272:
male gender role. Another broad explanation for the contrast in male and female gender expression is that women have reported to experience greater levels of emotional intensity than men, in both positive and negative aspects, which could naturally lead to greater emotional response. It has also been reported that men are more likely to confide in female companions, revealing their emotions and intimacy, while females are typically comfortable confiding in both genders. This suggests that men are more particular about how they express the emotions they feel, potentially relating back to gender roles.
17:
33:
1723:
1717:
73:. Most of these responses can be observed by other people, while some emotional responses can only be observed by the person experiencing them. Observable responses to emotion (i.e., smiling) do not have a single meaning. A smile can be used to express happiness or anxiety, while a frown can communicate sadness or anger. Emotionality is often used by
372:) is one of the biggest factors found in negative emotionality. Someone on the higher spectrum of neuroticism is often more anxious and enjoy the feelings of their negative emotion. Some research suggests that obese children compared to children who are not obese have higher levels of negative emotionality and the ability to control emotions.
170:, and cognitive. Physiological theories imply that activity within the body can be accountable for emotions. Neurological theories suggest that activity within the brain leads to emotional responses. Lastly, cognitive theories reason that thoughts and other mental activity have a vital role in the stimulation of emotions.
247:
The opposition of rational thought and emotion is believed to be paralleled by the similar opposition between male and female. A traditional view is that "men are seen as rational and women as emotional, lacking rationality." However, in spite of these ideas, and in spite of gender differences in the
359:
is the opposite of positive emotionality. People are unable to control their positive mood and emotions. Everyone experiences negative emotionality in different levels, there are different factors that effect each individual in a different way. Negative emotionality effects many aspects of our lives
347:
was considered by its definition of the inability to receive positive emotions or pleasure. The youth's temperament, adaptive emotion regulation (ER) strategies, and depressive symptoms were determined through a questionnaire. The study also reported that depressive symptoms could be reduced through
342:
Positive emotionality is the ability to control positive mood and emotions, people with positive emotions seek for social reward. Positive emotionality can be a preventive factor in blocking out certain types of mental illness. In a study of a sample of 1,655 youth (54% girls; 7– 16 years), it found
271:
The male gender role involves characteristics such as strength, expert knowledge, and a competitive nature. Smiling may be stereotypically associated with weakness. Men may feel that if they engage in this perceived weakness, it may contradict their attempts to show strength and other traits of the
212:
and
Phillip Bard, suggests that emotions and their corresponding physiological responses are experienced simultaneously. Using the previous example, when someone sees the car coming toward them in their lane, their heart starts to race and they feel afraid at the same time.
255:
When engaging in social interaction, studies show that women smile significantly more than men do. It is difficult to determine the exact difference between males and females to explain this disparity. It is possible that this difference in expression of emotions is due to
195:
or events. For example, this theory suggests that if someone is driving down the road and sees the headlights of another car heading toward them in their lane, their heart begins to race (a physiological response) and then they become afraid (fear being the emotion).
232:
and labeled as an emotion. Using the example of someone seeing a car coming towards them in their lane, their heart would start to race and they would identify that they must be afraid if their heart is racing, and from there they would begin to feel fear.
174:
suggests that people first become consciously aware of their emotions and that the physiological responses follow shortly after. Theories by James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, and
Schachter-Singer contradict the common-sense theory.
125:
One of the oldest views of emotion is that emotion indicates inferiority. In early psychology, it was believed that passion (emotion) was a part of the soul inherited from the animals and that it must be controlled.
158:, and electrical activity in the brain. Many researchers have attempted to find a connection between specific emotions and a corresponding pattern of physiological responses, but the results have been inconclusive.
334:. Current thinking favors a mix of underlying universality combined with significant cultural differences in the articulation and expression of emotion. Emotions serve different functions in different cultures.
228:, which implies emotion have two factors: physical arousal and cognitive label. This suggests that if the physiological activity occurs first, then it must cognitively be distinguished as the cause of the
348:
emotion regulation of positive mood. A study by
Charles T. Taylor et al. linked being exposed to positive emotions before a surgery to less anxiety and a decrease in having symptoms after treatment.
315:(ANS) activity is associated with the three emotions of fear, anger, and disgust. Ekman theorizes that these specific emotions are associated with the universal physiological responses due to
2204:
969:
113:
components. William McDougall thought of emotion as the articulation of a natural response built on instinct. Other psychologists reasoned that although
319:. It would not be expected to observe the same physiological responses for emotions not specifically linked to survival, such as happiness or sadness.
