Pollination - Knowledge

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cupule, that were derived from highly modified branches of ancestral gymnosperms. When a pollen grain lands close enough to the tip of an ovule, it is drawn in through the micropyle ( a pore in the integuments covering the tip of the ovule) often by means of a drop of liquid known as a pollination drop. The pollen enters a pollen chamber close to the nucellus, and there it may wait for a year before it germinates and forms a pollen tube that grows through the wall of the megasporangium (=nucellus) where fertilisation takes place. During this time, the megaspore mother cell divides by meiosis to form four haploid cells, three of which degenerate. The surviving one develops as a megaspore and divides repeatedly to form an immature female gametophyte (egg sac). Two or three archegonia containing an egg then develop inside the gametophyte. Meanwhile, in the spring of the second year two sperm cells are produced by mitosis of the body cell of the male gametophyte. The pollen tube elongates and pierces and grows through the megasporangium wall and delivers the sperm cells to the female gametophyte inside. Fertilisation takes place when the nucleus of one of the sperm cells enters the egg cell in the megagametophyte's archegonium.

1510:. Pollination is necessary for plants to continue their populations and 3/4 of the plant species that contribute to the world's food supply are plants that require pollinators. Insect pollinators, like bees, are large contributors to crop production, over 200 billion dollars worth of crop species are pollinated by these insects. Pollinators are also essential because they improve crop quality and increase genetic diversity, which is necessary in producing fruit with nutritional value and various flavors. Crops that do not depend on animals for pollination but on the wind or self-pollination, like corn and potatoes, have doubled in production and make up a large part of the human diet but do not provide the micronutrients that are needed. The essential nutrients that are necessary in the human diet are present in plants that rely on animal pollinators. There have been issues in vitamin and mineral deficiencies and it is believed that if pollinator populations continue to decrease these deficiencies will become even more prominent. 323: 885: 791: 870: 902: 1398:

300% in the same time period. Additionally, in the past five years there has been a decline in winter managed beehives, which has reached an unprecedented rate of colony losses at near 30%. At present, there is an enormous demand for beehive rentals that cannot always be met. There is a clear need across the agricultural industry for a management tool to draw pollinators into cultivations and encourage them to preferentially visit and pollinate the flowering crop. By attracting pollinators like honey bees and increasing their foraging behavior, particularly in the center of large plots, we can increase grower returns and optimize yield from their plantings. ISCA Technologies, from

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destruction such as fragmentation and selective logging remove areas that are most optimal for the different types of pollinators, which removes pollinators food resources, nesting sites, and leads to isolation of populations. The effect of pesticides on pollinators has been debated because it is difficult to determine that a single pesticide is the cause as opposed to a mixture or other threats. Whether exposure alone causes damage, or if the duration and potency are also factors is unknown. However,

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to be brightly coloured and have little odor, but if they are pollinated largely by birds or specialist mammals, they tend to be larger and have larger nectar rewards than species that are strictly insect-pollinated. Night-blooming flowers have little color, but are often very aromatic. Plants with vertebrate pollinators also tend to spread their rewards over longer periods, having long flowering seasons; their specialist pollinators would be likely to starve if the pollination season were too short.

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way in which plant-pollinator networks are organized minimizes competition between pollinators and may even lead to strong indirect facilitation between pollinators when conditions are harsh. This means that pollinator species together can survive under harsh conditions. But it also means that pollinator species collapse simultaneously when conditions pass a critical point. This simultaneous collapse occurs, because pollinator species depend on each other when surviving under difficult conditions.

1498:. Butterfly populations were higher within the natural forest and were lower in open land. The reason for the difference in density is the fact that in open land the butterflies would be exposed to desiccation and predation. These open regions are caused by habitat destruction like logging for timber, livestock grazing, and firewood collection. Due to this destruction, butterfly species' diversity can decrease and it is known that there is a correlation in butterfly diversity and plant diversity. 1625: 28: 526: 237: 1116: 1108: 20: 6572: 312: 1472:

similar seasons or time cycles, now have different responses to environmental changes and therefore no longer interact. For example, a tree may flower sooner than usual, while the pollinator may reproduce later in the year and therefore the two species no longer coincide in time. Spatial disturbances occur when two species that would normally share the same distribution now respond differently to climate change and are shifting to different regions.

424:, which means they are more likely to transfer pollen to other conspecific plants. This can be beneficial for the pollinators, as flower constancy prevents the loss of pollen during interspecific flights and pollinators from clogging stigmas with pollen of other flower species. It also improves the probability that the pollinator will find productive flowers easily accessible and recognisable by familiar clues. The primary insect pollinators are 1488:

a focus on neonicotinoids effects on honey bee populations. Neonicotinoids insecticides have been used due to its low mammalian toxicity, target specificity, low application rates, and broad spectrum activity. However, the insecticides are able to make its way throughout the plant, which includes the pollen and nectar. Due to this, it has been shown to effect on the nervous system and colony relations in the honey bee populations.

839:, when pollen is transferred from anther of a flower to stigma of another flower on the same plant. Plants adapted to self-fertilize often have similar stamen and carpel lengths. Plants that can pollinate themselves and produce viable offspring are called self-fertile. Plants that cannot fertilize themselves are called self-sterile, a condition which mandates cross-pollination for the production of offspring. 743:. In these plants, excess rain drains allowing the floating pollen to come in contact with the stigma. In some orchids ombrophily occurs, and rain water splashes cause the anther cap to be removed, allowing for the pollen to be exposed. After exposure, raindrops causes the pollen to be shot upward, when the stipe pulls them back, and then fall into the cavity of the stigma. Thus, for the orchid 286:

strongly reduced, each consisting only of a few cells, one of which is the egg. When a pollen grain adheres to the stigma of a carpel it germinates, developing a pollen tube that grows through the tissues of the style, entering the ovule through the micropyle. When the tube reaches the egg sac, two sperm cells pass through it into the female gametophyte and fertilisation takes place.

827:, occurs when pollen is delivered from the stamen of one flower to the stigma of a flower on another plant of the same species. Plants adapted for cross-pollination have several mechanisms to prevent self-pollination; the reproductive organs may be arranged in such a way that self-fertilisation is unlikely, or the stamens and carpels may mature at different times. 1419:

interactions are interrupted, biodiversity and ecosystem functioning are threatened. Pollination by animals aids in the genetic variability and diversity within plants because it allows for out-crossing instead for self-crossing. Without this genetic diversity there would be a lack of traits for natural selection to act on for the survival of the plant species.

884: 65:. Pollinating agents can be animals such as insects, for example beetles or butterflies; birds, and bats; water; wind; and even plants themselves. Pollinating animals travel from plant to plant carrying pollen on their bodies in a vital interaction that allows the transfer of genetic material critical to the reproductive system of most flowering plants. When 691:, i.e., pollination by wind. This probably arose from insect pollination (entomophily), most likely due to changes in the environment or the availability of pollinators. The transfer of pollen is more efficient than previously thought; wind pollinated plants have developed to have specific heights, in addition to specific floral, 869: 830:

Self-pollination occurs when pollen from one flower pollinates the same flower or other flowers of the same individual. It is thought to have evolved under conditions when pollinators were not reliable vectors for pollen transport, and is most often seen in short-lived annual species and plants that

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filaments throughout the cytoplasm of the cell, which eventually become concentrated at the point from which the pollen tube will emerge. Hydration and activation continue as the pollen tube begins to grow. In conifers, the reproductive structures are borne on cones. The cones are either pollen cones

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Rader, Romina; Bartomeus, Ignasi; Garibaldi, Lucas A.; Garratt, Michael P. D.; Howlett, Brad G.; Winfree, Rachael; Cunningham, Saul A.; Mayfield, Margaret M.; Arthur, Anthony D.; Andersson, Georg K. S.; Bommarco, Riccardo; Brittain, Claire; Carvalheiro, Luísa G.; Chacoff, Natacha P.; Entling, Martin

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The structure of plant-pollinator networks may have large consequences for the way in which pollinator communities respond to increasingly harsh conditions. Mathematical models, examining the consequences of this network structure for the stability of pollinator communities suggest that the specific

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has been studied the most and in the United States, there has been a loss of 59% of colonies from 1947 to 2005. The decrease in populations of the honey bee have been attributed to pesticides, genetically modified crops, fragmentation, parasites and diseases that have been introduced. There has been

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In some instances growers' demand for beehives far exceeds the available supply. The number of managed beehives in the US has steadily declined from close to 6 million after WWII, to less than 2.5 million today. In contrast, the area dedicated to growing bee-pollinated crops has grown over

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Such a community-wide collapse, involving many pollinator species, can occur suddenly when increasingly harsh conditions pass a critical point and recovery from such a collapse might not be easy. The improvement in conditions needed for pollinators to recover, could be substantially larger than the

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obligate out-crossers. It is also estimated that about 42% of flowering plants have a mixed mating system in nature. In the most common kind of mixed mating system, individual plants produce a single type of flower and fruits may contain self-pollinated, out-crossed or a mixture of progeny types.

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are attracted to orchids this way, and it has been suggested that some orchid species intoxicate bees during visits which can last up to 90 minutes. However, in general, plants that rely on pollen vectors tend to be adapted to their particular type of vector, for example day-pollinated species tend

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The pollen grains are dispersed by the wind to the female, ovulate cone that is made up of many overlapping scales (sporophylls, and thus megasporophylls), each protecting two ovules, each of which consists of a megasporangium (the nucellus) wrapped in two layers of tissue, the integument and the

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production in the United States, an $ 11 billion industry based almost exclusively in the state of California, is heavily dependent on imported honeybees for pollination of almond trees. Almond industry uses up to 82% of the services in the pollination market. Each February, around 60% of the

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Wild pollinators often visit a large number of plant species and plants are visited by a large number of pollinator species. All these relations together form a network of interactions between plants and pollinators. Surprising similarities were found in the structure of networks consisting out of

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has three stages; hydration, activation and pollen tube emergence. The pollen grain is severely dehydrated so that its mass is reduced, enabling it to be more easily transported from flower to flower. Germination only takes place after rehydration, ensuring that premature germination does not take

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L.) provides highly valued pollination services for a wide variety of agricultural crops, and ranks as the most frequent single species of pollinator for crops worldwide. Since the early 1900s, beekeepers in the United States started renting out their colonies to farmers to increase the farmer's

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Progress Report it can be traced to factors such as pollution, pesticides, and pathogens from evidences found in areas of the colonies affected and the colonies themselves. Pollution and pesticides are detrimental to the health of the bees and their colonies as the bees' ability to pollinate and

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is also important for plant fitness because it allows plants the ability to expand their populations. More than that, it permits plants to escape environments that have changed and have become difficult to reside in. All of these factors show the importance of pollinators for plants, which are a

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can improve their yield by about 20%. The benefits of native pollinators may result in forest owners demanding payment for their contribution in the improved crop results – a simple example of the economic value of ecological services. Farmers can also raise native crops in order to promote

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and angiosperms. Flowers provide bees with nectar (an energy source) and pollen (a source of protein). When bees go from flower to flower collecting pollen they are also depositing pollen grains onto the flowers, thus pollinating them. While pollen and nectar, in most cases, are the most notable

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is perhaps the most well known) has been noticed in recent years. These loss of pollinators have caused a disturbance in early plant regeneration processes such as seed dispersal and pollination. Early processes of plant regeneration greatly depend on plant-animal interactions and because these

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flowers that open and are then pollinated. Cleistogamous flowers are by necessity found on self-compatible or self-fertile plants. Although certain orchids and grasses are entirely cleistogamous, other plants resort to this strategy under adverse conditions. Often there may be a mixture of both

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Despite losing about a third of their workforce every year, beekeepers continue to rent out their bees to almond farms due to the high pay from the almond industry. In 2016, a colony rented out for almond pollination gave beekeepers an income of $ 165 per colony rented, around three times from

