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130:
31:
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691:. This was followed in the second stage by trachytic, green or grey ignimbrites, trachytic and phonolitic lava domes and additional basaltic lava flows. The second stage ignimbrites can be found within the northern caldera and on the southern flank of the volcano. The third stage was dominantly phonolitic, with
382:, which together form a 15-by-11-kilometre (9.3 mi × 6.8 mi) wide elliptical caldera that extends from northwest to southeast. The northern caldera formed first, then the southern caldera which is about 50 metres (160 ft) deeper below the northern one. 400–300-metre (1,310–980 ft) high
635:
beds have been found 125 metres (410 ft) above the floor of Era Kohor and in depressions without outlet elsewhere in the caldera, they reach thicknesses of 4–5 metres (13–16 ft). Farther down on the mountain, gullies start appearing at 2,800 metres (9,200 ft) elevation and become deep
714:
Quaternary volcanism gave rise to the cones on the slopes of Emi Koussi, and the three maars are the most recent vents in the combined caldera, while long lava flows have been interpreted to be the youngest volcanism at Emi Koussi. The most recent volcanic vents show little erosion. Early in the
760:
data, a yearly precipitation of 80–120 millimetres (3.1–4.7 in) has been estimated for Emi Koussi; in the past it was wetter than this. The climate reflects both northerly and southerly influences and is distinct from that of the surrounding deserts. There is no evidence of
270:
cap the volcano, the outer one being about 15 by 11 kilometres (9.3 mi Ă— 6.8 mi) in size. Within it on the southeast side is a smaller caldera known as Era Kohor, about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) wide and 350 metres (1,150 ft) deep. Numerous
357:
Emi Koussi rises to a height of 3,415 metres (11,204 ft) on the southern side of the volcano, towering 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) above the surrounding terrain. It is considered by some astronauts to be the most recognizable landmark on Earth, as seen from
386:
form the inner margin of the southern caldera, with the floor at an elevation of 2,970 metres (9,740 ft). Before the formation of the calderas, the volcano may have reached a height of 4,000 metres (13,000 ft). Emi Koussi has been compared to a
516:
sandstone. The latter crop out at the southwestern foot of Emi Koussi, while volcanic rocks dominate north of the volcano, and the
Tibesti massif is prevalent east and southeast of Emi Koussi. Older volcanic rocks are exposed in valleys.
769:
landforms is questionable, although periglacial activity likely occurred in the
Pleistocene and may continue to the present-day. Even during the Pleistocene, no part of the mountain had sub-freezing temperatures through the entire year.
680:
has yielded ages of 2.42 ± 0.03 - 2.33 ± 0.09 million years ago for the oldest Emi Koussi stage. The third stage has yielded ages of 1.4 ± 0.3 - 1.32 ± 0.2 million years ago; formerly Era Kohor was considered to be a
Holocene centre.
738:
produce water with temperatures of 37 °C (99 °F). Emi Koussi is considered to be a
Holocene volcano. Lava flows have buried Holocene diatoms beds in its caldera; dates of 14,790 ± 400 - 12,400 ± 400 years
377:
with a diameter of 60–70 kilometres (37–43 mi) or 60–80 kilometres (37–50 mi) and an estimated volume of 2,500 cubic kilometres (600 cu mi). The summit of Emi Koussi is formed by two overlapping
755:
The
Tibesti mountains feature a desert mountain climate. There are no weather stations close to Emi Koussi and the stations at lower elevations likely underestimate precipitation at higher elevations, but based on
1038:
644:
originates on Emi Koussi, and several streams on the western flank join into the Enneri Miski which drains southwards and disappears south of the mountains. Small pools of water are found around Emi Koussi.
406:
Nested within this combined caldera is the Era Kohor caldera, which is 300 metres (980 ft) deep and 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) wide, having the appearance of a giant hole. This caldera is also known as
490:, as has been proposed for other African volcanoes, although recently tectonic effects of the collision between Africa and Europe and their effects at a distance have also been advanced as an explanation.
327:
as well as its highest peak and thus of the Sahara; many peaks of the
Tibesti exceed 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) in height. These mountains are formed by a group of volcanoes that grew on top of a large
259:. The highest mountain of the Sahara, the volcano is one of several in the Tibesti range, and reaches an elevation of 3,415 metres (11,204 ft), rising 3 km (1.9 mi) above the surrounding
2267:
Deniel, C.; Vincent, P. M.; Beauvilain, A.; Gourgaud, A. (1 September 2015). "The
Cenozoic volcanic province of Tibesti (Sahara of Chad): major units, chronology, and structural features".
2254:
Bruneau de Miré, Ph.; Quézel, P. (1959). "Sur quelques aspects de la Flore residuelle du
Tibesti: Les fumeroles du Tousside et les Lappiaz volcaniques cuiminaux de l'Emi Koussi".
2662:. Bericht über das Internationale Symposion der Internationalen Vereinigung für Vegetationskunde in Rinteln 8.–11. April 1968 (in German). Springer, Dordrecht. pp. 223–251.
658:
419:
has been deposited on its floor, which lies at an elevation of 2,670 metres (8,760 ft) and contains a salt lake. The floor of Era Kohor is thus deep white. Three
891:. The lava flows high on the mountain have characteristic environmental traits which allow the development of a particular vegetation. This vegetation encompasses
781:
817:
775:
835:
799:
787:
2427:
Jäkel, Dieter; Hövermann, Jürgen; Jensch, Georg; Valentin, Hartmut; Wöhlke, Wilhelm (1972). "Arbeitsberichte aus der
Forschungsstation Bardai/Tibesti III".