89:
By the late 1800s, many high-quality contributions became interested in analyzing emotion because of the works of psychologists and scientists such as
42:
326:, and have since been tested by a variety of researchers, with ambiguous results. This seems to reflect methodological problems relating to both
431:
308:
should be combined with disgust. According to Ekman (1992), each of these emotions have universally corresponding facial expressions as well.
922:"What good are positive emotions for treatment? Trait positive emotionality predicts response to Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for anxiety"
109:. William James preferred to focus on the physiological aspects of emotional response, although he did not disregard the perceptual or
117:
express emotion, this is not the entirety of their function. Wundt analyzed that emotion portrays both expression and communication.
1011:
878:"Don't worry, be happy: The role of positive emotionality and adaptive emotion regulation strategies for youth depressive symptoms"
519:
Porges, S. W.; Doussard-Roosevelt, J. A. & Maiti, A. K. (1994). "Vagal tone and the physiological regulation of emotion".
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In addition to the facial expressions that are said to accompany each emotion, there is also evidence to suggest that certain
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1952:
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Taylor, Charles T.; Knapp, Sarah E.; Bomyea, Jessica A.; Ramsawh, Holly J.; Paulus, Martin P.; Stein, Murray B. (2017).
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1964:
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Ellsworth, P. C. (1994). "William James and
Emotion: Is a Century of Fame Worth a Century of Misunderstanding?".
242:
1922:
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Schachter, S. & Singer, J. (1962). "Cognitive, Social, and
Physiological Determinants of Emotional State".
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The significant theories of emotion can be divided into three primary categories: physiological,
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of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, reason and emotion were discovered to be opposites.
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191:. This theory suggests that emotions occur as a result of physiological responses to outside
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Cannon, W.B. (July 1931). "Again the James-Lange and the thalamic theories of emotion".
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Van
Beveren, Marie-Lotte; Harding, Kaitlin; Beyers, Wim; Braet, Caroline (March 2018).
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McRae, K.; Ochsner, K. N.; Mauss, I. B.; Gabrieli, J. J. D. & Gross, J. J. (2008).
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that the higher their positive emotionality was, the lower their depression would be.
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There are six universal emotions which expand across all cultures. These emotions are
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693:"Gender differences in emotion regulation: An fmri study of cognitive reappraisal"
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970:"Excerpt: Negative Emotionality and Neuroticism From Childhood Through Adulthood"
252:, the empirical evidence on gender differences in emotional responding is mixed.
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36:
Wide eyes and raised eyebrows are common indicators of surprise (Figure 20 from
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in terms of coping and the relationship that people share with one another.
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154:. Some of the responses include: heart rate, sweating, rate and depth of
131:
268:. However, this may not fully explain why men smile less than women do.
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Crawford, J.; Kippax, S.; Onyx, J.; Gault, U. & Benton, P. (1992).
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Integrating emotion into the study of social relationships and health
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P. Philipott et al eds., The Social
Context of Nonverbal Behaviour
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Interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems
508:. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 97–117.
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was proposed by psychologist
William James and physiologist
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Monographs of the
Society for Research in Child Development
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Gender differences in nonverbal communication of emotion
744:. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 3–22.
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801:
Ekman, Paul (1992). "An argument for basic emotions".
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481:
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and Jerome Singer proposed a theory also known as the
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490:. London, England: Sage Publications. pp. 16–18.
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Emotion and gender: Constructing meaning from memory
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Physiological responses to emotion originate in the
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512:
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504:Hall, J. A.; Carter, J. D.; Horgan, T. G. (2000).
449:
758:Ekman, Paul (1992). "Are there basic emotions?".
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438:
413:The expression of the emotions in man and animals
43:The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals
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629:James, W. (April 1884). "What is an emotion?".
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2278:indicate emotion names in foreign languages
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697:Group Processes & Intergroup Relations
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430:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
322:Ekman's theories were early challenged by
65:. It is a measure of a person's emotional
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882:British Journal of Clinical Psychology
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452:The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology
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740:Ryff, C. D.; Singer, B. H. (2001).
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75:experimental psychology researchers
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533:10.1111/j.1540-5834.1994.tb01283.x
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448:Reber, A.S.; Reber, E. (2001).