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In the agriculture industry, climate change is causing a "pollinator crisis". This crisis is affecting the production of crops, and the relating costs, due to a decrease in pollination processes. This disturbance can be phenological or spatial. In the first case, species that normally occur in

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Reptile pollinators are known, but they form a minority in most ecological situations. They are most frequent and most ecologically significant in island systems, where insect and sometimes also bird populations may be unstable and less species-rich. Adaptation to a lack of animal food and of

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In flowering plants, the anthers of the flower produce microspores by meiosis. These undergo mitosis to form male gametophytes, each of which contains two haploid cells. Meanwhile, the ovules produce megaspores by meiosis, further division of these form the female gametophytes, which are very

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is also an important driver. These alterations are especially harmful due to the sensitivity of the pollination process of plants. Research on tropical palms found that defaunation has caused a decline in seed dispersal, which causes a decrease in genetic variability in this species. Habitat

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Over the past decade, beekeepers across the US have reported that the mortality rate of their bee colonies has stayed constant at about 30% every year, making the deaths an expected cost of business for the beekeepers. While the exact cause of this phenomenon is unknown, according to the

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The most known and understood pollinator, bees, have been used as the prime example of the decline in pollinators. Bees are essential in the pollination of agricultural crops and wild plants and are one of the main insects that perform this task. Out of the bees species, the honey bee or

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that any of them could be carrying. The deaths do not stop at commercial honeybees as there is evidence of significant pathogen spillover to other pollinators including wild bumble bees, infecting up to 35-100% of wild bees within 2 km radius of commercial pollination. The negative

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predation pressure, might therefore favour reptiles becoming more herbivorous and more inclined to feed on pollen and nectar. Most species of lizards in the families that seem to be significant in pollination seem to carry pollen only incidentally, especially the larger species such as

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fears is causing an acceleration of the loss of pollinators. Changes in land use, harmful pesticides, and advancing climate change threaten wild pollinators, key insect species that increase yields of three-fourths of crop varieties and are critical to growing healthy foods.

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from one flower to another. Abiotic pollination relies on wind, water or even rain. Adding natural habitat areas into farm systems generally improves pollination, as farms that are closer to natural habitat have higher crop yield because they are visited by more pollinators.

847:: is self-pollination that occurs before the flower opens. The pollen is released from the anther within the flower or the pollen on the anther grows a tube down the style to the ovules. It is a type of sexual breeding, in contrast to asexual systems such as apomixis. Some 1549:

While there are 200,000 - 350,000 different species of animals that help pollination, honeybees are responsible for majority of the pollination for consumed crops, providing between $ 235 and $ 577 US billion of benefits to global food production. The western honey bee

1559:. As of 2016, 41% of an average US beekeeper's revenue comes from providing such pollination service to farmers, making it the biggest proportion of their income, with the rest coming from sales of honey, beeswax, government subsidy, etc. This is an example of how a 953:

pollination management, a good pollenizer is a plant that provides compatible, viable and plentiful pollen and blooms at the same time as the plant that is to be pollinated or has pollen that can be stored and used when needed to pollinate the desired flowers.

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are wind pollinated or self pollinating. When considering the top 15 crops contributing to the human diet globally in 2013, slightly over 10% of the total human diet of plant crops (211 out of 1916 kcal/person/day) is dependent upon insect pollination.

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identical. An orchard block of apples of one variety is genetically a single plant. Many growers now consider this a mistake. One means of correcting this mistake is to graft a limb of an appropriate pollenizer (generally a variety of

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flowers have opened their anthers, but not yet their stigmas. Note the change of colour that signals to pollinators that they are ready for visits. The uppermost flower is somewhat more mature than the others and has already shed its

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of one flower to the receptive part of the carpel or pistil (stigma) of another. Between 100,000 and 200,000 species of animal act as pollinators of the world's 250,000 species of flowering plant. The majority of these pollinators are

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Hind leg of a honey bee with pollen pellet stuck on the pollen basket or corbicula. When the worker bee is collecting pollen, their legs make the transfer of pollen from the inner basitarsal combs to the outer pollen basket (shown in

146:, the ovule is not contained in a carpel, but exposed on the surface of a dedicated support organ, such as the scale of a cone, so that the penetration of carpel tissue is unnecessary. Details of the process vary according to the 1612:. Almond pollinating bees, approximately 60% of the bees in the US as mentioned above, will be mixed with bees from thousands of other hives provided by different beekeepers, making them exponentially susceptible to diseases and 713:, an unopened male flower floats to the surface of the water, and, upon reaching the surface, opens up and the fertile anthers project forward. The female flower, also floating, has its stigma protected from the water, while its 355:, but about 1,500 species of birds and mammals visit flowers and may transfer pollen between them. Besides birds and bats which are the most frequent visitors, these include monkeys, lemurs, squirrels, rodents and possums. 1563:, pollination of crops from beekeeping and honey-making, was successfully accounted for and incorporated into the overall market for agriculture. On top of assisting food production, pollination service provide beneficial 1424:

significant part of the foundation for a stable ecosystem. If only a few species of plants depended on Loss of pollinators is especially devastating because there are so many plant species rely on them. More than 87.5% of

1579:. There is even further spillover as biodiversity increases ecosystem resistance for wildlife and crops. Due to their role of pollination in crop production, commercial honeybees are considered to be livestock by the 878:, like most geraniums and pelargoniums, sheds its anthers, sometimes its stamens as well, as a barrier to self-pollination. This young flower is about to open its anthers, but has not yet fully developed its pistil. 4159:

Butt N, Seabrook L, Maron M, Law BS, Dawson TP, et al. Cascading effects of climate extremes on vertebrate fauna through changes to low latitude tree flowering and fruiting phenology. Global Change Biology. 2015;

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place in the anther. Hydration allows the plasma membrane of the pollen grain to reform into its normal bilayer organization providing an effective osmotic membrane. Activation involves the development of

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reward attained from flowers, bees also visit flowers for other resources such as oil, fragrance, resin and even waxes. It has been estimated that bees originated with the origin or diversification of

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Rain pollination is used by a small percentage of plants. Heavy rain discourages insect pollination and damages unprotected flowers, but can itself disperse pollen of suitably adapted plants, such as

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Mammals are not generally thought of as pollinators, but some rodents, bats and marsupials are significant pollinators and some even specialise in such activities. In South Africa certain species of

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Biesmeijer JC, Roberts SP, Reemer M, Ohlemüller R, Edwards M, Peeters T, et al. (July 2006). "Parallel declines in pollinators and insect-pollinated plants in Britain and the Netherlands".

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to form haploid microspores that develop further by two mitotic divisions into immature male gametophytes (pollen grains). The four resulting cells consist of a large tube cell that forms the

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too have suffered due to these modifications. Butterflies are helpful ecological indicators since they are sensitive to changes within the environment like the season, altitude, and above all,

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flower has shed its stamens, and deployed the tips of its pistil without accepting pollen from its own anthers. (It might of course still receive pollen from younger flowers on the same plant.)

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In some situations, farmers or horticulturists may aim to restrict natural pollination to only permit breeding with the preferred individuals plants. This may be achieved through the use of

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economy nearly an estimated $ 3.1 billion annually through natural crop production; pollination produces some $ 40 billion worth of products annually in the United States alone.

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content. The mice apparently can digest the xylose and they eat large quantities of the pollen. In Australia pollination by flying, gliding and earthbound mammals has been demonstrated.

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Isbell F, Craven D, Connolly J, Loreau M, Schmid B, Beierkuhnlein C, et al. (October 2015). "Biodiversity increases the resistance of ecosystem productivity to climate extremes".

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the interactions between plants and pollinators. This structure was found to be similar in very different ecosystems on different continents, consisting of entirely different species.

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Bastolla U, Fortuna MA, Pascual-García A, Ferrera A, Luque B, Bascompte J (April 2009). "The architecture of mutualistic networks minimizes competition and increases biodiversity".

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Ollerton, J. & S. Liede. 1997. Pollination systems in the Asclepiadaceae: a survey and preliminary analysis. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society (1997), 62: 593–610.

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Harder LD, Williams NM, Jordan CY, Nelson WA (2001). "The effects of Floral design and display on pollinator economics and pollen dispersal". In Chittka L, Thomson JD (eds.).

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Rader, Romina; Howlett, Bradley G.; Cunningham, Saul A.; Westcott, David A.; Newstrom-Lloyd, Linda E.; Walker, Melanie K.; Teulon, David A.J.; Edwards, Will (October 2009).

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are considered self-fertile because a commercial crop can be produced without cross-pollination, though cross-pollination usually gives a better crop. Apples are considered

262:. A pollen cone contains hundreds of microsporangia carried on (or borne on) reproductive structures called sporophylls. Spore mother cells in the microsporangia divide by 2387:

Fidalgo, Adriana De O.; Kleinert, Astrid De M. P. (2009-12-01). "Reproductive biology of six Brazilian Myrtaceae: - is there a syndrome associated with buzz-pollination?".

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period. Many fossilized pollen grains show characteristics similar to the biotically dispersed pollen today. Furthermore, the gut contents, wing structures, and mouthpart

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period led to parallel radiations of angiosperms and insects into the late Cretaceous. The evolution of nectaries in late Cretaceous flowers signals the beginning of the

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Goodwillie C, Kalisz S, Eckert CG (2005). "The evolutionary enigma of mixed mating systems in plants: Occurrence, theoretical explanations, and empirical evidence".

6407: 1451:. The more destructive forms of human disturbances are land use changes such as fragmentation, selective logging, and the conversion to secondary forest habitat. 1402:, created a semiochemical formulation called SPLAT Bloom, that modifies the behavior of honey bees, inciting them to visit flowers in every portion of the field. 707:, uses water to transport pollen, sometimes as whole anthers; these can travel across the surface of the water to carry dry pollen from one flower to another. In 4169:

Visser ME, Both C. Shifts in phenology due to global climate change: the need for a yardstick. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B. 2005; 272:2561–2569

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have been shown to reproduce this way in the absence of currents. It is not yet known how important invertebrate pollinators might be for other species. Later,

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Stout JC, Allen JA, Goulson D (December 1998). "The influence of relative plant density and floral morphological complexity on the behaviour of bumblebees".

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that harm bee colonies. Many researchers believe it is the synergistic effects of these factors which are ultimately detrimental to pollinator populations.

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or bat pollination is the pollination of flowering plants by bats. Plants adapted to use bats or moths as pollinators typically have white petals, strong

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crop uses about 50,000 hives each year. The US solution to the pollinator shortage, so far, has been for commercial beekeepers to become pollination

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Aguiar JM, Pansarin LM, Ackerman JD, Pansarin ER (2012). "Biotic versus abiotic pollination in Oeceoclades maculata (Lindl.) Lindl. (Orchidaceae)".

1286:, improving their quality and quantity, becomes more and more appreciated and has given rise to new financial opportunities. The vicinity of a 1168:

is a branch of agriculture that seeks to protect and enhance present pollinators and often involves the culture and addition of pollinators in

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Potts SG, Biesmeijer JC, Kremen C, Neumann P, Schweiger O, Kunin WE (June 2010). "Global pollinator declines: trends, impacts and drivers".

6458: 5239: 1641:, summer management, and the replacement dying bees are considered, almond pollination is barely or not profitable for average beekeepers. 1633:

average of other crops that use the pollination rental service. However, a recent study published in Oxford Academic's Journal of Economic

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between bee species and flowering plants have been illustrated by specialized adaptations. For example, long legs are selected for in

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Chittka L, Gumbert A, Kunze J (1997). "Foraging dynamics of bumble bees: correlates of movement within and between plant species".

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Runions CJ, Owens JN (1999). "Sexual reproduction of interior spruce (Pinaceae). I. Pollen germination to archegonial maturation".

