475:
533:, but more egg cells may be present and their ploidy, though typically haploid, may vary. In select Gnetophyta, the female gametophyte stays singled celled. Mitosis does occur, but no cell divisions are ever made. This results in the mature female gametophyte in some Gnetophyta having many free nuclei in one cell. Once mature, this single celled gametophyte is 90% smaller than the female gametophytes in other gymnosperm orders. After fertilization, the remaining female gametophyte tissue in gymnosperms serves as the nutrient source for the developing
31:
549:
pollination occurs, the tube cell grows in size and if the male gametophyte is only 2 cells at this stage, the single sperm cell undergoes mitosis to create a second sperm cell. Just like in gymnosperms, the tube cell in angiosperms obtains nutrients from the sporophytic tissue, and may branch out into the pistil tissue or grow directly towards the ovule. Once double fertilization is completed, the tube cell and other vegetative cells, if present, are all that remains of the male gametophyte and soon degrade.
407:, if the gametophyte tissue is separated from the sporophyte tissue it will not survive. Due to this complex relationship and the small size of the gametophyte tissue—in some situations single celled—differentiating with the human eye or even a microscope between seed plant gametophyte tissue and sporophyte tissue can be a challenge. While seed plant gametophyte tissue is typically composed of mononucleate haploid cells (1 x n), specific circumstances can occur in which the
3135:
20:
374:, which are heterosporous, microspores and megaspores are dispersed from sporangia either passively or by active ejection. Microspores produce microgametophytes which produce sperm. Megaspores produce reduced megagametophytes inside the spore wall. At maturity, the megaspore cracks open at the trilete suture to allow the male gametes to access the egg cells in the archegonia inside. The gametophytes of
559:). Its precursor is a diploid megaspore that undergoes meiosis which produces four haploid daughter cells. Three of these independent gametophyte cells degenerate and the one that remains is the gametophyte mother cell which normally contains one nucleus. In general, it will then divide by mitosis until it consists of 8 nuclei separated into 1 egg cell, 3
630:, each of which produces a single kind of spore that germinates to produce a single kind of gametophyte. However, not all heteromorphic gametophytes come from heterosporous plants. That is, some plants have distinct egg-producing and sperm-producing gametophytes, but these gametophytes develop from the same kind of spore inside the same sporangium;
529:
varies drastically between gymnosperm orders. In
Cycadophyta, Ginkgophyta, Coniferophyta, and some Gnetophyta, the single celled female gametophyte undergoes many cycles of mitosis ending up consisting of thousands of cells once mature. At a minimum, two of these cells are egg cells and the rest are haploid
576:
occurs, the egg cell becomes the zygote which is then considered sporophyte tissue. Scholars still disagree on whether the fertilized central cell is considered gametophyte tissue. Some botanists consider this endospore as gametophyte tissue with typically 2/3 being female and 1/3 being male, but as
465:
tissue or grow straight towards the egg cell. The megastrobilus sporophytic tissue provides nutrients for the male gametophyte at this stage. In some gymnosperms, the tube cell will create a direct channel from the site of pollination to the egg cell, in other gymnosperms, the tube cell will rupture
273:
are sporophyte dominant, and a trend toward smaller and more sporophyte-dependent female gametophytes is evident as land plants evolved reproduction by seeds. Those vascular plants, such as clubmosses and many ferns, that produce only one type of spore are said to be homosporous. They have exosporic
528:
do contain chlorophyll and can produce some of their own energy, though, not enough to support itself without being supplemented by the sporophyte. The female gametophyte forms from a diploid megaspore that undergoes meiosis and starts being singled celled. The size of the mature female gametophyte
470:
being present and a direct tube cell path from the pollination site to the egg is not needed. In most species the germ cell can be more specifically described as a sperm cell which mates with the egg cell during fertilization, though that is not always the case. In some
Gnetophyta species, the germ
434:
division of a diploid microspore mother cell. At maturity, each microspore-derived gametophyte becomes a pollen grain. During its development, the water and nutrients that the male gametophyte requires are provided by the sporophyte tissue until they are released for pollination. The cell number of
571:
that contains two nuclei. In select angiosperms, special cases occur in which the female gametophyte is not 7 celled with 8 nuclei. On the small end of the spectrum, some species have mature female gametophytes with only 4 cells, each with one nuclei. Conversely, some species have 10-celled mature
639:
In seed plants, the microgametophyte is called pollen. Seed plant microgametophytes consists of several (typically two to five) cells when the pollen grains exit the sporangium. The megagametophyte develops within the megaspore of extant seedless vascular plants and within the megasporangium in a
544:. Once the microspore undergoes meiosis, 4 haploid cells are formed, each of which is a singled celled male gametophyte. The male gametophyte will develop via one or two rounds of mitosis inside the anther. This creates a 2 or 3 celled male gametophyte which becomes known as the pollen grain once
548:
occurs. One cell is the tube cell, and the remaining cell/cells are the sperm cells. The development of the three celled male gametophyte prior to dehiscing has evolved multiple times and is present in about a third of angiosperm species allowing for faster fertilization after pollination. Once
234:), the gametophyte is the most visible stage of the life cycle. The bryophyte gametophyte is longer lived, nutritionally independent, and the sporophytes are attached to the gametophytes and dependent on them. When a moss spore germinates it grows to produce a filament of cells (called the
577:
the central cell before double fertilization can range from 1n to 8n in special cases, the fertilized central cells range from 2n (50% male/female) to 9n (1/9 male, 8/9th female). However, other botanists consider the fertilized endospore as sporophyte tissue. Some believe it is neither.
