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use a continuous range of voltage or current for signal processing, as opposed to the discrete levels used in digital circuits. Analog circuits were common throughout an electronic device in the early years in devices such as radio receivers and transmitters. Analog electronic computers were valuable
348:
As the complexity of circuits grew, problems arose. One problem was the size of the circuit. A complex circuit like a computer was dependent on speed. If the components were large, the wires interconnecting them must be long. The electric signals took time to go through the circuit, thus slowing the
891:
Electronic noise is defined as unwanted disturbances superposed on a useful signal that tend to obscure its information content. Noise is not the same as signal distortion caused by a circuit. Noise is associated with all electronic circuits. Noise may be electromagnetically or thermally generated,
588:
with two voltage levels labelled "0" and "1" to indicated logical status. Often logic "0" will be a lower voltage and referred to as "Low" while logic "1" is referred to as "High". However, some systems use the reverse definition ("0" is "High") or are current based. Quite often the logic designer
733:
Due to the complex nature of electronics theory, laboratory experimentation is an important part of the development of electronic devices. These experiments are used to test or verify the engineer's design and detect errors. Historically, electronics labs have consisted of electronics devices and
555:
Sometimes it may be difficult to classify some circuits that have elements of both linear and non-linear operation. An example is the voltage comparator which receives a continuous range of voltage but only outputs one of two levels as in a digital circuit. Similarly, an overdriven transistor
361:
solved this problem by making all the components and the chip out of the same block (monolith) of semiconductor material. The circuits could be made smaller, and the manufacturing process could be automated. This led to the idea of integrating all components on a single-crystal
543:
As semiconductor technology developed, many of the functions of analog circuits were taken over by digital circuits, and modern circuits that are entirely analog are less common; their functions being replaced by hybrid approach which, for instance, uses analog circuits at the
2182:
1900:
The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) is the most commonly used active device in the very large-scale integration of digital integrated circuits (VLSI). During the 1970s these components revolutionized electronic signal processing, control systems and
934:, also known as Paxoline/Paxolin (trade marks) and FR2) – characterised by its brown colour. Health and environmental concerns associated with electronics assembly have gained increased attention in recent years, especially for products destined to go to European markets.
521:
Electronic circuit functions can be divided into two function groups: analog and digital. A particular device may consist of circuitry that has either or a mix of the two types. Analog circuits are becoming less common, as many of their functions are being digitized.
119:
industry is one of the largest and most profitable sectors in the global economy, with annual revenues exceeding $ 481 billion in 2018. The electronics industry also encompasses other sectors that rely on electronic devices and systems, such as
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2099:
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Analog circuits are still widely used for signal amplification, such as in the entertainment industry, and conditioning signals from analog sensors, such as in industrial measurement and control.
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1997:
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was invented at Bell Labs between 1955 and 1960. It was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses. Its advantages include
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Over three decades, the United States' global share of semiconductor manufacturing capacity fell, from 37% in 1990, to 12% in 2022. America's pre-eminent semiconductor manufacturer,
2411:
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and are the basis of all digital computers and microprocessor devices. They range from simple logic gates to large integrated circuits, employing millions of such gates.
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who could produce high-quality goods at lower prices. By the 1980s, however, U.S. manufacturers became the world leaders in semiconductor development and assembly.
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may reverse these definitions from one circuit to the next as they see fit to facilitate their design. The definition of the levels as "0" or "1" is arbitrary.
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595:(with three states) logic has been studied, and some prototype computers made, but have not gained any significant practical acceptance. Universally,
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Important semiconductor industry facilities (which often are subsidiaries of a leading producer based elsewhere) also exist in Europe (notably the
2313:
1989:
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1923:
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MOSFETs having been manufactured between 1960 and 2018. In the 1960s, U.S. manufacturers were unable to compete with
Japanese companies such as
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wafer, which led to small-scale integration (SSI) in the early 1960s, and then medium-scale integration (MSI) in the late 1960s, followed by
1966:
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mass-production there in the 1970s), as plentiful, cheap labor, and increasing technological sophistication, became widely available there.
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However, during the 1990s and subsequently, the industry shifted overwhelmingly to East Asia (a process begun with the initial movement of
3611:
1509:
1291:
2040:
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1397:
345:, becoming the most widely used electronic device in the world. The MOSFET is the basic element in most modern electronic equipment.
111:, entertainment, education, health care, industry, and security. The main driving force behind the advancement of electronics is the
2609:
489:(PCB), to create an electronic circuit with a particular function. Components may be packaged singly, or in more complex groups as
314:
ordered all future IBM products to use transistors in their design. From that time on transistors were almost exclusively used for
1854:
The Si MOSFET has revolutionized the electronics industry and as a result impacts our daily lives in almost every conceivable way.
1035:
1005:
674:
726:. Electronic systems design is therefore the process of defining and developing complex electronic devices to satisfy specified
3212:
919:
1808:
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1622:
710:
Electronic systems design deals with the multi-disciplinary design issues of complex electronic devices and systems, such as
1887:
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914:
Many different methods of connecting components have been used over the years. For instance, early electronics often used
3227:
2412:"13 Sextillion & Counting: The Long & Winding Road to the Most Frequently Manufactured Human Artifact in History"
350:
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1960:
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115:, which in response to global demand continually produces ever-more sophisticated electronic devices and circuits. The
178:, inaugurated the field of electronics and the electron age. Practical applications started with the invention of the
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generated by electronic circuitry must be dissipated to prevent immediate failure and improve long term reliability.
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were becoming widespread and electronic amplifiers were being used in such diverse applications as long-distance
232:, long-distance telephony and much more. The early growth of electronics was rapid, and by the 1920s, commercial
271:
devices have all but completely taken over. Vacuum tubes are still used in some specialist applications such as
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were other methods used. Most modern day electronics now use printed circuit boards made of materials such as
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780:
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Vol. 4, AC Motors, Transformers, Test
Instruments & Measuring Devices, Electrical Distribution Systems
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220:, and enabled the construction of equipment that used current amplification and rectification to give us
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Guarnieri, M. (2012). "The age of vacuum tubes: Early devices and the rise of radio communications".
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consists of various sectors. The central driving force behind the entire electronics industry is the
107:
Electronic devices have hugely influenced the development of many aspects of modern society, such as
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is mostly achieved by passive conduction/convection. Means to achieve greater dissipation include
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equipment located in a physical space, although in more recent years the trend has been towards
718:. The subject covers a broad spectrum, from the design and development of an electronic system (
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2490:"Congress Is Giving Billions To The U.S. Semiconductor Industry. Will It Ease Chip Shortages?"
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Digital circuits are electric circuits based on discrete voltage levels. Digital circuits use
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5579:
5360:
4183:
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3374:
3247:
3242:
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945:. Axial-lead devices are at upper left, while blue radial-lead capacitors are at upper right.
915:
893:
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486:
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2020:
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either active or passive. Components are connected together, usually by being soldered to a
41:
electronic components on a printed circuit board, with a large integrated circuit at the top
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Vol. 3, Basic AC Theory, Basic AC Reactive
Components, Basic AC Power, Basic AC Generators
2210:. Vol. 2: Seminumerical Algorithms (2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley. pp. 190–192.
8:
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Studies of InAIAs/InGaAs and GaInP/GaAs heterostructure FET's for high speed applications
1257:
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89:
19:
This article is about the technical field. For personal/home-use electronic devices, see
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The next big technological step took several decades to appear, when the first working
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is a scientific and engineering discipline that studies and applies the principles of
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circuits without any vacuum tubes and is believed to be the first all-transistorized
280:
2314:"Annual Semiconductor Sales Increase 21.6 Percent, Top $ 400 Billion for First Time"
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in the early 1900s, which made the detection of small electrical voltages, such as
85:
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for solving problems with continuous variables until digital processing advanced.
259:
at Bell Labs in 1947. However, vacuum tubes played a leading role in the field of
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to be manufactured for the commercial market. The 608 contained more than 3,000
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of a device receiving an analog signal, and then use digital processing using
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Advanced
Materials Innovation: Managing Global Technology in the 21st century
1326:
1284:"This Month in Physics History - October 1897: The Discovery of the Electron"
1087:
1082:
had become the world's leading source of advanced semiconductors—followed by
959:
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858:
776:
585:
199:
191:
116:
97:
2123:
Power
Electronics and Variable Frequency Drives: Technology and Applications
779:(i.e. semiconductor devices, such as transistors), and integrated circuits.
