2488:. The percentage then continues falling in order with Laos, Montenegro, India, Belgium, Georgia, South Korea, Netherlands, and Japan, with all others being less than 75% electrified. Overall, China takes first place, with around 100,000 km (62,000 mi) of electrified railway, followed by India with over 60,000 km (37,000 mi) of electrified railway, and continuing with Russia, with over 54,000 km (34,000 mi) of electrified railway. A number of countries have zero electrified railways, instead relying on diesel multiple units, locomotive hauled services and many alternate forms of transport. The European Union contains the longest amount of electrified railways (in length), with over 114,000 km (71,000 mi) of electrified railway, however only making up around 55% of the total railway length.
914:
1246:
1402:
electrical bonding between pipe segments. The four-rail system solves the problem. Although the supply has an artificially created earth point, this connection is derived by using resistors which ensures that stray earth currents are kept to manageable levels. Power-only rails can be mounted on strongly insulating ceramic chairs to minimise current leak, but this is not possible for running rails, which have to be seated on stronger metal chairs to carry the weight of trains. However, elastomeric rubber pads placed between the rails and chairs can now solve part of the problem by insulating the running rails from the current return should there be a leakage through the running rails.
1623:
2097:
electrification often goes hand in hand with a general infrastructure and rolling stock overhaul / replacement, which leads to better service quality (in a way that theoretically could also be achieved by doing similar upgrades yet without electrification). Whatever the causes of the sparks effect, it is well established for numerous routes that have electrified over decades. This also applies when bus routes with diesel buses are replaced by trolleybuses. The overhead wires make the service "visible" even in no bus is running and the existence of the infrastructure gives some long-term expectations of the line being in operation.
73:
2411:, DC or AC, and at any voltage or frequency). Not so for electric trains, which can never run on non-electrified lines, and which even on electrified lines can run only on the single, or the few, electrical system(s) for which they are equipped. Even on fully electrified networks, it is usually a good idea to keep a few diesel locomotives for maintenance and repair trains, for instance to repair broken or stolen overhead lines, or to lay new tracks. However, due to ventilation issues, diesel trains may have to be banned from certain tunnels and underground train stations mitigating the advantage of diesel trains somewhat.
2299:
1883:
1942:). Lowering the current reduces the ohmic losses and allows for less bulky, lighter overhead line equipment and more spacing between traction substations, while maintaining power capacity of the system. On the other hand, the higher voltage requires larger isolation gaps, requiring some elements of infrastructure to be larger. The standard-frequency AC system may introduce imbalance to the supply grid, requiring careful planning and design (as at each substation power is drawn from two out of three phases). The low-frequency AC system may be powered by
2319:
383:
894:
1924:
efficient hardware can be used as compared to an AC system where conversion takes place aboard the locomotive where space is limited and losses are significantly higher. However, the higher voltages used in many AC electrification systems reduce transmission losses over longer distances, allowing for fewer substations or more powerful locomotives to be used. Also, the energy used to blow air to cool transformers, power electronics (including rectifiers), and other conversion hardware must be accounted for.
38:
1448:
1794:
1956:
3283:, Дробинский p. 65 and Иванова p.20.). But there are reductions needed in both efficiencies needed to make a comparison. First, one must degrade the efficiency of central power plants by the transmission losses to get the electricity to the locomotive. Another correction is due to the fact that efficiency for the Russian diesel is based on the lower heat of combustion of fuel while power plants in the U.S. use the higher heat of combustion (see
2518:
2141:
1286:
1920:
with the same task: converting and transporting high-voltage AC from the power grid to low-voltage DC in the locomotive. The difference between AC and DC electrification systems lies in where the AC is converted to DC: at the substation or on the train. Energy efficiency and infrastructure costs determine which of these is used on a network, although this is often fixed due to pre-existing electrification systems.
1347:
4138:
3287:). Still another correction is that the diesel's reported efficiency neglects the fan energy used for engine cooling radiators. See Дробинский p. 65 and Иванова p. 20 (who estimates the on-board electricity generator as 96.5% efficient). The result of all the above is that modern diesel engines and central power plants are both about 33% efficient at generating electricity (in the nominal regime).
2532:
2392:, ripping the wires from their supports. The damage is often not limited to the supply to one track, but extends to those for adjacent tracks as well, causing the entire route to be blocked for a considerable time. Third-rail systems can suffer disruption in cold weather due to ice forming on the conductor rail.
1898:, rather than single-phase electric power delivery due to ease of design of both power supply and locomotives. These systems could either use standard network frequency and three power cables, or reduced frequency, which allowed for return-phase line to be third rail, rather than an additional overhead wire.
2288:
If the entire network is electrified, diesel infrastructure such as fueling stations, maintenance yards and indeed the diesel locomotive fleet can be retired or put to other uses – this is often the business case in favor of electrifying the last few lines in a network where otherwise costs would be
2096:
Newly electrified lines often show a "sparks effect", whereby electrification in passenger rail systems leads to significant jumps in patronage / revenue. The reasons may include electric trains being seen as more modern and attractive to ride, faster, quieter and smoother service, and the fact that
2053:
must be used. This is mostly an issue for long-distance trips, but many lines come to be dominated by through traffic from long-haul freight trains (usually running coal, ore, or containers to or from ports). In theory, these trains could enjoy dramatic savings through electrification, but it can be
2032:
are electric. The high power of electric locomotives also gives them the ability to pull freight at higher speed over gradients; in mixed traffic conditions this increases capacity when the time between trains can be decreased. The higher power of electric locomotives and an electrification can also
1919:
to a lower DC voltage in preparation for use by traction motors. These motors may either be DC motors which directly use the DC or they may be three-phase AC motors which require further conversion of the DC to variable frequency three-phase AC (using power electronics). Thus both systems are faced
1401:
together. The problem was exacerbated because the return current also had a tendency to flow through nearby iron pipes forming the water and gas mains. Some of these, particularly
Victorian mains that predated London's underground railways, were not constructed to carry currents and had no adequate
3278:
It turns out that the efficiency of electricity generation by a modern diesel locomotive is roughly the same as the typical U.S. fossil-fuel power plant. The heat rate of central power plants in 2012 was about 9.5k BTU/kwh per the
Monthly Energy Review of the U.S. Energy Information Administration
2417:
In most of the world's railway networks, the height clearance of overhead electrical lines is not sufficient for a double-stack container car or other unusually tall loads. To upgrade electrified lines to the correct clearances (21 ft 8 in or 6.60 m) to take double-stacked container
1572:, which require AC, to produce higher voltages. The higher the voltage, the lower the current for the same power (because power is current multiplied by voltage), and power loss is proportional to the current squared. The lower current reduces line loss, thus allowing higher power to be delivered.
1265:
that AC penetrates to 0.3 millimetres or 0.012 inches in a steel rail. This effect makes the resistance per unit length unacceptably high compared with the use of DC. Third rail is more compact than overhead wires and can be used in smaller-diameter tunnels, an important factor for subway systems.
1946:
or a network of converter substations, adding the expense, also low-frequency transformers, used both at the substations and on the rolling stock, are particularly bulky and heavy. The DC system, apart from being limited as to the maximum power that can be transmitted, also can be responsible for
2061:
A problem specifically related to electrified lines are gaps in the electrification. Electric vehicles, especially locomotives, lose power when traversing gaps in the supply, such as phase change gaps in overhead systems, and gaps over points in third rail systems. These become a nuisance if the
2048:
are a large factor with electrification. When converting lines to electric, the connections with other lines must be considered. Some electrifications have subsequently been removed because of the through traffic to non-electrified lines. If through traffic is to have any benefit, time-consuming
2036:
On the other hand, electrification may not be suitable for lines with low frequency of traffic, because lower running cost of trains may be outweighed by the high cost of the electrification infrastructure. Therefore, most long-distance lines in developing or sparsely populated countries are not
1987:
Central station electricity can often be generated with higher efficiency than a mobile engine/generator. While the efficiency of power plant generation and diesel locomotive generation are roughly the same in the nominal regime, diesel motors decrease in efficiency in non-nominal regimes at low
307:
The early electrification of railways used direct current (DC) power systems, which were limited in terms of the distance they could transmit power. However, in the early 20th century, alternating current (AC) power systems were developed, which allowed for more efficient power transmission over
1923:
Both the transmission and conversion of electric energy involve losses: ohmic losses in wires and power electronics, magnetic field losses in transformers and smoothing reactors (inductors). Power conversion for a DC system takes place mainly in a railway substation where large, heavy, and more
1155:
The use of medium-voltage DC electrification (MVDC) would solve some of the issues associated with standard-frequency AC electrification systems, especially possible supply grid load imbalance and the phase separation between the electrified sections powered from different phases, whereas high
2054:
too costly to extend electrification to isolated areas, and unless an entire network is electrified, companies often find that they need to continue use of diesel trains even if sections are electrified. The increasing demand for container traffic, which is more efficient when utilizing the
2087:
Maintenance costs of the lines may be increased by electrification, but many systems claim lower costs due to reduced wear-and-tear on the track from lighter rolling stock. There are some additional maintenance costs associated with the electrical equipment around the track, such as power
2115:
imposed by the overhead wires, double-stacked container trains have been traditionally difficult and rare to operate under electrified lines. However, this limitation is being overcome by railways in India, China and
African countries by laying new tracks with increased catenary height.
3504:
it was claimed that after the mid 1970s electrics used about 25% less fuel per ton-km than diesels. However, part of this savings may be due to less stopping of electrics to let opposing trains pass since diesels operated predominately on single-track lines, often with moderately heavy
1362:
in
England is one of few networks that uses a four-rail system. The additional rail carries the electrical return that, on third-rail and overhead networks, is provided by the running rails. On the London Underground, a top-contact third rail is beside the track, energized at
1586:
can supply a range of voltages. Separate low-voltage transformer windings supply lighting and the motors driving auxiliary machinery. More recently, the development of very high power semiconductors has caused the classic DC motor to be largely replaced with the three-phase
3365:
1839:
Hz in a number of
European countries, India, Saudi Arabia, eastern Japan, countries that used to be part of the Soviet Union, on high-speed lines in much of Western Europe (including countries that still run conventional railways under DC but not in countries using
1599:
that varies both frequency and voltage to control motor speed. These drives can run equally well on DC or AC of any frequency, and many modern electric locomotives are designed to handle different supply voltages and frequencies to simplify cross-border operation.
3234:
See Винокуров p. 95+ Ch. 4: Потери и коэффициент полизного действия; нагреванние и охлаждение электрических машин и трансформаторов" (Losses and efficiency; heating and cooling of electrical machinery and transformers) magnetic losses pp. 96–97, ohmic losses pp.
2399:
kV cables may end in the thief's death from electrocution. In the UK, cable theft is claimed to be one of the biggest sources of delay and disruption to train services – though this normally relates to signalling cable, which is equally problematic for diesel
187:, and lower operating costs. Electric locomotives are also usually quieter, more powerful, and more responsive and reliable than diesel. They have no local emissions, an important advantage in tunnels and urban areas. Some electric traction systems provide
1983:
returns power to the electrification system so that it may be used elsewhere, by other trains on the same system or returned to the general power grid. This is especially useful in mountainous areas where heavily loaded trains must descend long grades.