2504:
965:
823:
829:
805:
2823:
955:
847:
841:
811:
793:
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and often look like lava flows. Each stage was accompanied by the formation of a caldera, and basaltic volcanism continued through all three stages.
2557:
Messerli, B.; Winiger, M. (1992). "Climate, Environmental Change, and
Resources of the African Mountains from the Mediterranean to the Equator".
851:. The diatom fauna appears to be unusual in comparison to other Saharan paleolakes, probably owing to the high elevation of the Emi Koussi lake.
3133:
1607:
1992:
79:
2687:"The Exploration of Tibesti, Erdi, Borkou, and Ennedi in 1912-1917: A Mission Entrusted to the Author by the French Institute (Continued)"
2381:
Gourgaud, A; Vincent, P.M (January 2004). "Petrology of two continental alkaline intraplate series at Emi Koussi volcano, Tibesti, Chad".
2832:
2536:
Messerli, B. (1973). "Problems of Vertical and Horizontal Arrangement in the High Mountains of the Extreme Arid Zone (Central Sahara)".
486:
formed large plateaus. Later, the central volcanoes developed on top of these plateaus. Volcanism in Tibesti has been explained with a
2720:"Notes about Asplenium I. Asplenium quezeli, a pseudo-endemic species identical with A. daghestanicum (Aspleniaceae: Pteridophyta)"
868:
is found up to elevations of 2,900 metres (9,500 ft), in the past it was probably more widespread. The summit region features
332:
of Earth's surface. Volcanism in this area is poorly studied; as the region is remote and access difficult for political reasons.
3123:
2816:
263:
plains. The volcano is 60–70 kilometres (37–43 mi) wide and has a volume of 2,500 cubic kilometres (600 cu mi).
3245:
2603:
1026:
3260:
707:
explosions associated with Era Kohor have deposited large blocks within the summit caldera, including beautifully coloured
613:
3265:
450:
cover the flanks of Emi Koussi, which steepen as they approach the summit. Scoria cones on the slopes are accompanied by
3013:
3250:
2762:
61:
2809:
2754:
2675:
1710:
299:. Emi Koussi was active more than one million years ago, but some eruptions may be more recent, and there is ongoing
1758:"Crater palaeolakes in the Tibesti mountains (Central Sahara, North Chad) – New insights into past Saharan climates"
512:
age and are differentiated into two units. The volcanic rocks rest on an uplifted basement formed by Cretaceous and
2719:
2313:
2336:
Gèze, B.; Hudeley, H.; Vincent, P.; Wacrenier, Ph (1 December 1959). "Les volcans du Tibesti (Sahara du Tchad)".
1917:
Oppenheimer, C. (1997). "Surveillance and Mapping of Volcanoes and their Emissions by Satellite Remote Sensing".
122:
2520:
969:
was discovered on Emi Koussi and at first thought to be endemic there before it was found to be identical to
2613:
Permenter, J.L.; Oppenheimer, C. (1 April 2007). "Volcanoes of the Tibesti massif (Chad, northern Africa)".
734:
are active such as at Yi Yerra at 850 metres (2,790 ft) elevation on the southern flanks. At Yi Yerra,
3215:
2454:"Late Holocene plant and climate evolution at Lake Yoa, northern Chad: pollen data and climate simulations"
862:
Generally, in the Tibesti vegetation occurs in five different belts depending on elevation. On Emi Koussi,
482:, that is between 358.9 ± 0.4 and 66 million years ago. During the earliest stage of volcanism on Tibesti,
72:
1014:
1002:
3255:
2796:
205:
684:
During the first stage, Emi Koussi erupted trachytes and trachyandesites in the form of ignimbrites and
3240:
3230:
3225:
3210:
454:. On the upper sectors of the volcano, lavas are crisscrossed by cracks, which are known as "lappiaz".
3220:
1064:
336:
cross the western and eastern margins of the summit caldera, and according to historical reports the
2918:
2840:
1614:
1099:
1069:
990:
773:
A number of diatom species have been identified in sediments left by the Era Kohor lake, including
458:
crops out on the terrain surrounding the volcano. North of Emi Koussi lie other volcanoes, such as
403:
emanate into the caldera. The highest point of Emi Koussi lies on the southern rim of the caldera.
354:". The mountain has played an important role in the research and discovery history of the Tibesti.
3033:
1104:
971:
3235:
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193:
3048:
3189:
3159:
2968:
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are found within the calderas and along the outer flanks of the shield. Era Kohor contains
65:
8:
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181:
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1269:
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237:
198:
56:
2402:
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chemistry and content varies between the various rocks; among the minerals are alkali
3088:
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2638:
2599:
2524:
2483:
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2406:
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2147:
1993:"Hochgebirgsforschung: Tibesti - Zentrale Sahara, Arbeiten aus der Hochgebirgsregion"
1757:
1706:
1059:
874:
324:
244:
169:
2650:
2132:
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Emi Koussi erupted between 2.4 and 1.3 million years ago; it is considered to be of
30:
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1702:
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2778:
2420:
Hochgebirgsforschung: Tibesti-Zentrale Sahara Arbeiten aus der Hochgebirgsregion
1125:
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and ignimbrites including the Kohor ignimbrite. The various ignimbrites contain
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1652:
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525:
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374:
162:
2923:
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1528:
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1300:
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Tectonic activity appears to have occurred in the Tibesti already between the
3204:
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94:
81:
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392:
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220:
1952:
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1312:
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3023:
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2314:"African wetlands and shallow water bodies : region 2 : Sahara"
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1930:
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2505:"Comparison of volcanic features of Elysium (Mars) and Tibesti (Earth)"
2357:
2142:
1613:. International Commission on Stratigraphy. August 2018. Archived from
1273:
939:
species grow at fumaroles. The caldera floor was used as a pasture for
899:
887:
which cover large parts of the caldera floor and may have been used as
735:
669:
601:
541:
479:
459:
447:
432:
383:
362:. Supposedly the entire Tibesti can be seen from the northern summits.