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design programs. Popular names in the EDA software world are NI Multisim,
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cannot be removed as they are due to limitations in physical properties.
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205:
163:
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370:. In 2008, billion-transistor processors became commercially available.
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2022:
Nanowire
Transistors: Physics of Devices and Materials in One Dimension
1548:
1046:
1027:
969:
930:, or the cheaper (and less hard-wearing) Synthetic Resin Bonded Paper (
897:
862:
619:
608:
506:
354:
315:
303:
299:
264:
225:
121:
73:
6021:
1642:. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. p. 321.
1587:
1572:"Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon"
918:
with components attached to wooden breadboards to construct circuits.
322:
were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a
33:
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3310:
3003:
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2775:
2352:
2092:"Intel to deliver first computer chip with two billion transistors"
1990:"Dr. Dawon Kahng, 61, Inventor in Field of Solid-State Electronics"
1209:
1159:
1124:
949:
Electrical components are generally mounted in the following ways:
743:
715:
596:
502:
498:
326:
basis, which limited them to a number of specialised applications.
217:
155:
53:
5961:
2607:
Navy 1998 Navy
Electricity and Electronics Training Series (NEETS)
1232:"électronique | Dictionnaire de l'Académie française | 9e édition"
142:
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2884:
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2509:
1803:
1054:
941:
Through-hole devices mounted on the circuit board of a mid-1980s
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61:
49:
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5803:
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1110:
1079:
808:
747:
612:
557:
450:
330:
187:
175:
147:
3099:
505:, whilst active components are such as semiconductor devices;
473:
124:, which generated over $ 29 trillion in online sales in 2017.
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229:
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77:
2618:
DOE 1998 Electrical
Science, Fundamentals Handbook, 4 vols.
1452:
Pugh, Emerson W.; Johnson, Lyle R.; Palmer, John H. (1991).
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2443:
1050:
931:
927:
838:
812:
367:
1906:
1665:"The mechanisms for silicon oxidation in steam and oxygen"
556:
amplifier can take on the characteristics of a controlled
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5330:
5325:
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4912:
3971:
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3781:
615:
in the electronic logic gates to generate binary states.
295:
88:
and to convert it from one form to another, such as from
1767:"Tortoise of Transistors Wins the Race – CHM Revolution"
1759:
52:
to design, create, and operate devices that manipulate
2527:"Strengthening a Transnational Semiconductor Industry"
2382:"Global e-Commerce sales surged to $ 29 trillion"
5926:
267:
receivers until the middle of the 1980s. Since then,
2231:
1120:
834:
Thermal management of electronic devices and systems
722:) to assuring its proper function, service life and
3619:
2404:
2295:
IEEE Dictionary of
Electrical and Electronics Terms
1723:Motoyoshi, M. (2009). "Through-Silicon Via (TSV)".
1531:Huff, Howard; Riordan, Michael (1 September 2007).
2627:Vol. 2, DC Circuits, Batteries, Generators, Motors
2386:United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
1453:
1420:
764:Today's electronics engineers have the ability to
150:radio receivers, constructed by De Forest in 1914
2444:"Consumer electronics industry in the year 1960s"
1533:"Frosch and Derick: Fifty Years Later (Foreword)"
1451:
1349:"1947: Invention of the Point-Contact Transistor"
1040:metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor
138:Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering
6060:
2622:Vol. 1, Basic Electrical Theory, Basic DC Theory
2236:. Springer International Publishing. p. 1.
1948:RF and Microwave Passive and Active Technologies
513:, which control current flow at electron level.
481:An electronic component is any component in an
2539:Center for Strategic and International Studies
2019:Colinge, Jean-Pierre; Greer, James C. (2016).
1662:
896:of the circuit. Other types of noise, such as
771:using premanufactured building blocks such as
3605:
3115:
2659:
2161:
956:(sometimes referred to as 'Pin-Through-Hole')
162:, along with the subsequent invention of the
2018:
1569:
1379:
337:, affordability, low power consumption, and
16:Branch of physics and electrical engineering
2012:
1530:
1483:
1481:
1026:as of 2018. The largest industry sector is
811:(Protel), LabCentre Electronics (Proteus),
560:, having essentially two levels of output.
216:flow by influencing the flow of individual
3612:
3598:
3122:
3108:
2666:
2652:
1944:
1866:Grant, Duncan Andrew; Gowar, John (1989).
1865:
1669:Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids
1373:
1073:Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company
1036:most widely manufactured electronic device
208:(thermionic valves) were the first active
127:
2266:"PCB design made easy for every engineer"
2234:Fundamentals of Electronic Systems Design
2162:Brown, Stephen; Vranesic, Zvonko (2008).
1722:
1687:
1607:Technical Memorandum of Bell Laboratories
1487:
1312:
462:
2338:
1603:"Silicon-Silicon Dioxide Surface Device"
1478:
936:
753:
472:
141:
32:
2066:"The History of the Integrated Circuit"
1987:
1419:Bashe, Charles J.; et al. (1986).
1022:sector, which has annual sales of over
1006:List of best-selling electronic devices
892:which can be decreased by lowering the
675:Application-specific integrated circuit
318:and peripheral devices. However, early
263:and high power transmission as well as
6061:
3633:
2374:
2225:
1869:Power MOSFETS: theory and applications
1811:from the original on 24 September 2019
1576:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
1361:from the original on 30 September 2021
1294:from the original on 19 September 2018
1109:), Southeast Asia, South America, and
5743:
5477:
3632:
3593:
3103:
2647:
2203:
2197:
1938:
1926:from the original on 13 December 2013
1859:
1844:from the original on 20 December 2019
1700:Springer Science & Business Media
1693:
1663:Ligenza, J.R.; Spitzer, W.G. (1960).
1637:
1600:
1537:The Electrochemical Society Interface
1418:
1400:from the original on 31 December 2013
1229:
827:
822:
5744:
2578:
2541:(CSIS), retrieved September 12, 2022
2454:from the original on 27 January 2021
2392:from the original on 21 October 2019
2326:from the original on 30 January 2021
2120:
1829:
1823:
1799:"Transistors Keep Moore's Law Alive"
1696:History of Semiconductor Engineering
1640:History of Semiconductor Engineering
1512:from the original on 5 November 2020
1075:(TSMC) in manufacturing technology.
1071:, fell far behind its subcontractor
903:
853:for air cooling, and other forms of
516:
493:. Passive electronic components are
2585:. Master Publishing, Incorporated.
2185:from the original on 4 October 2022
2102:from the original on 12 August 2022
736:electronics lab simulation software
566:
351:invention of the integrated circuit
84:to control and amplify the flow of
13:
2548:
2319:Semiconductor Industry Association
2276:from the original on 19 April 2023
2043:from the original on 17 March 2020
1945:Golio, Mike; Golio, Janet (2018).
1779:from the original on 10 March 2020
1524:
1185:Electronics engineering technology
525:
244:and the music recording industry.
14:
6080:
5711:Social construction of technology
2600:
2424:from the original on 28 July 2019
2000:from the original on 26 July 2020
1969:from the original on 31 July 2020
1890:from the original on 30 July 2020
1570:Frosch, C. J.; Derick, L (1957).
134:History of electronic engineering
6044:
6032:
6020:
6008:
5996:
5984:
5972:
5960:
5948:
5936:
5907:
5895:
5884:
5883:
5478:
3233:Failure of electronic components
2346:"Semiconductors – the Next Wave"
2068:. Nobelprize.org. Archived from
1123:
807:(PADS PCB and LOGIC Schematic),
5896:
5699:Timeline of historic inventions
3129:
2436:
2306:
2288:
2258:
2232:J. Lienig; H. Bruemmer (2017).
2207:The Art of Computer Programming
2155:
2114:
2084:
1988:Daniels, Lee A. (28 May 1992).
1981:
1791:
1716:
1656:
1631:
1594:
1563:
1456:IBM's 360 and early 370 systems
693:Field-programmable analog array
60:. Electronics is a subfield of
2582:Getting Started in Electronics
2567:. Cambridge University Press.
1914:"Who Invented the Transistor?"
1488:Moskowitz, Sanford L. (2016).
