393:, the Empress Dowager introduced two far-reaching policies. They were the "equal-field landholding system" and the "three-elder system". In the "equal-filed system" (juntian-zhi) implemented in 485, the state redistributed uncultivated land to commoners attached with obligations of tax duty in the forms of grain, cloth, and labor service. Under this policy, each household was entitled to lands proportional to its labor power. Specifically, two types of land with tenure were granted to a household: the first was open land for crop cultivation (40 mu) for each adult male in the household, and half those amounts for females which was returnable after the recipient reached a specific advanced age or died. The second was the land to support textile production (10 or 20 mu), with the same gender distribution principle as open land in one of two forms, namely, "mulberry lands" in silk-producing areas, and "hemp lands" in regions where sericulture was impractical. Mulberry land was inheritable because of the long-term investment and care mulberry orchards required. Households possessing slaves and plow oxen were entitled to larger allocations. The open land allocations would be doubled or tripled in areas where the land was less fertile or the population sparse. Sale of these land grants was forbidden, although subleasing was possible under some circumstances. Land allocations would be adjusted annually to account for changes in household wealth.
370:
Empress
Dowager Feng and Emperor Xiaowen jointly convened an imperial council to discuss their punishment. Grand Empress Dowager Feng opened by asking the officials, "Do you believe that we should care about familial relations and destroy law, or to disregard familial relations and follow the law?" The officials largely pleaded for the princes' lives. After Grand Empress Dowager Feng fell silent, Emperor Xiaowen stated: "What the two princes committed is unpardonable, but the Grand Empress Dowager takes after the brotherly love that Gaozong had. Further, the Prince of Nan'an is filially pious toward his mother. Therefore, the two will be spared the death penalty, but their offices and titles will be stripped from them, and they will be reduced to commoner status with no political rights."
284:
official Li Xin (李訢), who was a close friend of Li Yi's brother Li Fu (李敷), was accused of corruption, and
Emperor Xianwen became aware of the accusations even though Li Fu tried to suppress the reports. He had known about his stepmother's relationship with Li Yi and, while he had not taken any actions against it at that point, disapproved of it. He sentenced Li Xin to death, but then informed Li Xin that if he could report on crimes that Li Fu and Li Yi had committed, he would be spared. After initial reluctance, Li Xin did so, and another man named Fan Biao (范標) also did so. Emperor Xianwen then executed Li Fu and Li Yi. Empress Dowager Feng became resentful of Emperor Xianwen after that point.
315:
promoting some honored officials who were not her lovers. Because she was concerned that she would be criticized for what was seen as immoral conduct, she punished those whom she perceived to be criticizing her or parodying her behavior with severe punishment, including death. One of her victims was Li Xin, who had contributed to her prior lover Li Yi's death, as she had Li Xin put to death in 477. Fearful that
Emperor Xiaowen's mother's clan would try to take power, she falsely accused his grandfather Li Hui (李惠) the Prince of Nan Commandery of treason in 478 and had him and his clan slaughtered. She apparently accelerated the policy of
306:
economic power of local magnates who sheltered residents under their control living in fortified villages. Under this system, all land was owned by the state, and then equally distributed to taxpaying farmers. This system successfully created a stable fiscal infrastructure and a basis for universal military conscription for the
Northern Wei, and continued well into the Tang dynasty. The equal-field program was coupled with another initiative, the "Three Elders" system, aimed at compiling accurate population registers so that land could be distributed accordingly.
397:
neighborhood elder (linzhang) while five neighborhoods were grouped into a village and headed by one village elder (lizhang). Finally, over five villages, there was one ward elder (dangzhang). The three elders, appointed by the government, were responsible for detecting and re-registering population that fell otherwise outside of state accounts, requisitioning corvee labor, military conscripts, and taxes, and taking care of the poor and orphaned under their jurisdiction. This policy significantly bolstered the dynasty's control over the common people.