304:
1942:
1940:
1590:
1588:
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1494:
3169:
2913:
951:
920:
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333:
272:
260:
2702:
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1845:
1265:
466:, the former of which is connected to Emi Koussi by a narrow ridge.
1937:
1583:
1491:
1045:
979:, more than 3,800 kilometres (2,400 mi) away from Emi Koussi.
976:
762:
747:
on diatom beds which have been penetrated or buried by lava flows.
731:
704:
685:
665:
628:
593:
589:
545:
537:
533:
412:
340:
people lived in its summit caldera and in artificial caves. In the
300:
186:
1674:
1367:
1218:
3078:
3018:
2953:
2933:
2198:
Bulletin de la Société Botanique de France. Actualités Botaniques
1637:
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1365:
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1334:
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960:
905:
888:
869:
852:
720:
708:
692:
688:
673:
569:
561:
553:
501:
497:
388:
379:
267:
240:
2256:
Bulletin de la Société d'Histoire Naturelle de l'Afrique du Nord
365:
291:
deposits, and Emi Koussi has been studied as an analogue of the
3179:
3073:
2791:
2266:
1887:
1875:
1863:
1736:
1734:
1656:
1287:
1285:
1283:
924:
884:
700:
640:
by 2,000–2,500 metres (6,600–8,200 ft) elevation. Elleboe
632:
597:
585:
505:
443:
408:
351:
341:
337:
320:
248:
46:
2032:
1833:
1821:
1632:
1434:
1409:
1344:
1329:
1252:
Peel, R. F. (1942). "The Tibu Peoples and the Libyan Desert".
1206:
1196:
1194:
1154:
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637:
609:
529:
400:
396:
359:
288:
2426:
2056:
2044:
1731:
1719:
1532:
1306:
1280:
1239:
2447:
2335:
2098:
2074:
1958:
1668:
1562:
1323:
944:
916:
696:
641:
577:
420:
329:
316:
292:
284:
280:
256:
155:
1513:
1511:
1509:
1191:
2658:
Poli, E. (1974). "Vegetationsgrenzen in Vulkangebieten".
2521:
10.1130/0016-7606(1977)88<908:COVFOE>2.0.CO;2
1900:
1898:
1896:
1399:
1397:
1395:
1969:
1967:
1799:
1797:
975:, a species also previously considered to be endemic to
427:
are also nested within the combined caldera, along with
2080:
2020:
2008:
1543:
1541:
1506:
1382:
1380:
2163:
2161:
1893:
1770:
1573:
1571:
1392:
1181:
1179:
1177:
1175:
1173:
1171:
1169:
2253:
2179:
2116:"La sección Atlanticae del género Luzula (Juncaceae)"
1964:
1851:
1809:
1794:
1142:
2660:
Tatsachen und Probleme der Grenzen in der Vegetation
2612:
2230:
2218:
1946:
1782:
1594:
1538:
1500:
1377:
1224:
2158:
1693:Smith, Andrew (2001). "Saharo-Sudanese Neolithic".
1568:
1166:
672:age. The volcano was constructed mainly during the
631:, Era Kohor was filled with a deep, circular lake.
1998:Zeitschrift fĂĽr Gletscherkunde und Glazialgeologie
1991:
1471:Zimmermann, M. (1919). "Chronique GĂ©ographique".
1466:
1464:
3202:
1751:
1749:
727:were deposited in Era Kohor until recent times.
540:. The erupted rocks define two alkaline suites.
2556:
2380:
2038:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1910:
1839:
1827:
1680:
1641:
1455:
1428:
1371:
1338:
1212:
1160:
2383:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
2113:
1461:
765:forms on Emi Koussi and the identification of
616:processes. Rocks from Emi Koussi were used as
310:
2817:
2585:
2114:Romo, A.; Boratyński, A. (30 December 2011).
2062:
2050:
1746:
1740:
1725:
1291:
1200:
16:High pyroclastic shield volcano in the Sahara
2831:
1979:
723:took place on the flanks of Emi Koussi, and
345:
2185:
2109:
2107:
1916:
1695:Encyclopedia of Prehistory Volume 1: Africa
2824:
2810:
2757:. NASA Earth Observatory. 8 December 2002.
1470:
3190:Saint Helena, Ascension, Tristan da Cunha
2477:
2209:
2141:
2131:
1755:
1686:
1608:"International Chronostratigraphic Chart"
1118:
1032:Natron in the inner caldera of Emi Koussi
750:
415:lava flows are exposed in its walls, and
2755:"Emi Koussi Volcano, Chad, North Africa"
2535:
2422:(in German). Universitäts-Verlag Wagner.
2417:
2104:
2086:
2026:
2014:
1904:
1776:
1517:
1403:
1245:
1148:
652:
364:
2191:
1600:
493:The oldest rocks below the Tibesti are
3203:
2311:
1973:
1815:
1803:
243:that lies at the southeast end of the
236:(also known as Emi Koussou) is a high
3170:French Southern & Antarctic Lands
2805:
2717:
2684:
2502:
2236:
2224:
2194:"RĂ©flexion sur les flores africaines"
1788:
1697:. Springer, Boston, MA. p. 245.