1445:
1412:
1341:
1306:
1276:
1250:
1223:
1042:(MOSFET), with an estimated 13
279:, specialist audio equipment,
58:electrically charged particles
1:
2165:Fundamentals of Digital Logic
1216:
1140:Index of electronics articles
687:Field-programmable gate array
477:Various electronic components
3228:List of emerging electronics
2673:
2506:retrieved September 12, 2022
2499:transcript, August 3, 2022,
2355:. April 2019. Archived from
1681:10.1016/0022-3697(60)90219-5
1236:www.dictionnaire-academie.fr
781:Electronic design automation
760:Electronic design automation
373:
7:
5723:Technology acceptance model
2829:Internal combustion engines
2806:External combustion engines
2121:Bose, Bimal K, ed. (1996).
1258:"Definition of ELECTRONICS"
1116:
989:
655:Highly integrated devices:
10:
6085:
2027:Cambridge University Press
1737:10.1109/JPROC.2008.2007462
1615:10.1142/9789814503464_0076
999:
993:
907:
884:
831:
783:software programs include
757:
570:
529:
466:
154:The identification of the
131:
18:
5878:
5857:Technological convergence
5822:
5754:
5750:
5739:
5716:Technological determinism
5672:
5657:Technological singularity
5625:
5567:
5530:
5488:
5484:
5473:
5306:
5145:
5007:
4891:
4799:
4666:
4549:
4369:
4204:
4137:
4002:
3908:
3792:
3643:
3639:
3628:
3428:
3286:
3203:
3137:
3081:
3030:
3012:
2969:
2931:
2883:
2860:
2827:
2804:
2757:
2724:
2683:Classical simple machines
2681:
2579:Mims, Forrest M. (2003).
2533:13 September 2022 at the
2242:10.1007/978-3-319-55840-0
2096:The Sydney Morning Herald
1383:History of Electron Tubes
1288:American Physical Society
1165:Biodegradable electronics
705:
601:Digital signal processors
5852:Research and development
5682:Diffusion of innovations
5647:Technological utopianism
5540:Environmental technology
2125:. Wiley Online Library.
1386:. IOS Press. p. 5.
1327:10.1109/MIE.2012.2182822
880:
681:Digital signal processor
341:. It revolutionized the
273:high power RF amplifiers
249:point-contact transistor
5575:Government by algorithm
5557:Sustainable engineering
5522:Precautionary principle
5316:Artificial intelligence
3471:Electromagnetic warfare
3068:Check weighing machines
2612:2 November 2004 at the
2486:Harvard Business School
2417:Computer History Museum
1919:Computer History Museum
1772:Computer History Museum
1725:Proceedings of the IEEE
1354:Computer History Museum
1262:www.merriam-webster.com
1180:Electronics engineering
1030:, which generated over
861:. These techniques use
720:new product development
584:Digital circuits use a
552:techniques thereafter.
316:computer logic circuits
160:Sir Joseph John Thomson
128:History and development
23:. For the journal, see
5640:Technology forecasting
5607:Strategy of Technology
5498:Appropriate technology
4379:Agricultural machinery
3441:Automotive electronics
3390:Robotic vacuum cleaner
3350:Information technology
3155:Electronic engineering
2564:The Art of Electronics
2204:Knuth, Donald (1980).
1838:University of Michigan
1145:Outline of electronics
1020:semiconductor industry
1010:Semiconductor industry
946:
478:
463:Devices and components
441:Printed circuit boards
257:Walter Houser Brattain
151:
113:semiconductor industry
66:electrical engineering
42:
5612:Technology assessment
5597:Persuasive technology
5580:Intellectual property
5568:Policy & politics
4184:Interchangeable parts
3375:Portable media player
3248:Molecular electronics
3243:Low-power electronics
3053:Seed-counting machine
2131:10.1002/9780470547113
1830:Chan, Yi-Jen (1992).
1496:John Wiley & Sons
1460:. MIT Press. p.
1423:IBM's Early Computers
1380:SĹŤgo Okamura (1994).
1315:IEEE Ind. Electron. M
1230:française, Académie.
1170:Broadcast engineering
1000:Further information:
940:
920:Cordwood construction
916:point to point wiring
894:operating temperature
789:printed circuit board
754:Computer-aided design
603:are constructed with
487:printed circuit board
476:
446:Semiconductor devices
406:Electronic components
210:electronic components
145:
36:
5862:Technology lifecycle
5652:Technocracy movement
5410:Programming language
5083:Particle accelerator
4957:Laboratory glassware
3623:and related concepts
3569:Terahertz technology
3550:Open-source hardware
3506:Consumer electronics
3476:Electronics industry
3238:Flexible electronics
3145:Analogue electronics
2852:Nutating disc engine
2842:Reciprocating engine
1807:. 12 December 2018.
1175:Computer engineering
1016:electronics industry
1002:Consumer electronics
996:Electronics industry
910:Electronic packaging
469:Electronic component
343:electronics industry
320:junction transistors
312:Thomas J. Watson Jr.
146:One of the earliest
21:consumer electronics
5687:Technology transfer
5378:Client–server model
4829:CRISPR gene editing
4824:Genetic engineering
4411:Internal combustion
3545:Nuclear electronics
3370:Networking hardware
3273:Quantum electronics
3258:Organic electronics
3180:Printed electronics
3150:Digital electronics
2523:Lewis, James Andrew
2495:3 July 2023 at the
2322:. 5 February 2018.
2098:. 5 February 2008.
1922:. 4 December 2013.
803:PCB and Schematic,
573:Digital electronics
491:integrated circuits
416:Integrated circuits
401:Digital electronics
290:In April 1955, the
90:alternating current
82:integrated circuits
6015:History of science
5552:Sustainable design
5286:Integrated circuit
5110:Telecommunications
5066:Optical instrument
4162:Injection moulding
3849:Musical instrument
3634:Major technologies
3523:Marine electronics
3496:Integrated circuit
3415:Video game console
3213:2020s in computing
3195:Thermal management
2875:Peaucellier-Lipkin
2362:on 11 October 2019
1994:The New York Times
1694:Lojek, Bo (2007).
1638:Lojek, Bo (2007).
1601:KAHNG, D. (1961).
1549:10.1149/2.F02073IF
1200:Marine electronics
1131:Electronics portal
1032:$ 29 trillion
1024:$ 481 billion
947:
828:Thermal management
823:Negative qualities
532:Analog electronics
479:
456:Telecommunications
381:Analog electronics
238:telecommunications
176:electrical signals
152:
109:telecommunications
43:
6039:Telecommunication
5924:
5923:
5874:
5873:
5870:
5869:
5847:Mature technology
5735:
5734:
5731:
5730:
5469:
5468:
5465:
5464:
5435:Graphics software
4814:Blood transfusion
4475:Epicyclic gearing
4307:Archimedes' screw
3587:
3586:
3564:Radio electronics
3190:Schematic capture
3175:Power electronics
3097:
3096:
3073:Riveting machines
2771:Archimedes' screw
2592:978-0-945053-28-6
2388:. 29 March 2019.
2272:. 19 April 2023.
1649:978-3-540-34258-8
1624:978-981-02-0209-5
1588:10.1149/1.2428650
1190:Fuzzy electronics
1155:Audio engineering
1069:Intel Corporation
904:Packaging methods
819:and many others.
785:schematic capture
517:Types of circuits
483:electronic system
436:Power electronics
386:Audio electronics
285:microwave devices
281:guitar amplifiers
277:cathode-ray tubes
236:broadcasting and
212:which controlled
6076:
6049:
6048:
6047:
6037:
6036:
6035:
6025:
6024:
6013:
6012:
6011:
6001:
6000:
5999:
5989:
5988:
5977:
5976:
5975:
5965:
5964:
5953:
5952:
5941:
5940:
5932:
5911:
5899:
5898:
5887:
5886:
5752:
5751:
5745:Related concepts
5741:
5740:
5545:Clean technology
5486:
5485:
5475:
5474:
5440:Operating system
5046:Magnetic storage
5009:Electromagnetism
4639:Air conditioning
4588:Geothermal power
4334:Block and tackle
4280:Four-bar linkage
4167:Lost-wax casting
4044:Horseback riding
3641:
3640:
3630:
3629:
3614:
3607:
3600:
3591:
3590:
3559:Radio navigation
3456:Data acquisition
3165:Microelectronics
3124:
3117:
3110:
3101:
3100:
2776:Eductor-jet pump
2668:
2661:
2654:
2645:
2644:
2596:
2542:
2520:
2507:
2479:
2464:
2463:
2461:
2459:
2440:
2434:
2433:
2431:
2429:
2420:. 2 April 2018.