268:, and Yuchi subsequently defeated two attempts by Emperor Ming to recapture those provinces. She also sent the general Murong Baiyao (慕容白曜) to attack and try to capture Liu Song's Qing (青州, modern central and eastern Shandong) and Ji (冀州, modern northwestern Shandong) Provinces, which were cut off from the rest of Liu Song after Xue's defection, and by 469, both provinces fell into Northern Wei hands, and all of the regions north of the Huai River was by now Northern Wei territory.
366:, Consort Lin was forced to commit suicide pursuant to Northern Wei customs. She raised Tuoba Xun herself. In 485, after Emperor Xiaowen created his younger brothers princes, Grand Empress Dowager Feng established an imperial school for these princes. In 486, perhaps as both a sign of Sinicization and demonstration of Emperor Xiaowen's authority, he began to assume traditional Chinese imperial clothing, including a robe with dragon patterns and a tasseled hat.
350:), but was discovered, captured, and executed. Some officials advocating the execution of all Buddhist monks, but Grand Empress Dowager Feng refused. Also that year, she started the building of her future tomb at Fang Mountain (方山), near Pingcheng, leaving instructions that after she died that it would be unnecessary for her to be buried with her husband Emperor Wencheng (who was buried near the old Northern Wei capital Shengle (盛樂, in modern
362:
Xi (拓拔禧), but after her attendants persuaded her otherwise, she did not carry out such actions. While Grand
Empress Dowager Feng never formally returned imperial powers to him, by about 483 he appeared to be fairly in control of the government, although Grand Empress Dowager Feng continued to retain substantial powers. Indeed, it was by her order that that year, after Emperor Xiaowen's concubine Consort Lin bore his oldest son,
297:, believed that she poisoned him, but another version indicated that Empress Dowager Feng readied assassins who, when Emperor Xianwen came to her palace to greet her, seized and smothered him.) Empress Dowager Feng took on the title of grand empress dowager and re-assumed regency, over the nine-year-old Emperor Xiaowen.
361:
As the years went by, as
Emperor Xiaowen grew in age, he appeared to gradually assume more and more power. Sometime during the process, Grand Empress Dowager Feng apparently became apprehensive of his abilities and therefore had him detained and considered deposing him in favor of his brother Tuoba
369:
The power-sharing arrangement between step-grandmother and step-grandson could perhaps be illustrated by an incident in 489, when
Emperor Wencheng's younger brothers Tuoba Tianci (拓拔天賜) the Prince of Ruyin and Tuoba Zhen (拓拔楨) the Prince of Nan'an were accused of corruption, a death offense. Grand
334:
as its
Emperor Gao, Northern Wei commissioned Liu Chang (劉昶) the Prince of Danyang, a Liu Song prince who had fled to Northern Wei in 465, with an army and promising him support to rebuild Liu Song. However, Liu Chang's abilities were not up to task, and he was never able to gain much following in
314:
and permitted them to interfere in governmental matters. Further, she greatly promoted her lovers Wang Rui (王叡) and Li Chong (李沖) - both of whom were apparently talented officials, but whose promotions were beyond what their talents and contributions called for. She balanced her reputation by also
283:
While
Empress Dowager Feng was no longer regent, she appeared to remain fairly influential during the reign of her stepson Emperor Xianwen. However, in 470, an event occurred that would damage their relationship. Empress Dowager Feng had taken the official Li Yi (李奕) as her lover. In 470, the
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Another policy was the establishment of the three-elders system (sanzhang-zhi) in 486. This policy was introduced to compile accurate population registers and enhance state control of the village population. Under this system, five households were to make up one neighborhood (li), headed by one
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in 476. While
Emperor Xiaowen assumed imperial powers upon adulthood, he remained very deferential to her, and she was highly influential until her death in October 490. An enduring legacy of her regency was a series of reforms that led to political recentralization for Northern Wei and future
400:
Empress Dowager Feng's reforms substantially increased agricultural production and tax receipts in the long run. They also weakened the economic power of local aristocrats who sheltered residents under their control living in fortified villages that scattered across the rural landscape of the
