388:. Because two gametes necessarily combine during sexual reproduction to form a single zygote from which somatic cells are generated, healthy gametes always possess exactly half the number of sets of chromosomes found in the somatic cells, and therefore "haploid" in this sense refers to having exactly half the number of sets of chromosomes found in a somatic cell. By this definition, an organism whose gametic cells contain a single copy of each chromosome (one set of chromosomes) may be considered haploid while the somatic cells, containing two copies of each chromosome (two sets of chromosomes), are diploid. This scheme of diploid somatic cells and haploid gametes is widely used in the animal kingdom and is the simplest to illustrate in diagrams of genetics concepts. But this definition also allows for haploid gametes with
331:
1488:) is an example of a tetraploid organism, carrying four sets of chromosomes. During sexual reproduction, each potato plant inherits two sets of 12 chromosomes from the pollen parent, and two sets of 12 chromosomes from the ovule parent. The four sets combined provide a full complement of 48 chromosomes. The haploid number (half of 48) is 24. The monoploid number equals the total chromosome number divided by the ploidy level of the somatic cells: 48 chromosomes in total divided by a ploidy level of 4 equals a monoploid number of 12. Hence, the monoploid number (12) and haploid number (24) are distinct in this example.
579:
1495:(by asexual reproduction through mitosis), in which case new individuals are produced from a single parent, without the involvement of gametes and fertilization, and all the offspring are genetically identical to each other and to the parent, including in chromosome number. The parents of these vegetative clones may still be capable of producing haploid gametes in preparation for sexual reproduction, but these gametes are not used to create the vegetative offspring by this route.
711:(4 sets), pentaploid (5 sets), hexaploid (6 sets), heptaploid or septaploid (7 sets), octoploid (8 sets), nonaploid (9 sets), decaploid (10 sets), undecaploid (11 sets), dodecaploid (12 sets), tridecaploid (13 sets), tetradecaploid (14 sets), etc. Some higher ploidies include hexadecaploid (16 sets), dotriacontaploid (32 sets), and tetrahexacontaploid (64 sets), though Greek terminology may be set aside for readability in cases of higher ploidy (such as "16-ploid").
41:
404:, each one not being part of a pair. By extension a cell may be called haploid if its nucleus has one set of chromosomes, and an organism may be called haploid if its body cells (somatic cells) have one set of chromosomes per cell. By this definition haploid therefore would not be used to refer to the gametes produced by the tetraploid organism in the example above, since these gametes are numerically diploid. The term
866:. Though polyploidy in humans is not viable, mixoploidy has been found in live adults and children. There are two types: diploid-triploid mixoploidy, in which some cells have 46 chromosomes and some have 69, and diploid-tetraploid mixoploidy, in which some cells have 46 and some have 92 chromosomes. It is a major topic of cytology.
176:. In mammals and birds, ploidy changes are typically fatal. There is, however, evidence of polyploidy in organisms now considered to be diploid, suggesting that polyploidy has contributed to evolutionary diversification in plants and animals through successive rounds of polyploidization and rediploidization.
1264:
of endangered or invasive plants with those of their relatives found that being polyploid as opposed to diploid is associated with a 14% lower risk of being endangered, and a 20% greater chance of being invasive. Polyploidy may be associated with increased vigor and adaptability. Some studies suggest
935:
is the state where one or more individual chromosomes of a normal set are absent or present in more than their usual number of copies (excluding the absence or presence of complete sets, which is considered euploidy). Unlike euploidy, aneuploid karyotypes will not be a multiple of the haploid number.
220:
in preparation for sexual reproduction). Under normal conditions, the haploid number is exactly half the total number of chromosomes present in the organism's somatic cells, with one paternal and maternal copy in each chromosome pair. For diploid organisms, the monoploid number and haploid number are
179:
Humans are diploid organisms, normally carrying two complete sets of chromosomes in their somatic cells: one copy of paternal and maternal chromosomes, respectively, in each of the 23 homologous pairs of chromosomes that humans normally have. This results in two homologous pairs within each of the 23
554:
In the case of wheat, the origin of its haploid number of 21 chromosomes from three sets of 7 chromosomes can be demonstrated. In many other organisms, although the number of chromosomes may have originated in this way, this is no longer clear, and the monoploid number is regarded as the same as the
1243:
In large multicellular organisms, variations in ploidy level between different tissues, organs, or cell lineages are common. Because the chromosome number is generally reduced only by the specialized process of meiosis, the somatic cells of the body inherit and maintain the chromosome number of the
1011:
rather than in the cell as a whole. Because in most situations there is only one nucleus per cell, it is commonplace to speak of the ploidy of a cell, but in cases in which there is more than one nucleus per cell, more specific definitions are required when ploidy is discussed. Authors may at times
740:
The chromosome sets may be from the same species or from closely related species. In the latter case, these are known as allopolyploids (or amphidiploids, which are allopolyploids that behave as if they were normal diploids). Allopolyploids are formed from the hybridization of two separate species.