471:
cell will release two sperm nuclei that undergo a rare gymnosperm double fertilization process occurring solely with sperm nuclei and not with the fusion of developed cells. After fertilization is complete in all orders, the remaining male gametophyte tissue will deteriorate.
521:
located inside the megastrobilus or female cone. Similar to the male gametophyte, the female gametophyte normally is fully dependent on the surrounding sporophytic tissue for nutrients and the two organisms cannot be separated. However, the female gametophytes of
210:. Other fossil gametophytes found in the Rhynie chert shows they were much more developed than present forms, resembling the sporophyte in having a well-developed conducting strand, a cortex, an epidermis and a cuticle with stomata, but were much smaller.
460:
is successful, the male gametophyte continues to develop. If a tube cell was not developed in the microstrobilus, one is created after pollination via mitosis. The tube cell grows into the diploid tissue of the female cone and may branch out into the
402:
gametophyte life cycle is even more reduced than in basal taxa (ferns and lycophytes). Seed plant gametophytes are not independent organisms and depend upon the dominant sporophyte tissue for nutrients and water. With the exception of mature
478:
Multiple examples of the variation of cell number in mature seed plant female gametophytes prior to fertilization. Each cell contains one nucleus unless depicted otherwise. A: Typical 7 celled, 8 nucleate angiosperm female gametophyte (ex.
1768:
466:
in the middle of the megastrobilus sporophyte tissue. This occurs because in some gymnosperm orders, the germ cell is nonmobile and a direct pathway is needed, however, in
Cycadophyta and Ginkgophyta, the germ cell is mobile due to
455:
and other cells may consist of a single tube cell which grows to form the pollen tube, sterile cells, and/or prothallial cells which are both vegetative cells without an essential reproductive function. After
274:
gametophytes — that is, the gametophyte is free-living and develops outside of the spore wall. Exosporic gametophytes can either be bisexual, capable of producing both sperm and eggs in the same
640:
cone or flower in seed plants. In seed plants, the microgametophyte (pollen) travels to the vicinity of the egg cell (carried by a physical or animal vector) and produces two sperm by mitosis.
654:. A typical embryo sac contains seven cells and eight nuclei, one of which is the egg cell. Two nuclei fuse with a sperm nucleus to form the primary endospermic nucleus which develops to form
1772:
2965:
125:
which has a double set of chromosomes. Cell division of the zygote results in a new diploid multicellular organism, the second stage in the life cycle known as the
2970:
1205:
Friedman, William; Carmichael, Jeffery (1996). "Double
Fertilization in Gnetales: Implications for Understanding Reproductive Diversification among Seed Plants".
289:
vascular plants (plants that produce both microspores and megaspores), the gametophytes develop endosporically (within the spore wall). These gametophytes are
326:
that produces gametes and maintains the sporophyte during its early multicellular development. However, in some groups, notably the clade that includes
3103:
1799:"Identification of Primary Target Genes of Phytochrome Signaling. Early Transcriptional Control during Shade Avoidance Responses in Arabidopsis"
595:
In heterosporic plants, there are two distinct kinds of gametophytes. Because the two gametophytes differ in form and function, they are termed
537:(even in Gnetophyta where the diploid zygote cell is much smaller at that stage, and for a while lives within the single celled gametophyte).
485:). B: Typical gymnosperm female gametophyte with many haploid somatic cells illustrated with a honeycomb grid and two haploid germ cells (ex.
513:). Blue: egg cell. Dark orange: synergid cell. Yellow: accessory cell. Green: antipodal cell. Peach: central cell. Purple: individual nuclei.
362:, spores germinate into bisexual free-living, subterranean and mycotrophic gametophytes that derive nutrients from symbiosis with fungi. In
3021:
1504:
Brewbaker, James (1967). "The distribution and phylogenetic significance of binucleate and trinucleate pollen grains in the angiosperms".
507:). E: Unusual gymnosperm female gametophyte that is singled celled with many free nuclei surrounding a pictured central vacuole (ex.
626:
In heterosporous plants (water ferns, some lycophytes, as well as all gymnosperms and angiosperms), there are two distinct types of
2837:
791:
McAdam, S. A.; Duckett, J. G.; Sussmilch, F. C.; Pressel, S.; Renzaglia, K. S.; Hedrich, R.; Brodribb, T. J.; Merced, A. (2021).
1249:"Heterochrony and Developmental Innovation: Evolution of Female Gametophyte Ontogeny in Gnetum, a Highly Apomorphic Seed Plant"
1549:
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1334:
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The female gametophyte in gymnosperms differs from the male gametophyte as it spends its whole life cycle in one organ, the
196:
In extant land plants, either the sporophyte or the gametophyte may be reduced (heteromorphic). No extant gametophytes have
427:
718:
3027:
1922:
1733:
Madrid, Eric; Friedman, William (2010). "Female gametophyte and early seed development in
Peperomia (Piperaceae)".
1573:
Borg, Michael; Brownfield, Lynette; Twell, David (2009). "Male gametophyte development: a molecular perspective".