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species). The flowers are borne near the ground, are yeasty smelling, not colourful, and sunbirds reject the nectar with its high

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that look at the positives and negatives of pollination, focused on bees, and how the process affects the pollinators themselves.

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occurs within a closed flower. Pollination often occurs within a species. When pollination occurs between species, it can produce

5060:"The Economics of Honey Bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) Management and Overwintering Strategies for Colonies Used to Pollinate Almonds" 4287:

Humpden NN, Nathan GN (2010-06-01). "Effects of plant structure on butterfly diversity in Mt. Marsabit Forest – northern Kenya".

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Maglianesi Sandoz, M.A. (2016). Efectos del cambio climático sobre la polinización y la producción agrícola en América Tropical.

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Hill PS, Wells PH, Wells H (September 1997). "Spontaneous flower constancy and learning in honey bees as a function of colour".

1428:, over 75% of tropical tree species, and 30-40% of tree species in temperate regions depend on pollination and seed dispersal. 1102: 322: 5282: 5134: 3555: 3330: 3264: 3235: 3210: 2029: 1902: 1837: 1785: 858:

cleistogamous and chasmogamous flowers, sometimes on different parts of the plant and sometimes in mixed inflorescences. The

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to another. This allows the plant to spend energy directly on pollen rather than on attracting pollinators with flowers and

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Igic B, Kohn JR (May 2006). "The distribution of plant mating systems: study bias against obligately outcrossing species".

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Labandeira CC, Kvacek J, Mostovski MB (2007). "Pollination drops, pollen and insect pollination of Mesozoic gymnosperms".

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It is possible for a plant to have varying pollination methods, including both biotic and abiotic pollination. The orchid

4834: 1685: 2521: 749:, this allows the plant to self-pollinate, which is useful when biotic pollinators in the environment have decreased. 522:

and flower at night, whereas plants that use birds as pollinators tend to produce copious nectar and have red petals.

471:" (or "sonication"), where a bee must vibrate at a certain frequency in order to cause pollen to be released from the 6464: 5204: 3898: 3529: 2934: 467:

species), or require specialized behaviors or morphology in order to extract pollen or nectar. One such syndrome is "

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Ackerman JD (2000-03-01). "Abiotic pollen and pollination: Ecological, functional, and evolutionary perspectives".

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return to their colonies are great greatly compromised. Moreover, California's Central Valley is determined by the

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Steiner KE, Whitehead VB (September 1990). "Pollinator Adaptation to Oil-Secreting Flowers-Rediviva and Diascia".

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rely on biotic pollination. (also called pollen vectors): organisms that carry or move the pollen grains from the

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Hung, Keng-Lou James; Kingston, Jennifer M.; Albrecht, Matthias; Holway, David A.; Kohn, Joshua R. (2018-01-10).

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Whitehead DR (March 1969). "Wind Pollination in the Angiosperms: Evolutionary and Environmental Considerations".

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of private pollination services is the decline of biodiversity through the deaths of commercial and wild bees.

1495: 6279: 3022:"Wind of change: new insights on the ecology and evolution of pollination and mating in wind-pollinated plants" 2840: 2782:

van Tussenbroek BI, Villamil N, Márquez-Guzmán J, Wong R, Monroy-Velázquez LV, Solis-Weiss V (September 2016).

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The graph shows the average dollar amount per colonies received by beekeepers depending on the pollinated crop.

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Lever JJ, van Nes EH, Scheffer M, Bascompte J (March 2014). "The sudden collapse of pollinator communities".

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means that greater concentrations of pollinators are needed at bloom time than ever before, yet the area is

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not only the crops, but also other plants around the area that they are set loose to pollinate, increasing

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is dependent on fertilisation: the result of pollination. The study of pollination by insects is known as

6530: 6284: 1589: 835:, where pollen is transferred from anther (male part) to the stigma (female part) of the same flower; or 221: 771: 6264: 2562:

Goldingay RL, Carthew SM, Whelan RJ (May 1991). "The Importance of Non-Flying Mammals in Pollination".

5035:"USDA ERS - Driven by Almonds, Pollination Services Now Exceed Honey as a Source of Beekeeper Revenue" 4721:"USDA ERS - Driven by Almonds, Pollination Services Now Exceed Honey as a Source of Beekeeper Revenue" 2605:

Olesen JM, Valido A (April 2003). "Lizards as pollinators and seed dispersers: an island phenomenon".

139:". This process would result in the production of a seed, made of both nutritious tissues and embryo. 6414: 5275: 5192: 3282:"The cleistogamous breeding system: a review of its frequency, evolution, and ecology in angiosperms" 1605: 192: 2244:

Chittka L, Thomson JD, Waser NM (1999). "Flower constancy, insect psychology, and plant evolution".

1227:, beekeepers follow the bloom from south to north, to provide pollination for many different crops. 862:

produces cleistogamous flowers below ground, and mixed cleistogamous and chasmogamous flowers above.

6606: 6552: 6397: 5447: 4204: 3110: 1600: 1415: 1307: 802: 108:

travel down the tube to where the gametophyte(s) containing the female gametes are held within the

5104:

Crepet WL, Friis EM, Nixon KC (1991). "Fossil evidence for the evolution of biotic pollination ".

3427: 2288: 1800:

Denisow, B. and Weryszko-Chmielewska, E. (2015) "Pollen grains as airborne allergenic particles".

3281: 2993:

Culley TM, Weller SG, Sakai AK (2002-08-01). "The evolution of wind pollination in angiosperms".

2045: 942:) and can pollinate and fertilize themselves. Other plants have chemical or physical barriers to 3768:

Cox-Foster DL, Conlan S, Holmes EC, Palacios G, Evans JD, Moran NA, et al. (October 2007).

6382: 6306: 4867: 4744: 4199: 1670: 1556: 1506:

Besides the imbalance of the ecosystem caused by the decline in pollinators, it may jeopardise

1326: 1251: 1205: 1165: 976:, because a commercial crop must be cross-pollinated. Many commercial fruit tree varieties are 859: 461:

to increase effectiveness, attach pollen to specific body parts (as happens in many orchid and

6111: 3320: 1827: 1637:

found that once the costs for maintaining bees specifically for almond pollination, including

6601: 6547: 4380: 3402: 3254: 2924: 2190:

Goulson D, Ollerton J, Sluman C (1997). "Foraging strategies in the small skipper butterfly,

1564: 1399: 1370: 1301: 733: 36: 3990:

Roubik DW (June 2001). "Ups and Downs in Pollinator Populations: When is there a Decline?".

3611:

An Assessment of Non-Apis Bees as Fruit and Vegetable Crop Pollinators in Southwest Virginia

6596: 6269: 6166: 6121: 5793: 5352: 5268: 5246: 4988: 4900: 4778: 4595: 4539: 4484: 4425: 4296: 4191: 4043: 3943: 3841: 3781: 3726: 3609: 2881: 2795: 2754: 2687: 2614: 2571: 2396: 2253: 2121: 1951: 1695: 1181: 1027: 1001: 759: 709: 617: 608: 328: 240:

Decolorized aniline blue fluorescence image showing growing pollen tubes in a tomato pistil

136: 5769: 657:

Abiotic pollination uses nonliving methods such as wind and water to move pollen from one

8: 6439: 5984: 4977:"Does pathogen spillover from commercially reared bumble bees threaten wild pollinators?" 1660: 1519: 1432: 1051: 727: 4992: 4904: 4782: 4599: 4543: 4488: 4429: 4300: 4195: 4047: 3947: 3932:"Pollination and seed dispersal are the most threatened processes of plant regeneration" 3845: 3785: 3730: 3085: 2885: 2799: 2758: 2691: 2618: 2575: 2400: 2257: 2125: 1955: 1541: 1533:

improvement needed to return to conditions at which the pollinator community collapsed.

6377: 6242: 6020: 5712: 5498: 5394: 5224: 5163: 5011: 4976: 4924: 4884:

Henry M, Béguin M, Requier F, Rollin O, Odoux JF, Aupinel P, et al. (April 2012).

4812: 4697: 4664: 4563: 4448: 4413: 4353: 4264: 4239: 4120: 4095: 4064: 4031: 3964: 3931: 3807: 3750: 3500: 3460: 3435: 3371: 3301: 3151: 3124: 3089: 3046: 3021: 2967: 2905: 2865:

Lavaut E, Guillemin ML, Colin S, Faure A, Coudret J, Destombe C, Valero M (July 2022).

2816: 2783: 2718: 2675: 2587: 2502: 2331: 2269: 2211: 2145: 2094: 1985: 1967: 1870: 1722:

Animal Behavior Desk Reference. A Dictionary of Animal Behavior, Ecology, and Evolution

1655: 1411: 1338: 679: 113: 4639: 4507: 4472: 3006: 2626: 2481:

Wiens D, Rourke JP, Casper BB, Rickart EA, LaPine TR, Peterson CJ, Channing A (1983).

2458: 2431: 150:

of gymnosperms in question. Two main modes of fertilisation are found in gymnosperms:

6535: 5384: 5379: 5200: 5130: 5081: 5016: 4951: 4916: 4842: 4804: 4702: 4684: 4621: 4555: 4512: 4453: 4345: 4308: 4269: 4217: 4125: 4069: 3969: 3859: 3799: 3742: 3551: 3508: 3465: 3409: 3363: 3326: 3260: 3231: 3206: 3187: 3156: 3051: 2975: 2930: 2909: 2897: 2821: 2767: 2742: 2723: 2705: 2463: 2412: 2339: 2137: 2086: 2025: 1898: 1833: 1781: 1613: 1483: 1362: 1334: 1246:, and many other crops. Honey bees are not the only managed pollinators: a few other 1209: 1177: 602: 147: 4928: 4357: 3811: 3754: 3305: 2658: 2641: 2273: 2098: 1971: 168:

have sperm that are unable to swim but are conveyed to the egg along a pollen tube.

6321: 6227: 6222: 6176: 6069: 6054: 6015: 5940: 5781: 5705: 5602: 5544: 5155: 5113: 5071: 5006: 4996: 4908: 4816: 4794: 4786: 4692: 4676: 4611: 4603: 4567: 4547: 4502: 4492: 4443: 4433: 4389: 4335: 4304: 4259: 4251: 4209: 4115: 4107: 4059: 4051: 4007: 3999: 3959: 3951: 3849: 3825: 3789: 3734: 3641: 3492: 3455: 3447: 3398: 3355: 3293: 3183: 3146: 3136: 3081: 3041: 3033: 3002: 2959: 2889: 2811: 2803: 2762: 2713: 2695: 2653: 2622: 2579: 2494: 2453: 2443: 2404: 2323: 2261: 2203: 2172: 2149: 2129: 2078: 2017: 1959: 1874: 1862: 1809: 1675: 1189: 955: 943: 814: 739: 561: 468: 458: 449: 421: 275: 124: 70: 66: 6116: 2408: 2215: 274:, and two prothallial cells that degenerate. These cells comprise a very reduced 6575: 6557: 6419: 6248: 6198: 6186: 6148: 6084: 5911: 5879: 5840: 5813: 5642: 5637: 5528: 5464: 5345: 5146: 5001: 4438: 4414:"Contribution of pollinator-mediated crops to nutrients in the human food supply" 3877: 3375: 2867:"Pollinators of the sea: A discovery of animal-mediated fertilization in seaweed" 2482: 2448: 1425: 1386: 1378: 1358: 1070: 673: 633: 606:, which pollinates various species, but in particular is the major pollinator of 515: 343: 89: 54: 5058:

Degrandi-Hoffman G, Graham H, Ahumada F, Smart M, Ziolkowski N (December 2019).