369:
Cells of the diploid structure quickly undergo meiosis to produce spores containing the meiotically halved number of chromosomes, restoring haploidy. These spores express either the mother's dominant gene or the father's recessive gene and proceed by mitotic division to build a new entirely haploid
392:
set of chromosomes. As given above, gametes are by definition haploid, regardless of the actual number of sets of chromosomes they contain. An organism whose somatic cells are tetraploid (four sets of chromosomes), for example, will produce gametes by meiosis that contain two sets of chromosomes.
1754:
The original text in German is as follows: "Schließlich wäre es vielleicht erwünscht, wenn den
Bezeichnungen Gametophyt und Sporophyt, die sich allein nur auf Pflanzen mit einfacher und mit doppelter Chromosomenzahl anwenden lassen, solche zur Seite gestellt würden, welche auch für das Tierreich
993:
Zygoidy is the state in which the chromosomes are paired and can undergo meiosis. The zygoid state of a species may be diploid or polyploid. In the azygoid state the chromosomes are unpaired. It may be the natural state of some asexual species or may occur after meiosis. In diploid organisms the
163:
organisms are made up of somatic cells that are diploid or greater, but ploidy level may vary widely between different organisms, between different tissues within the same organism, and at different stages in an organism's life cycle. Half of all known plant genera contain polyploid species, and
1284:
gametes. Triploid organisms, for instance, are usually sterile. Because of this, triploidy is commonly exploited in agriculture to produce seedless fruit such as bananas and watermelons. If the fertilization of human gametes results in three sets of chromosomes, the condition is called
846:
may have a chromosome copy number of 1 to 4, and that number is commonly fractional, counting portions of the chromosome partly replicated at a given time. This is because under exponential growth conditions the cells are able to replicate their DNA faster than they can divide.
1314:
to be somewhat inconsistent with this hypothesis however, as haploid growth is faster than diploid under high nutrient conditions. The NLH is also tested in haploid, diploid, and polyploid fungi by
Gerstein et al. 2017. This result is also more complex: On the one hand, under
442:, sex cell precursors have their number of chromosomes halved by randomly "choosing" one member of each pair of chromosomes, resulting in haploid gametes. Because homologous chromosomes usually differ genetically, gametes usually differ genetically from one another.
980:
is hybridization where the offspring have the same ploidy level as the two parental species. This contrasts with a common situation in plants where chromosome doubling accompanies or occurs soon after hybridization. Similarly, homoploid speciation contrasts with
888:
Dihaploids (which are diploid) are important for selective breeding of tetraploid crop plants (notably potatoes), because selection is faster with diploids than with tetraploids. Tetraploids can be reconstituted from the diploids, for example by somatic fusion.
1252:. For example, the hearts of two-year-old human children contain 85% diploid and 15% tetraploid nuclei, but by 12 years of age the proportions become approximately equal, and adults examined contained 27% diploid, 71% tetraploid and 2% octaploid nuclei.
241:
may be missing one sex chromosome (X or Y), resulting in a (45,X) karyotype instead of the usual (46,XX) or (46,XY). This is a type of aneuploidy and cells from the person may be said to be aneuploid with a (diploid) chromosome complement of 45.
919:. For example, most human cells have 2 of each of the 23 homologous monoploid chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes. A human cell with one extra set of the 23 normal chromosomes (functionally triploid) would be considered euploid. Euploid
44:
A haploid set that consists of a single complete set of chromosomes (equal to the monoploid set), as shown in the picture above, must belong to a diploid species. If a haploid set consists of two sets, it must be of a tetraploid (four sets)
164:
about two-thirds of all grasses are polyploid. Many animals are uniformly diploid, though polyploidy is common in invertebrates, reptiles, and amphibians. In some species, ploidy varies between individuals of the same species (as in the
892:
The term "dihaploid" was coined by Bender to combine in one word the number of genome copies (diploid) and their origin (haploid). The term is well established in this original sense, but it has also been used for doubled monoploids or
645:
in mammals as unlikely, and suggest that amplification and dispersion of repetitive sequences best explain the large genome size of these two rodents. All normal diploid individuals have some small fraction of cells that display
375:
The diploid zygote proceeds by mitotic division to build a new entirely diploid organism. These cells possess both the purple and blue genes, but only the purple gene is expressed since it is dominant over the recessive blue
1040:. As a result, it may become desirable to distinguish between the ploidy of a species or variety as it presently breeds and that of an ancestor. The number of chromosomes in the ancestral (non-homologous) set is called the
517:
are believed to be derived from three different ancestral species, each of which had 7 chromosomes in its haploid gametes. The monoploid number is thus 7 and the haploid number is 3 × 7 = 21. In general
542:
is 7. The gametes of common wheat are considered to be haploid, since they contain half the genetic information of somatic cells, but they are not monoploid, as they still contain three complete sets of chromosomes
496:
chromosomes in a haploid set have resulted from duplications of an originally smaller set of chromosomes. This "base" number – the number of apparently originally unique chromosomes in a haploid set – is called the
526:. The somatic cells in a wheat plant have six sets of 7 chromosomes: three sets from the egg and three sets from the sperm which fused to form the plant, giving a total of 42 chromosomes. As a formula, for wheat 2
1070:
differ. Each plant has a total of six sets of chromosomes (with two sets likely having been obtained from each of three different diploid species that are its distant ancestors). The somatic cells are hexaploid,
2969:
Song, Xiaoming; Wei, Yanping; Xiao, Dong; Gong, Ke; Sun, Pengchuan; Ren, Yiming; Yuan, Jiaqing; Wu, Tong; Yang, Qihang; Li, Xinyu; Nie, Fulei; Li, Nan; Feng, Shuyan; Pei, Qiaoying; Yu, Tong (2021-02-04).