2361:
2842:
963:
2292:
107:
3011:
2598:
2113:
1797:
Roig-Villanova, Irma; Bou, Jordi; Sorin, Céline; Devlin, Paul F.; Martínez-García, Jaime F. (2006-03-24).
3169:
3093:
2847:
1296:
Friedman, William; Goliber, Thomas (1986). "Photosynthesis in the female gametophyte of Ginkgo biloba".
1105:"Double Fertilization in Gnetum gnemon: The Relationship between the Cell Cycle and Sexual Reproduction"
540:
The precursor to the male angiosperm gametophyte is a diploid microspore mother cell located inside the
2827:
676:
84:
451:
pollen grains vary greatly ranging from single celled to 40 celled. One of these cells is typically a
3159:
2977:
430:. In each microspore, a single gametophyte is produced, consisting of four haploid cells produced by
3115:
2960:
2010:
643:
In gymnosperms, the megagametophyte consists of several thousand cells and produces one to several
980:
650:
In angiosperms, the megagametophyte is reduced to only a few cells, and is sometimes called the
3164:
2945:
2869:
87:
2674:
944:(1998): Development, genetics and molecular biology of mosses. In: Botanica Acta 111, pp 1-15.
891:"Dehydration protection provided by a maternal cuticle improves offspring fitness in the moss
3110:
306:
2832:
2729:
2684:
2356:
1915:
573:
474:
2332:
647:, each with a single egg cell. The gametophyte becomes a food storage tissue in the seed.
552:
The female gametophyte of angiosperms develops in the ovule (located inside the female or
8:
3002:
2547:
1167:
Friedman, William (1993). "The evolutionary history of the seed plant male gametophyte".
238:). The mature gametophyte of mosses develops into leafy shoots that produce sex organs (
2940:
2805:
2583:
2275:
2061:
1957:
1884:
1849:
1831:
1798:
1675:
1650:
1628:
1544:. Pande, P. C., Jain, D. K., ebrary, Inc. (1st ed.). Meerut, India: Global Media.
1517:
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959:
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685: – Organ of the gametophyte of certain plants, producing and containing the ovum
30:
1632:
1379:
1282:
1226:
1052:
1017:
611:, because it is typically larger, and the sperm producing gametophyte is known as a
553:
162:, sporophytes and gametophytes may be externally indistinguishable (isomorphic). In
2884:
2790:
2785:
2739:
2632:
2617:
2578:
2503:
2344:
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1305:
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1176:
1132:
1116:
1077:
Fernando, Danilo D.; Quinn, Christina R.; Bernner, Eric D.; Owens, John N. (2010).
1040:
1031:
Brack-Hanes, S.D. (1978). "On the megagametophytes of two
Lepidodendracean cones".
1003:
995:
914:
906:
861:
853:
812:
804:
763:
747:
45:
2679:
619:, while those that produce both eggs and sperm on the same gametophyte are termed
3138:
3120:
2982:
2811:
2761:
2749:
2711:
2647:
2474:
2442:
2403:
2376:
2205:
2200:
2091:
2027:
1908:
1698:
Rudall, Paula (2006). "How many nuclei make an embryo sac in flowering plants?".
615:. Species which produce egg and sperm on separate gametophytes plants are termed
481:
327:
270:
3032:
2997:
2950:
2932:
2896:
2652:
2479:
2457:
2423:
2398:
2381:
2371:
2366:
2248:
2066:
2051:
2005:
2000:
560:
501:). D: Abnormally small 4 celled, 4 nucleate angiosperm female gametophyte (ex.
423:
351:
315:
188:
is universal. As in animals, female and male gametes are called, respectively,
1008:
999:
3153:
3068:
2816:
2734:
2706:
2669:
2637:
2573:
2542:
2493:
2393:
2195:
2178:
2101:
2081:
2022:
2017:
1965:
1875:
1822:
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1490:
1344:
759:
632:
524:
509:
487:
399:
379:
355:
339:
254:
142:
115:
1866:
3063:
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2173:
2140:
1893:
1840:
1754:
1719:
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1455:
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928:
875:
857:
826:
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462:
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164:
150:
110:
in the life cycle of plants and algae. It develops sex organs that produce
1814:
1539:
1470:
1324:
2879:
2864:
2859:
2795:
2657:
2408:
2307:
2302:
2150:
1990:
1985:
1970:
1586:
910:
751:
688:
682:
590:
457:
419:
411:
does vary widely despite still being considered part of the gametophyte.
370:
354:
produce two different types of gametophytes. In the homosporous families
331:
286:
258:
247:
243:
239:
202:
181:
159:
145:
1746:
673: – Diploid multicellular stage in the life cycle of a plant or alga
2908:
2901:
2891:
2874:
2557:
2552:
2488:
2280:
2127:
2086:
1980:
1711:
1666:
1624:
1437:
1128:
941:
709:
Sadava, David; Hillis, David; Heller, H. Craig; Berenbaum, May (2012).
670:
651:
644:
627:
492:
444:
440:
415:
323:
310:
126:
846:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
808:
338:
relationships with fungi. Homosporous ferns secrete a chemical called
282:), or specialized into separate male and female organisms (dioicous).
3016:
2913:
2642:
2447:
2428:
2339:
2263:
2183:
2135:
2076:
2056:
1995:
1611:
Maheshwari, Panchanan (1949). "The male gametophyte of angiosperms".