1692:
1547:
1386:
1185:
1089:
1087:
1085:
730:On the southern foot of the volcano,
399:, the Porte de Modiounga, from which
2657:
2167:
1577:
1251:
2429:Berliner geographische Abhandlungen
2321:Publications scientifiques de l'IRD
648:
13:
2586:Pachur, H-J.; Altmann, N- (2006).
1082:
129:
14:
3277:
2747:
2559:Mountain Research and Development
2452:; Krinner, G. (9 December 2011).
2180:Bruneau de Miré & Quézel 1959
1852:Bruneau de Miré & Quézel 1959
1756:Hoelzmann, Philipp (2016-01-01).
369:Topographic map of the Emi Koussi
3134:Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
2904:Democratic Republic of the Congo
2790:
2323:. Paris: ORSTOM. pp. 79–154
1947:Permenter & Oppenheimer 2007
1595:Permenter & Oppenheimer 2007
1501:Permenter & Oppenheimer 2007
1225:Permenter & Oppenheimer 2007
1037:
1025:
1013:
1001:
989:
676:within about one million years.
395:. The caldera rim is cut by one
128:
121:
29:
2133:10.3989/collectbot.2011.v30.005
2211:10.1080/01811789.1989.10826963
1:
2403:10.1016/S0377-0273(03)00277-4
1075:
996:Another view of it from space
51:3,415 m (11,204 ft)
3246:Pleistocene shield volcanoes
3175:Heard & McDonald Islands
2668:10.1007/978-94-011-7595-1_21
2588:Die Ostsahara im Spätquartär
2503:Malin, M. C. (1 July 1977).
2192:Schnell, R. (10 July 2014).
1703:10.1007/978-1-4615-1193-9_19
7:
3261:Highest points of countries
2590:(in German). SpringerLink.
2039:Messerli & Winiger 1992
1840:Gourgaud & Vincent 2004
1828:Gourgaud & Vincent 2004
1681:Gourgaud & Vincent 2004
1642:Gourgaud & Vincent 2004
1456:Gourgaud & Vincent 2004
1429:Gourgaud & Vincent 2004
1372:Gourgaud & Vincent 2004
1339:Messerli & Winiger 1992
1213:Gourgaud & Vincent 2004
1161:Gourgaud & Vincent 2004
1053:
311:Geography and geomorphology
10:
3282:
3266:Shield volcanoes of Africa
2538:Arctic and Alpine Research
2448:LĂ©zine, A.-M.; Zheng, W.;
2246:
982:
614:fractional crystallization
572:, clinopyroxene, olivine,
469:
35:Emi Koussi seen from space
3251:Holocene shield volcanoes
3147:
3122:
2839:
2635:10.1007/s00445-006-0098-x
2596:10.1007/978-3-540-47625-2
2418:Hellmich, Walter (1972).
2289:10.1007/s00445-015-0955-6
2063:Pachur & Altmann 2006
2051:Pachur & Altmann 2006
1741:Pachur & Altmann 2006
1726:Pachur & Altmann 2006
1292:Pachur & Altmann 2006
1201:Pachur & Altmann 2006
1065:List of volcanoes in Chad
624:societies of the region.
528:and trachyte, as well as
219:
214:
204:
192:
180:
175:
161:
151:
115:
110:
71:
55:
45:
40:
28:
23:
2889:Central African Republic
2833:Highest points of Africa
2691:The Geographical Journal
1254:The Geographical Journal
1100:Global Volcanism Program
1070:List of Ultras of Africa
963:on Emi Koussi. The fern
612:genesis mainly involved
508:, which are probably of
411:Hole or Trou au Natron.
2615:Bulletin of Volcanology
2338:Bulletin Volcanologique
2269:Bulletin of Volcanology
1105:Smithsonian Institution
1020:Emi Koussi inner crater
972:Asplenium daghestanicum
584:, oxides, plagioclase,
520:Emi Koussi has erupted
346:
2479:10.5194/cp-7-1351-2011
1008:Calderas of Emi Koussi
872:vegetation, including
859:grew around the lake.
782:Cyclotella cyclopuncta
751:Climate and vegetation
743:have been obtained by
661:
370:
3049:SĂŁo TomĂ© and PrĂncipe
2909:Republic of the Congo
2799:at Wikimedia Commons
2718:Viane, R.L.L (1987).
2312:Dumont, H.J. (1987).
1473:Annales de GĂ©ographie
1044:Emi Koussi seen from
818:Fragilaria construens
656:
368:
323:, and is part of the
95:19.79250°N 18.54639°E
2441:10.23689/fidgeo-2849
2120:Collectanea Botanica
776:Cocconeis placentula
657:Emi Koussi caldera,
439:fills the calderas.
350:means "mountains", "
3216:Pyroclastic shields
3126:limited recognition
2627:2007BVol...69..609P
2470:2011CliPa...7.1351L
2395:2004JVGR..129..261G
2350:1959BVol...22..135G
2281:2015BVol...77...74D
1683:, pp. 268–269.
836:Gomphonema parvulum
800:Cymbella leptoceros
788:Cyclotella ocellata
568:. Alkali feldspar,
437:explosive eruptions
315:Emi Koussi lies in
91: /
3256:Inactive volcanoes
2779:"Emi Koussi, Chad"
2685:Tilho, J. (1920).
