310:, eutrophication, urbanization, water oil extraction causing changes in the ecosystem that leads to animal migration or evading new surroundings. Third, is anthropogenic hybridization, which is "artificial or human-led hybridization" is supported for researchers to study "reproductive compatibility between species". Lastly, visual, chemical, and acoustic interferences cues are what causes species to signal sexual cues by differentiating between the same and opposite-sex leading to hybridization.
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In contrast, the limitations can be due to genetic extinction and/or outbreeding depression. Dubey explains that genetic extinction can be caused by "hybrid swarms" noting the various degrees of hybrids. Outbreeding depression is the "cross between genetically distant populations" causing hybrids to
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Small population size can be caused by inadequate or obliterated natural habitats that lead to species escaping to other habitats and as a result, this may lead to lesser mate availability and can cause breeding between distinct species. Habitat fragmentation and species introduction can be man-made
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The advantages of species hybridization are 1.) evolution of new interspecific breed, 2.) hybrid vigour, and 3.) enhanced longevity and immunity to diseases (Dubey, A. 2019). Dubey explains each as follows: 1.) A new interspecific breed is due to the mating of two distinguished species. 2.) Hybrid
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The main advantage of F1 hybrids in agriculture is also their drawback. When F1 cultivars are used as parents, their offspring (F2 generation) vary greatly from one another. Some F2s are high in homozygous genes, as found in their grandparents, and these will lack hybrid vigour. From the point of
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F2 hybrids, the result of self or cross-pollination of F1s, lack the consistency of F1s, though they may retain some desirable traits and can be produced more cheaply because hand pollination or other interventions are not required. Some seed companies offer F2 seed at less cost, particularly in
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of breeding stock with desired characteristics are subjected to inbreeding until the homozygosity of the population exceeds a certain level, usually 90% or more. Typically, this requires more than 10 generations. Thereafter, the two strains must be crossed, while avoiding
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Both inbreeding and crossing the ancestral lines of the hybrid are costly, because of the time and number of generations involved, which translates into a much higher price. Not all crop species exhibit a sufficiently high heterosis effect to offset this
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and selection for uniformity for multiple generations ensures that the parent lines are almost homozygous. The divergence between the (two) parent lines promotes improved growth and yield characteristics in offspring through the phenomenon of
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Homogeneity and predictability: The genes of an individual plant or animal F1 offspring of homozygous pure lines display limited variation, making their phenotype uniform, so attractive for mechanical operations and easing fine
339:, having two different versions of this allele amounts to having two different versions of the enzyme. This increases the likelihood of an optimal version of the enzyme being present and reduces the likelihood of a
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with a combination of characteristics from the parents. In fish breeding, those parents frequently are two closely related fish species, while in plant and animal breeding, the parents often are two
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vigour is defined as a species becoming sturdier, more dynamic, and stronger than the parents. Lastly, 3.) Hybrids can have improved longevity and are "highly immune to diseases" (Dubey, A. 2019).
197:. Normally, this is done with plants by deactivating or removing male flowers from one population, taking advantage of time differences between male and female flowering, or hand pollinating.
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F1 hybrids mature at the same time when raised under the same environmental conditions. They all ripen simultaneously and can be more easily harvested by machine. Traditional cultivars and
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For mass production of F1 hybrids with uniform phenotype, the parent plants must have predictable genetic effects on the offspring.
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As explained in the
International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies, there are four reasons for species hybridizations:
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F1 crosses in animals can be between two inbred lines or between two closely related species or subspecies. In fish such as
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are often more useful to gardeners because they crop over a longer period of time, avoiding gluts or food shortages.
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planted in the United States were F1 hybrids. Beans and peas are not commercially hybridized because they are
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Genetics and eugenics: a text-book for students of biology and a reference book for animal and plant breeders
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and consistent. The offspring showed a combination of the phenotypes from each parent that were genetically
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management. Once the characteristics of the cross are known, repeating this cross yields the same result.
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109:. Mendel's discoveries involving the F1 and F2 generations laid the foundation for modern genetics.
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derived from two-parent cultivars. These F1 hybrids are usually created by means of controlled
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The offspring of distinctly different parental types produce a new, uniform
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Growing from Seed (The Seed
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reduce fit and isolation leading to reduced reproduction.
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who does not wish customers to produce their own seed via
650:. United States Department of Agriculture. Archived from
538:"Guide to selecting and breeding high quality cichlids"
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First-generation hybrid (or crossbreed) animal or plant
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Crossing two genetically different plants produces a
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306:or caused by mother nature such as deforestation,
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479:William Ernest Castle and Gregor Mendel (1922).
425:Marschall S. Runge; Cam Patterson, eds. (2006).
452:Peter Abramoff and Robert G. Thomson (1994).
301:Visual, chemical, and acoustic interferences
97:experiments involving two true-breeding, or
267:(jacks); the opposite sex cross results in
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185:("hybrid vigour" or "combining ability").
634:"Inbreeding Depression and Hybrid Vigor"
647:Seeds: The Yearbook of Agriculture 1961
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241:, where consistency is less critical.
153:is usually reserved for agricultural
485:. Harvard University Press. p.
50:. Subsequent generations are called
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516:"F2 and open-pollinated varieties"
455:Laboratory Outlines in Biology--VI
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601:Grabenstein and Taylor, 2018
592:Grabenstein and Taylor, 2018
552:"What is a F1 Savannah cat?"
431:. Humana Press. p. 58.
327:Higher performance: As most
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298:Anthropogenic hybridization
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514:Lawrence D. Hills (1987).
458:. Macmillan. p. 497.
638:Genetics for Seed Savers
295:and species introduction
113:Production of F1 hybrids
259:are F1 hybrids between
81:focused on patterns of
691:Pollination management
26:) is the first filial
556:www.f2savannahcat.com
540:. bigskycichlids.com.
358:view of a commercial
293:Habitat fragmentation
289:Small population size
226:automatic pollinators
200:In 1960, 99% of all
169:such as tomato and
686:Plant reproduction
681:Classical genetics
368:genetic assortment
195:self-fertilization
36:selective breeding
491:Filial subscript.
465:978-0-7167-2633-3
438:978-1-58829-202-5
403:("hybrid vigour")
95:cross-pollination
38:, where the term
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364:seed saving
190:populations
159:pollination
149:, the term
83:inheritance
670:Categories
658:2013-09-05
561:2024-05-24
413:References
322:population
314:Advantages
276:Bengal cat
245:In animals
232:F2 hybrids
214:sunflowers
206:sugar beet
178:Inbreeding
131:peppermint
99:homozygous
89:basis for
28:generation
401:Heterosis
379:landraces
216:, 62% of
212:, 80% of
208:, 80% of
204:, 95% of
183:heterosis
155:cultivars
151:F1 hybrid
143:spearmint
139:watermint
118:In plants
93:. In his
91:variation
69:phenotype
34:, and in
20:F1 hybrid
696:Breeding
676:Agronomy
390:See also
278:and the
251:cichlids
218:broccoli
147:agronomy
107:dominant
85:and the
32:genetics
366:, this
333:protein
329:alleles
269:hinnies
265:donkeys
210:spinach
135:sterile
87:genetic
64:, etc.
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337:enzyme
261:horses
222:onions
165:. For
145:). In
124:hybrid
48:hybrid
257:Mules
171:maize
133:is a
526:(2).
460:ISBN
433:ISBN
202:corn
188:Two
141:and
127:seed
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