4835:"'Like sending bees to war': the deadly truth behind your almond milk obsession" 4376:"Pollinators and Global Food Security: the Need for Holistic Global Stewardship" 2021: 6469: 6434: 6387: 6369: 6333: 6089: 5916: 5894: 5860: 5835: 5818: 5808: 5803: 5685: 5503: 5488: 5442: 5437: 4944:"Life in San Joaquin valley, the place with the worst air pollution in America" 4477:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

4213: 3899:"ISCA Technologies: A Leader of Innovative Pest Management Tools and Solutions" 3533: 1760: 1448: 1420: 1392: 1337:

poor or even deadly to bees for the rest of the season. The other trend is the

1235: 932:, the plants that serve as the pollen source for other plants. Some plants are 717:

are slightly depressed into the water, allowing the male flowers to tumble in.

569: 101: 97: 74: 4394: 4375: 2784:"Experimental evidence of pollination in marine flowers by invertebrate fauna" 2544: 1624: 1545:

The graph shows the number of honeybee colonies in the U.S. from 1982 to 2015,

6590: 6505: 6253: 6171: 6143: 6106: 6074: 6010: 5979: 5930: 5830: 5632: 5615: 5538: 5518: 5459: 5454: 5402: 4955: 4846: 4688: 2709: 2416: 2176: 1638: 1609: 1507: 1465: 1015: 745: 58: 32: 4912: 4497: 4340: 4323: 4003: 3854: 3829: 3794: 3769: 3738: 3571:

Pollinator biodiversity and economic value of pollination services in Uganda

2893: 2700: 1294:

with native pollinators near agricultural crops, such as apples, almonds or

27: 6500: 6490: 6392: 6101: 5610: 5577: 5324: 5117: 5085: 5020: 4920: 4808: 4706: 4680: 4665:"The worldwide importance of honey bees as pollinators in natural habitats" 4625: 4559: 4516: 4457: 4349: 4273: 4221: 4129: 4073: 3973: 3863: 3803: 3746: 3569: 3512: 3469: 3451: 3367: 3160: 3055: 2979: 2901: 2825: 2727: 2467: 2343: 2207: 2141: 2082: 1700: 1572: 1350: 950: 853: 763:

uses both rain and butterflies, depending on its environmental conditions.

695:

and stigma positions that promote effective pollen dispersal and transfer.

525: 519: 511: 499: 366: 236: 227: 176: 4886:"A common pesticide decreases foraging success and survival in honey bees" 4412:

Eilers EJ, Kremen C, Smith Greenleaf S, Garber AK, Klein AM (2011-06-22).

3902: 2265: 2133: 2090: 294:

Pollination may be biotic or abiotic. Biotic pollination relies on living

160:

have motile sperm that swim directly to the egg inside the ovule, whereas

6316: 6296: 6232: 6094: 5874: 5845: 5744: 5739: 5587: 5427: 5422: 5407: 5319: 5076: 5059: 3537: 3141: 3037: 2781: 1918: 1735: 1618: 1568: 1560: 1461: 1452: 1330: 1319: 1280: 1169: 1115: 1074: 1065: 1055: 917: 843: 491: 425: 382: 370: 365:, often occurs on plants that have developed colored petals and a strong 358: 315: 267: 245: 205: 196: 93: 85: 5167: 4799: 4790: 4551: 3770:"A metagenomic survey of microbes in honey bee colony collapse disorder" 3125:"Rain pollination provides reproductive assurance in a deceptive orchid" 2807: 1813: 1107: 6345: 6338: 6328: 6311: 5994: 5989: 5925: 5717: 5564: 5523: 5417: 5307: 5302: 4640:"FAO - News Article: Pollinators vital to our food supply under threat" 4616: 3929: 3878:"EFSA Press Release: EFSA identifies risks to bees from neonicotinoids" 3504: 3322:

Seeds: Ecology, Biogeography, and Evolution of Dormancy and Germination

3093: 2971: 2676:"Non-bee insects are important contributors to global crop pollination" 2591: 2506: 2335: 1963: 1680: 1634: 1440: 1266: 1243: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1031: 1019: 929: 704: 688: 639: 624: 597: 593: 503: 444: 378: 337: 311: 295: 255: 188: 180: 165: 143: 117: 81: 4607: 4111: 4055: 4012: 3955: 2231:

Cognitive Ecology of Pollination: Animal Behavior and Floral Evolution

1038:

suggest that they acted as early pollinators. The association between

19: 6453: 6350: 6079: 5884: 5865: 5776: 5700: 5620: 5572: 5513: 5493: 5432: 5159: 4255: 3359: 1576: 1491: 1456: 1436: 1342: 1291: 1262: 1201: 1185: 989: 963: 589: 585: 514:

or bird pollination is the pollination of flowering plants by birds.

507: 463: 413: 405: 397: 259: 210: 121: 5220: 4529: 3930:

Neuschulz EL, Mueller T, Schleuning M, Böhning-Gaese K (July 2016).

3496: 2963: 2583: 2498: 2327: 2046:"First ever record of insect pollination from 100 million years ago" 6495: 6485: 6429: 6424: 6191: 6064: 6040: 5957: 5627: 5412: 5314: 5197:

Pollination: The Enduring Relationship Between Plant and Pollinator

4032:"Defaunation leads to microevolutionary changes in a tropical palm" 3123:

Fan XL, Barrett SC, Lin H, Chen LL, Zhou X, Gao JY (October 2012).

1866: 1444: 1374: 1346: 1231: 1224: 1093:

is selected for, thus, continually driving each other's evolution.

1023: 984: 977: 823: 776: 628: 479: 390: 128: 5245: 5057: 1299:

native bee pollinator species as shown with the native sweat bees

665:. Pollination by wind is more common amongst abiotic pollination. 5680: 5675: 5592: 5582: 4411: 3716: 1276: 1255: 1247: 1216: 1173: 1158: 1154: 1126: 1121: 1035: 1007: 980: 959: 784: 495: 472: 386: 271: 263: 184: 161: 3587:"Farming for native bees. World Wide Web electronic publication" 6133: 6025: 5945: 5899: 5889: 5850: 5788: 5764: 5759: 5754: 5749: 5368: 4030:

Carvalho CS, Galetti M, Colevatti RG, Jordano P (August 2016).

4029: 3630:"The economic value of ecological services provided by insects" 2362:"Reproductive Biology and Controlled Pollination of Eucalyptus" 1584: 1536: 1354: 1318:

reports that native insect pollination saves the United States

1295: 1287: 1269: 1134: 962:, or between different breeding lines or populations. see also 781: 692: 662: 658: 577: 536: 433: 374: 369:

to attract insects such as bees, wasps, and occasionally ants (

362: 352: 347: 299: 187:. The pollination process as an interaction between flower and 172: 156: 132: 109: 105: 50: 46: 5260: 3767: 3173: 2740: 2672: 1724:(Third ed.). Boca Raton, FL.: CRC Press LCC. p. 794. 1279:

and financial importance of natural pollination by insects to

596:

are active pollinators, and so is at least one species of the

6357: 6291: 6213: 6181: 6138: 6030: 5972: 5967: 5962: 5950: 5935: 5904: 5825: 5483: 5474: 4585: 1283: 1239: 1220: 1213: 1197: 1193: 1146: 1142: 969: 714: 645: 250: 200: 151: 4471:

Bascompte J, Jordano P, Melián CJ, Olesen JM (August 2003).

4470: 4237: 4181: 3692:

Communications, Todd Datz Harvard Chan School (2022-12-14).

3423:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 45–67. 2841:"Like Bees of the Seas, These Crustaceans Pollinate Seaweed" 2314:

Dressler RL (March 1968). "Pollination by Euglossine Bees".

1393:

Improving pollination in areas with suboptimal bee densities

1064:

provide a good example of the mutualism that exists between

627:) acting as pollinators in underwater environments. Beds of 623:

Experimental evidence has shown invertebrates (mostly small

6208: 6203: 5855: 5695: 5670: 5665: 5649: 5508: 3228:

Understanding flowers and flowering: an integrated approach

2429: 1762:

An introduction to the structure and reproduction of plants

1366: 1258: 1176:. The largest managed pollination event in the world is in 1150: 1130: 1011: 483: 62: 4768: 4662: 4473:"The nested assembly of plant-animal mutualistic networks" 2483:"Nonflying Mammal Pollination of Southern African Proteas" 2228: 2012:

Abrol DP (2012). "Non Bee Pollinators-Plant Interaction".

6128: 5690: 5337: 5143: 4238:

Fairbrother A, Purdy J, Anderson T, Fell R (April 2014).

3694:"New study shows impact pollinators have on human health" 3647:

10.1641/0006-3568(2006)56[311:TEVOES]2.0.CO;2

2864: 2286: 1583:. The impact of pollination varies by crop. For example, 1141:

The most essential staple food crops on the planet, like

1061: 487: 437: 429: 389:). The existence of insect pollination dates back to the 171:

The study of pollination spans many disciplines, such as

5240:

Pollination syndromes images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu

5229: 4883: 2480: 1230:

In America, bees are brought to commercial plantings of

4669:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

3591:

Sustainable Agriculture Research & Education (SARE)

3578: 3298:

10.1663/0006-8101(2007)73[1:TCBSAR]2.0.CO;2

1555:

crop yields, earning additional revenue from providing

1501: 443:

Many flowers attract pollinators by odor. For example,

254:(male) or ovulate cones (female), but some species are 4865: 3388: 3113:

I kommission hos E. Munksgaard. Retrieved 26 May 2018.

2561: 1431:

Factors that contribute to pollinator decline include

958:

is effective pollination between flowers of different

644:

reproduce – the first known case of an animal helping

560:) are adapted to pollination by rodents (particularly 5179:. Hisar: Rajendra Scientific Publishers. p. 210. 3485:

Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution

3348:

Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution

2952:

Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution

2316:

Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution

2189: 1897:(6th ed.). Pearson Education. pp. 600–612. 1588:

all bee colonies in the US are moved to California's

1022:

show evidence for biotic pollination as early as the

831:

colonize new locations. Self-pollination may include

4974: 3205:. Boca Raton, Fla.: Lewis Publishers. p. 166. 2430:Rodríguez-Gironés MA, Santamaría L (October 2004). 2243: 2162: 1986:"Types of Pollination, Pollinators and Terminology" 1475: 270:, a generative cell that will produce two sperm by 4240:"Risks of neonicotinoid insecticides to honeybees" 2922: 2367:. School of Plant Science, University of Tasmania. 482:, pollination is performed by vertebrates such as 5177:Pollination Biology: Basic and Applied Principles 5124: 4096:"The risk of insecticides to pollinating insects" 3891: 3538:"FAOstats Food Supply - Crops Primary Equivalent" 3122: 2992: 2287:Sühs RB, Somavilla A, Köhler A, Putzke J (2009). 2111: 1265:are increasingly raised and used extensively for 1137:structure appears rough and globular to the left. 6588: 5103: 3482: 3433: 2289:"Pollen vector wasps (Hymenoptera, Vespidae) of 1832:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 210–216. 1758: 1188:are trucked to the almond orchards each spring. 5106:Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences 3019: 2680:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2639: 2519: 2386: 2233:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 297–317. 1180:orchards, where nearly half (about one million 916:An estimated 48.7% of plant species are either 23:Diagram illustrating the process of pollination 5199:. Princeton University Press. pp. 1–224. 4581: 4579: 4577: 3691: 3279: 2734: 2666: 2068: 5353: 5276: 4286: 3200: 2355: 2353: 1892: 6459:International Association for Plant Taxonomy 3662:"US Forest Department: Pollinator Factsheet" 3627: 3339: 3318: 3273: 2604: 2542: 1852: 1537:Economics of commercial honeybee pollination 1513: 1369:, and public concern about bees. Widespread 1250:of bees are also raised as pollinators. The 457:Some flowers have specialized mechanisms to 4574: 4373: 4324:"Ecology. The global plight of pollinators" 3550:FAO 2015. FAO Statistical Pocketbook 2015, 3524: 3522: 3421:Evolution of Plant-Pollinator Relationships 3072:Cox PA (1988). "Hydrophilous Pollination". 2642:"Pollination and seed dispersal by lizards" 928:Pollination also requires consideration of 191:was first addressed in the 18th century by 5360: 5346: 5283: 5269: 4873:. United States Department of Agriculture. 4868:"Colony Collapse Disorder Progress Report" 4321: 3415: 3219: 2350: 1888: 1886: 1884: 278:, that is contained within the resistant. 5075: 5010: 5000: 4975:Otterstatter MC, Thomson JD (July 2008). 4798: 4696: 4615: 4506: 4496: 4447: 4437: 4393: 4339: 4263: 4203: 4119: 4063: 4011: 3963: 3853: 3793: 3645: 3459: 3436:"Bees diversified in the age of eudicots" 3249: 3247: 3150: 3140: 3105: 3103: 3045: 2949: 2815: 2766: 2717: 2699: 2657: 2457: 2447: 2359: 2038: 2016:. Vol. Chapter 9. pp. 265–310. 1978: 1464:have negative effects, as in the case of 1316:American Institute of Biological Sciences 216: 6403:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN) 4832: 4093: 3519: 3403:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.091704.175539 3345: 3230:. 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(2010-09-28). 3434:Cardinal S, Danforth BN (March 2013). 3312: 3244: 3225: 3100: 3067: 3065: 2520:Fleming PA, Nicolson SW (March 2003). 1846: 1103:List of crop plants pollinated by bees 652: 195:. It is important in horticulture and 112:. After entering an ovule through the 16:Biological process occurring in plants 5341: 5264: 5174: 4828: 4826: 4407: 4405: 4369: 4367: 4233: 4231: 4177: 4175: 4089: 4087: 4085: 4083: 4025: 4023: 3985: 3983: 3584: 2598: 2011: 2002: 1345:misuse and overuse, new diseases and 1261:in western United States and Canada. 1172:situations, such as commercial fruit 306: 4866:CCD Steering Committee (June 2010). 3654: 3020:Friedman J, Barrett SC (June 2009). 2838: 1502:Food security and pollinator decline 752: 3916: 3203:Wetland plants: biology and ecology 3086:10.1146/annurev.es.19.110188.001401 3071: 3062: 2646:Revista Chilena de Historia Natural 2633: 2432:"Why are so many bird flowers red?" 1769: 1608:as the location of country's worst 1410:Loss of pollinators, also known as 851:flowers never open, in contrast to 809:Pollination can be accomplished by 687:Some 98% of abiotic pollination is 13: 5185: 4823: 4402: 4374:Sluijs JP, Vaage NS (2016-06-01). 4364: 4315: 4280: 4228: 4172: 4080: 4020: 3980: 3628:Losey JE, Vaughan M (April 2006). 3574:(PhD thesis). Makerere University. 1329:, due to two trends. The trend to 1196:crop requires about 30,000 hives; 612:on various Mediterranean islands. 420:) have been observed to engage in 116:, one male nucleus fuses with the 14: 6618: 6408:ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP) 5214: 4184:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 3530:Food and Agriculture Organization 2995:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 2926:Principles of Pollination Ecology 2607:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 2545:"Who is pollinating Pr humiflora" 1759:Fritsch FE, Salisbury EJ (1920). 1339:decline of pollinator populations 1096: 127:, while the other fuses with the 6571: 6570: 4309:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2009.01151.x 3440:Proceedings. Biological Sciences 3419:(2012). "3". In Patiny S (ed.). 3188:10.1111/j.1442-1984.2011.00330.x 2768:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01700.x 2551:from the original on 2013-02-19. 2297:Brazilian Journal of Biosciences 1476:Examples of affected pollinators 1089:and again longer spur length in 900: 883: 868: 618:Pollinator § Other invertebrates 616:This section is an excerpt from 5290: 5051: 5027: 4968: 4935: 4877: 4859: 4762: 4737: 4713: 4656: 4632: 4523: 4464: 4163: 4153: 4136: 3870: 3830:"The road to pollinator health" 3818: 3761: 3710: 3685: 3621: 3561: 3544: 3476: 3382: 3280:Culley TM, Klooster MR (2007). 3259:. Ratna Sagar. pp. 56–61. 3194: 3167: 3013: 2986: 2943: 2916: 2858: 2832: 2775: 2659:10.4067/S0716-078X2004000300015 2555: 2536: 2513: 2474: 2423: 2380: 2371: 2307: 2280: 2237: 2222: 2183: 2156: 2105: 2062: 1944:Plant Systematics and Evolution 1935: 1651:Canadian Pollination Initiative 1496:human impact on the environment 1254:is an important pollinator for 1081:, a bee that collects oil from 821:Cross-pollination, also called 92:, it germinates and develops a 5064:Journal of Economic Entomology 4094:Connolly CN (September 2013). 3901:. Iscatech.com. Archived from 3536:, Statistics Division (2017). 3201:Cronk JK, Fennessy MS (2001). 1911: 1893:Campbell NA, Reece JB (2002). 1794: 1752: 1728: 1713: 995: 800:transporting pollen grains of 1: 5127:Practical Pollination Biology 3319:Baskin CC, Baskin JM (2001). 3007:10.1016/S0169-5347(02)02540-5 2627:10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00004-1 2409:10.1080/0028825x.2009.9672712 2389:New Zealand Journal of Botany 1706: 1691:Plant reproductive morphology 1666:Pollinator-mediated selection 440:, and many species of wasps. 318:typically feed on red flowers 35:with pollen collected from a 6449:History of plant systematics 6036:Thorns, spines, and prickles 5002:10.1371/journal.pone.0002771 4439:10.1371/journal.pone.0021363 4322:Tylianakis JM (March 2013). 3880:. Efsa.europa.eu. 2013-01-16 2449:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020350 1598:US Department of Agriculture 1581:US Department of Agriculture 1208:and to migrate. Just as the 1125:bee gathers pollen from the 1006:The first fossil record for 797:Mischocyttarus rotundicollis 766: 209:. There are also studies in 7: 3391:Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst 2022:10.1007/978-94-007-1942-2_9 1644: 698: 396:Insect pollinators such as 73:offspring in nature and in 57:of a plant, later enabling 10: 6623: 6265:Alternation of generations 5367: 5235:Pollination in Hydroponics 4289:African Journal of Ecology 4214:10.1016/j.tree.2010.01.007 2747:Journal of Applied Ecology 2640:Godínez-Álvarez H (2004). 1517: 1100: 999: 720: 683:) spreading pollen by wind 668: 615: 381:), moths and butterflies ( 335: 289: 226:Pollen grains observed in 84:, after the pollen grain ( 6566: 6514: 6478: 6415:Cultivated plant taxonomy 6378:Biological classification 6368: 6241: 6157: 6053: 6003: 5728: 5658: 5601: 5563: 5537: 5473: 5393: 5375: 5298: 5230:The Pollination Home page 4833:McGivney A (2020-01-08). 4745:"Pollinator Biodiversity" 4395:10.1007/s41055-016-0003-z 3325:. Elsevier. p. 215. 1686:Hermann Müller (botanist) 1606:World Health Organization 1514:Plant–pollinator networks 1353:, decline of beekeeping, 1014:-like plants in the late 992:) every six trees or so. 193:Christian Konrad Sprengel 6275:Evolutionary development 5221:Resources on Pollinators 5096: 4942:Carroll R (2016-05-13). 2929:. Elsevier. p. 34. 2543:Fleming T, Nicholson S. 2360:Potts B, Gore P (1995). 2291:Schinus terebinthifolius 1780:. Jones & Bartlett. 1601:Colony Collapse Disorder 1416:colony collapse disorder 1357:development, removal of 1073:. In addition, cases of 803:Schinus terebinthifolius 5926:Hypanthium (Floral cup) 5253:Encyclopædia Britannica 4913:10.1126/science.1215039 4498:10.1073/pnas.1633576100 4341:10.1126/science.1235464 4004:10.5751/ES-00255-050102 3855:10.1126/science.1244271 3795:10.1126/science.1146498 3739:10.1126/science.1127863 2894:10.1126/science.abo6661 2839:Roth A (28 July 2022). 2701:10.1073/pnas.1517092112 1311:in southwest Virginia. 890:The lower two of these 637:was discovered to help 6541:by author abbreviation 6465:Plant taxonomy systems 6383:Botanical nomenclature 5256:(11th ed.). 1911. 5118:10.1098/rstb.1991.0067 4681:10.1098/rspb.2017.2140 3452:10.1098/rspb.2012.2686 2293:Raddi (Anacardiaceae)" 2208:10.1006/anbe.1996.0390 2177:10.1093/beheco/8.3.239 2083:10.1006/anbe.1996.0467 1671:Fruit tree pollination 1629: 1557:privatized pollination 1546: 1252:alfalfa leafcutter bee 1166:Pollination management 1138: 1112: 806: 787: 703:Pollination by water, 684: 531: 333: 319: 241: 233: 217:Process of pollination 61:and the production of 39: 24: 6548:Botanical expeditions 3597:on 30 September 2015. 3176:Plant Species Biology 2788:Nature Communications 2674:H. (5 January 2016). 