2408:
2402:
2401:
2399:
2397:
2378:
2372:
2371:
2369:
2367:
2361:
2350:
2342:
2336:
2335:
2333:
2331:
2310:
2304:
2292:
2286:
2285:
2283:
2281:
2262:
2256:
2255:
2229:
2223:
2221:
2201:
2195:
2194:
2192:
2190:
2170:
2159:
2153:
2152:
2118:
2112:
2111:
2109:
2107:
2088:
2082:
2081:
2079:
2077:
2062:
2053:
2052:
2050:
2048:
2016:
2010:
2009:
2007:
2005:
1985:
1979:
1978:
1976:
1974:
1955:. p. 18-2.
1942:
1936:
1935:
1933:
1931:
1910:
1904:
1903:
1897:
1895:
1863:
1857:
1856:
1851:
1849:
1827:
1821:
1820:
1818:
1816:
1795:
1789:
1788:
1786:
1784:
1763:
1757:
1756:
1720:
1714:
1713:
1691:
1685:
1684:
1660:
1654:
1653:
1635:
1629:
1628:
1598:
1592:
1591:
1567:
1561:
1560:
1528:
1522:
1521:
1519:
1517:
1485:
1476:
1475:
1459:
1449:
1443:
1442:
1426:
1416:
1410:
1409:
1407:
1405:
1377:
1371:
1370:
1368:
1366:
1345:
1339:
1338:
1310:
1304:
1303:
1301:
1299:
1280:
1274:
1273:
1271:
1269:
1254:
1248:
1247:
1245:
1243:
1227:
1133:
1128:
1127:
1045:
1033:
1025:
887:Electronic noise
855:computer cooling
843:Heat dissipation
670:Microcontrollers
650:Schmitt triggers
567:Digital circuits
421:Microelectronics
411:Embedded systems
335:high scalability
251:was invented by
86:electric current
6084:
6083:
6079:
6078:
6077:
6075:
6074:
6073:
6059:
6058:
6055:
6045:
6043:
6033:
6031:
6019:
6009:
6007:
5997:
5995:
5983:
5973:
5971:
5959:
5947:
5935:
5927:
5925:
5920:
5919:
5866:
5818:
5756:Applied science
5746:
5727:
5668:
5635:Futures studies
5621:
5563:
5526:
5480:
5461:
5302:
5175:Electrical grid
5165:Circuit breaker
5141:
5003:
4887:
4851:Medical imaging
4834:Genetic testing
4795:
4662:
4545:
4433:Heavy equipment
4394:Washing machine
4365:
4290:Rack and pinion
4200:
4174:Mass production
4133:
3998:
3904:
3788:
3635:
3624:
3618:
3588:
3583:
3516:Small appliance
3511:Major appliance
3491:Home automation
3481:Embedded system
3436:Audio equipment
3424:
3420:Washing machine
3345:Home theater PC
3301:Central heating
3296:Air conditioner
3288:
3282:
3253:Nanoelectronics
3205:
3199:
3170:Optoelectronics
3160:Instrumentation
3133:
3128:
3098:
3093:
3089:Spring (device)
3077:
3058:Vending machine
3026:
3008:
2965:
2927:
2879:
2856:
2823:
2819:Stirling engine
2800:
2753:
2720:
2677:
2672:
2614:Wayback Machine
2603:
2593:
2551:
2549:Further reading
2546:
2545:
2535:Wayback Machine
2521:
2510:
2497:Wayback Machine
2480:
2467:
2457:
2455:
2442:
2441:
2437:
2427:
2425:
2410:
2409:
2405:
2395:
2393:
2380:
2379:
2375:
2365:
2363:
2359:
2348:
2344:
2343:
2339:
2329:
2327:
2312:
2311:
2307:
2293:
2289:
2279:
2277:
2264:
2263:
2259:
2252:
2230:
2226:
2218:
2202:
2198:
2188:
2186:
2179:
2171:. McGraw Hill.
2168:
2160:
2156:
2141:
2119:
2115:
2105:
2103:
2090:
2089:
2085:
2075:
2073:
2072:on 29 June 2018
2064:
2063:
2056:
2046:
2044:
2037:
2017:
2013:
2003:
2001:
1986:
1982:
1972:
1970:
1963:
1943:
1939:
1929:
1927:
1912:
1911:
1907:
1893:
1891:
1884:
1864:
1860:
1847:
1845:
1828:
1824:
1814:
1812:
1797:
1796:
1792:
1782:
1780:
1765:
1764:
1760:
1721:
1717:
1710:
1702:. p. 120.
1692:
1688:
1661:
1657:
1650:
1636:
1632:
1625:
1599:
1595:
1568:
1564:
1529:
1525:
1515:
1513:
1506:
1498:. p. 168.
1486:
1479:
1472:
1450:
1446:
1439:
1427:. MIT. p.
1417:
1413:
1403:
1401:
1394:
1378:
1374:
1364:
1362:
1347:
1346:
1342:
1311:
1307:
1297:
1295:
1282:
1281:
1277:
1267:
1265:
1256:
1255:
1251:
1241:
1239:
1228:
1224:
1219:
1214:
1129:
1122:
1119:
1043:
1031:
1023:
1012:
998:
992:
912:
906:
889:
883:
836:
830:
825:
762:
756:
708:
665:Microprocessors
607:circuits using
579:Boolean algebra
575:
569:
537:Analog circuits
534:
528:
526:Analog circuits
519:
471:
465:
460:
431:Optoelectronics
426:Nanoelectronics
376:
324:mass-production
298:product to use
202:, practicable.
184:Ambrose Fleming
140:
130:
31:
17:
12:
11:
5:
6082:
6072:
6071:
6054:
6053:
6041:
6029:
6017:
6005:
5993:
5981:
5969:
5957:
5945:
5922:
5921:
5918:
5917:
5905:
5893:
5880:
5879:
5876:
5875:
5872:
5871:
5868:
5867:
5865:
5864:
5859:
5854:
5849:
5844:
5839:
5834:
5828:
5826:
5820:
5819:
5817:
5816:
5811:
5806:
5801:
5796:
5791:
5786:
5781:
5776:
5771:
5766:
5760:
5758:
5748:
5747:
5737:
5736:
5733:
5732:
5729:
5728:
5726:
5725:
5720:
5719:
5718:
5713:
5703:
5702:
5701:
5691:
5690:
5689:
5678:
5676:
5670:
5669:
5667:
5666:
5665:
5664:
5659:
5654:
5644:
5643:
5642:
5631:
5629:
5623:
5622:
5620:
5619:
5614:
5609:
5604:
5602:Science policy
5599:
5594:
5593:
5592:
5587:
5577:
5571:
5569:
5565:
5564:
5562:
5561:
5560:
5559:
5549:
5548:
5547:
5536:
5534:
5528:
5527:
5525:
5524:
5519:
5518:
5517:
5507:
5506:
5505:
5503:Low technology
5494:
5492:
5482:
5481:
5471:
5470:
5467:
5466:
5463:
5462:
5460:
5459:
5458:
5457:
5455:Word processor
5452:
5447:
5442:
5437:
5432:
5427:
5422:
5412:
5407:
5406:
5405:
5403:World Wide Web
5400:
5395:
5390:
5385:
5380:
5370:
5369:
5368:
5363:
5358:
5353:
5348:
5343:
5338:
5333:
5328:
5318:
5312:
5310:
5304:
5303:
5301:
5300:
5298:Superconductor
5295:
5294:
5293:
5288:
5283:
5273:
5268:
5263:
5258:
5257:
5256:
5251:
5246:
5241:
5236:
5226:
5225:
5224:
5219:
5214:
5209:
5202:Electric light
5199:
5198:
5197:
5192:
5187:
5182:
5177:
5172:
5167:
5162:
5151:
5149:
5143:
5142:
5140:
5139:
5138:
5137:
5132:
5127:
5122:
5117:
5107:
5102:
5101:
5100:
5098:Motion picture
5095:
5085:
5080:
5079:
5078:
5073:
5063:
5058:
5053:
5051:Microwave oven
5048:
5043:
5042:
5041:
5031:
5030:
5029:
5019:
5013:
5011:
5005:
5004:
5002:
5001:
4996:
4991:
4990:
4989:
4984:
4979:
4977:Chromatography
4969:
4964:
4959:
4954:
4953:
4952:
4942:
4941:
4940:
4935:
4930:
4925:
4915:
4910:
4909:
4908:
4897:
4895:
4889:
4888:
4886:
4885:
4880:
4875:
4870:
4869:
4868:
4863:
4853:
4848:
4843:
4842:
4841:
4836:
4831:
4821:
4816:
4811:
4805:
4803:
4797:
4796:
4794:
4793:
4792:
4791:
4789:Spinning wheel
4786:
4776:
4775:
4774:
4764:
4759:
4754:
4749:
4744:
4739:
4738:
4737:
4732:
4727:
4722:
4712:
4707:
4702:
4697:
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4683:
4672:
4670:
4664:
4663:
4661:
4660:
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4646:
4641:
4631:
4630:
4629:
4619:
4618:
4617:
4612:
4602:
4601:
4600:
4593:Heat exchanger
4590:
4585:
4584:
4583:
4576:Energy storage
4573:
4572:
4571:
4566:
4555:
4553:
4547:
4546:
4544:
4543:
4542:
4541:
4536:
4526:
4525:
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4519:
4514:
4509:
4499:
4494:
4493:
4492:
4487:
4482:
4477:
4472:
4467:
4457:
4456:
4455:
4450:
4445:
4435:
4430:
4429:
4428:
4423:
4418:
4413:
4408:
4406:Electric motor
4398:
4397:
4396:
4391:
4381:
4375:
4373:
4367:
4366:
4364:
4363:
4358:
4357:
4356:
4351:
4349:Potter's wheel
4346:
4341:
4336:
4326:
4321:
4316:
4315:
4314:
4309:
4299:
4294:
4293:
4292:
4287:
4282:
4277:
4272:
4262:
4261:
4260:
4255:
4250:
4240:
4239:
4238:
4228:
4227:
4226:
4216:
4210:
4208:
4206:Simple machine
4202:
4201:
4199:
4198:
4193:
4192:
4191:
4186:
4181:
4171:
4170:
4169:
4164:
4154:
4149:
4143:
4141:
4135:
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4124:
4119:
4109:
4108:
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4102:
4097:
4087:
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4080:
4070:
4065:
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4053:
4052:
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4036:
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4029:
4024:
4019:
4008:
4006:
4000:
3999:
3997:
3996:
3991:
3986:
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3979:
3969:
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3962:
3957:
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3932:
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3930:
3925:
3914:
3912:
3906:
3905:
3903:
3902:
3901:
3900:
3895:
3893:Printing press
3890:
3885:
3875:
3874:
3873:
3868:
3858:
3857:
3856:
3846:
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3724:
3714:
3713:
3712:
3707:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3682:
3681:
3680:
3678:Sewing machine
3670:
3669:
3668:
3666:Working animal
3663:
3658:
3647:
3645:
3637:
3636:
3626:
3625:
3617:
3616:
3609:
3602:
3594:
3585:
3584:
3582:
3581:
3580:Communications
3571:
3566:
3561:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3531:
3525:
3520:
3519:
3518:
3513:
3508:
3501:Home appliance
3498:
3493:
3488:
3486:Home appliance
3483:
3478:
3473:
3468:
3463:
3458:
3453:
3451:Control system
3448:
3443:
3438:
3432:
3430:
3426:
3425:
3423:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3360:Microwave oven
3357:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3292:
3290:
3284:
3283:
3281:
3280:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3223:Bioelectronics
3220:
3215:
3209:
3207:
3201:
3200:
3198:
3197:
3192:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3172:
3167:
3162:
3157:
3152:
3147:
3141:
3139:
3135:
3134:
3127:
3126:
3119:
3112:
3104:
3095:
3094:
3092:
3091:
3085:
3083:
3079:
3078:
3076:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3034:
3032:
3028:
3027:
3025:
3024:
3018:
3016:
3010:
3009:
3007:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2975:
2973:
2967:
2966:
2964:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2937:
2935:
2929:
2928:
2926:
2925:
2920:
2918:Wind generator
2915:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2889:
2887:
2881:
2880:
2878:
2877:
2872:
2866:
2864:
2858:
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2855:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2833:
2831:
2825:
2824:
2822:
2821:
2816:
2810:
2808:
2802:
2801:
2799:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2767:
2765:
2755:
2754:
2752:
2751:
2746:
2744:Pendulum clock
2741:
2736:
2730:
2728:
2722:
2721:
2719:
2718:
2716:Wheel and axle
2713:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2691:Inclined plane
2687:
2685:
2679:
2678:
2671:
2670:
2663:
2656:
2648:
2642:
2641:
2640:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2616:
2602:
2601:External links
2599:
2598:
2597:
2591:
2576:
2573:978-0521370950
2559:Hill, Winfield
2555:Horowitz, Paul
2550:
2547:
2544:
2543:
2537:June 2, 2022,
2508:
2465:
2435:
2403:
2373:
2337:
2305:
2302:978-0471428060
2287:
2257:
2251:978-3319558394
2250:
2224:
2216:
2196:
2178:978-0077144227
2177:
2154:
2140:978-0470547113
2139:
2113:
2083:
2054:
2036:978-1107052406
2035:
2011:
1980:
1962:978-1420006728
1961:
1937:
1905:
1883:978-0471828679
1882:
1858:
1822:
1790:
1758:
1715:
1708:
1686:
1655:
1648:
1630:
1623:
1593:
1562:
1523:
1505:978-0470508923
1504:
1477:
1471:978-0262161237
1470:
1444:
1438:978-0262022255
1437:
1411:
1393:978-9051991451
1392:
1372:
1340:
1305:
1275:
1249:
1221:
1220:
1218:
1215:
1213:
1212:
1207:
1202:
1197:
1192:
1187:
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1177:
1172:
1167:
1162:
1157:
1152:
1147:
1142:
1136:
1135:
1134:
1118:
1115:
1078:By that time,
994:Main article:
991:
988:
987:
986:
972:
967:
962:
957:
908:Main article:
905:
902:
885:Main article:
882:
879:
832:Main article:
829:
826:
824:
821:
777:semiconductors
773:power supplies
758:Main article:
755:
752:
707:
704:
703:
702:
699:System on chip
696:
690:
684:
678:
672:
667:
662:
653:
652:
647:
642:
637:
632:
627:
622:
571:Main article:
568:
565:
550:microprocessor
530:Main article:
527:
524:
518:
515:
467:Main article:
464:
461:
459:
458:
453:
448:
443:
438:
433:
428:
423:
418:
413:
408:
403:
398:
396:Circuit design
393:
391:Bioelectronics
388:
383:
377:
375:
372:
349:computer. The
294:was the first
129:
126:
94:direct current
70:active devices
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6081:
6070:
6067:
6066:
6064:
6057:
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6042:
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6023:
6018:
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5994:
5992:
5987:
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5825:
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5812:
5810:
5807:
5805:
5802:
5800:
5797:
5795:
5792:
5790:
5787:
5785:
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5780:
5777:
5775:
5772:
5770:
5767:
5765:
5762:
5761:
5759:
5757:
5753:
5749:
5742:
5738:
5724:
5721:
5717:
5714:
5712:
5709:
5708:
5707:
5704:
5700:
5697:
5696:
5695:
5692:
5688:
5685:
5684:
5683:
5680:
5679:
5677:
5675:
5671:
5663:
5662:Transhumanism
5660:
5658:
5655:
5653:
5650:
5649:
5648:
5645:
5641:
5638:
5637:
5636:
5633:
5632:
5630:
5628:
5627:Progressivism
5624:
5618:
5617:Technorealism
5615:
5613:
5610:
5608:
5605:
5603:
5600:
5598:
5595:
5591:
5588:
5586:
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5578:
5576:
5573:
5572:
5570:
5566:
5558:
5555:
5554:
5553:
5550:
5546:
5543:
5542:
5541:
5538:
5537:
5535:
5533:
5532:Ecotechnology
5529:
5523:
5520:
5516:
5513:
5512:
5511:
5508:
5504:
5501:
5500:
5499:
5496:
5495:
5493:
5491:
5487:
5483:
5476:
5472:
5456:
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5448:
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5441:
5438:
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5433:
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5428:
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5411:
5408:
5404:
5401:
5399:
5396:
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5389:
5386:
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5379:
5376:
5375:
5374:
5371:
5367:
5364:
5362:
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5349:
5347:
5344:
5342:
5339:
5337:
5334:
5332:
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5327:
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5323:
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5319:
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5313:
5311:
5309:
5305:
5299:
5296:
5292:
5289:
5287:
5284:
5282:
5279:
5278:
5277:
5276:Semiconductor
5274:
5272:
5269:
5267:
5264:
5262:
5261:Lightning rod
5259:
5255:
5252:
5250:
5247:
5245:
5242:
5240:
5239:Circuit board
5237:
5235:
5232:
5231:
5230:
5227:
5223:
5220:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5210:
5208:
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5144:
5136:
5133:
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5128:
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5123:
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5118:
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5113:
5112:
5111:
5108:
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5103:
5099:
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5090:
5089:
5086:
5084:
5081:
5077:
5074:
5072:
5069:
5068:
5067:
5064:
5062:
5061:Optical fiber
5059:
5057:
5054:
5052:
5049:
5047:
5044:
5040:
5037:
5036:
5035:
5032:
5028:
5025:
5024:
5023:
5020:
5018:
5017:Electromagnet
5015:
5014:
5012:
5010:
5006:
5000:
4997:
4995:
4992:
4988:
4985:
4983:
4980:
4978:
4975:
4974:
4973:
4970:
4968:
4965:
4963:
4960:
4958:
4955:
4951:
4950:Haber process