305:
Under the regent of Empress Dowager Feng, Emperor Xiaowen enacted a new land-tenure system named the equal-field system in 485, which was aimed at boosting agricultural production and tax receipts. The implementation of the equal-field system was largely due to the court's desire to break the
196:. Two days later, as according to Northern Wei custom, Emperor Wencheng's personal possessions were burned—and while the ceremony was conducted, Empress Feng, in sadness, jumped into the fire. She was saved by the guards. Meanwhile, political power soon fell into the hands of the official
165:. Her father, the 10th son of Feng Hong, was Feng Lang (馮朗) Duke of Xicheng and a provincial governor. Her mother was Lady Wang—it is unclear whether Lady Wang was Feng Lang's wife or concubine. Feng Lang, along with his brothers Feng Chong (馮崇) and Feng Miao (馮邈), had surrendered to
309:
After Grand Empress Dowager Feng re-assumed regency, she was said to be more dictatorial than she was before, but intelligent in her decisions and frugal in her living. Not only was she highly literate, but she also was capable in mathematics. However, she trusted several
377:. Emperor Xiaowen was so distraught that he was unable to take in food or water for five days, and subsequently observed a three-year mourning period for her, notwithstanding officials' pleas for him to shorten the mourning period in accordance with rules that
358:). Later that year, a new criminal code that she commissioned Gao Lü to write was completed—with 832 sections, 16 of them prescribing clan-slaughter as penalty, 235 of them prescribing personal death penalty, and 377 prescribing other forms of punishment.
252:), who had initially declared for Liu Zixun, was apprehensive that he would be punished by Emperor Ming, and so decided to surrender to Northern Wei, and soon, he was joined by Bi Zhongjing (畢眾敬) the governor of Yan Province (兗州, modern western
208:
In spring 466, however, Empress Dowager Feng staged a coup, probably in association with Tuoba Pi (拓拔丕) and Jia Xiu (賈秀), and Yifu Hun was arrested and executed. She assumed regency over the young Emperor Xianwen's regime, and she engaged Jia,
173:. Later, Feng Lang was executed after being accused of crimes during his governorship. As Feng Lang's daughter, the later empress was seized to serve in the palace, but she was raised by her aunt, Consort Feng, a concubine of
185:(貴人). In 456, she was created empress; this was probably after she completed, as according to Northern Wei tradition, forging a golden statue, but there was no conclusive statement that she did so.
293:(retired emperor). However, he continued to have actual power in the imperial government. In 476, still resentful of Emperor Xianwen, Empress Dowager Feng killed him. (Most historians, including
404:
These institutional infrastructures built by the Empress Dowager and Emperor Xiaowen survived the fall of the dynasty and laid the foundation for China's eventual unification in 589 AD under the
244:). After Emperor Ming's forces defeated Liu Zixun's and captured and executed Liu Zixun in fall 466, the Liu Song general Xue Andu (薛安都), the governor of Xu Province (徐州, modern northern
275:, and Empress Dowager Feng personally raised the young prince. She soon terminated her regency and returned imperial powers to Emperor Xianwen, who was 13 years old at this point.
1317:
287:
In 471, Emperor Xianwen yielded the imperial title to his four-year-old son Tuoba Hong (who took the throne as Emperor Xiaowen), and he himself took the title of
795:
264:). Empress Dowager Feng sent the general Yuchi Yuan (尉遲元) to accept the surrenders of these Liu Song generals and to secure the region just north of the
401:
northern China from taxation. Since the reforms, the Northern Wei dynasty had doubled the registered population to more than 5 million households.
1297:
213:, and Gao Lü (高閭) as her assistants in the regency. Later, she also incorporated her brother Feng Xi (馮熙) into the decision-making circle.
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and remained as such until his adulthood in 467. She subsequently had a falling-out with Emperor Xianwen (who had then become
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Empress Dowager Feng was soon presented with a major opportunity to expand Northern Wei territory, as also in 466, rival
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indicated that she was 49 (by East Asian reckoning) when she died. Thus by calculation, her birth year should be 442.
