4411:
4407:
4404:
4398:
4394:
4391:
4385:
4382:
4376:
4372:
4368:
4365:
4364:
4361:
4353:
4347:
4344:
4342:
4339:
4338:
4336:
4328:
4322:
4319:
4317:
4314:
4312:
4309:
4307:
4304:
4302:
4299:
4297:
4294:
4292:
4289:
4287:
4284:
4282:
4279:
4277:
4274:
4272:
4269:
4267:
4264:
4262:
4259:
4257:
4254:
4252:
4249:
4247:
4244:
4242:
4239:
4237:
4234:
4232:
4229:
4227:
4224:
4222:
4219:
4217:
4214:
4212:
4209:
4207:
4204:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4184:
4182:
4179:
4177:
4174:
4172:
4171:Guinea-Bissau
4169:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4127:
4124:
4122:
4119:
4117:
4114:
4112:
4109:
4107:
4104:
4102:
4099:
4097:
4094:
4092:
4089:
4087:
4084:
4082:
4079:
4077:
4074:
4072:
4069:
4067:
4064:
4062:
4059:
4057:
4054:
4053:
4051:
4047:
4043:
4038:
4034:
4027:
4023:
4012:
4008:
4004:
4003:
3999:
3974:
3969:
3966:
3962:
3961:Undergraduate
3959:
3958:
3953:
3950:
3949:
3945:
3940:
3937:
3935:
3932:
3928:
3925:
3924:
3919:
3916:
3897:
3891:
3887:
3886:Middle school
3884:
3883:
3878:
3875:
3874:
3869:
3866:
3865:
3860:
3857:
3838:
3832:
3827:
3826:
3821:
3818:
3817:
3812:
3809:
3808:
3803:
3800:
3790:
3785:
3782:
3778:
3775:
3774:
3769:
3766:
3765:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3752:
3749:
3747:
3744:
3743:
3738:
3734:
3729:
3725:
3715:
3712:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3702:
3700:
3697:
3695:
3692:
3690:
3687:
3685:
3682:
3681:
3679:
3675:
3669:
3666:
3662:
3659:
3657:
3654:
3652:
3651:Project-based
3649:
3647:
3646:Problem-based
3644:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3632:
3629:
3627:
3624:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3606:Demonstration
3604:
3602:
3601:Contemplative
3599:
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3488:Homeschooling
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3358:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3335:Environmental
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
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3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
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3280:
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3260:Instructional
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3163:Psychometrics
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3019:
3015:
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3005:
3001:
2997:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2982:
2977:
2973:
2972:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2955:David Canning
2952:
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2940:
2938:
2934:
2932:
2928:
2927:
2926:
2924:
2923:
2914:
2910:
2909:Sherwin Rosen
2907:
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2646:
2639:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2600:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2583:, ed., 1996.
2582:
2581:Gary Burtless
2577:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2556:
2551:
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2459:
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2428:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2411:Eric Hanushek
2406:
2398:
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2384:
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2365:
2358:
2356:
2341:
2337:
2331:
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2284:
2282:
2280:
2272:
2266:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2247:
2241:
2237:
2231:
2217:on 2010-11-23
2213:
2206:
2200:
2198:
2191:
2187:
2181:
2175:
2172:
2166:
2158:
2152:
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2111:
2106:
2100:
2097:
2093:
2090:
2089:0-521-79310-6
2086:
2083:, Cambridge.
2082:
2076:
2068:
2066:9780199249152
2062:
2058:
2051:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2026:
2021:
2017:
2016:David L. Kirp
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1975:
1971:
1965:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1948:
1947:Social Europe
1943:
1939:
1933:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1911:
1907:
1906:
1898:
1884:
1880:
1874:
1860:
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1849:
1847:
1845:
1830:
1826:
1820:
1818:
1816:
1807:
1803:
1798:
1793:
1790:(1): 83–116.