4443:
4371:
4356:
511:
Selection of an electrification system is based on economics of energy supply, maintenance, and capital cost compared to the revenue obtained for freight and passenger traffic. Different systems are used for urban and intercity areas; some
2058:, also has network effect issues with existing electrifications due to insufficient clearance of overhead electrical lines for these trains, but electrification can be built or modified to have sufficient clearance, at additional cost.
4079:Дмитриев, В.А., "Народнохозяйственная эффективность электрификации железных дорог и применения тепловозной тяги" (National economic effectiveness of railway electrification and application of diesel traction), Москва, Транспорт 1976.
195:
back into electricity and returns it to the supply system to be used by other trains or the general utility grid. While diesel locomotives burn petroleum products, electricity can be generated from diverse sources, including
3362:
2591:
2380:
Appearance: the overhead line structures and cabling can have a significant landscape impact compared with a non-electrified or third rail electrified line that has only occasional signalling equipment above ground
3296:Хомич А. З. Тупицын О.И., Симсон А. Э. "Экономия топлива и теплотехническая модернизация тепловозов" (Fuel economy and the thermodynamic modernization of diesel locomotives). Москва: Транспорт, 1975. 264 pp. See
2088:
sub-stations and the catenary wire itself, but, if there is sufficient traffic, the reduced track and especially the lower engine maintenance and running costs exceed the costs of this maintenance significantly.
2711:
1988:
power while if an electric power plant needs to generate less power it will shut down its least efficient generators, thereby increasing efficiency. The electric train can save energy (as compared to diesel) by
2069:
together, since in that case if the train stops with one collector in a dead gap, another multiple unit can push or pull the disconnected unit until it can again draw power. The same applies to the kind of
4126:Хомич А.З. Тупицын О.И., Симсон А.Э. "Экономия топлива и теплотехническая модернизация тепловозов" (Fuel economy and the thermodynamic modernization of diesel locomotives). Москва: Транспорт, 1975. 264 pp.
1927:
Standard AC electrification systems use much higher voltages than standard DC systems. One of the advantages of raising the voltage is that, to transmit certain level of power, lower current is necessary
1992:
and by not needing to consume energy by idling as diesel locomotives do when stopped or coasting. However, electric rolling stock may run cooling blowers when stopped or coasting, thus consuming energy.
2074:
which have a locomotive at each end. Power gaps can be overcome in single-collector trains by on-board batteries or motor-flywheel-generator systems. In 2014, progress is being made in the use of large
3036:
300:
in 1887-1888, and led to the electrification of hundreds of additional street railway systems by the early 1890s. The first electrification of a mainline railway was the
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad's
2024:
Electric locomotives may easily be constructed with greater power output than most diesel locomotives. For passenger operation it is possible to provide enough power with diesel engines (see e.g. '
3420:
2361:
Electrification cost: electrification requires an entire new infrastructure to be built around the existing tracks at a significant cost. Costs are especially high when tunnels, bridges and other
230:
Different regions may use different supply voltages and frequencies, complicating through service and requiring greater complexity of locomotive power. There used to be a historical concern for
2241:. Electric trains have a higher power-to-weight ratio (no onboard fuel tanks), resulting in fewer locomotives, faster acceleration, higher practical limit of power, higher limit of speed, less
1393:
The key advantage of the four-rail system is that neither running rail carries any current. This scheme was introduced because of the problems of return currents, intended to be carried by the
2414:
Birds may perch on parts with different charges, and animals may also touch the electrification system. Dead animals attract foxes or other scavengers, bringing risk of collision with trains.
528:
Six of the most commonly used voltages have been selected for
European and international standardisation. Some of these are independent of the contact system used, so that, for example, 750
374:. Electrification is seen as a more sustainable and environmentally friendly alternative to diesel or steam power and is an important part of many countries' transportation infrastructure.
219:
that may be uneconomic on lightly trafficked routes, a relative lack of flexibility (since electric trains need third rails or overhead wires), and a vulnerability to power interruptions.
4438:
2237:
There are a number of advantages including the fact there is no exposure of passengers to exhaust from the locomotive and lower cost of building, running and maintaining locomotives and
1261:
V. Third rail systems almost exclusively use DC distribution. The use of AC is usually not feasible due to the dimensions of a third rail being physically very large compared with the
2952:
P. Leandes and S. Ostlund. "A concept for an HVDC traction system" in "International conference on main line railway electrification", Hessington, England, September 1989 (Suggests 30
1699:
2956:
kV). Glomez-Exposito A., Mauricio J.M., Maza-Ortega J.M. "VSC-based MVDC Railway
Electrification System" IEEE transactions on power delivery, v. 29, no. 1, Feb. 2014. (suggests 24
3834:
3335:
2395:
Theft: the high scrap value of copper and the unguarded, remote installations make overhead cables an attractive target for scrap metal thieves. Attempts at theft of live 25
1042:, allowing for transfer of energy between climbing and descending trains on the steep approaches to the tunnel. The system was also used for suburban electrification in
2285:
More flexible primary energy source: can use coal, natural gas, nuclear or renewable energy (hydro, solar, wind) as the primary energy source instead of diesel fuel
1152:
Increasing availability of high-voltage semiconductors may allow the use of higher and more efficient DC voltages that heretofore have only been practical with AC.
3973:
Gomez-Exposito A., Mauricio J.M., Maza-Ortega J.M. "VSC-based MVDC Railway
Electrification System" IEEE transactions on power delivery, v. 29, no. 1, Feb. 2014 pp.
2384:
Fragility and vulnerability: overhead electrification systems can suffer severe disruption due to minor mechanical faults or the effects of high winds causing the
1575:
As alternating current is used with high voltages. Inside the locomotive, a transformer steps the voltage down for use by the traction motors and auxiliary loads.
3701:
172:". Both overhead wire and third-rail systems usually use the running rails as the return conductor, but some systems use a separate fourth rail for this purpose.
1081:
kV DC is used in
Belgium, Italy, Spain, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Chile, the northern portion of the Czech Republic, the former republics of the
249:
Railway electrification has constantly increased in the past decades, and as of 2022, electrified tracks account for nearly one-third of total tracks globally.
3428:
1397:
running rail, flowing through the iron tunnel linings instead. This can cause electrolytic damage and even arcing if the tunnel segments are not electrically
2062:
locomotive stops with its collector on a dead gap, in which case there is no power to restart. This is less of a problem in trains consisting of two or more
4142:
4068:Винокуров В.А., Попов Д.А. "Электрические машины железно-дорожного транспорта" (Electrical machinery of railroad transportation), Москва, Транспорт, 1986.
3501:
3387:
1785:
Hz. It was announced in 1926 that all lines were to be converted to DC third rail and the last overhead-powered electric service ran in September 1929.
3669:
338:
Railway electrification continued to expand throughout the 20th century, with technological improvements and the development of high-speed trains and
4484:
4170:
3037:"Перспектива разработки системы электрической тяги постоянного тока повышенного напряжения 12, 24 кВ для скоростной магистрали Москва – Екатеринбург"
2747:
2601:
1421:
supply. Both are located to the side of the train, as the space between the running rails is occupied by an aluminum plate, as part of stator of the
4396:
4376:
2485:
3851:
Britain's new railway: Electrification of the London-Midland main lines from Euston to Birmingham, Stoke-on-Trent, Crewe, Liverpool and Manchester
4453:
4361:
4428:
4391:
4085:Иванова В.Н. (ed.) "Конструкция и динамика тепловозов" (Construction and dynamics of the diesel locomotive). Москва, Транспорт, 1968 (textbook).
2877:
4115:Сидоров Н.И., Сидорожа Н.Н. "Как устроен и работает электровоз" (How the electric locomotive works) Москва, Транспорт, 1988 (5th ed.). 233 pp,
1275:
1911:
The majority of modern electrification systems take AC energy from a power grid that is delivered to a locomotive, and within the locomotive,
4463:
4416:
2616:
1695:
265:. The history of railway electrification dates back to the late 19th century when the first electric tramways were introduced in cities like
141:, transmitted to the railway network and distributed to the trains. Some electric railways have their own dedicated generating stations and
3526:
2432:
4098:Мирошниченко, Р.И., "Режимы работы электрифицированных участков" (Regimes of operation of electrified sections ), Москва, Транспорт, 1982.
4433:
3915:
3718:
1066:
V DC was the first electrification system launched in 1925 in Mumbai area. Between 2012 and 2016, the electrification was converted to 25
2693:
3158:
1204:
1035:
2205:
1094:
332:
2484:
is the largest fully electrified network in the world and one of only eleven countries or territories to achieve this, as listed in
2177:
1856:
kV is used on some narrow-gauge lines in Japan. On "French system" HSLs, the overhead line and a "sleeper" feeder line each carry 25
4458:
2158:
1738:
1307:
3332:
4479:
4082:Дробинский В.А., Егунов П.М. "Как устроен и работает тепловоз" (How the diesel locomotive works) 3rd ed. Moscow, Транспорт, 1980.
2596:
2123:
in India where the wire height is at 7.45 m (24.4 ft) to accommodate double-stack container trains without the need of
1613:
540:
4016:
He was to produce the first motor that operated without gears of any sort, having its armature direct-connected to the car axle.
2852:
200:. Historically, concerns of resource independence have played a role in the decision to electrify railway lines. The landlocked
4406:
2377:
from interference by traction current. Electrification typically requires line closures while new equipment is being installed.
2184:
1877:
1617:
227:
mitigate these problems somewhat as they are capable of running on diesel power during an outage or on non-electrified routes.
4517:
4163:
4120:
4093:
4005:
3824:
3108:
1707:
44:
3071:
4351:
3984:
3782:
3743:
2366:
2323:
2245:(quieter operation). The faster acceleration clears lines more quickly to run more trains on the track in urban rail uses.
3615:
4401:
3588:
2506:
mainly in Russia is completely electrified, making it one of the longest stretches of electrified railways in the world.
2191:
1433:
does not use this system and instead uses more traditional motors attached to the wheels and third-rail electrification.
1667:
Hz mains frequency divided by three) single-phase AC. On 16 October 1995, Germany, Austria and Switzerland changed from
3905:
3875:
2799:
2120:
1765:
opened in June 1912. Further extensions were not made owing to the First World War. Two lines opened in 1925 under the
913:
4448:
4423:
4411:
4366:
4073:
2224:
1333:
17:
2173:
1315:
5015:
4990:
4386:
4156:
4088:Калинин, В.К. "Электровозы и электропоезда" (Electric locomotives and electric train sets) Москва, Транспорт, 1991
3039:[Perspective of developing 12 or 24 kV DC electrification system for Moscow-Ekaterinburg high-speed line],
1822:
1766:
1609:
1245:
949:
826:
776:
1513:
picks up the current from the vertical face of each guide bar. The return of each traction motor, as well as each
4381:
3934:
3297:
3280:
2712:"Indian Railways sets new benchmark! Runs 1st Double-stack container train in high rise OHE electrified sections"
2289:
too high. Having only one type of motive power also allows greater fleet homogeneity which can also reduce costs.