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144:) over his execution of her lover Li Yi (李奕), and she assassinated him and resumed regency over his son
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in 433, after believing that they were in danger of being killed by their stepmother, Feng Hong's wife
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the border regions to mount a major drive to reestablish Liu Song. By 481, the campaign had fizzled.
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In 490, Grand Empress Dowager Feng died, and she was buried with magnificent honors, in the
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The Aristocratic Families in Early Imperial China: A Case Study of the Po-Ling Tsui Family
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monk Faxiu (法秀) tried to start a popular uprising at the capital Pingcheng (平城, in modern
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192:(454–476) the Crown Prince, as Emperor Xianwen, and Empress Feng was honored as
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200:, who proceeded to execute many other key officials and effectively assumed regency.
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the Prince of Jin'an was declared emperor in early 466 in Xunyang (尋陽, in modern
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became emperor in 452, she became his concubine in 455, carrying the rank of
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Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: Antiquity Through Sui, 1600 B.C.E
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The Economic History of China: From Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century
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In 465, Emperor Wencheng died. He was succeeded by his 11-year-old son
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An Economic History of China: From Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century
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In 467, Emperor Xianwen's concubine Consort Li bore his oldest child
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The later Empress Feng was born in 442, one of the granddaughters of
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The Cambridge History of China: Volume 2, The Six Dynasties, 220–589
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The Cambridge History of China: Volume 2, The Six Dynasties, 220–589
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The Cambridge History of China: Volume 2, The Six Dynasties, 220-589
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In 479, after rival Liu Song's throne was usurped by the general
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129:. After her husband's death in 465, she overthrew the autocratic
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113:(文明皇后, literally "the civil and understanding empress") was an
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was assassinated in January 466. Emperor Qianfei's uncle
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177:(408–452). After Taiwu's assassination, his son
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650:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 461–478.
507:Lily Xiao Hong Lee, A.D. Stefanowska, Sue Wiles:
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570:. Cambridge University Press. p. 297-311.
526:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 312–313.
220:had a major dynastic succession struggle after
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491:day of the 9th month of the 14th year of the
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541:. Cambridge University Press. p. 174.
136:in 466 and became regent over her stepson
101:(馮皇(太)后) (442 – 17 October 490), formally
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228:was declared emperor in the capital
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592:A History Of Chinese Civilization
55:Emperor Wencheng of Northern Wei
1390:Chinese grand empresses dowager
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594:". Cambridge University Press.
72:Empress Wencheng Wenming 文成文明皇后
618:. Cambridge University Press.
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431:in the 2010 Chinese TV series
421:in the 2006 Chinese TV series
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1318:5 Dynasties & 10 Kingdoms
680:History of Northern Dynasties
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301:As regent for Emperor Xiaowen
204:As regent for Emperor Xianwen
175:Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei
161:(d. 438) the last emperor of
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1196:Grand Empress Dowager Ashina
1150:Grand Empress Dowager Helian
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566:von Glahn, Richard (2016).
552:von Glahn, Richard (2016).
46:490 (aged 47–48)
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18:Empress Feng (Wencheng)
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537:Pearce, Scott (2019).
522:Xiong, Victor (2019).
99:Empress (Dowager) Feng
1224:Empress Regnant Wutai
646:Dien, Albert (2019).
444:The Princess Weiyoung
321:social stratification
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1069:Empress Dowager Feng
232:, while his brother
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149:imperial dynasties.