2358:10.1007/BF02596582
2099:LĂ©zine et al. 2011
2075:LĂ©zine et al. 2011
1888:Deniel et al. 2015
1876:Deniel et al. 2015
1864:Deniel et al. 2015
1657:Deniel et al. 2015
966:Asplenium quezelii
824:Fragilaria pinnata
745:radiocarbon dating
678:Radiometric dating
662:
608:in erupted rocks.
371:
251:, in the northern
238:pyroclastic shield
199:Pyroclastic shield
100:19.79250; 18.54639
62:Country high point
41:Highest point
3241:Mountains of Chad
3231:Volcanoes of Chad
3226:Hotspot volcanoes
3211:Tibesti Mountains
3198:
3197:
3153:other territories
2924:Equatorial Guinea
2795:Media related to
2605:978-3-540-47625-2
1533:Jäkel et al. 1972
1307:Jäkel et al. 1972
1240:Jäkel et al. 1972
1060:Geography of Chad
830:Gomphonema affine
806:Cymbella muelleri
627:During the early
325:Tibesti Mountains
245:Tibesti Mountains
231:
230:
170:Tibesti Mountains
3273:
3221:Calderas of Chad
2841:Sovereign states
2826:
2819:
2812:
2803:
2802:
2794:
2786:
2774:
2769:. Archived from
2758:
2742:
2740:
2738:
2727:The Fern Gazette
2724:
2714:
2681:
2654:
2609:
2582:
2553:
2544:(3): A139–A147.
2532:
2499:
2481:
2464:(4): 1351–1362.
2444:
2423:
2414:
2377:
2332:
2330:
2328:
2318:
2308:
2263:
2240:
2234:
2228:
2222:
2216:
2215:
2213:
2189:
2183:
2177:
2171:
2165:
2156:
2155:
2145:
2135:
2111:
2102:
2096:
2090:
2084:
2078:
2072:
2066:
2060:
2054:
2048:
2042:
2036:
2030:
2024:
2018:
2012:
2006:
2005:
1995:
1988:
1977:
1971:
1962:
1959:Gèze et al. 1959
1956:
1950:
1944:
1935:
1934:
1914:
1908:
1902:
1891:
1885:
1879:
1873:
1867:
1861:
1855:
1849:
1843:
1837:
1831:
1825:
1819:
1813:
1807:
1801:
1792:
1786:
1780:
1774:
1768:
1767:
1753:
1744:
1738:
1729:
1723:
1717:
1716:
1690:
1684:
1678:
1672:
1669:Gèze et al. 1959
1666:
1660:
1654:
1645:
1639:
1630:
1629:
1627:
1625:
1619:
1612:
1604:
1598:
1592:
1581:
1575:
1566:
1563:Gèze et al. 1959
1560:
1551:
1545:
1536:
1530:
1521:
1515:
1504:
1498:
1489:
1488:
1479:(155): 387–400.
1468:
1459:
1453:
1432:
1426:
1407:
1401:
1390:
1384:
1375:
1369:
1342:
1336:
1327:
1324:Gèze et al. 1959
1321:
1310:
1304:
1295:
1289:
1278:
1277:
1249:
1243:
1237:
1228:
1222:
1216:
1210:
1204:
1198:
1189:
1183:
1164:
1158:
1152:
1146:
1140:
1139:
1137:
1136:
1122:
1116:
1115:
1113:
1111:
1091:
1041:
1029:
1017:
1005:
993:
956:Luzula tibestica
848:Rhopalodia gibba
842:Navicula oblonga
812:Epithemia adnata
794:Cymbella cistula
649:Eruptive history
446:and two sets of
417:sodium carbonate
349:
223:
165:
142:Location in Chad
132:
131:
125:
106:
105:
103:
102:
101:
96:
92:
89:
88:
87:
84:
33:
21:
20:
3281:
3280:
3276:
3275:
3274:
3272:
3271:
3270:
3201:
3200:
3199:
3194:
3152:
3143:
3125:
3118:
2835:
2830:
2777:
2761:
2753:
2750:
2745:
2736:
2734:
2722:
2703:10.2307/1781532
2678:
2606:
2571:10.2307/3673683
2326:
2324:
2316:
2249:
2244:
2243:
2235:
2231:
2223:
2219:
2190:
2186:
2178:
2174:
2166:
2159:
2112:
2105:
2101:, p. 1354.
2097:
2093:
2085:
2081:
2077:, p. 1353.
2073:
2069:
2061:
2057:
2049:
2045:
2037:
2033:
2025:
2021:
2013:
2009:
1990:
1989:
1980:
1972:
1965:
1957:
1953:
1945:
1938:
1915:
1911:
1903:
1894:
1886:
1882:
1874:
1870:
1862:
1858:
1850:
1846:
1838:
1834:
1826:
1822:
1814:
1810:
1802:
1795:
1787:
1783:
1775:
1771:
1754:
1747:
1739:
1732:
1724:
1720:
1713:
1691:
1687:
1679:
1675:
1667:
1663:
1655:
1648:
1640:
1633:
1623:
1621:
1620:on 31 July 2018
1617:
1610:
1606:
1605:
1601:
1593:
1584:
1576:
1569:
1561:
1554:
1546:
1539:
1531:
1524:
1516:
1507:
1499:
1492:
1469:
1462:
1454:
1435:
1427:
1410:
1402:
1393:
1385:
1378:
1370:
1345:
1337:
1330:
1322:
1313:
1305:
1298:
1290:
1281:
1266:10.2307/1789494
1250:
1246:
1238:
1231:
1223:
1219:
1211:
1207:
1199:
1192:
1184:
1167:
1159:
1155:
1147:
1143:
1134:
1132:
1124:
1123:
1119:
1109:
1107:
1093:
1092:
1083:
1078:
1056:
1049:
1048:in October 1968
1042:
1033:
1030:
1021:
1018:
1009:
1006:
997:
994:
985:
753:
651:
472:
313:
247:in the central
221:
163:
147:
146:
145:
144:
143:
140:
139:
138:
137:
133:
99:
97:
93:
90:
85:
82:
80:
78:
77:
64:
36:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3279:
3269:
3268:
3263:
3258:
3253:
3248:
3243:
3238:
3233:
3228:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3196:
3195:
3193:
3192:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3172:
3167:
3162:
3156:
3154:
3145:
3144:
3142:
3141:
3136:
3130:
3128:
3120:
3119:
3117:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2926:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2845:
2843:
2837:
2836:
2829:
2828:
2821:
2814:
2806:
2788:
2787:
2783:Peakbagger.com
2775:
2773:on 2016-03-04.