1789:
1785:
1784:
1779:
1775:
1769:
1758:
1751:
1737:
1733:
1727:
1713:
1709:
1702:
1688:
1684:
1678:
1676:
1661:
1657:
1651:
1637:
1633:
1627:
1613:on 2014-04-29
1612:
1608:
1601:
1593:
1587:
1582:
1581:
1572:
1558:on 2008-12-30
1554:
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1415:James Heckman
1413:
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1321:Costas Meghir
1319:
1317:
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1309:
1307:
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1302:
1299:
1297:
1294:
1292:
1291:Eric Hanushek
1289:
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1177:
1167:
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1152:
1147:
1143:
1141:
1137:
1136:United States
1132:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1117:human capital
1103:
1099:
1095:
1092:
1091:externalities
1087:
1083:
1080:
1075:
1071:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1037:
1023:
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1016:
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1007:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
978:
974:
973:
969:
966:
965:
960:
957:
956:
951:
950:
949:
947:
946:human capital
943:
933:
931:
927:
923:
919:
908:
903:
901:
896:
894:
889:
888:
886:
885:
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868:
863:
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848:
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835:
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830:
828:
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479:
476:
474:
471:
469:
468:de Mandeville
466:
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438:
436:
433:
431:
428:
426:
423:
421:
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403:
401:
397:
396:Public choice
394:
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389:
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384:
382:
379:
377:
374:
372:
371:Participation
369:
367:
364:
362:
359:
357:
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344:
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339:
337:
334:
332:
331:Institutional
329:
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314:
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309:
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299:
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294:
292:
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287:
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281:Expeditionary
279:
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272:
271:Environmental
269:
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136:
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113:
111:
107:
104:
102:
101:International
99:
97:
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92:
89:
87:
84:
83:
80:
77:Branches and
74:
73:
68:
65:
63:
60:
58:
55:
54:
53:
52:
48:
44:
43:
40:
37:
36:
32:
28:
27:
22:
5756:
5712:Dependencies
5548:Dependencies
5534:Cook Islands
5414:Sint Maarten
5394:Saint Martin
5108:Transnistria
4740:Dependencies
4670:Turkmenistan
4635:Saudi Arabia
4406:Saint Helena
4377:
4281:South Africa
4271:Sierra Leone
4076:Burkina Faso
3968:Postgraduate
3784:Kindergarten
3636:Personalized
3616:Experiential
3576:Teacher look
3285:Agricultural
3184:
3141:Anthropology
3008:
2980:
2920:
2918:
2903:Econometrica
2902:
2891:
2884:
2870:
2860:
2850:
2840:. Retrieved
2835:
2831:
2818:, 100(1), p
2815:
2805:
2797:Description.
2792:
2782:
2768:
2735:
2731:
2725:
2717:
2714:Adam Gamoran
2708:
2689:
2681:
2648:
2644:
2638:
2613:
2609:
2599:
2584:
2576:
2559:
2553:
2544:
2533:
2525:
2514:. Retrieved
2509:
2505:
2495:
2483:. Retrieved
2458:
2418:
2405:
2382:
2375:
2343:. Retrieved
2339:
2316:. Retrieved
2314:. 2019-09-25
2311:
2302:
2293:
2270:
2265:
2254:
2246:
2235:
2230:
2219:. Retrieved
2212:the original
2185:
2180:
2170:
2165:
2133:
2126:
2113:
2105:
2099:Description.