1472:
Angiosperms
Structure and Important Products from Flowers in Industry
658:
545:
503:
497:
467:
452:
448:
335:
319:
279:
235:
227:
219:
200:, but they have been found on fossil species like the early Devonian
185:
155:
24:
1848:
Cucinotta, Mara; Colombo, Lucia; Roig-Villanova, Irma (2014-03-27).
1429:
1120:
1078:
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2992:
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2754:
2627:
2603:
2520:
2190:
1975:
1218:
1044:
655:
586:
564:
447:
may have 2 or 3 celled pollen grains depending on the species, and
290:
231:
1079:"Male Gametophyte Development and Evolution in Extant Gymnosperms"
2243:
2238:
2155:
2145:
620:
431:
364:
275:
169:
130:
119:
99:
2696:
2588:
2508:
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2452:
2413:
2351:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2312:
1931:
616:
556:
541:
534:
435:
each mature pollen grain varies between the gymnosperm orders.
408:
404:
122:
111:
19:
1847:
253:
In some bryophyte groups such as many liverworts of the order
133:
that on germination produce a new generation of gametophytes.
60:
2920:
2854:
2776:
2744:
2701:
2593:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2513:
2498:
2467:
2388:
2046:
2037:
1361:
Baroux, Célia; Spillane, Charles; Grossniklaus, Ueli (2002).
790:
691: – Part of a plant producing and containing male gametes
518:
436:
378:
appear to be similar in this respect to those of the extinct
197:
103:
95:
91:
1850:"Ovule development, a new model for lateral organ formation"
1796:
981:"Speed and force of spore ejection in Selaginella martensii"
979:
Schneller, Jakob; Gerber, Hans; Zuppiger, Alex (June 2008).
257:, the gametes are produced on specialized structures called
2771:
2766:
2418:
2258:
2233:
2228:
2212:
2071:
1363:"Evolutionary origins of the endosperm in flowering plants"
708:
334:, the gametophytes are subterranean and subsist by forming
302:
223:
72:
66:
51:
1360:
34:
Pine gametophyte (outside) surrounding the embryo (inside)
2691:
2253:
1900:
1076:
48:
956:
Palaeobotany and the evolution of plants, second edition
572:
female gametophytes consisting of 16 total nuclei. Once
106:
that has one set of chromosomes. The gametophyte is the
978:
661:, which becomes the food storage tissue in the seed.
69:
1083:
International
Journal of Plant Developmental Biology
607:"form". The egg-producing gametophyte is known as a
102:
multicellular organism that develops from a haploid
75:
63:
1572:
1322:
947:
57:
54:
16:
Haploid stage in the life cycle of plants and algae
1606:
1604:
1246:
1204:
1102:
1098:
1096:
888:
1533:
1531:
1529:
1527:
1475:. Somerset: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated.
172:, all of one size, shape and general morphology.
3151:
1644:
1642:
1242:
1240:
1238:
1236:
1200:
1198:
1162:
1160:
1158:
1156:
1072:
1070:
1068:
1066:
1064:
1062:
1601:
1295:
1247:Friedman, William; Carmichael, Jeffrey (1998).
1103:Carmichael, Jeffrey; Friedman, William (1995).
1093:
958:. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University press.
953:
889:Budke, J.M.; Goffinet, B.; Jones, C.S. (2013).
293:, producing either sperm or eggs but not both.
129:. The sporophyte can produce haploid spores by
1732:
1537:
1524:
1468:
1356:
1354:
679: – Reproductive cycle of plants and algae
491:). C: Abnormally large 10 celled, 16 nucleate
1916:
1648:
1639:
1233:
1195:
1153:
1059:
793:"Stomata: The holey grail of plant evolution"
3022:International Association for Plant Taxonomy
954:Stewart, W.N.; Rothwell, G.W. (1993-02-26).
418:, the male gametophytes are produced inside
1809:(1). Oxford University Press (OUP): 85–96.
1541:Plant anatomy and embryology of angiosperms
1411:
1351:
1030:
842:"Organs and tissues of Rhynie chert plants"
736:"Origin and early evolution of land plants"
1923:
1909:
1610:
1414:"The Male Gametophyte of Flowering Plants"
1024:
1883:
1865:
1830:
1674:
1503:
1445:
1388:
1378:
1264:
1136:
1007:
972:
918:
865:
816:
767:
2966:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)
1649:Yadegari, Yadegari; Drews, Gary (2004).
1166:
473:
242:) that produce gametes. Eggs develop in
114:, haploid sex cells that participate in
29:
18:
1207:International Journal of Plant Sciences
740:Communicative & Integrative Biology
733:
3152:
1771:. Digimuse.nmns.edu.tw. Archived from
1697:
711:Life: The Science of Biology, Volume 1
1904:
1769:"Vascular Plants :: Description"
702:
882:
839:
13:
1790:
1518:10.1002/j.1537-2197.1967.tb10735.x
1310:10.1002/j.1537-2197.1986.tb10867.x
1266:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1998.tb01830.x
439:have 3 celled pollen grains while
264:
23:Several gametophytes growing in a
14:
3181:
2971:ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)
3134:
3133:
1651:"Female Gametophyte Development"
44:
1761:
1726:
1691:
1566:
1497:
1462:
1405:
1380:10.1186/gb-2002-3-9-reviews1026
1316:
1289:
1169:Trends in Ecology and Evolution
636:is an example of such a plant.