4948:
4947:
4946:
4943:
4939:
4936:
4934:
4931:
4929:
4926:
4924:
4921:
4920:
4919:
4916:
4914:
4911:
4907:
4904:
4903:
4902:
4899:
4898:
4896:
4894:
4890:
4884:
4881:
4879:
4876:
4874:
4871:
4867:
4864:
4862:
4859:
4858:
4857:
4854:
4852:
4849:
4847:
4844:
4840:
4837:
4835:
4832:
4830:
4827:
4826:
4825:
4822:
4820:
4817:
4815:
4812:
4810:
4809:Birth control
4807:
4806:
4804:
4802:
4801:Biotechnology
4798:
4790:
4787:
4785:
4782:
4781:
4780:
4777:
4773:
4772:Vulcanization
4770:
4769:
4768:
4765:
4763:
4760:
4758:
4755:
4753:
4750:
4748:
4745:
4743:
4742:Nanomaterials
4740:
4736:
4733:
4731:
4728:
4726:
4723:
4721:
4718:
4717:
4716:
4713:
4711:
4708:
4706:
4703:
4701:
4700:Chipped stone
4698:
4694:
4691:
4690:
4689:
4686:
4682:
4679:
4678:
4677:
4674:
4673:
4671:
4669:
4665:
4657:
4656:Photovoltaics
4654:
4653:
4652:
4649:
4645:
4642:
4640:
4637:
4636:
4635:
4634:Refrigeration
4632:
4628:
4625:
4624:
4623:
4620:
4616:
4613:
4611:
4608:
4607:
4606:
4603:
4599:
4596:
4595:
4594:
4591:
4589:
4586:
4582:
4579:
4578:
4577:
4574:
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4527:
4523:
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4518:
4515:
4513:
4510:
4508:
4505:
4504:
4503:
4500:
4498:
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4488:
4486:
4483:
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4473:
4471:
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4463:
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4461:
4458:
4454:
4451:
4449:
4446:
4444:
4441:
4440:
4439:
4436:
4434:
4431:
4427:
4424:
4422:
4419:
4417:
4414:
4412:
4409:
4407:
4404:
4403:
4402:
4399:
4395:
4392:
4390:
4387:
4386:
4385:
4382:
4380:
4377:
4376:
4374:
4372:
4368:
4362:
4359:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4332:
4331:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4322:
4320:
4317:
4313:
4310:
4308:
4305:
4304:
4303:
4300:
4298:
4295:
4291:
4288:
4286:
4283:
4281:
4278:
4276:
4273:
4271:
4268:
4267:
4266:
4263:
4259:
4256:
4254:
4251:
4249:
4246:
4245:
4244:
4241:
4237:
4234:
4233:
4232:
4229:
4225:
4222:
4221:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4211:
4209:
4207:
4203:
4197:
4194:
4190:
4187:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4179:Assembly line
4177:
4176:
4175:
4172:
4168:
4165:
4163:
4160:
4159:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4144:
4142:
4140:
4139:Manufacturing
4136:
4128:
4125:
4123:
4120:
4118:
4115:
4114:
4113:
4110:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4100:Space station
4098:
4096:
4093:
4092:
4091:
4088:
4086:
4083:
4079:
4076:
4075:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4068:Motor vehicle
4066:
4062:
4059:
4058:
4057:
4054:
4050:
4047:
4046:
4045:
4042:
4040:
4037:
4035:
4032:
4028:
4025:
4023:
4020:
4018:
4015:
4014:
4013:
4010:
4009:
4007:
4005:
4001:
3995:
3992:
3990:
3987:
3985:
3982:
3978:
3975:
3974:
3973:
3970:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3958:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3950:Fortification
3948:
3947:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3929:
3926:
3924:
3921:
3920:
3919:
3916:
3915:
3913:
3911:
3907:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3880:
3879:
3876:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3864:
3863:
3862:
3859:
3855:
3852:
3851:
3850:
3847:
3843:
3840:
3838:
3835:
3834:
3833:
3830:
3828:
3825:
3823:
3820:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3807:
3806:
3803:
3801:
3798:
3797:
3795:
3791:
3783:
3780:
3779:
3778:
3775:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
3761:
3758:
3756:
3753:
3752:
3751:
3747:
3744:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3731:
3730:
3727:
3723:
3720:
3719:
3718:
3715:
3711:
3708:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3691:
3688:
3687:
3686:
3683:
3679:
3676:
3675:
3674:
3671:
3667:
3664:
3662:
3659:
3657:
3656:Domestication
3654:
3653:
3652:
3649:
3648:
3646:
3642:
3638:
3631:
3627:
3622:
3615:
3610:
3608:
3603:
3601:
3596:
3595:
3592:
3579:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3535:
3532:
3529:
3526:
3524:
3521:
3517:
3514:
3512:
3509:
3507:
3504:
3503:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3489:
3487:
3484:
3482:
3479:
3477:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3457:
3454:
3452:
3449:
3447:
3444:
3442:
3439:
3437:
3434:
3433:
3431:
3427:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3378:
3376:
3373:
3371:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3306:Clothes dryer
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3293:
3291:
3285:
3279:
3276:
3274:
3271:
3269:
3266:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3210:
3208:
3202:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3185:Semiconductor
3183:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3142:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3125:
3120:
3118:
3113:
3111:
3106:
3105:
3102:
3090:
3087:
3086:
3084:
3080:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3035:
3033:
3031:Miscellaneous
3029:
3023:
3020:
3019:
3017:
3015:
3011:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2976:
2974:
2972:
2968:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2938:
2936:
2934:
2930:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2913:Water turbine
2911:
2909:
2908:Steam turbine
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2890:
2888:
2886:
2882:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2867:
2865:
2863:
2859:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2847:Rotary engine
2845:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2834:
2832:
2830:
2826:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2811:
2809:
2807:
2803:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2781:Hydraulic ram
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2768:
2766:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2731:
2729:
2727:
2723:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2688:
2686:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2669:
2664:
2662:
2657:
2655:
2650:
2649:
2646:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2619:
2617:
2615:
2611:
2608:
2605:
2604:
2594:
2588:
2584:
2583:
2577:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2565:
2560:
2556:
2553:
2552:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2519:
2517:
2515:
2513:
2505:
2503:
2498:
2494:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2478:
2476:
2474:
2472:
2470:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2439:
2423:
2419:
2418:
2413:
2407:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2377:
2358:
2354:
2347:
2341:
2325:
2321:
2320:
2315:
2309:
2303:
2299:
2296:
2291:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2261:
2253:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2228:
2219:
2213:
2209:
2208:
2200:
2184:
2180:
2174:
2167:
2166:
2158:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2117:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2087:
2071:
2067:
2061:
2059:
2042:
2038:
2032:
2029:. p. 2.
2028:
2024:
2023:
2015:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1984:
1968:
1964:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1949:
1941:
1925:
1921:
1920:
1915:
1909:
1902:
1889:
1885:
1879:
1876:. p. 1.
1875:
1871:
1870:
1862:
1855:
1843:
1840:. p. 1.