2080:
2075:
2056:
2050:
2023:
1980:
1964:
1945:
1932:
1904:
1897:
1886:. Retrieved
1882:
1873:
1862:. Retrieved
1858:
1832:. Retrieved
1828:
1787:
1781:
1768:
1750:
1739:. Retrieved
1735:
1726:
1715:. Retrieved
1711:
1701:
1690:. Retrieved
1686:
1663:. Retrieved
1659:
1650:
1639:. Retrieved
1636:www.pgpf.org
1635:
1626:
1615:. Retrieved
1611:the original
1600:
1579:
1571:
1560:. Retrieved
1553:the original
1548:
1535:
1516:
1485:
1477:free content
1469:
1429:
1420:Alan Krueger
1380:Parag Pathak
1370:Jere Behrman
1274:
1269:
1237:
1235:
1211:
1197:
1173:
1164:
1148:
1144:
1133:
1114:
1100:
1096:
1088:
1084:
1076:
1072:
1057:
1040:
1033:
1011:
987:
970:
964:productivity
961:
952:
939:
921:
917:
916:
837:Publications
802:
425:Sociological
398: /
296:Geographical
276:Evolutionary
260:
251:Digitization
216:Agricultural
120:Mathematical
91:Econometrics
5786:WikiProject
5481:New Zealand
5384:Puerto Rico
5294:Saint Lucia
5244:El Salvador
5146:Isle of Man
5081:recognition
5055:Switzerland
4990:Netherlands
4799:Asia portal
4700:States with
4620:Philippines
4560:South Korea
4555:North Korea
4450:Afghanistan
4333:recognition
4286:South Sudan
4176:Ivory Coast
3892:High school
3689:Definitions
3566:Lesson plan
3455:Alternative
3360:Mathematics
3330:Engineering
2873:, 90(5), p
2589:Description
2173:6(1): 2-20.
2013:. See also
1365:Paul Glewwe
1351:Brian Jacob
1341:Victor Lavy
1326:Thomas Kane
673:von Neumann
326:Information
266:Engineering
246:Development
241:Demographic
183:Game theory
125:Methodology
5379:Montserrat
5374:Martinique
5369:Guadeloupe
5224:Costa Rica
5025:San Marino
4985:Montenegro
4965:Luxembourg
4945:Kazakhstan
4848:Azerbaijan
4680:Uzbekistan
4655:Tajikistan
4570:Kyrgyzstan
4550:Kazakhstan
4470:Bangladesh
4460:Azerbaijan
4388:(Portugal)
4346:Somaliland
4266:Seychelles
4231:Mozambique
4216:Mauritania
4201:Madagascar
4156:The Gambia
4091:Cape Verde
3944:Continuing
3934:Vocational
3539:Curriculum
3473:Democratic
3445:Vocational
3435:Technology
3395:Philosophy
3277:By subject
3255:Technology
3235:Psychology
3220:Philosophy
3210:Leadership
3151:Evaluation
3146:Assessment
3038:World Bank
2842:2016-10-13
2838:(2): 62–70
2795:, Elgar.
2779:Mark Blaug
2762:References
2516:2016-10-13
2512:(2): 62–70
2485:August 30,
2470:(Report).
2345:2022-12-10
2318:2022-12-10
2221:2011-05-22
2143:1064128728
2110:David Card
2042:Q109944840
2009:Q105874104
1956:Q109944317
1888:2022-12-09
1864:2022-12-09
1834:2022-12-09
1741:2022-12-09
1717:2022-12-09
1692:2022-12-09
1665:2022-12-09
1641:2022-12-09
1617:2013-09-18
1562:2013-09-18
1400:David Card
1155:signalling
1121:investment
962:increased
953:increased
832:Economists
703:Schumacher
608:Schumpeter
578:von Wieser
498:von ThĂĽnen
459:economists
435:Statistics
430:Solidarity
351:Managerial
316:Humanistic
311:Historical
256:Ecological
221:Behavioral
115:Mainstream
5701:Venezuela
5646:Argentina
5451:Australia
5364:Greenland
5279:Nicaragua
5254:Guatemala
5136:Gibraltar
4960:Lithuania
4766:Hong Kong
4720:Palestine
4645:Sri Lanka
4640:Singapore
4520:Indonesia
4221:Mauritius
3777:Preschool
3677:Wikimedia
3415:Religious
3340:Euthenics
3325:Economics
3305:Chemistry
3295:Bilingual
3250:Sociology
3205:Inclusion
3185:Economics
3083:Education
2963:Abstract.