2266:10.1007/s001140050636 2134:10.1007/s004420050691 1627: 1544: 1406:Environmental impacts 1400:Riverside, California 1118: 1110: 793: 774: 734:Narthecium ossifragum 676: 528: 432:, but also including 325: 314: 239: 224: 96:which grows down the 37:night-blooming cereus 30: 22: 6280:Evolutionary history 6270:Double fertilization 6122:Cellular respiration 5129:. Enviroquest, Ltd. 3992:Conservation Ecology 3286:The Botanical Review 2194:: when to switch?". 1696:Pollen DNA barcoding 1561:positive externality 1010:pollination is from 1002:Pollination syndrome 760:Oeceoclades maculata 710:Vallisneria spiralis 609:Euphorbia dendroides 329:Melissodes desponsus 137:double fertilisation 100:until it reaches an 88:) has landed on the 5499:Non-vascular plants 5247:"Pollination" 4993:2008PLoSO...3.2771O 4905:2012Sci...336..348H 4791:10.1038/nature15374 4783:2015Natur.526..574I 4600:2014EcolL..17..350L 4552:10.1038/nature07950 4544:2009Natur.458.1018B 4489:2003PNAS..100.9383B 4430:2011PLoSO...621363E 4301:2010AfJEc..48..304H 4196:2010TEcoE..25..345P 4048:2016NatSR...631957C 3948:2016NatSR...629839N 3846:2013Sci...341..695W 3786:2007Sci...318..283C 3731:2006Sci...313..351B 3608:Adamson NL (2011). 2886:2022Sci...377..528L 2808:10.1038/ncomms12980 2800:2016NatCo...712980V 2759:2009JApEc..46.1080R 2692:2016PNAS..113..146R 2619:2003TEcoE..18..177O 2576:1991Oikos..61...79G 2401:2009NZJB...47..355F 2258:1999NW.....86..361C 2246:Naturwissenschaften 2126:1998Oecol.117..543S 2014:Pollination Biology 1956:2000PSyEv.222..167A 1919:"About Pollinators" 1826:Raghavan V (1997). 1814:10.5586/aa.2015.045 1776:Mauseth JD (2008). 1736:"About Pollinators" 1720:Barrows EM (2011). 1661:Floral color change 1520:Pollination network 1433:habitat destruction 1327:environmental issue 949:In agriculture and 728:Ranunculus flammula 653:Abiotic pollination 332:) covered in pollen 135:. Hence the term: " 45:is the transfer of 6004:Surface structures 5799:Flower development 5225:National Academies 5195:(6 October 2020). 5077:10.1093/jee/toz213 4675:(1870): 20172140. 4144:Revista Ingeniería 4036:Scientific Reports 3936:Scientific Reports 3446:(1755): 20122686. 3226:Glover BJ (2007). 3142:10.1093/aob/mcs165 3109:Hagerup, O. 1950. 3038:10.1093/aob/mcp035 2845:The New York Times 2526:African Entomology 2165:Behavioral Ecology 1964:10.1007/BF00984101 1656:Cheating (biology) 1630: 1547: 1412:pollinator decline 1210:combine harvesters 1139: 1113: 1083:Diascia capsularis 807: 788: 685: 680:Dactylis glomerata 566:Acomys subspinosus 532: 334: 320: 307:Biotic pollination 242: 234: 53:of a plant to the 40: 25: 6584: 6583: 6223:Herbaceous plants 6049: 6048: 5335: 5334: 5175:Sihag RC (1997). 5136:978-0-9680123-0-7 5112:(1267): 187–195. 4608:10.1111/ele.12236 4538:(7241): 1018–20. 4112:10.4161/cib.25074 4056:10.1038/srep31957 3956:10.1038/srep29839 3556:978-92-5-108802-9 3332:978-0-12-080263-0 3266:978-81-8332-565-3 3237:978-0-19-856596-3 3212:978-1-56670-372-7 3111:Rain-pollination. 2880:(6605): 528–530. 2192:Thymelicus flavus 2031:978-94-007-1941-5 1904:978-0-201-75054-6 1839:978-0-521-55246-2 1802:Acta Agrobotanica 1787:978-0-7637-5345-0 1272:and other crops. 1178:California almond 1058:and angiosperms. 1046:during the early 974:self-incompatible 922:self-incompatible 811:cross-pollination 753:Switching methods 603:Podarcis lilfordi 418:Thymelicus flavus 361:, pollination by 6614: 6574: 6573: 6553:Individual trees 6228:Secondary growth 6199:Succulent plants 6187:Prostrate shrubs 6070:Apical dominance 6055:Plant physiology 6016:Epicuticular wax 5561: 5560: 5554: 5545:Plant morphology 5362: 5355: 5348: 5339: 5338: 5285: 5278: 5271: 5262: 5261: 5257: 5249: 5210: 5180: 5171: 5160:10.2307/25065852 5140: 5121: 5090: 5089: 5079: 5070:(6): 2524–2533. 5055: 5049: 5048: 5046: 5045: 5039:www.ers.usda.gov 5031: 5025: 5024: 5014: 5004: 4972: 4966: 4965: 4963: 4962: 4939: 4933: 4932: 4899:(6079): 348–50. 4890: 4881: 4875: 4874: 4872: 4863: 4857: 4856: 4854: 4853: 4830: 4821: 4820: 4802: 4766: 4760: 4759: 4757: 4756: 4741: 4735: 4734: 4732: 4731: 4725:www.ers.usda.gov 4717: 4711: 4710: 4700: 4660: 4654: 4653: 4651: 4650: 4636: 4630: 4629: 4619: 4583: 4572: 4571: 4527: 4521: 4520: 4510: 4500: 4468: 4462: 4461: 4451: 4441: 4409: 4400: 4399: 4397: 4371: 4362: 4361: 4343: 4334:(6127): 1532–3. 4319: 4313: 4312: 4284: 4278: 4277: 4267: 4256:10.1002/etc.2527 4235: 4226: 4225: 4207: 4179: 4170: 4167: 4161: 4157: 4151: 4140: 4134: 4133: 4123: 4091: 4078: 4077: 4067: 4027: 4018: 4017: 4015: 3987: 3978: 3977: 3967: 3927: 3914: 3913: 3911: 3910: 3895: 3889: 3888: 3886: 3885: 3874: 3868: 3867: 3857: 3822: 3816: 3815: 3797: 3765: 3759: 3758: 3714: 3708: 3707: 3705: 3704: 3689: 3683: 3682: 3680: 3679: 3674:on June 23, 2022 3673: 3667:. Archived from 3666: 3658: 3652: 3651: 3649: 3625: 3619: 3618: 3616: 3605: 3599: 3598: 3593:. Archived from 3585:Kuehn F (2015). 3582: 3576: 3575: 3565: 3559: 3548: 3542: 3541: 3526: 3517: 3516: 3491:(6): 1701–1707. 3480: 3474: 3473: 3463: 3431: 3425: 3424: 3413: 3407: 3406: 3386: 3380: 3379: 3360:10.1554/05-383.1 3343: 3337: 3336: 3316: 3310: 3309: 3277: 3271: 3270: 3251: 3242: 3241: 3223: 3217: 3216: 3198: 3192: 3191: 3171: 3165: 3164: 3154: 3144: 3129:Annals of Botany 3120: 3114: 3107: 3098: 3097: 3069: 3060: 3059: 3049: 3026:Annals of Botany 3017: 3011: 3010: 2990: 2984: 2983: 2947: 2941: 2940: 2920: 2914: 2913: 2871: 2862: 2856: 2855: 2853: 2851: 2836: 2830: 2829: 2819: 2779: 2773: 2772: 2770: 2753:(5): 1080–1087. 2738: 2732: 2731: 2721: 2703: 2670: 2664: 2663: 2661: 2637: 2631: 2630: 2602: 2596: 2595: 2559: 2553: 2552: 2540: 2534: 2533: 2517: 2511: 2510: 2478: 2472: 2471: 2461: 2451: 2427: 2421: 2420: 2384: 2378: 2375: 2369: 2368: 2366: 2357: 2348: 2347: 2311: 2305: 2304: 2284: 2278: 2277: 2241: 2235: 2234: 2226: 2220: 2219: 2202:(5): 1009–1016. 2196:Animal Behaviour 2187: 2181: 2180: 2160: 2154: 2153: 2109: 2103: 2102: 2071:Animal Behaviour 2066: 2060: 2059: 2057: 2056: 2042: 2036: 2035: 2009: 2000: 1999: 1997: 1996: 1982: 1976: 1975: 1950:(1–4): 167–185. 1939: 1933: 1932: 1930: 1929: 1915: 1909: 1908: 1890: 1879: 1878: 1850: 1844: 1843: 1823: 1817: 1798: 1792: 1791: 1773: 1767: 1766: 1756: 1750: 1749: 1747: 1746: 1732: 1726: 1725: 1717: 1676:Hand-pollination 1387:pollination bags 1351:clearcut logging 1305:in Delaware and 1079:Rediviva neliana 944:self-pollination 909:Geranium incanum 904: 892:Geranium incanum 887: 876:Geranium incanum 872: 815:self-pollination 740:Caltha palustris 562:Cape Spiny Mouse 546:P. amplexicaulis 542:Protea humiflora 490:, particularly, 469:buzz pollination 459:trap pollinators 450:Euglossa cordata 447:species such as 422:flower constancy 276:microgametophyte 67:self-pollination 6622: 6621: 6617: 6616: 6615: 6613: 6612: 6611: 6607:Plant sexuality 6587: 6586: 6585: 6580: 6562: 6531:Botanical terms 6524: 6510: 6474: 6420:Citrus taxonomy 6398:Author citation 6364: 6258: 6237: 6159: 6153: 6149:Turgor pressure 6057: 6045: 5999: 5814:Floral symmetry 5732: 5724: 5654: 5643:Vascular bundle 5638:Vascular tissue 5597: 5557: 5548: 5547: 5533: 5504:Vascular plants 5469: 5465:Plant pathology 5389: 5371: 5366: 5336: 5331: 5294: 5289: 5244: 5217: 5207: 5193:Walker, Timothy 5188: 5186:Further reading 5183: 5137: 5099: 5094: 5093: 5056: 5052: 5043: 5041: 5033: 5032: 5028: 4973: 4969: 4960: 4958: 4940: 4936: 4888: 4882: 4878: 4870: 4864: 4860: 4851: 4849: 4831: 4824: 4777:(7574): 574–7. 4767: 4763: 4754: 4752: 4743: 4742: 4738: 4729: 4727: 4719: 4718: 4714: 4661: 4657: 4648: 4646: 4638: 4637: 4633: 4588:Ecology Letters 4584: 4575: 4528: 4524: 4469: 4465: 4410: 4403: 4372: 4365: 4320: 4316: 4285: 4281: 4236: 4229: 4180: 4173: 4168: 4164: 4158: 4154: 4141: 4137: 4092: 4081: 4028: 4021: 3988: 3981: 3928: 3917: 3908: 3906: 3897: 3896: 3892: 3883: 3881: 3876: 3875: 3871: 3828:(August 2013). 3823: 3819: 3780:(5848): 283–7. 3766: 3762: 3725:(5785): 351–4. 3715: 3711: 3702: 3700: 3698:Harvard Gazette 3690: 3686: 3677: 3675: 3671: 3664: 3660: 3659: 3655: 3626: 3622: 3617:(Ph.D. thesis). 3614: 3606: 3602: 3583: 3579: 3566: 3562: 3549: 3545: 3527: 3520: 3497:10.2307/2409348 3481: 3477: 3432: 3428: 3414: 3410: 3387: 3383: 3354:(5): 1098–103. 3344: 3340: 3333: 3317: 3313: 3278: 3274: 3267: 3253: 3252: 3245: 3238: 3224: 3220: 3213: 3199: 3195: 3172: 3168: 3121: 3117: 3108: 3101: 3070: 3063: 3018: 3014: 2991: 2987: 2964:10.2307/2406479 2948: 2944: 2937: 2921: 2917: 2869: 2863: 2859: 2849: 2847: 2837: 2833: 2780: 2776: 2739: 2735: 2671: 2667: 2638: 2634: 2603: 2599: 2584:10.2307/3545409 2560: 2556: 2541: 2537: 2518: 2514: 2499:10.2307/2399006 2479: 2475: 2428: 2424: 2385: 2381: 2376: 2372: 2364: 2358: 2351: 2328:10.2307/2406664 2312: 2308: 2285: 2281: 2242: 2238: 2227: 2223: 2188: 2184: 2161: 2157: 2110: 2106: 2067: 2063: 2054: 2052: 2044: 2043: 2039: 2032: 2010: 2003: 1994: 1992: 1990:CropsReview.Com 1984: 1983: 1979: 1940: 1936: 1927: 1925: 1917: 1916: 1912: 1905: 1891: 1882: 1851: 1847: 1840: 1824: 1820: 1799: 1795: 1788: 1774: 1770: 1757: 1753: 1744: 1742: 1734: 1733: 1729: 1718: 1714: 1709: 1647: 1539: 1522: 1516: 1504: 1478: 1408: 1395: 1371:aerial spraying 1105: 1099: 1004: 998: 935:self-compatible 912: 905: 896: 888: 879: 873: 769: 755: 723: 701: 671: 655: 650: 649: 634:Idotea balthica 621: 570:elephant shrews 540:(in particular 516:Chiropterophily 340: 309: 292: 232: 231:of South Europe 230: 219: 131:to produce the 120:to produce the 17: 12: 11: 5: 6620: 6610: 6609: 6604: 6599: 6582: 6581: 6579: 6578: 6567: 6564: 6563: 6561: 6560: 6555: 6550: 6545: 6544: 6543: 6533: 6527: 6525: 6523: 6522: 6521:Related topics 6519: 6515: 6512: 6511: 6509: 6508: 6503: 6498: 6493: 6488: 6482: 6480: 6476: 6475: 6473: 6472: 6470:Taxonomic rank 6467: 6462: 6456: 6451: 6446: 6445: 6444: 6443: 6442: 6437: 6432: 6422: 6412: 6411: 6410: 6405: 6400: 6395: 6390: 6388:Botanical name 6380: 6374: 6372: 6370:Plant taxonomy 6366: 6365: 6363: 6362: 6361: 6360: 6355: 6354: 6353: 6346:Megasporangium 6343: 6342: 6341: 6334:Microsporangia 6326: 6325: 6324: 6319: 6314: 6309: 6299: 6294: 6289: 6288: 6287: 6277: 6272: 6267: 6261: 6259: 6257: 6256: 6251: 6245: 6239: 6238: 6236: 6235: 6230: 6225: 6220: 6219: 6218: 6217: 6216: 6206: 6201: 6196: 6195: 6194: 6189: 6179: 6174: 6172:Cushion plants 6163: 6161: 6155: 6154: 6152: 6151: 6146: 6141: 6136: 6131: 6126: 6125: 6124: 6119: 6109: 6107:Plant hormones 