1575:Journal of Experimental Botany
935:
833:
784:
727:
580:
393:
175:
1:
695:
443:have 4 celled pollen grains.
426:located inside male cones or
345:
213:
3012:History of plant systematics
2599:Thorns, spines, and prickles
1412:Mascarenhas, Joseph (1989).
1326:Conifer reproductive biology
1323:Williams, Claire G. (2009).
1181:10.1016/0169-5347(93)90125-9
713:(10th ed.). Macmillan.
7:
1860:. Frontiers Media SA: 117.
664:
10:
3186:
2828:Alternation of generations
1930:
1854:Frontiers in Plant Science
1735:American Journal of Botany
1506:American Journal of Botany
1298:American Journal of Botany
797:American Journal of Botany
677:Alternation of generations
584:
3129:
3077:
3041:
2978:Cultivated plant taxonomy
2941:Biological classification
2931:
2804:
2720:
2616:
2566:
2291:
2221:
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2126:
2100:
2036:
1956:
1938:
1000:10.1007/s00035-008-0814-6
2838:Evolutionary development
734:Bennici, Andrea (2008).
495:female gametophyte (ex.
296:
136:
2489:Hypanthium (Floral cup)
1867:10.3389/fpls.2014.00117
1538:Singh, V. (2009–2010).
1469:Khan, Aisha S. (2017).
1329:. Dordrecht: Springer.
498:Peperomia dolabriformis
382:arborescent lycophytes
314:, the gametophyte is a
261:(or gametangiophores).
3104:by author abbreviation
3028:Plant taxonomy systems
2946:Botanical nomenclature
858:10.1098/rstb.2016.0495
514:
305:, for example, in the
90:in the life cycles of
35:
27:
3111:Botanical expeditions
1815:10.1104/pp.105.076331
477:
307:leptosporangiate fern
33:
22:
2843:Evolutionary history
2833:Double fertilization
2685:Cellular respiration
1373:(9): 1026.1–1026.5.
893:Funaria hygrometrica
752:10.4161/cib.1.2.6987
574:double fertilization
504:Amborella trichopoda
88:multicellular phases
83:) is one of the two
2062:Non-vascular plants
1747:10.3732/ajb.0800423
840:Kerp, Hans (2018).
3170:Plant reproduction
2567:Surface structures
2362:Flower development
1712:10.1002/bies.20488
1667:10.1105/tpc.018192
1661:(Suppl): 133–141.
1625:10.1007/BF02861752
1587:10.1093/jxb/ern355
1009:20.500.11850/73669
988:Botanica Helvetica
911:10.1093/aob/mct033
603:- "different" and
515:
322:organism called a
168:, the gametes are
36:
28:
3147:
3146:
2786:Herbaceous plants
2612:
2611:
1706:(11): 1067–1071.
1551:978-81-7133-723-1
1482:978-1-119-26278-7
1336:978-1-4020-9602-0
1115:(12): 1975–1988.
1033:Botanical Gazette
809:10.1002/ajb2.1619
154:is one example),
3177:
3160:Plant morphology
3137:
3136:
3116:Individual trees
2791:Secondary growth
2762:Succulent plants
2750:Prostrate shrubs
2633:Apical dominance
2618:Plant physiology
2579:Epicuticular wax
2124:
2123:
2117:
2108:Plant morphology
1925:
1918:
1911:
1902:
1901:
1897:
1887:
1869:
1844:
1834:
1803:Plant Physiology
1784:
1783:
1781:
1780:
1765:
1759:
1758:
1730:
1724:
1723:
1695:
1689:
1688:
1678:
1646:
1637:
1636:
1613:Botanical Review
1608:
1599:
1598:
1581:(5): 1465–1478.
1570:
1564:
1563:
1535:
1522:
1521:
1512:(9): 1069–1083.
1501:
1495:
1494:
1466:
1460:
1459:
1449:
1409:
1403:
1402:
1392:
1382:
1358:
1349:
1348:
1320:
1314:
1313:
1304:(9): 1261–1266.
1293:
1287:
1286:
1268:
1259:(4): 1016–1030.