2759:
2749:
2748:External links
2746:
2744:
2743:
2715:
2697:(3): 161–183.
2682:
2676:
2655:
2621:(6): 609–626.
2610:
2604:
2583:
2565:(4): 315–336.
2554:
2533:
2500:
2445:
2424:
2415:
2389:(4): 261–290.
2378:
2344:(1): 135–172.
2333:
2309:
2264:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2242:
2241:
2239:, p. 147.
2229:
2227:, p. 143.
2217:
2184:
2182:, p. 136.
2172:
2170:, p. 226.
2157:
2103:
2091:
2089:, p. 142.
2079:
2067:
2065:, p. 120.
2055:
2053:, p. 137.
2043:
2041:, p. 317.
2031:
2029:, p. 141.
2019:
2017:, p. 146.
2007:
1978:
1976:, p. 134.
1963:
1961:, p. 165.
1951:
1949:, p. 619.
1936:
1925:(4): 317–333.
1909:
1892:
1880:
1868:
1856:
1854:, p. 135.
1844:
1842:, p. 268.
1832:
1830:, p. 266.
1820:
1818:, p. 141.
1808:
1806:, p. 135.
1793:
1791:, p. 171.
1781:
1769:
1745:
1743:, p. 119.
1730:
1728:, p. 159.
1718:
1711:
1685:
1673:
1671:, p. 138.
1661:
1646:
1644:, p. 288.
1631:
1599:
1597:, p. 616.
1582:
1580:, p. 225.
1567:
1565:, p. 139.
1552:
1550:, p. 909.
1537:
1535:, p. 119.
1522:
1520:, p. 172.
1505:
1503:, p. 621.
1490:
1460:
1458:, p. 267.
1433:
1431:, p. 263.
1408:
1391:
1389:, p. 172.
1376:
1374:, p. 264.
1343:
1341:, p. 327.
1328:
1326:, p. 137.
1311:
1309:, p. 117.
1296:
1294:, p. 103.
1279:
1244:
1242:, p. 118.
1229:
1227:, p. 609.
1217:
1215:, p. 262.
1205:
1190:
1188:, p. 908.
1165:
1163:, p. 261.
1153:
1141:
1130:Peakbagger.com
1117:
1080:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1073:
1072:
1067:
1062:
1055:
1052:
1051:
1050:
1043:
1036:
1034:
1031:
1024:
1022:
1019:
1012:
1010:
1007:
1000:
998:
995:
988:
984:
981:
752:
749:
741:before present
650:
647:
600:also form the
526:trachyandesite
510:Neoproterozoic
484:alkali basalts
471:
468:
435:. Debris from
375:shield volcano
312:
309:
229:
228:
225:
217:
216:
212:
211:
208:
202:
201:
196:
190:
189:
184:
178:
177:
173:
172:
167:
159:
158:
153:
149:
148:
141:
135:
134:
127:
126:
120:
119:
118:
117:
116:
113:
112:
108:
107:
75:
69:
68:
59:
53:
52:
49:
43:
42:
38:
37:
34:
26:
25:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3278:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3252:
3249:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3237:
3236:Maars of Chad
3234:
3232:
3229:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3219:
3217:
3214:
3212:
3209:
3208:
3206:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3165:Bouvet Island
3163:
3161:
3158:
3157:
3155:
3150:
3146:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3131:
3129:
3127:
3121:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2964:Guinea-Bissau
2962:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2935:
2932:
2930:
2927:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2917:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2846:
2844:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2827:
2822:
2820:
2815:
2813:
2808:
2807:
2804:
2800:
2798:
2793:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2751:
2732:
2728:
2721:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2683:
2679:
2677:9789401175968
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2611:
2607:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2450:Braconnot, P.
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2431:(in German).
2430:
2425:
2421:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2340:(in French).
2339:
2334:
2322:
2315:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2265:
2261:
2258:(in French).
2257:
2252:
2251:
2238:
2233:
2226:
2221:
2212:
2207:
2203:
2200:(in French).
2199:
2195:
2188:
2181:
2176:
2169:
2164:
2162:
2153:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2110:
2108:
2100:
2095:
2088:
2087:Messerli 1973
2083:
2076:
2071:
2064:
2059:
2052:
2047:
2040:
2035:
2028:
2027:Messerli 1973
2023:
2016:
2015:Messerli 1973
2011:
2003:
1999:
1994:
1987:
1985:
1983:
1975:
1970:
1968:
1960:
1955:
1948:
1943:
1941:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1913:
1907:, p. 22.