2949:Abstract.
2943:Abstract.
2937:Abstract.
2931:Abstract.
2865:Abstract.
2855:Abstract.
2787:Abstract.
2771:,86(3) p
2752:145543092
2538:Abstract.
2449:Q56849351
2441:28159705M
2423:MIT Press
2259:Abstract.
2240:Abstract.
2190:Abstract.
2151:cite book
2120:Abstract.
2034:0362-4331
2001:0898-2937
1924:971134012
1792:CiteSeerX
1246:education
1151:screening
930:education
748:Greenspan
713:Samuelson
693:Galbraith
663:Tinbergen
603:von Mises
598:Heckscher
558:Edgeworth
376:Personnel
336:Knowledge
301:Happiness
291:Financial
261:Education
236:Democracy
130:Political
96:Heterodox
39:Economics
5801:Category
5776:Category
5691:Suriname
5681:Paraguay
5666:Colombia
5466:Kiribati
5329:Anguilla
5264:Honduras
5234:Dominica
5209:Barbados
5156:Svalbard
5141:Guernsey
5088:Abkhazia
5040:Slovenia
5035:Slovakia
5010:Portugal
4868:Bulgaria
4789:Category
4710:Abkhazia
4660:Thailand
4615:Pakistan
4595:Mongolia
4590:Maldives
4585:Malaysia
4485:Cambodia
4412: /
4408: /
4401:(France)
4395: /
4373: /
4369: /
4321:Zimbabwe
4296:Tanzania
4146:Ethiopia
4141:Eswatini
4121:Djibouti
4086:Cameroon
4071:Botswana
3661:Socratic
3621:Feedback
3507:Concepts
3400:Physical
3370:Military
3350:Language
3300:Business
3240:Research
3230:Politics
3215:Pedagogy
3110:Glossary
3095:Overview
3006:(2009).
2978:(2013).
2887:, Elgar.
2875:p. 1209-
2697:Archived
2630:49575863
2445:Wikidata
2417:(2015).
2038:Wikidata
2005:Wikidata
1952:Wikidata
1515:(2009).
1439:See also
1188:vouchers
1125:earnings
1062:paid in
990:European
955:expenses
926:economic
841:journals
827:Glossary
778:Stiglitz
743:Rothbard
723:Buchanan
708:Friedman
698:Koopmans
688:Leontief
668:Robinson
553:Marshall
457:Notable
405:Regional
381:Planning
356:Monetary
286:Feminist
231:Cultural
226:Business
31:a series
29:Part of
5696:Uruguay
5671:Ecuador
5651:Bolivia
5612:Tokelau
5516:Vanuatu
5359:Curaçao
5344:Bonaire
5339:Bermuda
5269:Jamaica
5249:Grenada
5204:Bahamas
5065:Ukraine
5015:Romania
4975:Moldova
4933:Ireland
4928:Iceland
4923:Hungary
4913:Germany
4908:Georgia
4898:Finland
4893:Estonia
4888:Denmark
4873:Croatia
4858:Belgium
4853:Belarus
4843:Austria
4838:Armenia
4833:Andorra
4828:Albania
4685:Vietnam
4600:Myanmar
4580:Lebanon
4510:Georgia
4465:Bahrain
4455:Armenia
4397:RĂ©union
4393:Mayotte
4384:Madeira
4379:(Spain)
4375:Melilla
4306:Tunisia
4276:Somalia
4261:Senegal
4246:Nigeria
4236:Namibia
4226:Morocco
4191:Liberia
4186:Lesotho
4136:Eritrea
4106:Comoros
4081:Burundi
4056:Algeria
3964:→
3939:Further
3894:→
3889:→
3871:→
3835:→
3830:→
3814:→
3787:→
3780:→
3626:Passive
3549:Studies
3430:Teacher
3420:Science
3410:Reading
3405:Physics
3380:Nursing
3365:Medical
3200:History
3120:Outline
3102:General