1244:
1231:
1230:
1202:
1193:
1192:
1164:
1151:
1150:
1140:
1100:
1091:
1090:
1074:
1057:
1056:
1028:
1022:
1021:
1011:
985:
976:
970:
969:
951:
945:
939:
933:
932:
922:
899:Annals of Botany
886:
880:
879:
869:
837:
831:
830:
820:
788:
782:
781:
771:
731:
725:
724:
706:
613:microgametophyte
82:
81:
78:
77:
74:
71:
68:
65:
62:
59:
56:
53:
50:
3185:
3184:
3180:
3179:
3178:
3176:
3175:
3174:
3150:
3149:
3148:
3143:
3125:
3094:Botanical terms
3087:
3073:
3037:
2983:Citrus taxonomy
2961:Author citation
2927:
2821:
2800:
2722:
2716:
2712:Turgor pressure
2620:
2608:
2562:
2377:Floral symmetry
2295:
2287:
2217:
2206:Vascular bundle
2201:Vascular tissue
2160:
2120:
2111:
2110:
2096:
2067:Vascular plants
2032:
2028:Plant pathology
1952:
1934:
1929:
1793:
1791:Further reading
1788:
1787:
1778:
1776:
1767:
1766:
1762:
1731:
1727:
1696:
1692:
1647:
1640:
1609:
1602:
1571:
1567:
1552:
1536:
1525:
1502:
1498:
1483:
1467:
1463:
1430:10.2307/3868955
1410:
1406:
1359:
1352:
1337:
1321:
1317:
1294:
1290:
1245:
1234:
1203:
1196:
1165:
1154:
1121:10.2307/3870144
1101:
1094:
1075:
1060:
1029:
1025:
983:
977:
973:
966:
952:
948:
940:
936:
887:
883:
838:
834:
789:
785:
732:
728:
721:
707:
703:
698:
667:
609:megagametophyte
593:
585:Main articles:
583:
561:antipodal cells
482:Tilia americana
396:
348:
328:Ophioglossaceae
299:
271:vascular plants
267:
265:Vascular plants
216:
178:
139:
47:
43:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3183:
3173:
3172:
3167:
3162:
3145:
3144:
3142:
3141:
3130:
3127:
3126:
3124:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3108:
3107:
3106:
3096:
3090:
3088:
3086:
3085:
3084:Related topics
3082:
3078:
3075:
3074:
3072:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3045:
3043:
3039:
3038:
3036:
3035:
3033:Taxonomic rank
3030:
3025:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3008:
3007:
3006:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2985:
2975:
2974:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2951:Botanical name
2943:
2937:
2935:
2933:Plant taxonomy
2929:
2928:
2926:
2925:
2924:
2923:
2918:
2917:
2916:
2909:Megasporangium
2906:
2905:
2904:
2897:Microsporangia
2889:
2888:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2851:
2850:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2824:
2822:
2820:
2819:
2814:
2808:
2802:
2801:
2799:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2782:
2781:
2780:
2779:
2769:
2764:
2759:
2758:
2757:
2752:
2742:
2737:
2735:Cushion plants
2726:
2724:
2718:
2717:
2715:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2688:
2687:
2682:
2672:
2670:Plant hormones
2667:
2662:
2661:
2660:
2653:Photosynthesis
2650:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2624:
2622:
2614:
2613:
2610:
2609:
2607:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2570:
2568:
2564:
2563:
2561:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2539:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2518:
2517:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2491:
2486:
2485:
2484:
2483:
2482:
2477:
2472:
2471:
2470:
2465:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2434:
2433:
2432:
2431:
2426:
2416:
2411:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2386:
2385:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2372:Floral formula
2369:
2367:Floral diagram
2364:
2359:
2349:
2348:
2347:
2342:
2337:
2336:
2335:
2330:
2320:
2310:
2305:
2299:
2297:
2296:(incl. Flower)
2289:
2288:
2286:
2285:
2284:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2272:
2271:
2266:
2256:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2225:
2223:
2219:
2218:
2216:
2215:
2210:
2209:
2208:
2198:
2196:Storage organs
2193:
2188:
2187:
2186:
2176:
2170:
2168:
2162:
2161:
2159:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2132:
2130:
2121:
2119:
2118:
2104:
2098:
2097:
2095:
2094:
2089:
2084:
2082:Spermatophytes
2079:
2074:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2054:
2052:Archaeplastida
2049:
2043:
2041:
2034:
2033:
2031:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2014:
2013:
2006:Phytogeography
2003:
2001:Phytochemistry
1998:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1962:
1960:
1958:Subdisciplines
1954:
1953:
1951:
1950:
1945:
1939:
1936:
1935:
1928:
1927:
1920:
1913:
1905:
1899:
1898:
1845:
1792:
1789:
1786:
1785:
1760:
1725:
1690:
1655:The Plant Cell
1638:
1600:
1565:
1550:
1523:
1496:
1481:
1461:
1424:(7): 657–664.
1418:The Plant Cell
1404:
1367:Genome Biology
1350:
1335:
1315:
1288:
1232:
1219:10.1086/297405
1194:
1152:
1109:The Plant Cell
1092:
1058:
1045:10.1086/336979
1023:
971:
964:
946:
934:
905:(5): 781–789.
881:
832:
803:(3): 366–371.
783:
746:(2): 212–218.