1774:
1157:
1093:, to Seattle, across the Continental Divide and including extensive branch and loop lines in Montana, and by the
3311:
2266:
Reduced environmental pollution, especially in highly populated urban areas, even if electricity is produced by
4112:Плакс, А.В. & Пупынин, В. Н., "Электрические железные дороги" (Electric Railways), Москва "Транспорт" 1993.
4101:Перцовский, Л. М.; "Энергетическая эффективность электрической тяги" (Energy efficiency of electric traction),
2546:
2162:
1770:
1754:
1311:
3279:
which corresponds to an efficiency of 36%. Diesel motors for locomotives have an efficiency of about 40% (see
2079:
to power electric vehicles between stations, and so avoid the need for overhead wires between those stations.
441:
High speed lines in France, Spain, Italy, United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Belgium and Turkey operate under 25
3744:"Russia's legendary Trans-Siberian railroad line completely electrified – AP Worldstream | HighBeam Research"
3395:
3350:
3254:
2481:
1703:
209:
3676:
1172:
kV DC and found that the conversion would allow to use less bulky overhead wires (saving €20 million per 100
558:
60850. These take into account the number of trains drawing current and their distance from the substation.
4598:
4299:
3533:
2033:
be a cheaper alternative to a new and less steep railway if train weights are to be increased on a system.
1762:
257:
Railway electrification is the development of powering trains and locomotives using electricity instead of
224:
1622:
3646:
2403:
Incompatibility: Diesel trains can run on any track without electricity or with any kind of electricity (
2106:
1758:
1688:
Hz which is no longer exactly one-third of the grid frequency. This solved overheating problems with the
1085:, and in the Netherlands on a few kilometers between Maastricht and Belgium. It was formerly used by the
231:
4527:
3641:
539:
There are many other voltage systems used for railway electrification systems around the world, and the
4254:
4054:
4032:
2556:
1895:
281:
142:
3642:"Tiere & Pflanzen Vögel Gefährdungen Stromtod Mehr aus dieser Rubrik Vorlesen Die tödliche Gefahr"
2611:
4713:
4510:
4294:
4274:
4244:
3997:
2581:
2198:
2050:
1997:
1498:
1161:
503:
220:
137:
with their own motors) or both. Electricity is typically generated in large and relatively efficient
3450:
2675:
2491:
Several countries have announced plans to electrify all or most of their railway network, including
1642:
Five European countries – Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Norway and Sweden – have standardized on 15
947:
V DC is used in Japan, Indonesia, Hong Kong (parts), Ireland, Australia (parts), France (also using
546:
The permissible range of voltages allowed for the standardised voltages is as stated in standards BS
4947:
2348: in (2.908 m) tall and the bottom of the well is 1 ft 2 in (0.36 m) above
2314:. Adding electric catenary to older structures may be an expensive cost of electrification projects
1976:
1592:
1582:
used in DC locomotives for speed control were not needed in an AC locomotive: multiple taps on the
1296:
1110:
1043:
973:
83:
72:
4208:
1890:, the highest in Europe, uses three-phase electric power between two overhead lines and the rails.
1144:
systems as the traction motors accept this voltage without the weight of an on-board transformer.
5020:
4985:
4539:
3016:
2586:
2151:
2008:, leading to a higher total efficiency. Electricity for electric rail systems can also come from
1959:
1746:
1300:
79:
3898:
To the Edge of the World: The Story of the Trans-Siberian Express, the World's Greatest Railroad
3537:
2298:
1894:
Various railway electrification systems in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries utilised
4857:
4681:
4613:
4325:
4289:
4198:
3255:"Unlocking the full benefits of rail electrification – Future Rail | Issue 98 | September 2022"
2626:
2503:
2419:
2389:
2385:
2369:. Another aspect that can raise the cost of electrification are the alterations or upgrades to
1943:
1553:
1422:
311:
In the 1920s and 1930s, many countries worldwide began to electrify their railways. In Europe,
138:
130:
126:
4048:
3133:
1882:
4837:
4817:
4583:
4335:
2631:
2576:
2124:
1742:
1203:
kV. The converters turned out to be unreliable and the experiment was curtailed. In 1970 the
1184:
route-km; equalling about €150,000 p.a.). The line chosen is one of the lines, totalling 6000
164:, suspended from poles or towers along the track or from structure or tunnel ceilings, or a
4787:
4503:
2566:
2331:
2279:
1989:
1980:
1414:
1406:
1398:
1394:
1039:
180:
157:
134:
8:
4862:
4634:
4330:
4304:
4284:
4249:
4022:
3991:
3214:
Switching the frequency in train electric power supply network from 16 2/3 Hz to 16,70 Hz
2636:
2621:
2606:
2303:
1059:
969:
961:
513:
469:
301:
122:
2437:
As of 2012, electrified tracks accounted for nearly one third of total tracks globally.
1257:
Most electrification systems use overhead wires, but third rail is an option up to 1,500
4970:
4907:
4893:
4847:
4777:
4309:
3284:
3035:Аржанников, Б.А.; Галкин, А.Г.; Бурков, А.Т.; Мансуров, В.А.; Набойченко, И.О. (2015),
2551:
2370:
1963:
1522:
1474:
1442:
1387:
1359:
1351:
1098:
1090:
987:, Washington). In Slovakia, there are two narrow-gauge lines in the High Tatras (one a
297:
188:
2977:"MVDC Railway Traction Power Systems; State-of-the Art, Opportunities, and Challenges"
1979:, transmission and fuel. This is partly offset by the weight of electrical equipment.
1966:, gave London trains and trams a power supply independent from the main power network.
1568:
Railways and electrical utilities use AC as opposed to DC for the same reason: to use
4975:
4720:
4116:
4089:
4069:
4026:
4001:
3901:
3871:
3854:
3820:
3801:
3778:
3217:
2998:
2773:
2561:
2353:
2263:
Service to underground stations where diesel trains cannot operate for safety reasons
176:
2440:
As of 2018, there were 72,110 km (44,810 mi) of railways electrified at 25
2028:') but, at higher speeds, this proves costly and impractical. Therefore, almost all
1354:
uses third and fourth rails beside and between the running rails for electrification
1191:
In the 1960s the Soviets experimented with boosting the overhead voltage from 3 to 6
4932:
4902:
4897:
4568:
4036:
4011:
3886:
2988:
2902:
2318:
2275:
More comfortable ride on multiple units as trains have no underfloor diesel engines
2066:
2055:
2029:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1887:
1689:
1228:
458:
293:
197:
146:
1367:, and a top-contact fourth rail is located centrally between the running rails at
5025:
4980:
4852:
4807:
4747:
4649:
4573:
4563:
3369:
3339:
3210:
Umstellung der Sollfrequenz im zentralen Bahnstromnetz von 16 2/3 Hz auf 16,70 Hz
3075:
2496:
2492:
2362:
2311:
2242:
2071:
1865:
1718:
Hz single-phase AC. Parts of the original electrified network still operate at 25
1588:
1410:
1250:
1224:
980:
893:
382:
239:
87:
3747:
2373:
needed for new traffic characteristics, and to protect signalling circuitry and
4842:
4827:
4752:
4725:
4654:
2418:
trains, besides renewing bridges over it, would normally mean need for special
2374:
2045:
1549:
1506:
1086:
918:
907:
602:
463:
371:
339:
192:
118:
114:
101:
56:
3514:
3300:
curves on p. 202 and charts of times spent in non-nominal regimes on pp. 10–12
1470:
1458:
1447:
5009:
4942:
4937:
4927:
4888:
4832:
4740:
4735:
4703:
4686:
4553:
4535:
4266:
4229:
4193:
3805:
3221:
3183:
3109:"MIT School of Engineering | » What's the difference between AC and DC?"
3002:
2537:
2523:
2408:
2254:
2238:
2112:
2063:
2013:
1426:
1141:
938:
487:
328:
289:
274:
246:
regularly operating electric double-stack cargo trains under overhead lines.
243:
235:
161:
37:
3858:
3159:"What is Alternating Current (AC)? | Basic AC Theory | Electronics Textbook"
3090:
2827:
1517:, is effected by one contact shoe each that slide on top of each one of the
4872:
4822:
4802:
4762:
4664:
4644:
4629:
4608:
4603:
4593:
4203:
4044:
3566:
3562:
2349:
2267:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1462:
1082:
1012:
216:
4148:
2725:
2322:
Many electrification systems using overhead lines do not allow sufficient
280:
In 1881, the first permanent railway electrification in the world was the
4797:
4757:
4669:
2571:
2016:, or other low-carbon sources, which do not emit pollution or emissions.
1912:
1583:
1569:
1430:
1383:
1262:
988:
898:
498:
342:. Today, many countries have extensive electrified railway networks with
312:
262:
258:
201:
184:
169:
150:
149:. The railway usually provides its own distribution lines, switches, and
48:
4954:
4920:
4915:
4867:
4792:
4767:
4708:
4674:
4558:
4234:
3061:, McGraw Hill, 1978 table 18-21. See also Gomez-Exposito p. 424, Fig. 3
3024:. UIC Workshop on Energy Efficiency. Rotterdam: UIC. 11 September 2019.
2993:
2976:
2404:
2165: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1793:
1240:
1137:
1047:
1008:
1000:
976:
957:
493:
205:
165:
91:
4495:
2272:
Easily accommodates kinetic energy brake reclaim using supercapacitors
1955:
4693:
4659:
4639:
4588:
4578:
4279:
2076:
1916:
1579:
1486:
475:
204:
which almost completely lacks oil or coal deposits but has plentiful
2140:
1860:
kV in relation to the rails, but in opposite phase so they are at 50
1741:
pioneered overhead electrification of its suburban lines in London,
1390:, whose more recent lines use an overhead catenary or a third rail.
1285:
4730:
4548:
3476:
3216:]. Elektrische Bahnen (in German). Oldenbourg-Industrieverlag.
3072:"[MétroPole] De la centrale électrique au rail de traction"
2327:
1596:
1557:
1490:
1482:
1478:
1196:
996:
902:
437:
428:
60:
52:
2694:"A nation of railway enthusiasts: a history of the Swiss railways"
2517:
2307:
2049:
engine switches must occur to make such connections or expensive
1493:' become, in a sense, a third and fourth rail which each provide
1016:
991:). In the Netherlands it is used on the main system, alongside 25
984:
965:
517:
453:
449:
Electrification systems are classified by three main parameters:
367:
327:
were among the early adopters of railway electrification. In the
3996:. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; London: General Electric Company;
3719:"On track to full electrification: Low carbon railways in India"
1346:
160:
running along the track that usually takes one of two forms: an
4812:
4137:
2025:
543:
covers both standard voltage and non-standard voltage systems.