243:Gender and emotional expression
926:Behaviour Research and Therapy
304:. Debate exists about whether
208:, which was conceptualized by
199:
178:
1:
397:
185:James-Lange theory of emotion
81:emotion in research studies.
2230:Social emotional development
416:. London, England. pp.
226:two-factor theory of emotion
7:
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662:10.1037/0033-295x.101.2.222
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10:
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938:10.1016/j.brat.2017.03.006
772:10.1037/0033-295x.99.3.550
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852:Cross-Cultural Psychology
839:Cross-Cultural Psychology
825:10.1080/02699939208411068
2163:in virtual communication
850:J. W. Berry et al eds.,
837:J. W. Berry et al eds.,
709:10.1177/1368430207088035
410:Darwin, Charles (1872).
313:autonomic nervous system
148:autonomic nervous system
2301:Behavioral neuroscience
130:identified that in the
1780:
1619:
1610:
1601:
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1343:
144:central nervous system
47:
29:
20:Smile, depicting joy (
803:Cognition and Emotion
392:Regulation of emotion
357:Negative emotionality
332:components of emotion
35:
19:
2200:Group affective tone
760:Psychological Review
650:Psychological Review
593:Psychological Review
561:Psychological Review
387:Emotions and culture
2253:constructed emotion
1923:functional accounts
258:societal influences
107:George Herbert Mead
2153:in decision-making
1394:(sense of purpose)
237:Gender differences
206:Cannon-Bard theory
53:is the observable
48:
30:
2283:
2282:
1870:Appeal to emotion
1648:Social connection
895:10.1111/bjc.12151
463:978-0-14-051451-3
456:. Penguin Books.
222:Stanley Schachter
132:Romantic movement
99:William McDougall
2308:
2258:discrete emotion
2158:in the workplace
2054:Empathy quotient
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841:(2011) p. 169-73
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527:(2–3): 167–186.
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324:James A. Russell
217:Schachter-Singer
152:endocrine system
138:As physiological
129:
22:Ximena Navarrete
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2210:Jealousy in art
1953:in conversation
1875:Amygdala hijack
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1700:sense of wonder
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854:(2011) p. 173-7
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2263:somatic marker
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2235:Stoic passions
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1628:Sentimentality
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1464:at first sight
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1234:
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1202:Disappointment
1199:
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1016:
1009:
1002:
994:
987:
986:
961:
909:
868:
856:
843:
830:
809:(3): 169–200.
793:
766:(3): 550–553.
747:
732:
703:(2): 143–162.
683:
656:(2): 222–229.
640:
637:(34): 188–205.
618:
599:(5): 379–399.
578:
567:(4): 281–295.
546:
511:
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382:Affect display
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250:mood disorders
248:prevalence of
241:Main article:
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162:Later theories
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85:Early theories
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79:operationalize
38:Charles Darwin
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328:display rules
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210:Walter Cannon
207:
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133:
121:As irrational
118:
116:
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108:
104:
103:William James
100:
96:
92:
91:Wilhelm Wundt
82:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
61:component of
60:
59:physiological
56:
52:
45:
44:
39:
34:
27:
26:Miss Universe
23:
18:
2275:
2215:Meta-emotion
2128:Emotionality
2127:
2101:responsivity
2049:and bullying
2044:intelligence
1854:Affectivity
1838:neuroscience
1808:in education
1391:
1352:Homesickness
1328:
1254:Enthrallment
1239:Emotion work
1102:Anticipation
978:. Retrieved
976:. 2019-12-20
973:
964:
929:
925:
888:(1): 18–41.