6104: 6099: 6098: 6097: 6090:Photosynthesis 6087: 6082: 6077: 6072: 6067: 6061: 6059: 6051: 6050: 6047: 6046: 6044: 6043: 6038: 6033: 6028: 6023: 6018: 6013: 6007: 6005: 6001: 6000: 5998: 5997: 5992: 5987: 5982: 5977: 5976: 5975: 5970: 5965: 5955: 5954: 5953: 5948: 5943: 5938: 5928: 5923: 5922: 5921: 5920: 5919: 5914: 5909: 5908: 5907: 5902: 5882: 5877: 5872: 5871: 5870: 5869: 5868: 5863: 5853: 5848: 5843: 5838: 5833: 5823: 5822: 5821: 5816: 5811: 5809:Floral formula 5806: 5804:Floral diagram 5801: 5796: 5786: 5785: 5784: 5779: 5774: 5773: 5772: 5767: 5757: 5747: 5742: 5736: 5734: 5733:(incl. Flower) 5726: 5725: 5723: 5722: 5721: 5720: 5715: 5710: 5709: 5708: 5703: 5693: 5683: 5678: 5673: 5668: 5662: 5660: 5656: 5655: 5653: 5652: 5647: 5646: 5645: 5635: 5633:Storage organs 5630: 5625: 5624: 5623: 5613: 5607: 5605: 5599: 5598: 5596: 5595: 5590: 5585: 5580: 5575: 5569: 5567: 5558: 5556: 5555: 5541: 5535: 5534: 5532: 5531: 5526: 5521: 5519:Spermatophytes 5516: 5511: 5506: 5501: 5496: 5491: 5489:Archaeplastida 5486: 5480: 5478: 5471: 5470: 5468: 5467: 5462: 5457: 5452: 5451: 5450: 5443:Phytogeography 5440: 5438:Phytochemistry 5435: 5430: 5425: 5420: 5415: 5410: 5405: 5399: 5397: 5395:Subdisciplines 5391: 5390: 5388: 5387: 5382: 5376: 5373: 5372: 5365: 5364: 5357: 5350: 5342: 5333: 5332: 5330: 5329: 5328: 5327: 5322: 5311: 5310: 5305: 5299: 5296: 5295: 5288: 5287: 5280: 5273: 5265: 5259: 5258: 5242: 5237: 5232: 5227: 5216: 5215:External links 5213: 5212: 5211: 5205: 5187: 5184: 5182: 5181: 5172: 5154:(3): 663–695. 5141: 5135: 5122: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5092: 5091: 5050: 5026: 4967: 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1668: 1663: 1658: 1653: 1646: 1643: 1590:Central Valley 1575:for the local 1552:Apis mellifera 1538: 1535: 1515: 1512: 1503: 1500: 1484:Apis mellifera 1477: 1474: 1466:neonicotinoids 1449:climate change 1421:Seed dispersal 1407: 1404: 1394: 1391: 1308:L. leucozonium 1101:Main article: 1098: 1097:In agriculture 1095: 1030:of fossilized 1000:Main article: 997: 994: 914: 913: 906: 899: 897: 889: 882: 880: 874: 867: 864: 863: 840: 828: 780:bee straddles 768: 765: 754: 751: 722: 719: 700: 697: 670: 667: 654: 651: 622: 614: 550:P. subulifolia 385:), and flies ( 336:Main article: 308: 305: 291: 288: 225: 218: 215: 75:plant breeding 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6619: 6608: 6605: 6603: 6600: 6598: 6595: 6594: 6592: 6577: 6569: 6568: 6565: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6542: 6539: 6538: 6537: 6534: 6532: 6529: 6528: 6526: 6520: 6517: 6516: 6513: 6507: 6506:Phytochemical 6504: 6502: 6499: 6497: 6494: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6483: 6481: 6477: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6463: 6460: 6457: 6455: 6452: 6450: 6447: 6441: 6438: 6436: 6433: 6431: 6428: 6427: 6426: 6423: 6421: 6418: 6417: 6416: 6413: 6409: 6406: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6386: 6385: 6384: 6381: 6379: 6376: 6375: 6373: 6371: 6367: 6359: 6356: 6352: 6349: 6348: 6347: 6344: 6340: 6337: 6336: 6335: 6332: 6331: 6330: 6327: 6323: 6320: 6318: 6315: 6313: 6310: 6308: 6305: 6304: 6303: 6300: 6298: 6295: 6293: 6290: 6286: 6283: 6282: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6262: 6260: 6255: 6252: 6250: 6247: 6246: 6244: 6240: 6234: 6231: 6229: 6226: 6224: 6221: 6215: 6212: 6211: 6210: 6207: 6205: 6202: 6200: 6197: 6193: 6190: 6188: 6185: 6184: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6169: 6168: 6165: 6164: 6162: 6156: 6150: 6147: 6145: 6144:Transpiration 6142: 6140: 6137: 6135: 6132: 6130: 6127: 6123: 6120: 6118: 6115: 6114: 6113: 6110: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6100: 6096: 6093: 6092: 6091: 6088: 6086: 6083: 6081: 6078: 6076: 6073: 6071: 6068: 6066: 6063: 6062: 6060: 6056: 6052: 6042: 6039: 6037: 6034: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6022: 6019: 6017: 6014: 6012: 6009: 6008: 6006: 6002: 5996: 5993: 5991: 5988: 5986: 5983: 5981: 5978: 5974: 5971: 5969: 5966: 5964: 5961: 5960: 5959: 5956: 5952: 5949: 5947: 5944: 5942: 5939: 5937: 5934: 5933: 5932: 5931:Inflorescence 5929: 5927: 5924: 5918: 5915: 5913: 5910: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5897: 5896: 5893: 5892: 5891: 5888: 5887: 5886: 5883: 5881: 5878: 5876: 5873: 5867: 5864: 5862: 5859: 5858: 5857: 5854: 5852: 5849: 5847: 5844: 5842: 5839: 5837: 5834: 5832: 5829: 5828: 5827: 5824: 5820: 5817: 5815: 5812: 5810: 5807: 5805: 5802: 5800: 5797: 5795: 5792: 5791: 5790: 5787: 5783: 5780: 5778: 5775: 5771: 5768: 5766: 5763: 5762: 5761: 5758: 5756: 5753: 5752: 5751: 5748: 5746: 5743: 5741: 5738: 5737: 5735: 5731: 5727: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5707: 5704: 5702: 5699: 5698: 5697: 5694: 5692: 5689: 5688: 5687: 5684: 5682: 5679: 5677: 5674: 5672: 5669: 5667: 5664: 5663: 5661: 5657: 5651: 5648: 5644: 5641: 5640: 5639: 5636: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5626: 5622: 5619: 5618: 5617: 5616:Ground tissue 5614: 5612: 5609: 5608: 5606: 5604: 5600: 5594: 5591: 5589: 5586: 5584: 5581: 5579: 5576: 5574: 5571: 5570: 5568: 5566: 5562: 5559: 5552: 5546: 5543: 5542: 5540: 5539:Plant anatomy 5536: 5530: 5527: 5525: 5522: 5520: 5517: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5507: 5505: 5502: 5500: 5497: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5482: 5481: 5479: 5476: 5472: 5466: 5463: 5461: 5460:Plant ecology 5458: 5456: 5455:Plant anatomy 5453: 5449: 5446: 5445: 5444: 5441: 5439: 5436: 5434: 5431: 5429: 5426: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5416: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5406: 5404: 5403:Archaeobotany 5401: 5400: 5398: 5396: 5392: 5386: 5383: 5381: 5378: 5377: 5374: 5370: 5363: 5358: 5356: 5351: 5349: 5344: 5343: 5340: 5326: 5323: 5321: 5318: 5317: 5316: 5313: 5312: 5309: 5306: 5304: 5301: 5300: 5297: 5293: 5286: 5281: 5279: 5274: 5272: 5267: 5266: 5263: 5255: 5254: 5248: 5243: 5241: 5238: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5222: 5219: 5218: 5208: 5206:9780691203751 5202: 5198: 5194: 5190: 5189: 5178: 5173: 5169: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5153: 5149: 5148: 5142: 5138: 5132: 5128: 5123: 5119: 5115: 5111: 5107: 5102: 5101: 5087: 5083: 5078: 5073: 5069: 5065: 5061: 5054: 5040: 5036: 5030: 5022: 5018: 5013: 5008: 5003: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4986: 4982: 4978: 4971: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4945: 4938: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4918: 4914: 4910: 4906: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4887: 4880: 4869: 4862: 4848: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4829: 4827: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4801: 4796: 4792: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4776: 4772: 4765: 4751:. 5 July 2018 4750: 4746: 4740: 4726: 4722: 4716: 4708: 4704: 4699: 4694: 4690: 4686: 4682: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4666: 4659: 4645: 4641: 4635: 4627: 4623: 4618: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4582: 4580: 4578: 4569: 4565: 4561: 4557: 4553: 4549: 4545: 4541: 4537: 4533: 4526: 4518: 4514: 4509: 4504: 4499: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4467: 4459: 4455: 4450: 4445: 4440: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4424:(6): e21363. 4423: 4419: 4415: 4408: 4406: 4396: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4382: 4377: 4370: 4368: 4359: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4342: 4337: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4318: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4283: 4275: 4271: 4266: 4261: 4257: 4253: 4250:(4): 719–31. 4249: 4245: 4241: 4234: 4232: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4206: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4190:(6): 345–53. 4189: 4185: 4178: 4176: 4166: 4160:21:3267–3277. 4156: 4149: 4145: 4139: 4131: 4127: 4122: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4106:(5): e25074. 4105: 4101: 4097: 4090: 4088: 4086: 4084: 4075: 4071: 4066: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4026: 4024: 4014: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3986: 3984: 3975: 3971: 3966: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3926: 3924: 3922: 3920: 3905:on 2014-04-10 3904: 3900: 3894: 3879: 3873: 3865: 3861: 3856: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3840:(6147): 695. 3839: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3821: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3796: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3764: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3713: 3699: 3695: 3688: 3670: 3663: 3657: 3648: 3643: 3640:(4): 311–23. 3639: 3635: 3631: 3624: 3613: 3612: 3604: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3581: 3573: 3572: 3564: 3557: 3553: 3547: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3525: 3523: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3479: 3471: 3467: 3462: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3430: 3422: 3418: 3417:Armbruster WS 3412: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3385: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3353: 3349: 3342: 3334: 3328: 3324: 3323: 3315: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3276: 3268: 3262: 3258: 3257: 3250: 3248: 3239: 3233: 3229: 3222: 3214: 3208: 3204: 3197: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3170: 3162: 3158: 3153: 3148: 3143: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3119: 3112: 3106: 3104: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3068: 3066: 3057: 3053: 3048: 3043: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3016: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2989: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2946: 2938: 2936:9781483293035 2932: 2928: 2927: 2919: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2868: 2861: 2846: 2842: 2835: 2827: 2823: 2818: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2778: 2769: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2737: 2729: 2725: 2720: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2702: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2669: 2660: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2636: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2613:(4): 177–81. 