363:
320:
316:
285:
270:
266:
3916:"Electrification of Indian Railways to Lower Carbon Footprint"
3835:"Network Rail A Guide to Overhead Electrification Revision 10"
3421:"Cumbernauld may be on track for railway line electrification"
3034:
1627:
445:
kV, as do high power lines in the former Soviet Union as well.
156:
Power is supplied to moving trains with a (nearly) continuous
3502:
Railway electrification in the Soviet Union#Energy-Efficiency
2422:
violating standardisation and requiring custom made vehicles.
1835:
Hz network), western Japan, South Korea and Taiwan; and at 50
1502:
1485:. Since the tyres do not conduct the return current, the two
1455:
1451:
1379:
1113:(Bardhaman Main Line) in India, before it was converted to 25
933:
overhead lines, in common with many other modern tram systems
359:
355:
351:
324:
212:
in part in reaction to supply issues during both World Wars.
1276:
List of railway electrification systems § DC, four-rail
1231:). The experiments ended in 1995 due to the end of funding.
3814:
2853:"A detour to success: The world's first electric streetcar"
2426:
1962:
in a poster from 1910. This private power station, used by
1133:
238:
but it is no longer universally true as of 2022, with both
97:
2941:
Railway applications – Supply voltages of traction systems
2531:
2356:
20 ft 3 in (6.17 m) including the well car.
2260:
Independence of running costs from fluctuating fuel prices
1692:
used to generate some of this power from the grid supply.
1497:, so at least electrically it is a four-rail system. Each
1473:
in France operate on a four-rail power system. The trains
1249:
A bottom-contact third rail electrification system on the
1215:
system could be achieved with DC voltage between 11 and 16
3312:"Gigaom GE to Crank Up Gas Power Plants Like Jet Engines"
2970:
2968:
2966:
2928:
Railway applications. Supply voltages of traction systems
1788:
536:
DC may be used with either third rail or overhead lines.
1207:
carried out calculations for railway electrification at
27:
Conversion of railways to use electricity for propulsion
3059:
Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers 11th Edition
2800:"Railway electrification is expected to grow worldwide"
2774:"Aerodynamic Effects Caused by Trains Entering Tunnels"
2037:
electrified due to relatively low frequency of trains.
335:
was one of the first major railways to be electrified.
3702:"Status of Railway Electrification (as on 01.04.2023)"
2963:
2473:
Hz and 20,440 km (12,700 mi) electrified at
3184:"[IRFCA] Electric Loco Tap-changer Operation"
1205:
Ural Electromechanical Institute of Railway Engineers
2513:
1947:
electrochemical corrosion due to stray DC currents.
1844:
Hz, see above). Most systems like this operate at 25
1831:
Hz in North America (excluding the aforementioned 25
1603:
1156:
voltage would make the transmission more efficient.
3018:
Future DC railway electrification system Go for 9kV
2452:; 32,940 km (20,470 mi) electrified at 15
2448:Hz; 68,890 km (42,810 mi) electrified at
1578:An early advantage of AC is that the power-wasting
168:
mounted at track level and contacted by a sliding "
3244:Сидоров 1988 pp. 103–104, Сидоров 1980 pp. 122–123
2278:Somewhat higher energy efficiency in part due to
1871:
1199:-based converters to lower the supply voltage to 3
1038:trans-Pennine route (now closed); the system used
292:electrification was first applied successfully by
3363:"UK Network Rail electrification strategy report"
2602:List of tram systems by gauge and electrification
1371:, which combine to provide a traction voltage of
1160:conducted a case study for the conversion of the
215:Disadvantages of electric traction include: high
5007:
2486:List of countries by rail transport network size
2000:operate at high efficiency, and can be used for
1757:via Balham and West Norwood opened in May 1911.
1429:system. While part of the SkyTrain network, the
1211:, showing that the equivalent loss levels for a
175:In comparison to the principal alternative, the
2388:of a moving train to become entangled with the
1417:use side-contact fourth-rail systems for their
179:, electric railways offer substantially better
3613:
2974:
2748:"Spotlight on double-stack container movement"
2100:
1852:kV sections exist in the United States, and 20
4511:
4164:
4025:(1924). Kaempffert, Waldemar Bernhard (ed.).
3415:
3413:
3333:FlexEfficiency* 50 Combined Cycle Power Plant
2617:Railroad electrification in the United States
1975:Electric trains need not carry the weight of
1906:
1726:kV, while others were converted to 12.5 or 25
3993:Men and volts; the story of General Electric
3616:"Body discovery linked to rail cables theft"
3382:
3380:
3378:
2592:Initial Electrification Experiments NY NH HR
2433:List of countries by railway electrification
2249:Reduced power loss at higher altitudes (for
1944:separate generation and distribution network
1799:1. Supply transformer (center-tapped output)
4178:
1868:equalize the tension at regular intervals.
1314:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
4518:
4504:
4171:
4157:
3816:Overhead Line Electrification for Railways
3410:
3041:Бюллетень Результатов Научных Исследований
2975:Simiyu, Patrobers; Davidson, I.E. (2021).
1700:New York, New Haven, and Hartford Railroad
350:of standard lines in the world, including
3607:
3519:
3375:
3372:Table 3.3, p. 31. Retrieved on 4 May 2010
2992:
2833:. International Energy Agency. p. 18
2665:, IPC Transport Press Ltd. 1972, pp. 8-33
2225:Learn how and when to remove this message
1950:
1334:Learn how and when to remove this message
1095:Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad
333:New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad
3581:
3134:"Alternating current – Energy Education"
2657:
2655:
2653:
2427:Railway electrification around the world
2317:
2297:
1954:
1881:
1792:
1739:London, Brighton and South Coast Railway
1621:
1446:
1345:
1244:
1176:route-km) and lower the losses (saving 2
912:
892:
523:
381:
4525:
4028:A Popular History of American Invention
3989:
3888:The Trans-Siberian Railway Encyclopedia
3555:
2726:"非人狂想屋 | 你的火车发源地 » HXD1B牵引双层集装箱列车"
2597:List of railway electrification systems
1436:
1195:kV. DC rolling stock was equipped with
541:list of railway electrification systems
14:
5008:
4043:
4021:
3969:(3rd ed.). London: Ian Allan Ltd.
3895:
3772:
3207:
2822:
2820:
2797:
1878:Three-phase AC railway electrification
1789:Standard frequency alternating current
1563:
1481:made of steel and, in some places, of
1164:(France), currently electrified at 1.5
4499:
4152:
3964:
3589:"Police probe cable theft death link"
2650:
1074:Hz, which is the countrywide system.
3865:
3848:
3639:
3309:
2663:Future Railways and Guided Transport
2163:adding citations to reliable sources
2134:
2082:
1970:
1797:Schema of 2×25 kV power supply:
1614:Amtrak's 25 Hz traction power system
1312:adding citations to reliable sources
1279:
1147:
4143:Electrically-powered rail transport
3091:"Truck (bogie) – Visual Dictionary"
2817:
1777:. The lines were electrified at 6.7
1618:SEPTA's 25 Hz traction power system
1465:is located between the rubber tyres
520:to allow flexibility in operation.
386:Electrification systems in Europe:
24:
4053:. Vol. 17. London; New York:
3884:
3812:
3766:
3746:. 4 September 2015. Archived from
2587:History of the electric locomotive
2121:Western Dedicated Freight Corridor
1109:AC) in the United States, and the
951:25 kV 50 Hz AC
145:, but most purchase power from an
25:
5037:
4130:
4031:. Vol. 1. London; New York:
3794:Permanent Way Institution Journal
3792:"On board with electrification".
3777:. Simmons-Boardman Books, Omaha.
3527:"Committee Meeting – Spring 2009"
3427:. 14 January 2009. Archived from
2282:and less power lost when "idling"
2040:
1604:Low-frequency alternating current
1188:km, that are in need of renewal.
1011:. In Portugal, it is used in the
888:
883:
377:
304:in the United States in 1895–96.
45:Mantes-la-Jolie–Cherbourg railway
4239:
4136:
3990:Hammond, John Winthrop (2011) .
3088:
3074:. 10 August 2004. Archived from
3057:Donald G. Fink, H. Wayne Beatty
2530:
2516:
2293:
2139:
2091:
1823:25 kV AC railway electrification
1708:Philadelphia and Reading Railway
1610:15 kV AC railway electrification
1509:. A side sliding (side running)
1284:
1058:AC. It is now only used for the
956:, the Netherlands, New Zealand (
71:
36:
4480:Railway electrification systems
3965:Moody, G T (1960). "Part One".
3736:
3711:
3694:
3662:
3633:
3614:Sarah Saunders (28 June 2012).
3508:
3494:
3469:
3443:
3388:"Start Slow With Bullet Trains"
3356:
3344:
3326:
3303:
3298:Brake specific fuel consumption
3290:
3281:Brake specific fuel consumption
3272:
3247:
3238:
3228:
3201:
3176:
3151:
3126:
3101:
3082:
3064:
3051:
3028:
3009:
2946:
2933:
2920:
2895:
2870:
2845:
2150:needs additional citations for
2019:
1872:Three-phase alternating current
1638:Hz AC overhead lines in Austria
1477:which roll on a pair of narrow
1378:. The same system was used for
1015:and in Denmark on the suburban
901:in France is electrified using
516:can switch to different supply
121:. Electric railways use either
3985:(Jane's) Urban Transit Systems
2791:
2766:
2740:
2718:
2704:
2686:
2676:"A train ride through history"
2668:
2547:Battery electric multiple unit
2119:Such installations are in the
1901:
1722:Hz, with voltage boosted to 12
1489:provided outside the running '
1382:'s earliest underground line,
1269:
13:
1:
3775:Amtrak: Past, Present, Future
3351:Railway Gazette International
2643:
2130:
1234:
1162:Bordeaux-Hendaye railway line
225:electro-diesel multiple units
4485:Tram electrification systems
4300:Electro-diesel multiple unit
3650:(in German). Berlin, Germany
3563:"Network Rail – Cable Theft"
3534:Royal Meteorological Society
3394:. 2 May 2011. Archived from
3310:Wang, Ucilia (25 May 2011).
1749:being opened to traffic on 1
1560:operate in the same manner.
1034:DC was used in 1954 for the
1026:In the United Kingdom, 1,500
7:
4000:; Literary Licensing, LLC.
3536:(rmets.org). Archived from
2798:pamela (19 February 2021).
2509:
2107:Double-stack rail transport
2101:Double-stack rail transport
1753:December 1909. Victoria to
1423:linear induction propulsion
1219:kV. In the 1980s and 1990s
232:double-stack rail transport
90:, and is electrified using
55:, and is electrified using
10:
5042:
4726:Transfer table (traverser)
4255:Conduit current collection
4062:
3998:J. B. Lippincott & Co.
3958:
3953:
3900:. London: Atlantic Books.
3896:Wolmar, Christian (2013).