726:
720:978-1464141225
719:
700:
699:
697:
694:
693:
692:
686:
680:
674:
666:
663:
582:
579:
565:synergid cells
424:microsporangia
395:
392:
347:
344:
316:photosynthetic
298:
295:
266:
263:
215:
212:
177:
174:
138:
135:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3182:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3165:Plant anatomy
3163:
3161:
3158:
3157:
3155:
3140:
3132:
3131:
3128:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3105:
3102:
3101:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3091:
3089:
3083:
3080:
3079:
3076:
3070:
3069:Phytochemical
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3046:
3044:
3040:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3010:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2990:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2980:
2979:
2976:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2948:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2938:
2936:
2934:
2930:
2922:
2919:
2915:
2912:
2911:
2910:
2907:
2903:
2900:
2899:
2898:
2895:
2894:
2893:
2890:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2867:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2849:
2846:
2845:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2825:
2823:
2818:
2815:
2813:
2810:
2809:
2807:
2803:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2778:
2775:
2774:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2747:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2732:
2731:
2728:
2727:
2725:
2719:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2707:Transpiration
2705:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2677:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2659:
2656:
2655:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2625:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2571:
2569:
2565:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2523:
2522:
2519:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2496:
2495:
2494:Inflorescence
2492:
2490:
2487:
2481:
2478:
2476:
2473:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2460:
2459:
2456:
2455:
2454:
2451:
2450:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2421:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2391:
2390:
2387:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2354:
2353:
2350:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2325:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2315:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2300:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2261:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2251:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2226:
2224:
2220:
2214:
2211:
2207:
2204:
2203:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2185:
2182:
2181:
2180:
2179:Ground tissue
2177:
2175:
2172:
2171:
2169:
2167:
2163:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2133:
2131:
2129:
2125:
2122:
2115:
2109:
2106:
2105:
2103:
2102:Plant anatomy
2099:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2053:
2050:
2048:
2045:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2035:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2023:Plant ecology
2021:
2019:
2018:Plant anatomy
2016:
2012:
2009:
2008:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1966:Archaeobotany
1964:
1963:
1961:
1959:
1955:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1940:
1937:
1933:
1926:
1921:
1919:
1914:
1912:
1907:
1906:
1903:
1895:
1891:
1886:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1868:
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1859:
1855:
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1846:
1842:
1838:
1833:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1795:
1794:
1775:on 2014-05-22
1774:
1770:
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1607:
1605:
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1561:
1557:
1553:
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1515:
1511:
1507:
1500:
1492:
1488:
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1465:
1457:
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1448:
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1435:
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1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
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1396:
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1199:
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1080:
1073:
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1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1027:
1019:
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1010:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
982:
975:
967:
961:
957:
950:
943:
938:
930:
926:
921:
916:
912:
908:
904:
900:
896:
894:
885:
877:
873:
868:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
836:
828:
824:
819:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
787:
779:
775:
770:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
737:
730:
722:
716:
712:
705:
701:
690:
687:
684:
681:
678:
675:
672:
669:
668:
662:
660:
657:
653:
648:
646:
641:
637:
635:
634:
633:Sphaerocarpos
629:
624:
622:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
598:
597:heteromorphic
592:
588:
578:
575:
570:
566:
562:
558:
555:
554:hermaphrodite
550:
547:
543:
538:
536:
532:
531:somatic cells
527:
526:
525:Ginkgo biloba
520:
512:
511:
510:Gnetum gnemon
506:
505:
500:
499:
494:
490:
489:
488:Ginkgo biloba
484:
483:
476:
472:
469:
464:
463:megastrobilus
459:
454:
450:
449:Coniferophyta
446:
442:
438:
433:
429:
428:microstrobili
425:
421:
417:
412:
410:
406:
401:
391:
389:
388:Lepidostrobus
385:
384:Lepidodendron
381:
380:Carboniferous
377:
373:
372:
367:
366:
361:
357:
356:Lycopodiaceae
353:
343:
341:
340:antheridiogen
337:
333:
329:
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321:
317:
313:
312:
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294:
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288:
287:heterosporous
283:
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255:Marchantiales
251:
249:
246:and sperm in
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144:
143:multicellular
134:
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128:
124:
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117:
116:fertilization
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
86:
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41:
32:
26:
21:
3064:Horticulture
3054:Floriculture
2956:Correct name
2806:Reproduction
2796:Woody plants
2721:Plant growth
2680:Gas Exchange
2665:Phytomelanin
2543:Plant embryo
2437:
2293:Reproductive
2141:Phragmoplast
1857:
1853:
1806:
1802:
1777:. Retrieved
1773:the original
1763:
1738:
1734:
1728:
1703:
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1654:
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1370:
1366:
1325:
1318:
1301:
1297:
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1256:
1252:
1213:(6): 77–94.
1210:
1206:
1175:(1): 15–21.
1172:
1168:
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1108:
1086:
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1032:
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994:(1): 13–20.
991:
987:
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729:
710:
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649:
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631:
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612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
594:
569:central cell
551:
539:
523:
516:
508:
502:
496:
486:
480:
413:
397:
387:
383:
375:
369:
363:
360:Huperziaceae
349:
318:free living
309:
300:
284:
268:
259:gametophores
252:
217:
208:Rhynie chert
201:
193:
189:
179:
163:
151:Ulva lactuca
149:
140:
108:sexual phase
39:
37:
2880:Pollen tube
2875:Pollinators
2865:Pollination
2860:Germination
2675:Respiration
2658:Chlorophyll
2504:Pedicellate
2438:Gametophyte
2357:Aestivation
2308:Antheridium
2303:Archegonium
2151:Plasmodesma
2128:Plant cells
1991:Paleobotany
1986:Ethnobotany
1971:Astrobotany
1741:(1): 1–14.
1619:(1): 1–75.
1039:: 140–146.