1906:
1905:Hellmich 1972
1901:
1899:
1897:
1889:
1884:
1878:, p. 18.
1877:
1872:
1866:, p. 17.
1865:
1860:
1853:
1848:
1841:
1836:
1829:
1824:
1817:
1812:
1805:
1800:
1798:
1790:
1785:
1779:, p. 56.
1778:
1777:Hellmich 1972
1773:
1765:
1764:
1759:
1752:
1750:
1742:
1737:
1735:
1727:
1722:
1714:
1712:9781468471281
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1689:
1682:
1677:
1670:
1665:
1658:
1653:
1651:
1643:
1638:
1636:
1616:
1609:
1603:
1596:
1591:
1589:
1587:
1579:
1574:
1572:
1564:
1559:
1557:
1549:
1544:
1542:
1534:
1529:
1527:
1519:
1518:Hellmich 1972
1514:
1512:
1510:
1502:
1497:
1495:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1467:
1465:
1457:
1452:
1450:
1448:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1440:
1438:
1430:
1425:
1423:
1421:
1419:
1417:
1415:
1413:
1406:, p. 21.
1405:
1404:Hellmich 1972
1400:
1398:
1396:
1388:
1383:
1381:
1373:
1368:
1366:
1364:
1362:
1360:
1358:
1356:
1354:
1352:
1350:
1348:
1340:
1335:
1333:
1325:
1320:
1318:
1316:
1308:
1303:
1301:
1293:
1288:
1286:
1284:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1248:
1241:
1236:
1234:
1226:
1221:
1214:
1209:
1203:, p. 88.
1202:
1197:
1195:
1187:
1182:
1180:
1178:
1176:
1174:
1172:
1170:
1162:
1157:
1151:, p. 10.
1150:
1149:Hellmich 1972
1145:
1131:
1127:
1121:
1106:
1102:
1101:
1096:
1090:
1088:
1086:
1081:
1071:
1068:
1066:
1063:
1061:
1058:
1057:
1047:
1040:
1035:
1028:
1023:
1016:
1011:
1004:
999:
992:
987:
986:
980:
978:
974:
973:
968:
967:
962:
958:
957:
953:
948:
946:
942:
938:
937:
932:
931:
926:
922:
918:
914:
913:
908:
907:
902:
901:
896:
895:
894:Dichrocephala
890:
886:
883:
882:
877:
876:
871:
867:
866:
865:Erica arborea
860:
858:
857:water milfoil
854:
850:
849:
844:
843:
838:
837:
832:
831:
826:
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796:
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619:
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603:
599:
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583:
579:
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571:
567:
564:, oxides and
563:
559:
558:clinopyroxene
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
518:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
496:
491:
489:
485:
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477:
476:Carboniferous
467:
465:
464:Tarso Emi Chi
461:
457:
453:
449:
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278:
274:
269:
264:
262:
258:
254:
253:Borkou Region
250:
246:
242:
239:
235:
226:
224:
222:Easiest route
218:
213:
209:
207:
206:Last eruption
203:
200:
197:
195:
194:Mountain type
191:
188:
185:
183:
179:
174:
171:
168:
166:
160:
157:
154:
150:
124:
114:
109:
104:
76:
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67:
63:
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58:
54:
50:
48:
44:
39:
32:
27:
22:
19:
3149:Dependencies
3074:South Africa
3064:Sierra Leone
2893:
2869:Burkina Faso
2789:
2782:
2771:the original
2767:Peakware.com
2766:
2763:"Emi Koussi"
2735:. Retrieved
2730:
2726:
2694:
2690:
2659:
2618:
2614:
2587:
2562:
2558:
2541:
2537:
2512:
2509:GSA Bulletin
2508:
2461:
2457:
2432:
2428:
2419:
2386:
2382:
2341:
2337:
2325:. Retrieved
2320:
2272:
2268:
2259:
2255:
2232:
2220:
2204:(3–4): 116.
2201:
2197:
2187:
2175:
2123:
2119:
2094:
2082:
2070:
2058:
2046:
2034:
2022:
2010:
2001:
1997:
1954:
1922:
1918:
1912:
1890:, p. 8.
1883:
1871:
1859:
1847:
1835:
1823:
1811:
1784:
1772:
1763:ResearchGate
1761:
1721:
1694:
1688:
1676:
1664:
1659:, p. 3.
1622:. Retrieved
1615:the original
1602:
1476:
1472:
1260:(2): 73–87.
1257:
1253:
1247:
1220:
1208:
1156:
1144:
1133:. Retrieved
1129:
1126:"Emi Koussi"
1120:
1108:. Retrieved
1098:
1095:"Emi Koussi"
970:
964:
954:
949:
934:
928:
910:
904:
898:
892:
879:
873:
863:
861:
846:
840:
834:
828:
822:
816:
810:
804:
798:
792:
786:
780:
774:
772:
754:
729:
713:
683:
663:
626:
618:raw material
519:
492:
488:mantle plume
473:
441:
425:scoria cones
423:and several
405:
393:Elysium Mons
372:
356:
314:
297:Elysium Mons
277:cinder cones
265:
255:of northern
233:
232:
164:Parent range
18:
3124:States with
3079:South Sudan
2969:Ivory Coast
2143:10261/50024
1974:Dumont 1987
1816:Dumont 1987
1804:Dumont 1987
936:Selaginella
930:Oldenlandia
915:as well as
912:Helichrysum
767:periglacial
758:cloud cover
736:hot springs
717:Pleistocene
566:plagioclase
532:rocks like
495:Precambrian
448:ignimbrites
266:Two nested
182:Age of rock
98: /
73:Coordinates
3205:Categories
3139:Somaliland
3059:Seychelles
3024:Mozambique
3009:Mauritania
2994:Madagascar
2884:Cape Verde
2797:Emi Koussi
2515:(7): 908.