1839:
1835:
1834:
1826:
1810:
1806:
1805:
1800:
1794:
1778:
1774:
1773:
1768:
1762:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1719:
1711:
1709:9783540342588
1705:
1701:
1697:
1690:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1659:
1651:
1645:
1641:
1634:
1626:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1597:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1566:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1527:
1511:
1507:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1492:
1484:
1482:
1473:
1467:
1463:
1458:
1457:
1448:
1440:
1434:
1430:
1425:
1424:
1415:
1399:
1395:
1389:
1385:
1384:
1376:
1360:
1356:
1355:
1350:
1344:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1309:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1279:
1264:. 21 May 2024
1263:
1259:
1253:
1237:
1233:
1226:
1222:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1203:
1201:
1198:
1196:
1193:
1191:
1188:
1186:
1183:
1181:
1178:
1176:
1173:
1171:
1168:
1166:
1163:
1161:
1158:
1156:
1153:
1151:
1148:
1146:
1143:
1141:
1138:
1137:
1132:
1126:
1121:
1114:
1112:
1108:
1103:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1088:United States
1085:
1081:
1076:
1074:
1070:
1065:
1063:
1058:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1041:
1037:
1034:in 2017. The
1029:
1021:
1017:
1011:
1007:
1003:
997:
984:
980:
976:
973:
971:
968:
966:
965:Chassis mount
963:
961:
960:Surface mount
958:
955:
952:
951:
950:
944:
943:home computer
939:
935:
933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
911:
901:
899:
895:
888:
878:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
859:water cooling
856:
852:
848:
844:
840:
835:
820:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
790:
787:programs and
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
767:
761:
751:
749:
745:
741:
737:
731:
730:of the user.
729:
725:
721:
717:
713:
712:mobile phones
700:
697:
694:
691:
688:
685:
682:
679:
676:
673:
671:
668:
666:
663:
661:
658:
657:
656:
651:
648:
646:
643:
641:
638:
636:
633:
631:
628:
626:
623:
621:
618:
617:
616:
614:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
587:
586:binary system
582:
580:
574:
564:
561:
559:
553:
551:
547:
541:
538:
533:
523:
514:
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
475:
470:
457:
454:
452:
449:
447:
444:
442:
439:
437:
434:
432:
429:
427:
424:
422:
419:
417:
414:
412:
409:
407:
404:
402:
399:
397:
394:
392:
389:
387:
384:
382:
379:
378:
371:
369:
365:
360:
356:
352:
346:
344:
340:
336:
332:
327:
325:
321:
317:
313:
310:transistors.
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
288:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
245:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
201:
200:radio antenna
197:
196:radio signals
193:
192:Lee De Forest
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
157:
149:
144:
139:
135:
125:
123:
118:
117:semiconductor
114:
110:
105:
103:
99:
96:(DC) or from
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
40:
39:surface-mount
35:
29:
27:
22:
6056:
5913:
5901:
5889:
5774:Construction
5769:Architecture
5590:Trade secret
5479:Perspectives
5398:Social media
5393:Peer-to-peer
5271:Oscilloscope
5228:
5212:Incandescent
5115:Mobile phone
5027:Optical disc
4994:Spectrometer
4982:Distillation
4757:Rammed earth
4644:Refrigerator
4622:Oil drilling
4470:Differential
4224:Ball bearing
4189:Machine tool
3984:Stonemasonry
3910:Construction
3827:Lock and key
3822:Cryptography
3717:Food storage
3429:Applications
3410:Water heater
3385:Refrigerator
3365:Mobile phone
3268:Piezotronics
3130:
3048:Agricultural
2970:
2903:Quasiturbine
2814:Steam engine
2749:Quartz clock
2734:Atomic clock
2581:
2562:
2500:
2456:. Retrieved
2448:NaTechnology
2447:
2438:
2426:. Retrieved
2415:
2406:
2394:. Retrieved
2376:
2364:. Retrieved
2357:the original
2340:
2328:. Retrieved
2317:
2308:
2294:
2290:
2278:. Retrieved
2269:
2260:
2233:
2227:
2206:
2199:
2187:. Retrieved
2164:
2157:
2122:
2116:
2104:. Retrieved
2095:
2086:
2074:. Retrieved
2070:the original
2047:17 September
2045:. Retrieved
2021:
2014:
2002:. Retrieved
1993:
1983:
1971:. Retrieved
1947:
1940:
1928:. Retrieved
1917:
1908:
1899:
1892:. Retrieved
1868:
1861:
1853:
1846:. Retrieved
1832:
1825:
1813:. Retrieved
1802:
1793:
1781:. Retrieved
1770:
1761:
1731:(1): 43–48.
1728:
1724:
1718:
1695:
1689:
1672:
1668:
1658:
1639:
1633:
1606:
1596:
1579:
1575:
1565:
1540:
1536:
1526:
1514:. Retrieved
1490:
1455:
1447:
1422:
1414:
1402:. Retrieved
1382:
1375:
1363:. Retrieved
1352:
1343:
1321:(1): 41–43.
1318:
1314:
1308:
1298:19 September
1296:. Retrieved
1287:
1278:
1266:. Retrieved
1261:
1252:
1240:. Retrieved
1235:
1225:
1104:
1077:
1066:
1059:
1013:
954:Through-hole
948:
913:
890:
837:
763:
740:CircuitLogix
732:
728:requirements
709:
654:
645:Multiplexers
591:
583:
576:
562:
554:
545:
542:
535:
520:
480:
359:Robert Noyce
347:
339:high density
328:
289:
253:John Bardeen
246:
206:Vacuum tubes
204:
166:which could
153:
106:
45:
44:
25:
6069:Electronics
6051:Spaceflight
6003:Numismatics
5943:Electronics
5779:Engineering
5515:Neo-Luddism
5450:Web browser
5445:Spreadsheet
5366:Touchscreen
5341:Motherboard
5254:Vacuum tube
5229:Electronics
5207:Fluorescent
5195:Transformer
5147:Electricity
5088:Photography
4730:Ironworking
4651:Solar power
4522:Vacuum pump
4490:Whippletree
4147:3D printing
3960:Scaffolding
3805:Calculation
3651:Agriculture
3644:Necessities
3536:electronics
3340:Home cinema
3278:Spintronics
3218:Atomtronics
3131:Electronics
3063:Wind tunnel
2979:Vacuum tube
2971:Electronics
2893:Gas turbine
2837:Gas turbine
2796:Vacuum pump
2759:Compressors
2739:Chronometer
2482:Shih, Willy
1675:: 131–136.
1609:: 583–596.
1238:(in French)
1150:Atomtronics
1107:Netherlands
1084:South Korea
875:heat energy
660:Memory chip
620:Logic gates
609:Transistors
507:transistors
269:solid-state
164:vacuum tube
158:in 1897 by
100:signals to
74:transistors
68:which uses
46:Electronics
26:Electronics
5991:Television
5967:Technology
5824:Innovation
5809:Navigation
5706:Philosophy
5373:Networking
5291:Transistor
5266:Multimeter
5135:Television
5071:Microscope
5039:Eyeglasses
4987:Filtration
4972:Separation
4945:Fertilizer
4873:Prosthesis
4866:Antibiotic
4861:Anesthesia
4856:Medication
4715:Metallurgy
4512:Jackhammer
4507:Compressor
4502:Pneumatics
4438:Hydraulics
4421:Waterwheel
4389:Dishwasher
4112:Watercraft
4105:Space suit
4090:Spacecraft
4056:Jet engine
3955:Foundation
3928:Irrigation
3898:Typewriter
3871:Video game
3854:Phonograph
3800:Accounting
3729:Sanitation
3621:Technology
3540:Multimedia
3530:technology
3405:Television
3335:Home robot
3325:Dishwasher
3287:Electronic
3022:Automobile
2984:Transistor
2898:Jet engine
2870:Pantograph
2458:2 February
2396:13 October
2366:11 October
2330:11 October
2217:0201038226
1901:computers.
1582:(9): 547.