885:
881:
871:
865:(1999) p. 39
864:
859:
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838:
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806:
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763:
759:
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686:
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560:
524:
520:
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487:
451:
412:
405:
355:
341:
321:
310:
279:
270:
266:gender roles
254:
246:
220:
203:
182:
172:Common sense
168:neurological
165:
141:
124:
95:George Stout
88:
51:Emotionality
50:
49:
41:
2143:and culture
1948:recognition
1933:homeostatic
1833:forecasting
1782:Weltschmerz
1755:Misanthropy
1532:grandiosity
1414:Inspiration
1404:Infatuation
1372:Humiliation
1294:Frustration
1167:Contentment
362:Neuroticism
330:and to the
200:Cannon-Bard
179:James-Lange
156:respiration
2290:Categories
2220:Pathognomy
2121:well-being
2037:and gender
2032:expression
2027:exhaustion
2012:detachment
1997:competence
1978:Emotional
1960:regulation
1943:perception
1938:in animals
1888:and memory
1824:Affective
1732:Worldviews
1594:melancholy
1579:Resentment
1449:Loneliness
1424:Irritation
1409:Insecurity
1399:Indulgence
1274:Excitement
1259:Enthusiasm
1192:Depression
1152:Confidence
1147:Compassion
1122:Attraction
1047:Admiration
1042:Acceptance
980:2020-12-12
398:References
345:Depression
262:conformity
189:Carl Lange
150:, and the
67:reactivity
55:behavioral
2248:appraisal
2188:sociology
2139:Emotions
2111:symbiosis
2096:reasoning
2066:isolation
2007:contagion
1992:blackmail
1918:expressed
1913:evolution
1903:and sleep
1893:and music
1828:computing
1775:Reclusion
1770:Pessimism
1745:Defeatism
1675:Suffering
1621:Sehnsucht
1564:Rejection
1515:self-pity
1490:Nostalgia
1459:limerence
1429:Isolation
1367:Hostility
1324:Happiness
1304:Gratitude
1249:Emptiness
1232:vicarious
1182:Curiosity
1157:Confusion
1097:Annoyance
1077:Amusement
1067:Agitation
1062:Affection
1057:Aesthetic
1052:Adoration
811:CiteSeerX
426:cite book
317:evolution
282:happiness
111:cognitive
2106:security
2086:literacy
2071:lability
2061:intimacy
2002:conflict
1982:aperture
1879:Emotion
1863:negative
1858:positive
1848:spectrum
1813:measures
1765:Optimism
1760:Nihilism
1750:Fatalism
1740:Cynicism
1685:Sympathy
1680:Surprise
1522:Pleasure
1444:Kindness
1434:Jealousy
1419:Interest
1386:Hysteria
1269:Euphoria
1212:Distrust
1162:Contempt
1142:Calmness
1034:Emotions
1021:Emotions
956:28342947
932:: 6–12.
904:28833279
788:34722267
727:29743808
678:18140052
613:14497895
376:See also
366:Big Five
352:Negative
338:Positive
306:contempt
298:surprise
115:gestures
71:stimulus
2296:Emotion
2276:Italics
2239:Theory
2195:Feeling
2148:history
2133:bounded
2091:prosody
1898:and sex
1883:and art
1843:science
1799:Affect
1793:Related
1668:chronic
1643:Shyness
1603:Saudade
1589:Sadness
1584:Revenge
1574:Remorse
1505:Passion
1495:Outrage
1485:Neglect
1345:Hiraeth
1244:Empathy
1222:Ecstasy
1207:Disgust
1177:Cruelty
1172:Courage
1137:Boredom
1117:Arousal
1107:Anxiety
1092:Anguish
947:5627362
780:1344638
718:5937254
670:8022957
541:7984159
302:disgust
286:sadness
230:arousal
193:stimuli
128:Solomon
63:emotion
2243:affect
2225:Pathos
2178:social
2022:eating
1695:Wonder
1663:Stress
1653:Sorrow
1569:Relief
1559:Regret
1547:vanity
1542:insult
1537:hubris
1392:Ikigai
1362:Horror
1338:Hatred
1197:Desire
1187:Defeat
1112:Apathy
954:
944:
902:
813:
786:
778:
725:
715:
676:
668:
611:
539:
460:
370:HEXACO
300:, and
146:, the
105:, and
2168:moral
2076:labor
1928:group
1707:Worry
1690:Trust
1658:Spite
1638:Shock
1633:Shame
1527:Pride
1500:Panic
1379:Hygge
1319:Guilt
1314:Grief
1309:Greed
1279:Faith
1217:Doubt
1087:Angst
1082:Anger
1072:Agony
784:S2CID
674:S2CID
420:–309.
290:anger
69:to a
28:2010)
1987:bias
1972:work
1554:Rage
1510:Pity
1471:Lust
1454:Love
1357:Hope
1289:Flow
1284:Fear
1264:Envy
1025:list
952:PMID
900:PMID
776:PMID
723:PMID
666:PMID
631:Mind
609:PMID
537:PMID
458:ISBN
432:link
294:fear
260:and
204:The
183:The
57:and
1439:Joy
1127:Awe
942:PMC
934:doi
890:doi
821:doi
768:doi
713:PMC
705:doi
658:doi
654:101
601:doi
569:doi
529:doi
418:278
264:to
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