3868:Electric Euston to Glasgow
2557:Conduit current collection
2430:
2104:
1998:fossil fuel power stations
1907:AC versus DC for mainlines
1875:
1820:
1607:
1440:
1273:
1238:
1140:networks, as well as some
936:
282:Gross-Lichterfelde Tramway
252:
234:regarding clearances with
221:Electro-diesel locomotives
4963:
4881:
4776:
4714:ground-level power supply
4622:
4534:
4472:
4344:
4318:
4295:Electro-diesel locomotive
4275:Railway electric traction
4265:
4245:Ground-level power supply
4217:
4186:
4103:Железнодорожный транспорт
2582:Ground-level power supply
2174:"Railway electrification"
1811:7. Locomotive transformer
566:
563:
504:Ground-level power supply
4105:(magazine), #12, 1974 p.
3163:www.allaboutcircuits.com
2612:Overhead conductor rails
1593:variable frequency drive
1223:was being tested on the
1111:Kolkata suburban railway
589:
584:
581:
576:
571:
84:London metropolitan area
82:in England connects the
5016:Electric rail transport
4699:Railway electrification
4225:Railway electrification
4180:Railway electrification
4055:Charles Scribner's Sons
4033:Charles Scribner's Sons
3939:Siemens Mobility Global
3723:www.rapidtransition.org
3569:(www.networkrail.co.uk)
2828:"Railway Handbook 2015"
2365:have to be altered for
1960:Lots Road Power Station
1124:DC voltages between 600
921:in Angers, France uses
564:Electrification system
191:that turns the train's
131:electric multiple units
125:(hauling passengers or
111:Railway electrification
80:South Eastern Main Line
4326:Traction power network
4290:Electric multiple unit
3935:"Rail Electrification"
3920:www.investindia.gov.in
3773:Wilner, Frank (2012).
3338:24 August 2012 at the
2627:Traction current pylon
2504:Trans-Siberian Railway
2357:
2315:
1967:
1951:Electric versus diesel
1891:
1827:AC power is used at 60
1818:
1775:Sutton railway station
1639:
1466:
1355:
1254:
964:), the United States (
934:
910:
446:
117:for the propulsion of
4838:Platform screen doors
4336:Traction powerstation
4023:Martin, T. Commerford
3853:. London: Ian Allan.
3455:Bromsgrove Advertiser
2632:Traction powerstation
2321:
2301:
1958:
1885:
1796:
1704:Pennsylvania Railroad
1625:
1521:. This and all other
1461:vehicle. The lateral
1450:
1349:
1248:
1050:, now converted to 25
960:), Singapore (on the
916:
896:
524:Standardised voltages
391: Non-electrified
385:
4788:Anti-trespass panels
4145:at Wikimedia Commons
3368:22 June 2013 at the
2943:, 3rd edition (2007)
2728:(in Chinese (China))
2698:House of Switzerland
2661:P. M. Kalla-Bishop,
2567:Dual electrification
2280:regenerative braking
2159:improve this article
1990:regenerative braking
1981:Regenerative braking
1864:kV from each other;
1475:move on rubber tyres
1437:Rubber-tyred systems
1308:improve this section
1227:near Leningrad (now
1180:GWh per year per 100
1040:regenerative braking
514:electric locomotives
189:regenerative braking
123:electric locomotives
4635:Classification yard
4331:Traction substation
4285:Electric locomotive
4250:Stud contact system
3977:422–431. (suggests
3866:Nock, O.S. (1974).
3849:Nock, O.S. (1965).
3800:(1). January 2021.
3750:on 4 September 2015
3259:rail.nridigital.com
3208:Linder, C. (2002).
3095:www.infovisual.info
2637:Traction substation
2622:Stud contact system
2607:Multi-system (rail)
2444:kV, either 50 or 60
2304:Royal Border Bridge
1564:Alternating current
1523:rubber-tyred metros
1469:A few lines of the
1425:system used on the
1132:V are used by most
1060:Tyne and Wear Metro
962:North East MRT line
470:Alternating current
302:Baltimore Belt Line
202:Swiss confederation
139:generating stations
129:in separate cars),
47:in France connects
4894:Motive power depot
4848:Signalling control
4310:Rubber-tyred metro
4187:Current collectors
3398:on 28 January 2012
3285:Heat of combustion
3138:energyeducation.ca
3078:on 10 August 2004.
2994:10.3390/en14144156
2987:(14). MDPI: 4156.
2878:"Frank J. Sprague"
2552:Battery locomotive
2482:Swiss rail network
2371:railway signalling
2358:
2316:
2312:protected monument
2113:height restriction
1968:
1964:London Underground
1892:
1819:
1815:9. Autotransformer
1640:
1467:
1443:Rubber-tyred metro
1415:Vancouver SkyTrain
1395:earthed (grounded)
1360:London Underground
1356:
1352:London Underground
1255:
1099:New Jersey Transit
1091:Harlowton, Montana
935:
911:
447:
308:longer distances.
298:Richmond, Virginia
143:transmission lines
5003:
5002:
4721:Railway turntable
4542:
4493:
4492:
4141:Media related to
4123:. 1980 (4th ed.).
4121:978-5-277-00191-2
4094:978-5-277-01046-4
4050:Sidney Howe Short
4007:978-1-258-03284-5
3967:Southern Electric
3826:978-0-903489-15-7
3477:"Rail – Analysis"
2754:. 14 October 2007
2577:Fifth rail system
2562:Current collector
2334:may be 9 ft
2235:
2234:
2227:
2209:
2083:Maintenance costs
2051:dual mode engines
2030:high speed trains
1971:Energy efficiency
1848:kV, although 12.5
1690:rotary converters
1344:
1343:
1336:
1148:Medium-voltage DC
1101:, converted to 25
1062:. In India, 1,500
972:district and the
881:
880:
181:energy efficiency
18:Electric traction
16:(Redirected from
5033:
4898:Railway workshop
4614:Transition curve
4584:Fastening system
4538:
4520:
4513:
4506:
4497:
4496:
4173:
4166:
4159:
4150:
4149:
4140:
4108:
4058:
4040:
4037:Internet Archive
4018:
4012:Internet Archive
3980:
3976:
3970:
3949:
3947:
3945:
3930:
3928:
3926:
3911:
3892:
3885:Walker, Robert.
3881:
3862:
3845:
3844:. February 2015.
3839:
3830:
3819:(6th ed.).
3809:
3808:– via PWI.
3788:
3784:978-0911382-59-4
3760:
3759:
3757:
3755:
3740:
3734:
3733:
3731:
3729:
3715:
3709:
3708:
3706:
3698:
3692:
3691:
3689:
3687:
3681:
3675:. Archived from
3674:
3666:
3660:
3659:
3657:
3655:
3640:Nachmann, Lars.
3637:
3631:
3630:
3628:
3626:
3611:
3605:
3604:
3602:
3600:
3585:
3579:
3578:
3576:
3574:
3559:
3553:
3552:
3550:
3548:
3542:
3531:
3523:
3517:
3512:
3506:
3498:
3492:
3491:
3489:
3487:
3473:
3467:
3466:
3464:
3462:
3457:. 8 January 2008
3447:
3441:
3440:
3438:
3436:
3431:on 19 April 2013
3425:Cumbernauld News
3417:
3408:
3407:
3405:
3403:
3384:
3373:
3360:
3354:
3348:
3342:
3330:
3324:
3323:
3321:
3319:
3307:
3301:
3294:
3288:
3276:
3270:
3269:
3267:
3265:
3251:
3245:
3242:
3236:
3232:
3226:
3225:
3205:
3199:
3198:
3196:
3194:
3180:
3174:
3173:
3171:
3169:
3155:
3149:
3148:
3146:
3144:
3130:
3124:
3123:
3121:
3119:
3105:
3099:
3098:
3086:
3080:
3079:
3068:
3062:
3055:
3049:
3048:
3032:
3026:
3025:
3023:
3013:
3007:
3006:
2996:
2972:
2961:
2959:
2955:
2950:
2944:
2937:
2931:
2924:
2918:
2917:
2915:
2913:
2899:
2893:
2892:
2890:
2888:
2882:Encyclopedia.com
2874:
2868:
2867:
2865:
2863:
2849:
2843:
2842:
2840:
2838:
2832:
2824:
2815:
2814:
2812:
2810:
2795:
2789:
2788:
2786:
2784:
2770:
2764:
2763:
2761:
2759:
2744:
2738:
2737:
2735:
2733:
2722:
2716:
2715:
2708:
2702:
2701:
2690:
2684:
2683:
2680:SWI swissinfo.ch
2672:
2666:
2659:
2540:
2535:
2534:
2526:
2521:
2520:
2480:As of 2023, the
2476:
2472:
2469:
2468:
2464:
2461:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2398:
2347:
2346:
2342:
2339:
2328:double-stack car
2230:
2223:
2219:
2216:
2210:
2208:
2167:
2143:
2135:
2072:push-pull trains
2056:double-stack car
2010:renewable energy
2006:district cooling
2002:district heating
1941:
1888:Jungfrau Railway
1866:autotransformers
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1817:10. Running rail
1813:8. Overhead line
1803:3. Overhead line
1784:
1780:
1767:Southern Railway
1752:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1687:
1683:
1680:
1679:
1675:
1672:
1666:
1662:
1659:
1658:
1654:
1651:
1645:
1637:
1633:
1552:
1546:
1544:
1543:
1539:
1536:
1528:
1496:
1420:
1377:
1375:
1370:
1366:
1339:
1332:
1328:
1325:
1319:
1288:
1280:
1260:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1202:
1194:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1131:
1127:
1120:
1116:
1108:
1104:
1080:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1057:
1053:
1033:
1029:
1022:
1006:
994:
974:South Shore Line
955:
952:
946:
932:
930:
926:
905:
876:
869:
862:
855:
848:
840:
834:
830:
820:
813:
806:
799:
792:
784:
780:
770:
763:
756:
749:
742:
735:
726:
719:
712:
705:
698:
691:
682:
675:
668:
661:
654:
647:
638:
631:
624:
617:
610:
600:
561:
560:
557:
553:
549:
535:
531:
444:
435:
426:
420:
416:
410:
406:
400:
396:
390:
349:
347:
198:renewable energy
147:electric utility
100:
75:
63:
40:
21:
5041:
5040:
5036:
5035:
5034:
5032:
5031:
5030:
5006:
5005:
5004:
4999:
4959:
4877:
4853:Structure gauge
4808:Defect detector
4780:
4772:
4618:
4574:Clip and scotch
4564:Breather switch
4530:
4524:
4494:
4489:
4468:
4340:
4314:
4261:
4213:
4182:
4177:
4133:
4106:
4065:
4008:
3978:
3974:
3961:
3956:
3943:
3941:
3933:
3924:
3922:
3914:
3908:
3878:
3837:
3833:
3827:
3813:Keenor, Garry.