2612: 2608: 2601: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2558: 2550: 2546: 2539: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2516: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2477: 2469: 2465: 2460: 2455: 2450: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2426: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2383: 2374: 2363: 2356: 2354: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2310: 2303:(2): 138–143. 2302: 2298: 2294: 2292: 2283: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2240: 2232: 2225: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2186: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2159: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2108: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2080: 2077:(3): 615–27. 2076: 2072: 2065: 2051: 2047: 2041: 2033: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2008: 2006: 1991: 1987: 1981: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1938: 1924: 1920: 1914: 1906: 1900: 1896: 1889: 1887: 1885: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1849: 1841: 1835: 1831: 1830: 1822: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1797: 1789: 1783: 1779: 1772: 1764: 1763: 1755: 1741: 1737: 1731: 1723: 1716: 1712: 1702: 1699: 1697: 1694: 1692: 1689: 1687: 1684: 1682: 1679: 1677: 1674: 1672: 1669: 1667: 1664: 1662: 1659: 1657: 1654: 1652: 1649: 1648: 1642: 1640: 1639:overwintering 1636: 1626: 1622: 1620: 1615: 1611: 1610:air pollution 1607: 1602: 1599: 1593: 1591: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1553: 1543: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1521: 1511: 1509: 1508:food security 1499: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1486: 1485: 1473: 1469: 1467: 1463: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1429: 1427: 1422: 1417: 1413: 1403: 1401: 1390: 1388: 1383: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1323: 1321: 1317: 1312: 1310: 1309: 1304: 1303: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1282: 1278: 1273: 1271: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1233: 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The female 1132: 1128: 1124: 1123: 1117: 1109: 1104: 1094: 1092: 1091:D. capsularis 1088: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1067: 1066:hymenopterans 1063: 1059: 1057: 1056:hymenopterans 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1016:Carboniferous 1013: 1009: 1003: 993: 991: 986: 982: 979: 975: 971: 967: 965: 961: 957: 956:Hybridization 952: 947: 945: 941: 937: 936: 931: 926: 923: 919: 910: 903: 898: 893: 886: 881: 877: 871: 866: 865: 861: 856: 855: 850: 849:cleistogamous 846: 845: 841: 838: 834: 829: 826: 825: 820: 819: 818: 816: 812: 805: 804: 799: 798: 792: 786: 783: 779: 778: 773: 764: 762: 761: 750: 748: 747: 746:Acampe rigida 742: 741: 736: 735: 730: 729: 718: 716: 712: 711: 706: 696: 694: 690: 682: 681: 675: 666: 664: 660: 647: 643: 641: 636: 635: 630: 626: 619: 613: 611: 610: 605: 604: 599: 595: 591: 587: 581: 579: 575: 571: 567: 563: 559: 555: 551: 547: 543: 539: 538: 527: 523: 521: 517: 513: 509: 505: 501: 500:spiderhunters 497: 493: 489: 485: 481: 476: 474: 470: 466: 465: 460: 455: 452: 451: 446: 441: 439: 435: 431: 427: 426:hymenopterans 423: 419: 415: 411: 407: 403: 399: 394: 392: 388: 384: 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 360: 356: 354: 349: 345: 342:About 80% of 339: 331: 330: 324: 317: 313: 304: 301: 297: 287: 283: 279: 277: 273: 269: 265: 261: 257: 252: 247: 238: 229: 223: 214: 212: 208: 207: 202: 198: 194: 190: 189:pollen vector 186: 182: 178: 174: 169: 167: 163: 159: 158: 153: 149: 145: 140: 138: 134: 130: 126: 123: 119: 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 78: 76: 72: 68: 64: 60: 59:fertilisation 56: 52: 48: 44: 38: 34: 33:carpenter bee 29: 21: 6602:Horticulture 6501:Horticulture 6491:Floriculture 6393:Correct name 6301: 6243:Reproduction 6233:Woody plants 6158:Plant growth 6117:Gas Exchange 6102:Phytomelanin 5980:Plant embryo 5730:Reproductive 5578:Phragmoplast 5325:Ornithophily 5291: 5251: 5196: 5176: 5151: 5145: 5126: 5109: 5105: 5067: 5063: 5053: 5042:. Retrieved 5038: 5029: 4987:(7): e2771. 4984: 4980: 4970: 4959:. Retrieved 4948:The Guardian 4947: 4937: 4896: 4892: 4879: 4861: 4850:. Retrieved 4839:The Guardian 4838: 4800:11299/184546 4774: 4770: 4764: 4753:. Retrieved 4748: 4739: 4728:. Retrieved 4724: 4715: 4672: 4668: 4658: 4647:. Retrieved 4643: 4634: 4594:(3): 350–9. 4591: 4587: 4535: 4531: 4525: 4480: 4476: 4466: 4421: 4417: 4388:(1): 75–91. 4385: 4379: 4331: 4327: 4317: 4292: 4288: 4282: 4247: 4243: 4187: 4183: 4165: 4155: 4147: 4143: 4138: 4103: 4099: 4039: 4035: 3995: 3991: 3942:(1): 29839. 3939: 3935: 3907:. Retrieved 3903:the original 3893: 3882:. Retrieved 3872: 3837: 3833: 3820: 3777: 3773: 3763: 3722: 3718: 3712: 3701:. Retrieved 3697: 3687: 3676:. Retrieved 3669:the original 3656: 3637: 3633: 3623: 3610: 3603: 3595:the original 3590: 3580: 3570: 3563: 3546: 3488: 3484: 3478: 3443: 3439: 3429: 3420: 3411: 3394: 3390: 3384: 3351: 3347: 3341: 3321: 3314: 3289: 3285: 3275: 3255: 3227: 3221: 3202: 3196: 3182:(1): 86–95. 3179: 3175: 3169: 3135:(5): 953–8. 3132: 3128: 3118: 3077: 3073: 3029: 3025: 3015: 2998: 2994: 2988: 2958:(1): 28–35. 2955: 2951: 2945: 2925: 2918: 2877: 2873: 2860: 2848:. Retrieved 2844: 2834: 2794:(1): 12980. 2791: 2787: 2777: 2750: 2746: 2736: 2683: 2679: 2668: 2649: 2645: 2635: 2610: 2606: 2600: 2570:(1): 79–87. 2567: 2563: 2557: 2538: 2529: 2525: 2515: 2490: 2486: 2476: 2442:(10): e350. 2439: 2436:PLOS Biology 2435: 2425: 2392: 2388: 2382: 2373: 2319: 2315: 2309: 2300: 2296: 2290: 2282: 2249: 2245: 2239: 2230: 2224: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2185: 2168: 2164: 2158: 2117: 2113: 2107: 2074: 2070: 2064: 2053:. Retrieved 2050:ScienceDaily 2049: 2040: 2013: 1993:. Retrieved 1989: 1980: 1947: 1943: 1937: 1926:. 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Retrieved 1739: 1730: 1721: 1715: 1701:Polli:Nation 1631: 1594: 1573:biodiversity 1551: 1548: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1505: 1490: 1482: 1479: 1470: 1462:insecticides 1430: 1409: 1396: 1384: 1324: 1320:agricultural 1313: 1306: 1300: 1281:agricultural 1274: 1244:strawberries 1229: 1184:) of the US 1164: 1140: 1120: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1060: 1005: 968: 951:horticulture 948: 940:self-fertile 939: 933: 927: 915: 908: 891: 875: 854:chasmogamous 852: 848: 842: 836: 832: 822: 810: 808: 801: 795: 775: 758: 756: 744: 738: 732: 726: 724: 708: 702: 686: 678: 656: 638: 632: 607: 601: 582: 574:Elephantulus 573: 565: 557: 554:P. decurrens 553: 549: 545: 541: 535: 533: 512:Ornithophily 492:hummingbirds 477: 462: 456: 448: 442: 417: 409: 401: 395: 357: 341: 327: 316:Hummingbirds 298:to move the 293: 284: 280: 243: 228:aeroplankton 204: 177:horticulture 170: 155: 141: 118:polar bodies 79: 42: 41: 6597:Pollination 6317:Pollen tube 6312:Pollinators 6302:Pollination 6297:Germination 6112:Respiration 6095:Chlorophyll 5941:Pedicellate 5875:Gametophyte 5794:Aestivation 5745:Antheridium 5740:Archegonium 5588:Plasmodesma 5565:Plant cells 5428:Paleobotany 5423:Ethnobotany 5408:Astrobotany 5320:Entomophily 5292:Pollination 4749:www.nsf.gov 4644:www.fao.org 4617:10261/91808 4381:Food Ethics 4150:(1), 11-20. 3080:: 261–279. 1619:externality 1492:Butterflies 1453:Defaunation 1426:angiosperms 1331:monoculture 1302:L. vierecki 1212:follow the 1206:contractors 1170:monoculture 1075:coevolution 1071:angiosperms 1044:angiosperms 1020:Gymnosperms 996:Coevolution 985:genetically 930:pollenizers 860:ground bean 844:Cleistogamy 837:geitonogamy 677:Cat grass ( 625:crustaceans 504:honeyeaters 414:butterflies 412:spp.), and 383:Lepidoptera 371:Hymenoptera 359:Entomophily 344:angiosperms 296:pollinators 268:pollen tube 258:and others 246:germination 206:anthecology 197:agriculture 166:gnetophytes 144:gymnosperms 94:pollen tube 86:gametophyte 82:angiosperms 43:Pollination 6591:Categories 6339:Microspore 6329:Sporangium 6307:Artificial 5995:Sporophyte 5990:Sporophyll 5985:Receptacle 5880:Gynandrium 5750:Androecium 5659:Vegetative 5529:Angiosperm 5524:Gymnosperm 5418:Dendrology 5308:Hydrophily 5303:Anemophily 5044:2020-03-12 4961:2020-03-12 4852:2020-03-11 4755:2020-03-19 4730:2020-03-11 4649:2020-03-19 4013:10535/3364 3909:2014-04-18 3884:2014-04-18 3703:2023-11-08 3678:2014-04-18 3634:BioScience 2532:(1): 9–14. 2055:2015-10-20 1995:2015-10-20 1928:2023-11-10 1765:. G. Bell. 1745:2023-11-03 1707:References 1681:Paul Knuth 1635:Entomology 1565:spillovers 1518:See also: 1457:frugivores 1441:parasitism 1414:(of which 1375:mosquitoes 1361:and other 1292:grasslands 1277:ecological 1267:greenhouse 1263:Bumblebees 1186:honey bees 1087:R. neliana 1048:Cretaceous 1028:morphology 705:hydrophily 689:anemophily 648:reproduce. 640:Gracilaria 598:Lacertidae 594:Gekkonidae 558:P. cordata 508:fruit bats 445:orchid bee 406:bumblebees 398:honey bees 379:Coleoptera 338:Pollinator 256:monoecious 199:, because 181:entomology 104:. Its two 6536:Botanists 6454:Herbarium 6351:Megaspore 6249:Evolution 6192:Subshrubs 6160:and habit 6085:Nutrition 6080:Cellulose 6075:Bulk flow 6058:Materials 6021:Epidermis 5885:Gynoecium 5866:Endosperm 5861:Dispersal 5777:Staminode 5713:Sessility 5701:Cataphyll 5621:Mesophyll 5573:Cell wall 5514:Lycophyte 5494:Bryophyte 5448:Geobotany 5433:Phycology 5223:from the 4956:0261-3077 4847:0261-3077 4689:0962-8452 4200:CiteSeerX 4042:: 31957. 3397:: 47–79. 2910:251159505 2850:21 August 2710:0027-8424 2417:0028-825X 2114:Oecologia 1577:ecosystem 1569:germinate 1437:pesticide 1379:West Nile 1349:of bees, 1347:parasites 1343:pesticide 1341:, due to 1232:cucumbers 1202:blueberry 1052:mutualism 990:crabapple 964:Heterosis 918:dioecious 794:The wasp 767:Mechanism 590:Iguanidae 586:Varanidae 464:Asclepias 428:, mostly 260:dioecious 211:economics 122:endosperm 114:micropyle 6576:Category 6496:Forestry 6486:Agronomy 6479:Practice 6430:Cultivar 6425:Cultigen 6285:timeline 6177:Rosettes 6065:Aleurone 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