689:Antheridium
683:Archegonium
591:Heterospory
581:Heterospory
458:pollination
441:Ginkgophyta
437:Cycadophyta
422:within the
420:microspores
416:gymnosperms
394:Seed plants
371:Selaginella
336:mycotrophic
332:Psilotaceae
320:autotrophic
203:Aglaophyton
182:land plants
176:Land plants
160:brown algae
146:green algae
85:alternating
40:gametophyte
3154:Categories
2902:Microspore
2892:Sporangium
2870:Artificial
2558:Sporophyte
2553:Sporophyll
2548:Receptacle
2443:Gynandrium
2313:Androecium
2222:Vegetative
2092:Angiosperm
2087:Gymnosperm
1981:Dendrology
1779:2014-07-13
965:0521382947
942:Ralf Reski
696:References
671:Sporophyte
652:embryo sac
645:archegonia
493:angiosperm
445:Gnetophyta
400:seed plant
352:lycophytes
346:Lycophytes
324:prothallus
311:Dryopteris
248:antheridia
244:archegonia
240:gametangia
228:liverworts
220:bryophytes
214:Bryophytes
127:sporophyte
118:to form a
98:. It is a
3099:Botanists
3017:Herbarium
2914:Megaspore
2812:Evolution
2755:Subshrubs
2723:and habit
2648:Nutrition
2643:Cellulose
2638:Bulk flow
2621:Materials
2584:Epidermis
2448:Gynoecium
2429:Endosperm
2424:Dispersal
2340:Staminode
2276:Sessility
2264:Cataphyll
2184:Mesophyll
2136:Cell wall
2077:Lycophyte
2057:Bryophyte
2011:Geobotany
1996:Phycology
1876:1664-462X
1823:1532-2548
1700:BioEssays
1560:909120404
1491:972290397
1345:405547163
1253:Evolution
760:1942-0889
659:endosperm
628:sporangia
621:monoicous
546:dehiscing
453:germ cell
280:monoicous
236:protonema
232:hornworts
206:from the
186:anisogamy
170:isogamous
156:red algae
25:terrarium
3139:Category
3059:Forestry
3049:Agronomy
3042:Practice
2993:Cultivar
2988:Cultigen
2848:timeline
2740:Rosettes
2628:Aleurone
2604:Trichome
2521:Perianth
2333:Filament
2191:Meristem
2114:glossary
1976:Bryology
1894:24723934
1841:16565297
1755:21622362
1720:17041880
1685:15075395
1633:32158532
1595:19213812
1456:12359904
1399:12225592
1283:32439439
1275:28565210
1227:86569189
1189:21236093
1147:12242365
1089:: 47–60.
1053:84420384
1018:21966837
929:23471009
876:29254960
852:(1739).
827:33687736
778:19513262
665:See also
656:triploid
617:dioicous
587:Dioicous
567:, and a
468:flagella
301:In most
291:dioicous
141:In some
2817:Ecology
2574:Cuticle
2404:Capsule
2394:Anatomy
2345:Tapetum
2269:Petiole
2244:Rhizome
2239:Rhizoid
2166:Tissues
2156:Vacuole
2146:Plastid
1948:Outline
1943:History
1885:3973900
1832:1459307
1676:2643389
1438:3868955
1129:3870144
920:3631323
867:5745331
818:8175006
769:2686025
599:, from
432:meiotic
376:Isoetes
365:Isoetes
350:Extant
276:thallus
198:stomata
131:meiosis
120:diploid
112:gametes
100:haploid
3121:Plants
3024:(IAPT)
2777:Lianas
2745:Shrubs
2697:Starch
2589:Nectar
2509:Raceme
2475:Stigma
2463:Locule
2453:Carpel
2414:Pyrena
2352:Flower
2328:Anther
2323:Stamen
2318:Pollen
2040:groups
1932:Botany
1892:
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1829:
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815:
776:
766:
758:
717:
601:hetero
557:flower
542:anther
535:zygote
409:ploidy
405:pollen
230:, and
224:mosses
194:sperm.
123:zygote
92:plants
3081:Lists
2998:Group
2921:Spore
2855:Flora
2772:Vines
2767:Trees
2730:Habit
2702:Sugar
2594:Stoma
2536:Sepal
2531:Petal
2526:Tepal
2514:Umbel
2499:Bract
2480:Style
2468:Ovule
2458:Ovary
2399:Berry
2389:Fruit
2382:Whorl
2249:Shoot
2047:Algae
2038:Plant
1629:S2CID
1434:JSTOR
1279:S2CID
1223:S2CID
1125:JSTOR
1049:S2CID
1014:S2CID
984:(PDF)
605:morph
519:ovule
303:ferns
297:Ferns
137:Algae
104:spore
96:algae
3003:Grex
2885:Self
2419:Seed
2281:Stem
2259:Leaf
2234:Root
2229:Bulb
2213:Wood
2174:Cork
2072:Fern
1890:PMID
1872:ISSN
1837:PMID
1819:ISSN
1751:PMID
1716:PMID
1681:PMID
1591:PMID
1556:OCLC
1546:ISBN
1487:OCLC
1477:ISBN
1452:PMID
1395:PMID
1341:OCLC
1331:ISBN
1271:PMID
1185:PMID
1143:PMID
960:ISBN
925:PMID
872:PMID
823:PMID
774:PMID
756:ISSN
715:ISBN
589:and
563:, 2
398:The
386:and
368:and
358:and
330:and
269:All
192:and
190:eggs
165:Ulva
158:and
94:and
2692:Sap
2409:Nut
2254:Bud
1880:PMC
1862:doi
1827:PMC
1811:doi
1807:141
1743:doi
1708:doi
1671:PMC
1663:doi
1621:doi
1583:doi
1514:doi
1442:PMC
1426:doi
1385:PMC
1375:doi
1306:doi
1261:doi
1215:doi
1211:157
1177:doi
1133:PMC
1117:doi
1041:doi
1037:139
1004:hdl
996:doi
992:118
915:PMC
907:doi
903:111
862:PMC
854:doi
850:373
813:PMC
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764:PMC
748:doi
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