3791:
3785:
3769:
3767:Further reading
3764:
3763:
3753:
3751:
3742:
3741:
3737:
3727:
3725:
3717:
3716:
3712:
3704:
3700:
3699:
3695:
3685:
3683:
3679:
3672:
3668:
3667:
3663:
3653:
3651:
3647:Naturschutzbund
3638:
3634:
3624:
3622:
3612:
3608:
3598:
3596:
3587:
3586:
3582:
3572:
3570:
3561:
3560:
3556:
3546:
3544:
3543:on 4 March 2016
3540:
3529:
3525:
3524:
3520:
3513:
3509:
3499:
3495:
3485:
3483:
3475:
3474:
3470:
3460:
3458:
3451:"Electric Idea"
3449:
3448:
3444:
3434:
3432:
3419:
3418:
3411:
3401:
3399:
3386:
3385:
3376:
3370:Wayback Machine
3361:
3357:
3349:
3345:
3340:Wayback Machine
3331:
3327:
3317:
3315:
3308:
3304:
3295:
3291:
3277:
3273:
3263:
3261:
3253:
3252:
3248:
3243:
3239:
3233:
3229:
3206:
3202:
3192:
3190:
3182:
3181:
3177:
3167:
3165:
3157:
3156:
3152:
3142:
3140:
3132:
3131:
3127:
3117:
3115:
3113:Mit Engineering
3107:
3106:
3102:
3089:Dery, Bernard.
3087:
3083:
3070:
3069:
3065:
3056:
3052:
3033:
3029:
3021:
3015:
3014:
3010:
2973:
2964:
2957:
2953:
2951:
2947:
2938:
2934:
2925:
2921:
2911:
2909:
2903:"Frank Sprague"
2901:
2900:
2896:
2886:
2884:
2876:
2875:
2871:
2861:
2859:
2851:
2850:
2846:
2836:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2825:
2818:
2808:
2806:
2796:
2792:
2782:
2780:
2772:
2771:
2767:
2757:
2755:
2746:
2745:
2741:
2731:
2729:
2724:
2723:
2719:
2714:. 12 June 2020.
2710:
2709:
2705:
2692:
2691:
2687:
2674:
2673:
2669:
2660:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2536:
2529:
2522:
2515:
2512:
2497:Israel Railways
2493:Indian Railways
2474:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2435:
2429:
2396:
2344:
2340:
2337:
2335:
2296:
2243:noise pollution
2231:
2220:
2214:
2211:
2168:
2166:
2156:
2144:
2133:
2109:
2103:
2094:
2085:
2046:Network effects
2043:
2022:
1973:
1953:
1929:
1909:
1904:
1880:
1874:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1825:
1816:
1814:
1812:
1810:
1808:
1806:
1805:4. Running rail
1804:
1802:
1801:2. Power supply
1800:
1798:
1791:
1782:
1778:
1750:
1737:In the UK, the
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1643:
1635:
1631:
1620:
1608:Main articles:
1606:
1589:induction motor
1566:
1548:
1541:
1537:
1534:
1532:
1531:4 ft
1530:
1526:
1494:
1445:
1439:
1418:
1411:Millennium Line
1373:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1340:
1329:
1323:
1320:
1305:
1289:
1278:
1272:
1258:
1251:Bucharest Metro
1243:
1237:
1225:October Railway
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1200:
1192:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1150:
1129:
1125:
1118:
1114:
1106:
1102:
1078:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1055:
1051:
1031:
1027:
1020:
1004:
992:
981:Link light rail
950:
948:
944:
941:
928:
924:
922:
903:
891:
886:
874:
867:
860:
853:
846:
838:
836:
832:
828:
818:
811:
804:
797:
790:
782:
778:
768:
761:
754:
747:
740:
733:
724:
717:
710:
703:
696:
689:
680:
673:
666:
659:
652:
645:
636:
629:
622:
615:
608:
598:
591:
586:
578:
573:
555:
551:
547:
533:
529:
526:
484:Contact system
442:
440:
433:
431:
424:
422:
418:
414:
412:
408:
404:
402:
398:
394:
392:
388:
380:
345:
343:
255:
240:Indian Railways
108:
107:
106:
105:
104:
95:
88:Strait of Dover
76:
67:
66:
65:
61:
41:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5039:
5029:
5028:
5023:
5021:Rail transport
5018:
5001:
5000:
4998:
4997:
4996:
4995:
4994:
4993:
4978:
4973:
4967:
4965:
4961:
4960:
4958:
4957:
4952:
4951:
4950:
4945:
4940:
4935:
4925:
4924:
4923:
4918:
4910:
4905:
4900:
4891:
4885:
4883:
4879:
4878:
4876:
4875:
4870:
4865:
4860:
4855:
4850:
4845:
4843:Railway signal
4840:
4835:
4830:
4828:Level crossing
4825:
4820:
4815:
4810:
4805:
4800:
4795:
4790:
4784:
4782:
4774:
4773:
4771:
4770:
4765:
4760:
4755:
4753:Track geometry
4750:
4745:
4744:
4743:
4733:
4728:
4723:
4718:
4717:
4716:
4711:
4706:
4704:overhead lines
4696:
4691:
4690:
4689:
4679:
4678:
4677:
4667:
4662:
4657:
4655:Gauntlet track
4652:
4647:
4642:
4637:
4632:
4626:
4624:
4620:
4619:
4617:
4616:
4611:
4606:
4601:
4599:Minimum radius
4596:
4591:
4586:
4581:
4576:
4571:
4566:
4561:
4556:
4551:
4545:
4543:
4532:
4531:
4528:infrastructure
4523:
4522:
4515:
4508:
4500:
4491:
4490:
4488:
4487:
4482:
4476:
4474:
4470:
4469:
4467:
4466:
4461:
4459:United Kingdom
4456:
4451:
4446:
4441:
4436:
4431:
4426:
4421:
4420:
4419:
4409:
4404:
4399:
4394:
4389:
4384:
4379:
4374:
4369:
4364:
4359:
4354:
4348:
4346:
4342:
4341:
4339:
4338:
4333:
4328:
4322:
4320:
4316:
4315:
4313:
4312:
4307:
4302:
4297:
4292:
4287:
4282:
4277:
4271:
4269:
4263:
4262:
4260:
4259:
4258:
4257:
4252:
4242:
4237:
4232:
4227:
4221:
4219:
4218:Power delivery
4215:
4214:
4212:
4211:
4206:
4201:
4196:
4190:
4188:
4184:
4183:
4176:
4175:
4168:
4161:
4153:
4147:
4146:
4132:
4131:External links
4129:
4128:
4127:
4124:
4113:
4110:
4099:
4096:
4086:
4083:
4080:
4077:
4064:
4061:
4060:
4059:
4041:
4019:
4006:
3987:
3982:
3971:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3952:
3951:
3950:
3931:
3912:
3907:978-0857890375
3906:
3893:
3882:
3877:978-0711005303
3876:
3863:
3846:
3831:
3825:
3810:
3789:
3783:
3768:
3765:
3762:
3761:
3735:
3710:
3693:
3682:on 6 June 2020
3670:"2019 年铁道统计公报"
3661:
3632:
3606:
3595:. 27 June 2012
3580:
3554:
3518:
3507:
3493:
3468:
3442:
3409:
3374:
3355:
3343:
3325:
3302:
3289:
3271:
3246:
3237:
3227:
3200:
3175:
3150:
3125:
3100:
3081:
3063:
3050:
3043:(in Russian),
3027:
3008:
2962:
2945:
2932:
2919:
2894:
2869:
2857:Siemens Global
2844:
2816:
2790:
2765:
2739:
2717:
2703:
2685:
2667:
2648:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2599:
2594:
2589:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2543:
2542:
2541:
2527:
2511:
2508:
2428:
2425:
2424:
2423:
2415:
2412:
2401:
2393:
2382:
2378:
2375:track circuits
2354:overall height
2295:
2292:
2291:
2290:
2286:
2283:
2276:
2273:
2270:
2264:
2261:
2258:
2239:multiple units
2233:
2232:
2147:
2145:
2138:
2132:
2129:
2102:
2099:
2093:
2090:
2084:
2081:
2064:multiple units
2042:
2041:Network effect
2039:
2021:
2018:
2004:or to produce
1972:
1969:
1952:
1949:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1876:Main article:
1873:
1870:
1821:Main article:
1807:5. Feeder line
1790:
1787:
1771:Coulsdon North
1755:Crystal Palace
1630:train using 15
1605:
1602:
1565:
1562:
1550:standard gauge
1507:traction motor
1441:Main article:
1438:
1435:
1369:−210 V DC
1365:+420 V DC
1342:
1341:
1292:
1290:
1283:
1271:
1268:
1239:Main article:
1236:
1233:
1149:
1146:
1087:Milwaukee Road
970:Metra Electric
937:Main article:
919:Angers tramway
908:overhead lines
890:
889:Overhead lines
887:
885:
884:Direct current
882:
879:
878:
871:
864:
857:
850:
843:
841:Hz (IEC 60850)
835:Hz (EN 50163)
823:
822:
815:
808:
801:
794:
787:
773:
772:
765:
758:
751:
744:
737:
729:
728:
721:
714:
707:
700:
693:
685:
684:
677:
670:
663:
656:
649:
641:
640:
633:
626:
619:
612:
605:
594:
593:
588:
583:
580:
575:
569:
568:
565:
525:
522:
509:
508:
507:
506:
501:
496:
491:
488:Overhead lines
482:
481:
480:
479:
478:
467:
464:Direct current
456:
432:
423:
413:
403:
393:
387:
379:
378:Classification
376:
372:United Kingdom
254:
251:
236:overhead lines
193:kinetic energy
135:passenger cars
119:rail transport
115:electric power
113:is the use of
77:
70:
69:
68:
62:25 kV AC 50 Hz
57:overhead lines
42:
35:
34:
33:
32:
31:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5038:
5027:
5024:
5022:
5019:
5017:
5014:
5013:
5011:
4992:
4989:
4988:
4987:
4984:
4983:
4982:
4979:
4977:
4974:
4972:
4969:
4968:
4966:
4962:
4956:
4953:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4939:
4936:
4934:
4931:
4930:
4929:
4926:
4922:
4919:
4917:
4914:
4913:
4911:
4909:
4906:
4904:
4901:
4899:
4895:
4892:
4890:
4889:Coaling tower
4887:
4886:
4884:
4880:
4874:
4871:
4869:
4866:
4864:
4861:
4859:
4858:Signal bridge
4856:
4854:
4851:
4849:
4846:
4844:
4841:
4839:
4836:
4834:
4833:Loading gauge
4831:
4829:
4826:
4824:
4821:
4819:
4816:
4814:
4811:
4809:
4806:
4804:
4801:
4799:
4796:
4794:
4791:
4789:
4786:
4785:
4783:
4779:
4775:
4769:
4766:
4764:
4761:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
4742:
4741:refuge siding
4739:
4738:
4737:
4734:
4732:
4729:
4727:
4724:
4722:
4719:
4715:
4712:
4710:
4707:
4705:
4702:
4701:
4700:
4697:
4695:
4692:
4688:
4687:tramway track
4685:
4684:
4683:
4680:
4676:
4673:
4672:
4671:
4668:
4666:
4663:
4661:
4658:
4656:
4653:
4651:
4648:
4646:
4643:
4641:
4638:
4636:
4633:
4631:
4628:
4627:
4625:
4621:
4615:
4612:
4610:
4607:
4605:
4602:
4600:
4597:
4595:
4592:
4590:
4587:
4585:
4582:
4580:
4577:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4565:
4562:
4560:
4557:
4555:
4552:
4550:
4547:
4546:
4544:
4541:
4537:
4533:
4529:
4521:
4516:
4514:
4509:
4507:
4502:
4501:
4498:
4486:
4483:
4481:
4478:
4477:
4475:
4471:
4465:
4464:United States
4462:
4460:
4457:
4455:
4452:
4450:
4447:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4437:
4435:
4432:
4430:
4427:
4425:
4422:
4418:
4415:
4414:
4413:
4410:
4408:
4405:
4403:
4400:
4398:
4395:
4393:
4390:
4388:
4385:
4383:
4380:
4378:
4375:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4349:
4347:
4343:
4337:
4334:
4332:
4329:
4327:
4324:
4323:
4321:
4319:Power network
4317:
4311:
4308:
4306:
4303:
4301:
4298:
4296:
4293:
4291:
4288:
4286:
4283:
4281:
4278:
4276:
4273:
4272:
4270:
4268:
4267:Rolling stock
4264:
4256:
4253:
4251:
4248:
4247:
4246:
4243:
4241:
4238:
4236:
4233:
4231:
4230:Overhead line
4228:
4226:
4223:
4222:
4220:
4216:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4194:Bow collector
4192:
4191:
4189:
4185:
4181:
4174:
4169:
4167:
4162:
4160:
4155:
4154:
4151:
4144:
4139:
4135:
4134:
4125:
4122:
4118:
4114:
4111:
4104:
4100:
4097:
4095:
4091:
4087:
4084:
4081:
4078:
4075:
4074:5-88998-425-X
4071:
4067:
4066:
4056:
4052:
4051:
4046:
4045:Malone, Dumas
4042:
4038:
4034:
4030:
4029:
4024:
4020:
4017:
4013:
4009:
4003:
3999:
3995:
3994:
3988:
3986:
3983:
3972:
3968:
3963:
3962:
3940:
3936:
3932:
3921:
3917:
3913:
3909:
3903:
3899:
3894:
3890:
3889:
3883:
3879:
3873:
3870:. Ian Allan.