1404:5 December
1217:References
1047:sextillion
1028:e-commerce
970:Rack mount
898:shot noise
867:conduction
863:convection
847:heat sinks
738:, such as
630:Flip-flops
511:thyristors
495:capacitors
355:Jack Kilby
304:calculator
300:transistor
265:television
226:television
132:See also:
122:e-commerce
56:and other
28:(magazine)
5979:Chemistry
5842:Invention
5837:High tech
5814:Surveying
5794:Logistics
5784:Forensics
5490:Criticism
5234:Capacitor
5185:Generator
5130:Telephone
5125:Telegraph
5076:Telescope
4999:Synthesis
4962:Pesticide
4933:Gunpowder
4928:Fireworks
4918:Explosive
4901:Detergent
4819:Dentistry
4762:Recycling
4598:Heat pump
4517:Rivet gun
4485:Gyroscope
4460:Mechanism
4384:Appliance
4371:Machinery
4312:Propeller
4152:Carpentry
4127:Submarine
4095:Satellite
4085:Scuba set
4004:Transport
3750:Equipment
3528:Microwave
3400:Telephone
3289:equipment
3263:Photonics
2999:Capacitor
2961:Propeller
2189:12 August
2149:107126716
2106:12 August
1973:10 August
1953:CRC Press
1894:10 August
1848:10 August
1745:0018-9219
1557:1064-8208
1543:(3): 29.
1516:22 August
1365:10 August
1205:Photonics
1096:Singapore
1062:microchip
924:wire wrap
871:radiation
716:computers
640:Registers
597:Computers
546:front end
503:resistors
499:inductors
374:Subfields
308:germanium
283:and some
261:microwave
242:telephony
218:electrons
104:signals.
54:electrons
6063:Category
5890:Category
5799:Medicine
5789:Forestry
5764:Agronomy
5425:Database
5420:Compiler
5415:Software
5388:Internet
5321:Hardware
5308:Computer
5249:Inductor
5244:Resistor
4923:Dynamite
4893:Chemical
4846:Hospital
4720:Aluminum
4681:Concrete
4668:Material
4627:Fracking
4564:Charcoal
4529:Robotics
4448:Manifold
4443:Cylinder
4426:Windmill
4339:Flywheel
4297:Pendulum
4248:Catapult
4073:Railroad
4039:Elevator
4027:Seaplane
4022:Airplane
4017:Aerostat
4012:Aircraft
3945:Building
3918:Aqueduct
3837:Banknote
3815:Calendar
3734:Plumbing
3673:Clothing
3661:Grafting
3578:Wireless
3534:Military
3466:e-health
3446:Avionics
3315:Notebook
3311:Computer
3204:Advanced
3138:Branches
3014:Vehicles
3004:Inductor
2994:Resistor
2933:Aerofoil
2923:Windmill
2862:Linkages
2675:Machines
2610:Archived
2561:(1980).
2531:Archived
2493:Archived
2452:Archived
2422:Archived
2390:Archived
2353:Deloitte
2324:Archived
2280:19 April
2274:Archived
2270:Autodesk
2183:Archived
2169:(e-book)
2100:Archived
2076:21 April
2041:Archived
1998:Archived
1967:Archived
1924:Archived
1888:Archived
1842:Archived
1809:Archived
1777:Archived
1753:29105721
1510:Archived
1398:Archived
1359:Archived
1335:23351454
1292:Archived
1210:Robotics
1160:Avionics
1117:See also
990:Industry
857:such as
769:circuits
744:Multisim
724:disposal
635:Counters
611:such as
186:and the
156:electron
92:(AC) to
72:such as
6027:Science
5955:Physics
5929:Portals
5902:Outline
5694:History
5674:Studies
5510:Luddite
5361:Storage
5155:Circuit
4967:Pigment
4883:Vaccine
4878:Surgery
4779:Textile
4752:Plastic
4710:Masonry
4688:Ceramic
4605:Nuclear
4581:Battery
4416:Turbine
4265:Linkage
4258:Shadoof
4219:Bearing
4196:Welding
4157:Casting
4117:Sailing
4049:Stirrup
4034:Compass
3977:Caisson
3878:Writing
3722:Pottery
3705:Milling
3685:Cooking
3330:Freezer
3082:Springs
2885:Turbine
2428:28 July
2004:1 April
1930:20 July
1815:18 July
1804:EETimes
1783:22 July
1055:Hitachi
1038:is the
793:Cadence
613:MOSFETs
605:digital
593:Ternary
451:Sensors
364:silicon
292:IBM 608
214:current
198:from a
172:rectify
168:amplify
102:digital
62:physics
50:physics
37:Modern
5914:Portal
5832:Design
5804:Mining
5585:Patent
5356:Router
5190:Switch
5093:Camera
5056:Mirror
4767:Rubber
4725:Bronze
4676:Cement
4615:Weapon
4551:Energy
4480:Gimbal
4401:Engine
4354:Pulley
4319:Spring
4285:Piston
4275:Clutch
4061:Rocket
3994:Tunnel
3940:Bridge
3810:Abacus
3793:Social
3777:Weapon
3765:Plough
3760:Hammer
3739:Toilet
3700:Cheese
3461:e-book
3395:Tablet
3355:Cooker
3320:Camera
3206:topics
2951:Rudder
2791:Trompe
2726:Clocks
2701:Pulley
2589:
2571:
2502:Forbes
2300:
2248:
2214:
2175:
2147:
2137:
2033:
1959:
1880:
1751:
1743:
1706:
1646:
1621:
1555:
1502:
1468:
1435:
1390:
1333:
1268:26 May
1242:26 May
1195:Go-box
1111:Israel
1098:, and
1086:, the
1080:Taiwan
1044:
1008:, and
985:socket
869:, and
809:Altium
805:Mentor
766:design
748:PSpice
746:, and
706:Design
695:(FPAA)
689:(FPGA)
677:(ASIC)
625:Adders
558:switch
331:MOSFET
188:triode
174:small
148:Audion
98:analog
80:, and
78:diodes
5383:Email
5346:Mouse
5336:Modem
5281:Diode
5120:Radio
5105:Radar
5022:Laser
4747:Paper
4735:Steel
4705:Glass
4693:Brick
4610:Power
4465:Clock
4329:Wheel
4324:Valve
4302:Screw
4253:Crane
4243:Lever
4236:Chain
4078:Train
3965:Tower
3923:Canal
3832:Money
3770:Wedge
3755:Blade
3695:Bread
3574:Wired
3555:Radar
3380:Radio
3043:Robot
3038:Mecha
2989:Diode
2763:pumps
2711:Wedge
2706:Screw
2696:Lever
2360:(PDF)
2349:(PDF)
2145:S2CID
1874:Wiley
1749:S2CID
1331:S2CID
1100:China
1092:Japan
881:Noise
817:KiCad
801:EAGLE
797:ORCAD
701:(SOC)
683:(DSP)
234:radio
230:radar
222:radio
180:diode
5222:Neon
5180:Fuse
5034:Lens
4906:Soap
4784:Loom
4569:Oven
4559:Fire
4497:MEMS
4453:Pump
4361:Wing
4344:Gear
4231:Belt
4214:Axle
4122:Ship
3989:Road
3935:Arch
3883:Book
3866:Game
3842:Coin
3746:Tool
3710:Wine
3690:Beer
3576:and
3557:and
2956:Flap
2946:Wing
2941:Sail
2786:Pump
2761:and
2587:ISBN
2569:ISBN
2460:2021
2430:2019
2398:2019
2368:2019
2332:2019
2298:ISBN
2282:2023
2246:ISBN
2212:ISBN
2191:2022
2173:ISBN
2135:ISBN
2108:2022
2078:2012
2049:2019
2031:ISBN
2006:2017
1975:2019
1957:ISBN
1932:2019
1896:2019
1878:ISBN
1850:2019
1817:2019
1785:2019
1741:ISSN
1704:ISBN
1644:ISBN
1619:ISBN
1553:ISSN
1518:2019
1500:ISBN
1466:ISBN
1433:ISBN
1406:2012
1388:ISBN
1367:2019
1300:2018
1270:2024
1244:2024
1053:and
1051:Sony
1014:The
932:SRBP
922:and
851:fans
849:and
839:Heat
813:gEDA
714:and
599:and
509:and
368:VLSI
357:and
329:The
255:and
170:and
136:and
64:and
5430:GUI
5351:RAM
5331:GPU
5326:CPU
5217:LED
4938:TNT
4913:Dye
4839:PCR
4539:Leg
4534:Arm
4270:Cam
3972:Dam
3888:Map
3861:Toy
3782:Gun
2488:):
2238:doi
2127:doi
1733:doi
1677:doi
1611:doi
1584:doi
1580:104
1545:doi
1429:386
1323:doi
983:PGA
979:BGA
975:LGA
928:FR4
873:of
799:),
353:by
296:IBM
190:by
182:by
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