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1102:Empress Dowager Hu
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456:Untouchable Lovers
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379:Emperor Wen of Han
330:, who established
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1017:
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1007:
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991:Northern Zhou
988:
982:
979:
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964:
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933:Empress Yuwen
931:
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918:
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898:
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882:Empress Erzhu
880:
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877:Empress Erzhu
875:
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872:Empress Erzhu
870:
868:
865:
863:
860:
858:
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848:
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835:
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631:
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625:0-521-21484-X
621:
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600:0-521-24130-8
597:
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569:
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458:
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449:Portrayed by
448:
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437:Portrayed by
436:
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427:Portrayed by
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417:Portrayed by
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409:
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382:
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329:
328:Xiao Daocheng
324:
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298:
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285:
276:
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269:
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248:and northern
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37:
33:
28:
19:
1306:N. Dynasties
1302:S. Dynasties
1239:Northern Wei
1218:Northern Wei
1154:
1142:Northern Wei
1068:
1056:Northern Wei
1029:Yuan Leshang
1024:Yuchi Chifan
1004:Empress Dugu
971:Empress Hulü
961:Empress Yuan
923:Empress Yifu
842:Empress Feng
841:
824:Northern Wei
753:
690:
678:
666:
647:
642:
615:
606:
591:
583:
567:
562:
553:
547:
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532:
523:
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439:Tiffany Tang
433:Hujia Hanyue
432:
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388:
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317:Sinicization
308:
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288:
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270:
215:
207:
187:
182:
167:Northern Wei
163:Northern Yan
156:
110:
106:
102:
98:
97:
30:Empress Feng
1298:16 Kingdoms
1257:Consort Yao
1173:Lou Zhaojun
1165:Northern Qi
1097:Lou Zhaojun
1089:Northern Qi
1039:Sima Lingji
948:Northern Qi
915:Western Wei
905:Empress Gao
897:Eastern Wei
887:Empress Gao
862:Empress Gao
668:Book of Wei
497:Book of Wei
477:Book of Wei
406:Sui dynasty
332:Southern Qi
1380:490 deaths
1375:442 births
1359:Categories
1290:3 Kingdoms
1034:Zhu Manyue
1019:Chen Yueyi
1014:Yang Lihua
976:Empress Hu
966:Empress Hu
867:Empress Hu
857:Empress Yu
463:References
419:Jacklyn Wu
295:Sima Guang
273:Tuoba Hong
266:Huai River
190:Tuoba Hong
153:As empress
999:Yuan Humo
847:Feng Qing
805:Empresses
766:Feng Qing
590:(1972). "
451:Wu Jinyan
429:Ning Jing
381:had set.
364:Tuoba Xun
258:Zhumadian
234:Liu Zixun
159:Feng Hong
92:Lady Wang
84:Feng Lang
981:Mu Sheli
852:Feng Run
764:Empress
759:456–465
695:, vols.
614:(1978).
340:Buddhist
254:Shandong
238:Jiujiang
230:Jiankang
222:Liu Ziye
218:Liu Song
198:Yifu Hun
134:Yifu Hun
1247:Lady Qi
956:Li Zu'e
807:of the
685:vol. 13
673:vol. 13
634:3002351
489:guichou
312:eunuchs
246:Jiangsu
242:Jiangxi
211:Gao Yun
119:Xianbei
117:of the
115:empress
111:Wenming
107:Dowager
103:Empress
1330:W. Xia
1272:Xia →
1201:Li Ezi
1125:Li Ezi
654:
632:
622:
598:
574:
352:Hohhot
348:Shanxi
344:Datong
183:Guiren
131:regent
89:Mother
81:Father
51:Spouse
1274:Shang
493:Taihe
262:Henan
250:Anhui
121:-led
1346:Qing
1342:Ming
1338:Yuan
1326:Song
1322:Liao
1314:Tang
1278:Zhou
652:ISBN
630:OCLC
620:ISBN
596:ISBN
572:ISBN
43:Died
35:Born
1334:Jīn
1310:Sui
1294:Jìn
1286:Han
1282:Qin
729:137
725:136
721:135
717:134
713:133
709:132
705:131
701:130
697:128
38:442
1361::
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727:,
723:,
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715:,
711:,
707:,
703:,
699:,
683:,
671:,
628:.
408:.
354:,
346:,
260:,
240:,
109:)
797:e
790:t
783:v
731:.
687:.
675:.
658:.
636:.
578:.
105:(
20:)
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