3869:
3864:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3847:
3843:
3836:
3832:
3828:
3822:
3818:
3817:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3799:
3795:
3790:
3786:
3780:
3776:
3771:
3770:
3749:
3745:
3739:
3724:
3720:
3714:
3703:
3697:
3678:
3671:
3665:
3649:
3648:
3643:
3636:
3621:
3617:
3610:
3594:
3590:
3584:
3568:
3564:
3558:
3539:
3535:
3528:
3522:
3515:
3511:
3503:
3497:
3482:
3478:
3472:
3456:
3452:
3446:
3430:
3426:
3422:
3416:
3414:
3397:
3393:
3392:Miller-McCune
3389:
3383:
3381:
3379:
3371:
3367:
3364:
3359:
3352:
3347:
3341:
3337:
3334:
3329:
3313:
3306:
3299:
3293:
3286:
3282:
3275:
3260:
3256:
3250:
3241:
3231:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3211:
3204:
3189:
3188:www.irfca.org
3185:
3179:
3164:
3160:
3154:
3139:
3135:
3129:
3114:
3110:
3104:
3096:
3092:
3085:
3077:
3073:
3067:
3060:
3054:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3031:
3020:
3019:
3012:
3004:
3000:
2995:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2971:
2969:
2967:
2949:
2942:
2936:
2929:
2923:
2908:
2904:
2898:
2883:
2879:
2873:
2858:
2854:
2848:
2829:
2823:
2821:
2805:
2801:
2794:
2779:
2775:
2769:
2753:
2752:@businessline
2749:
2743:
2727:
2721:
2713:
2707:
2699:
2695:
2689:
2681:
2677:
2671:
2664:
2658:
2656:
2654:
2649:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2544:
2539:
2538:Trains portal
2533:
2528:
2525:
2524:Energy portal
2519:
2514:
2507:
2505:
2500:
2498:
2494:
2489:
2487:
2483:
2478:
2438:
2434:
2421:
2416:
2413:
2410:
2409:overhead line
2406:
2402:
2394:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2359:
2355:
2352:, making the
2351:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2320:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2300:
2294:Disadvantages
2287:
2284:
2281:
2277:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2265:
2262:
2259:
2256:
2255:Diesel engine
2252:
2248:
2247:
2246:
2244:
2240:
2229:
2226:
2218:
2215:February 2023
2207:
2204:
2200:
2197:
2193:
2190:
2186:
2183:
2179:
2176: –
2175:
2171:
2170:Find sources:
2164:
2160:
2154:
2153:
2148:This section
2146:
2142:
2137:
2136:
2128:
2126:
2122:
2117:
2114:
2108:
2098:
2092:Sparks effect
2089:
2080:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2065:
2059:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2038:
2034:
2031:
2027:
2017:
2015:
2014:nuclear power
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1994:
1991:
1985:
1982:
1978:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1948:
1945:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1925:
1921:
1918:
1914:
1899:
1897:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1869:
1867:
1824:
1809:6. Pantograph
1795:
1786:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1748:
1744:
1743:London Bridge
1740:
1735:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1691:
1629:
1624:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1601:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1585:
1581:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1561:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1527:1,435 mm
1524:
1520:
1519:running rails
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1501:of a powered
1500:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1464:
1460:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1444:
1434:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1419:650 V DC
1416:
1412:
1408:
1403:
1400:
1396:
1391:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1361:
1353:
1348:
1338:
1335:
1327:
1324:November 2022
1317:
1313:
1309:
1303:
1302:
1298:
1293:This section
1291:
1287:
1282:
1281:
1277:
1267:
1264:
1252:
1247:
1242:
1232:
1230:
1226:
1206:
1198:
1189:
1163:
1159:
1153:
1145:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1122:
1112:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1075:
1061:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1024:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1002:
998:
990:
986:
982:
978:
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
953:
940:
939:Overhead line
920:
915:
909:
906:
900:
895:
872:
865:
858:
851:
844:
842:
825:
824:
816:
809:
802:
795:
788:
786:
775:
774:
766:
759:
752:
745:
738:
731:
730:
722:
715:
708:
701:
694:
687:
686:
678:
671:
664:
657:
650:
643:
642:
634:
627:
620:
613:
606:
604:
596:
595:
570:
562:
559:
554:50163 and IEC
544:
542:
537:
521:
519:
515:
505:
502:
500:
497:
495:
492:
489:
486:
485:
483:
477:
474:
473:
471:
468:
465:
462:
461:
460:
457:
455:
452:
451:
450:
439:
430:
384:
375:
373:
369:
365:
361:
357:
353:
341:
336:
334:
330:
329:United States
326:
322:
318:
314:
309:
305:
303:
299:
295:
294:Frank Sprague
291:
290:Overhead line
287:
283:
278:
276:
275:New York City
272:
268:
264:
260:
250:
247:
245:
244:China Railway
241:
237:
233:
228:
226:
222:
218:
217:capital costs
213:
211:
207:
203:
199:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
177:diesel engine
173:
171:
167:
163:
162:overhead line
159:
154:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
103:
99:
93:
89:
85:
81:
74:
64:
58:
54:
50:
46:
39:
30:
19:
4873:Wayside horn
4823:Interlocking
4803:Catch points
4763:Water trough
4698:
4665:Passing loop
4645:Pocket track
4630:Balloon loop
4594:Ladder track
4305:Multi-system
4224:
4209:Contact shoe
4204:Trolley pole
4179:
4102:
4049:
4035:– via
4027:
4015:
4010:– via
3992:
3966:
3942:. Retrieved
3938:
3923:. Retrieved
3919:
3897:
3887:
3867:
3850:
3842:Network Rail
3841:
3815:
3797:
3793:
3774:
3752:. Retrieved
3748:the original
3738:
3726:. Retrieved
3722:
3713:
3696:
3684:. Retrieved
3677:the original
3664:
3652:. Retrieved
3645:
3635:
3623:. Retrieved
3619:
3609:
3599:15 September
3597:. Retrieved
3592:
3583:
3573:15 September
3571:. Retrieved
3567:Network Rail
3557:
3547:15 September
3545:. Retrieved
3538:the original
3521:
3510:
3496:
3484:. Retrieved
3480:
3471:
3459:. Retrieved
3454:
3445:
3433:. Retrieved
3429:the original
3424:
3400:. Retrieved
3396:the original
3391:
3358:
3346:
3328:
3316:. Retrieved
3314:. Gigaom.com
3305:
3292:
3274:
3262:. Retrieved
3258:
3249:
3240:
3230:
3213:
3209:
3203:
3191:. Retrieved
3187:
3178:
3166:. Retrieved
3162:
3153:
3141:. Retrieved
3137:
3128:
3116:. Retrieved
3112:
3103:
3094:
3084:
3076:the original
3066:
3058:
3053:
3044:
3040:
3030:
3017:
3011:
2984:
2980:
2948:
2940:
2935:
2927:
2922:
2910:. Retrieved
2907:Lemelson MIT
2906:
2897:
2885:. Retrieved
2881:
2872:
2860:. Retrieved
2856:
2847:
2835:. Retrieved
2807:. Retrieved
2803:
2793:
2781:. Retrieved
2778:ResearchGate
2777:
2768:
2756:. Retrieved
2751:
2742:
2730:. Retrieved
2720:
2706:
2697:
2688:
2679:
2670:
2662:
2501:
2490:
2479:
2439:
2436:
2363:obstructions
2268:fossil fuels
2250:
2236:
2221:
2212:
2202:
2195:
2188:
2181:
2169:
2157:Please help
2152:verification
2149:
2118:
2110:
2095:
2086:
2060:
2044:
2035:
2023:
2020:Power output
1995:
1986:
1977:prime movers
1974:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1910:
1893:
1826:
1763:West Norwood
1736:
1694:
1641:
1595:, a special
1577:
1574:
1570:transformers
1567:
1556:between the
1525:that have a
1511:contact shoe
1505:carries one
1468:
1463:contact shoe
1404:
1392:
1357:
1330:
1321:
1306:Please help
1294:
1256:
1190:
1154:
1151:
1123:
1083:Soviet Union
1076:
1025:
1019:system (1650
1013:Cascais Line
968:area on the
942:
545:
538:
527:
510:
448:
337:
310:
306:
279:
256:
248:
229:
214:
208:electrified
174:
155:
151:transformers
110:
109:
29:
4798:Buffer stop
4758:Water crane
4670:Track gauge
4609:Tie/Sleeper
4444:Switzerland
4434:Former USSR
4407:New Zealand
4240:Fourth rail
3944:17 February
3728:17 February
3516:AAR Plate H
3486:17 February
3461:27 February
3435:27 February
3402:27 February
3264:17 February
3047:(14): 38–44
2939:IEC 60850:
2809:17 February
2804:Railway PRO
2572:Electromote
2456:kV 16.7 or
2420:pantographs
2125:well-wagons
2111:Due to the
1913:transformed
1902:Comparisons
1896:three-phase
1759:Peckham Rye
1584:transformer
1471:Paris Métro
1459:Paris Métro
1431:Canada Line
1427:Innovia ART
1384:Milan Metro
1270:Fourth rail
1168:kV DC, to 9
1044:East London
1007:V south of
1003:, and 3,000
989:cog railway
904:25 kV 50 Hz
899:LGV Sud-Est
781:kV AC, 16.7
499:Fourth rail
313:Switzerland
288:, Germany.