2458:Clim. Past
2237:Viane 1987
2225:Viane 1987
1789:Tilho 1920
1766:. EGU2016.
1624:4 December
1548:Malin 1977
1387:Tilho 1920
1186:Malin 1977
1135:2021-02-12
1110:3 November
1076:References
921:liverworts
900:Eragrostis
725:carbonates
670:Quaternary
606:microliths
602:groundmass
542:Phenocryst
480:Cretaceous
460:Tarso Ahon
452:lava flows
442:The Kohor
433:lava flows
429:lava domes
344:language,
334:Dirt roads
307:activity.
305:hot spring
285:lava flows
273:lava domes
234:Emi Koussi
136:Emi Koussi
86:18°32′47″E
83:19°47′33″N
24:Emi Koussi
3160:Bir Tawil
3014:Mauritius
2934:Swaziland
2643:0258-8900
2529:0016-7606
2488:1814-9332
2411:0377-0273
2374:128896369
2366:0366-483X
2305:129043535
2297:0258-8900
2275:(9): 74.
2168:Poli 1974
2152:1989-1067
1919:Geography
1578:Poli 1974
952:wood rush
875:Artemisia
732:fumaroles
622:Neolithic
582:nepheline
574:magnetite
550:amphibole
522:phonolite
514:Paleozoic
456:Sandstone
413:Trachytic
391:volcano,
301:fumarolic
261:sandstone
111:Geography
47:Elevation
3114:Zimbabwe
3089:Tanzania
2939:Ethiopia
2914:Djibouti
2879:Cameroon
2864:Botswana
2737:13 April
2651:53463999
2327:14 April
1931:40572950
1485:23439749
1054:See also
1046:Apollo 7
977:Dagestan
889:pastures
763:nivation
711:blocks.
705:Phreatic
686:basaltic
666:Pliocene
629:Holocene
594:titanite
590:sodalite
546:feldspar
538:tephrite
534:basanite
502:granites
498:diorites
478:and the
380:calderas
373:It is a
295:volcano
268:calderas
215:Climbing
187:Holocene
152:Location
3185:RĂ©union
3180:Mayotte
3099:Tunisia
3069:Somalia
3054:Senegal
3039:Nigeria
3029:Namibia
3019:Morocco
2984:Liberia
2979:Lesotho
2929:Eritrea
2899:Comoros
2874:Burundi
2849:Algeria
2711:1781532
2623:Bibcode
2579:3673683
2550:1550163
2466:Bibcode
2391:Bibcode
2346:Bibcode
2277:Bibcode
2247:Sources
2004:. 1972.
1274:1789494
983:Gallery
961:endemic
906:Erodium
885:steppes
881:Ephedra
870:montane
853:Cattail
721:erosion
709:syenite
693:breccia
689:lapilli
674:Miocene
570:apatite
562:olivine
554:biotite
506:schists
470:Geology
444:pumices
389:Martian
293:Martian
241:volcano
210:unknown
176:Geology
57:Listing
3109:Zambia
3104:Uganda
3044:Rwanda
2999:Malawi
2959:Guinea
2949:Gambia
2854:Angola
2709:
2674:
2649:
2641:
2602:
2577:
2548:
2527:
2496:887606
2494:
2486:
2409:
2372:
2364:
2303:
2295:
2150:
2126:: 55.
1929:
1709:
1483:
1272:
941:camels
925:mosses
701:fiamme
638:gorges
633:Diatom
598:zircon
586:quartz
409:Natron
401:gorges
397:outlet
384:scarps
352:massif
342:Tedaga
321:Africa
283:, and
249:Sahara
3084:Sudan
3034:Niger
2989:Libya
2974:Kenya
2954:Ghana
2944:Gabon
2919:Egypt
2859:Benin
2723:(PDF)
2707:JSTOR
2647:S2CID
2575:JSTOR
2546:JSTOR
2492:S2CID
2370:S2CID
2317:(PDF)
2301:S2CID
1927:JSTOR
1618:(PDF)
1611:(PDF)
1481:JSTOR
1270:JSTOR
945:goats
917:ferns
697:tuffs
659:ASTER
610:Magma
530:mafic
421:maars
360:orbit
289:trona
281:maars
66:Ultra
3094:Togo
3004:Mali
2894:Chad
2739:2018
2672:ISBN
2639:ISSN
2600:ISBN
2525:ISSN
2484:ISSN
2407:ISSN
2362:ISSN
2329:2018
2293:ISSN
2148:ISSN
1707:ISBN
1626:2018
1112:2013
950:The
943:and
933:and
923:and
855:and
845:and
642:wadi
596:and
578:mica
536:and
504:and
462:and
431:and
338:Tibu
330:dome
317:Chad
303:and
257:Chad
227:Hike
156:Chad
3151:and
2733:(3)
2699:doi
2664:doi
2631:doi
2592:doi
2567:doi
2517:doi
2474:doi
2437:doi
2399:doi
2387:129
2354:doi
2285:doi
2206:doi
2202:136
2138:hdl
2128:doi
1699:doi
1262:doi
1258:100
959:is
620:by
604:of
347:Emi
3207::
2781:.
2765:.
2731:13
2729:.
2725:.
2705:.
2695:56
2693:.
2689:.
2670:.
2645:.
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2619:69
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