2773:p. 584-
2673:2272181
2665:1170529
2568:2725865
1466:Sources
1256:. The
977:incomes
942:capital
920:or the
847:Schools
839: (
798:Piketty
793:Krugman
658:Kuznets
648:Kalecki
623:Polanyi
513:Cournot
508:Bastiat
493:Ricardo
483:Malthus
473:Quesnay
445:Welfare
415:Service
86:Applied
62:Outline
57:History
5676:Guyana
5656:Brazil
5587:Hawaii
5511:Tuvalu
5284:Panama
5274:Mexico
5219:Canada
5214:Belize
5151:Jersey
5093:Kosovo
5060:Turkey
5050:Sweden
5030:Serbia
5020:Russia
5005:Poland
5000:Norway
4980:Monaco
4950:Latvia
4918:Greece
4903:France
4878:Cyprus
4730:Taiwan
4665:Turkey
4630:Russia
4565:Kuwait
4545:Jordan
4535:Israel
4495:Cyprus
4480:Brunei
4475:Bhutan
4416:
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4386:
4316:Zambia
4311:Uganda
4251:Rwanda
4206:Malawi
4166:Guinea
4061:Angola
4011:Portal
3971:
3930:
3833:Junior
3828:Infant
3733:Stages
3709:Quotes
3694:Images
3554:Theory
3544:Hidden
3440:Values
3345:Health
3320:Design
3245:Rights
3225:Policy
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1176:school
783:Thaler
763:Ostrom
758:Becker
753:Sowell
733:Baumol
638:Myrdal
633:Sraffa
628:Frisch
618:Knight
613:Keynes
588:Fisher
583:Veblen
568:Pareto
548:Menger
543:George
538:Jevons
533:Walras
523:Gossen
391:Public
386:Policy
341:Labour
306:Health
163:Market
5661:Chile
5506:Tonga
5496:Samoa
5486:Palau
5476:Nauru
5334:Aruba
5259:Haiti
5126:Ă…land
5045:Spain
4970:Malta
4940:Italy
4771:Macau
4690:Yemen
4650:Syria
4625:Qatar
4605:Nepal
4540:Japan
4515:India
4505:Egypt
4490:China
4371:Ceuta
4291:Sudan
4241:Niger
4196:Libya
4181:Kenya
4161:Ghana
4151:Gabon
4126:Egypt
4066:Benin
3714:Texts
3684:Books
3385:Peace
3375:Music
3355:Legal
3315:Death
3115:Index
2877:1238.
2822:-117.
2820:p. 84
2748:S2CID
2694:Link.
2669:S2CID
2661:JSTOR
2626:S2CID
2564:JSTOR
2468:(PDF)
2387:(PDF)
2215:(PDF)
2208:(PDF)
1977:(PDF)
1556:(PDF)
1545:(PDF)
1493:Notes
1270:et al
1068:labor
1060:wages
820:Lists
788:Hoppe
773:Lucas
738:Solow
728:Arrow
718:Simon
683:Lange
678:Hicks
653:Röpke
643:Hayek
593:Pigou
563:Clark
478:Smith
440:Urban
420:Socio
410:Rural
110:Macro
106:Micro
67:Index
5686:Peru
5582:Guam
5539:Niue
5461:Fiji
5404:Saba
5229:Cuba
4610:Oman
4575:Laos
4530:Iraq
4525:Iran
4301:Togo
4211:Mali
4101:Chad
3704:News
3018:ISBN
2990:ISBN
2957:and
2775:609.
2487:2022
2427:ISBN
2391:ISBN
2340:ASCD
2157:link
2139:OCLC
2092:ISBN
2085:ISBN
2061:ISBN
2030:ISSN
1997:ISSN
1920:OCLC
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1586:ISBN
1521:ISBN
1201:OECD
1015:OECD
804:more
528:Marx
518:Mill
503:List
5714:and
4742:and
3425:Sex
3290:Art
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2740:doi
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