263:steam power
210:its network
170:pickup shoe
49:Grand Paris
5010:Categories
4971:Industrial
4955:Water stop
4916:for trains
4908:Roundhouse
4882:Structures
4868:Train stop
4818:Guard rail
4793:Block post
4781:and safety
4778:Signalling
4709:third rail
4682:Rail track
4675:dual gauge
4559:Baulk road
4345:By country
4235:Third rail
4199:Pantograph
3925:9 November
3754:9 November
3318:4 February
3193:9 November
3168:9 November
3143:9 November
3118:9 November
2926:EN 50163:
2644:References
2431:See also:
2405:third rail
2386:pantograph
2251:power loss
2185:newspapers
2131:Advantages
2105:See also:
2077:capacitors
1710:adopted 11
1684:Hz to 16.7
1663:Hz (the 50
1487:guide bars
1374:630 V
1274:See also:
1263:skin depth
1241:Third rail
1235:Third rail
1229:Petersburg
1138:trolleybus
1048:Manchester
1009:Maastricht
1001:Betuwelijn
995:kV on the
977:interurban
958:Wellington
592:temporary
587:permanent
579:permanent
574:temporary
494:Third rail
490:(catenary)
370:, and the
206:hydropower
166:third rail
92:third rail
4921:for goods
4863:Tell-tale
4694:Rail yard
4660:Guide bar
4640:Headshunt
4623:Trackwork
4589:Fishplate
4579:Date nail
4540:(history)
4397:Lithuania
4352:Australia
4280:Power car
4076:, 520 pp.
3806:2057-2425
3353:Oct 2014.
3222:0013-5437
3003:1996-1073
2475:1.5 kV DC
2367:clearance
2332:container
2324:clearance
1917:rectified
1696:In the US
1591:fed by a
1580:resistors
1558:roll ways
1499:wheel set
1491:roll ways
1479:roll ways
1295:does not
1253:, Romania
1128:V and 750
979:line and
831:kV AC, 50
476:Frequency
407: 1.5
397: 750
340:commuters
185:emissions
158:conductor
86:with the
4976:Military
4933:building
4903:Platform
4813:Derailer
4731:Roll way
4650:Junction
4549:Axe ties
4417:timeline
4402:Malaysia
4047:(1928).
3979:24 kV DC
3859:59003738
3620:ITV News
3593:ITV News
3505:traffic.
3366:Archived
3336:Archived
2981:Energies
2912:2 August
2887:2 August
2862:2 August
2837:4 August
2510:See also
2390:catenary
1769:serving
1747:Victoria
1706:and the
1597:inverter
1545: in
1495:750 V DC
1483:concrete
1454:from an
1221:12 kV DC
1213:25 kV AC
1209:12 kV DC
1197:ignitron
1134:tramways
1036:Woodhead
997:HSL-Zuid
582:Nominal
567:Voltage
518:voltages
438:25 kV AC
429:15 kV AC
348: km
183:, lower
53:Normandy
4986:station
4981:Private
4928:Station
4604:Profile
4554:Ballast
4454:Ukraine
4372:Germany
4362:Estonia
4357:Austria
4063:Russian
3959:English
3954:Sources
3654:20 July
2465:⁄
2450:3 kV DC
2343:⁄
2330:. Each
2308:England
2199:scholar
2067:coupled
1676:⁄
1655:⁄
1634:kV 16.7
1540:⁄
1413:of the
1316:removed
1301:sources
1023:V DC).
1017:S-train
985:Seattle
966:Chicago
590:Maximum
585:Maximum
577:Minimum
572:Minimum
459:Current
454:Voltage
417: 3
368:Germany
253:History
127:freight
5026:Trains
4748:Switch
4736:Siding
4536:Tracks
4449:Turkey
4439:Sweden
4429:Russia
4424:Poland
4412:Norway
4392:Latvia
4367:France
4119:
4107:
4092:
4072:
4004:
3975:
3904:
3874:
3857:
3823:
3804:
3781:
3686:7 June
3220:
3001:
2958:
2954:
2930:(2007)
2783:1 July
2758:1 July
2732:1 July
2471:
2454:
2446:
2442:
2400:lines.
2397:
2381:level.
2326:for a
2201:
2194:
2187:
2180:
2172:
2026:ICE TD
1996:Large
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1783:
1779:
1751:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1702:, the
1698:, the
1686:
1682:
1665:
1661:
1644:
1636:
1632:
1616:, and
1399:bonded
1388:line 1
1259:
1217:
1201:
1193:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1130:
1126:
1119:
1115:
1107:
1103:
1079:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1056:
1052:
1032:
1028:
1021:
1005:
993:
945:
929:
925:
875:
868:
861:
854:
847:
839:
837:and 60
833:
829:
819:
812:
805:
798:
791:
783:
779:
769:
762:
755:
748:
741:
736:kV DC
734:
725:
718:
711:
704:
697:
690:
681:
674:
667:
660:
653:
646:
637:
630:
623:
616:
609:
599:
556:
552:
548:
534:
530:
443:
436:
434:
427:
425:
419:
415:
409:
405:
399:
395:
389:
364:France
331:, the
323:, and
321:France
317:Sweden
286:Berlin
273:, and
271:London
267:Berlin
259:diesel
4964:Types
4943:ghost
4938:clock
4912:Shed
4526:Rail
4473:Lists
4387:Japan
4377:India
3838:(PDF)
3705:(PDF)
3680:(PDF)
3673:(PDF)
3625:7 May
3541:(PDF)
3530:(PDF)
3235:97–99
3212:[
3022:(PDF)
2831:(PDF)
2206:JSTOR
2192:books
1781:kV 25
1730:kV 60
1714:kV 25
1554:track
1515:wagon
1503:bogie
1456:MP 89
1452:Bogie
1380:Milan
1142:metro
1117:kV 50
1097:(now
1089:from
1070:kV 50
943:1,500
810:17.25
723:1,950
716:1,800
709:1,500
702:1,000
695:1,000
692:V DC
688:1,500
679:1,000
648:V DC
472:(AC)
421:kV DC
411:kV DC
360:Japan
356:India
352:China
325:Italy
4991:list
4948:list
4569:Cant
4382:Iran
4117:ISBN
4090:ISBN
4070:ISBN
4002:ISBN
3946:2023
3927:2022
3902:ISBN
3872:ISBN
3855:OCLC
3821:ISBN
3802:ISSN
3779:ISBN
3756:2022
3730:2023
3688:2020
3656:2016
3627:2014
3601:2012
3575:2012
3549:2012
3500:Per
3488:2023
3463:2012
3437:2012
3404:2012
3320:2016
3266:2023
3218:ISSN
3195:2022
3170:2022
3145:2022
3120:2022
2999:ISSN
2960:kV).
2914:2024
2889:2024
2864:2024
2839:2017
2811:2023
2785:2020
2760:2020
2734:2020
2502:The
2495:and
2350:rail
2310:, a
2302:The
2253:see
2178:news
1915:and
1886:The
1840:16.7
1773:and
1734:Hz.
1409:and
1407:Expo
1405:The
1358:The
1350:The
1299:any
1297:cite
1136:and
1121:Hz.
1046:and
999:and
917:The
897:The
866:27.5
845:17.5
466:(DC)
401:V DC
242:and
223:and
96:750
78:The
51:and
43:The
4768:Wye
4109:39+
3798:139
3481:IEA
2989:doi
2407:or
2306:in
2161:by
1761:to
1745:to
1646:kV
1628:ÖBB
1626:An
1386:'s
1310:by
1158:UIC
983:in
923:750
877:kV
870:kV
863:kV
856:kV
849:kV
821:kV
814:kV
807:kV
800:kV
793:kV
771:kV
767:3.9
764:kV
760:3.6
757:kV
750:kV
743:kV
672:900
665:750
658:500
651:500
644:750
635:800
628:720
621:600
614:400
607:400
597:600
346:000
344:375
296:in
284:in
261:or
94:at
59:at
5012::
4014:.
3937:.
3918:.
3840:.
3796:.
3721:.
3644:.
3618:.
3591:.
3565:.
3532:.
3479:.
3453:.
3423:.
3412:^
3390:.
3377:^
3257:.
3186:.
3161:.
3136:.
3111:.
3093:.
2997:.
2985:14
2983:.
2979:.
2965:^
2905:.
2880:.
2855:.
2819:^
2802:.
2776:.
2750:.
2696:.
2678:.
2652:^
2499:.
2477:.
2458:16
2127:.
2012:,
1937:×
1933:=
1669:16
1648:16
1612:,
1547:)
1376:DC
1105:kV
1054:kV
931:DC
873:29
859:25
852:19
827:25
817:18
803:15
796:12
789:11
785:Hz
777:15
727:V
720:V
713:V
706:V
699:V
683:V
676:V
669:V
662:V
655:V
639:V
632:V
625:V
618:V
611:V
603:DC
601:V
550:EN
366:,
362:,
358:,
354:,
319:,
315:,
277:.
269:,
153:.
102:DC
4896:/
4519:e
4512:t
4505:v
4172:e
4165:t
4158:v
4057:.
4039:.
3981:)
3948:.
3929:.
3910:.
3891:.
3880:.
3861:.
3829:.
3787:.
3758:.
3732:.
3707:.
3690:.
3658:.
3629:.
3603:.
3577:.
3551:.
3490:.
3465:.
3439:.
3406:.
3322:.
3268:.
3224:.
3197:.
3172:.
3147:.
3122:.
3097:.
3045:1
3005:.
2991::
2916:.
2891:.
2866:.
2841:.
2813:.
2787:.
2762:.
2736:.
2700:.
2682:.
2467:3
2463:2
2460:+
2345:2
2341:1
2338:+
2336:6
2257:)
2228:)
2222:(
2217:)
2213:(
2203:·
2196:·
2189:·
2182:·
2155:.
1939:I
1935:V
1931:P
1928:(
1678:3
1674:2
1671:+
1657:3
1653:2
1650:+
1542:2
1538:1
1535:+
1533:8
1529:(
1337:)
1331:(
1326:)
1322:(
1318:.
1304:.
1077:3
1030:V
954:)
927:V
753:3
746:2
739:2
732:3
532:V
133:(
98:V
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.