354:
Haploid sperm and egg carrying the recessive blue gene and the dominant purple gene, respectively. These gametes are produced by meiosis, which halves the number of chromosomes in the diploid germ cells.
4324:
3738:
1297:
3171:
225:
undergoes meiosis, the diploid 46 chromosome complement is split in half to form haploid gametes. After fusion of a male and a female gamete (each containing 1 set of 23 chromosomes) during
237:
describe having a number of chromosomes that is an exact multiple of the number of chromosomes in a normal gamete; and having any other number, respectively. For example, a person with
408:
is often used as a less ambiguous way to describe a single set of chromosomes; by this second definition, haploid and monoploid are identical and can be used interchangeably.
349:
Haploid egg and sperm carrying the dominant purple gene and the recessive blue gene, respectively. These gametes are produced by simple mitosis of cells in the germ line.
3119:
Zahradka K, Slade D, Bailone A, Sommer S, Averbeck D, Petranovic M, Lindner AB, Radman M (2006). "Reassembly of shattered chromosomes in
Deinococcus radiodurans".
1087: = 21). The gametes are haploid for their own species, but triploid, with three sets of chromosomes, by comparison to a probable evolutionary ancestor,
4982:
1323:, higher ploidy was selected. Thus the NLH – and more generally, the idea that haploidy is selected by harsher conditions – is cast into doubt by these results.
396:
An alternative usage defines "haploid" as having a single copy of each chromosome – that is, one and only one set of chromosomes. In this case, the nucleus of a
108:
refers to the number of maternal and paternal chromosome copies, respectively, in each homologous chromosome pair—the form in which chromosomes naturally exist.
2905:
3235:
Edwards MJ; et al. (1994). "Mixoploidy in humans: two surviving cases of diploid-tetraploid mixoploidy and comparison with diploid-triploid mixoploidy".
1265:
that selection is more likely to favor diploidy in host species and haploidy in parasite species. However, polyploidization is associated with an increase in
1301:
384:
is used with two distinct but related definitions. In the most generic sense, haploid refers to having the number of sets of chromosomes normally found in a
4188:
1280:
When a germ cell with an uneven number of chromosomes undergoes meiosis, the chromosomes cannot be evenly divided between the daughter cells, resulting in
3745:
438:. Cells and organisms with pairs of homologous chromosomes are called diploid. For example, most animals are diploid and produce haploid gametes. During
180:
homologous pairs, providing a full complement of 46 chromosomes. This total number of individual chromosomes (counting all complete sets) is called the
1036:
offspring and ultimately polyploid species. This is an important evolutionary mechanism in both plants and animals and is known as a primary driver of
752:
is an example of allopolyploidy, where three different parent species have hybridized in all possible pair combinations to produce three new species.
1376:. In further support of the masking theory, evidence of strong purifying selection in haploid tissue-specific genes has been reported for the plant
1807:
U. R. Murty (1973). "Morphology of pachytene chromosomes and its bearing on the nature of polyploidy in the cytological races of Apluda mutica L.".
3673:
1370:
stage is referred to as the “masking theory”. Evidence in support of this masking theory has been reported in studies of the single-celled yeast
1260:
There is continued study and debate regarding the fitness advantages or disadvantages conferred by different ploidy levels. A study comparing the
485:
are haploid organisms because they develop from unfertilized, haploid eggs, while females (workers and queens) are diploid, making their system
915:, "true" or "even") is the state of a cell or organism having one or more than one set of the same set of chromosomes, possibly excluding the
4483:
1020:
with two separate haploid nuclei is distinguished from a diploid cell in which the chromosomes share a nucleus and can be shuffled together.
781:, the adder's-tongues, in which polyploidy results in chromosome counts in the hundreds, or, in at least one case, well over one thousand.
4106:"Relaxed purifying selection in autopolyploids drives transposable element over-accumulation which provides variants for local adaptation"
1338:, by Marcet-Houben and Gabaldón 2015. It still remains to be explained why there are not more polyploid events in fungi, and the place of
1217:, a haplodiploid species, haploid individuals of this species have a single chromosome and diploid individuals have two chromosomes. In
3769:
1755:
passen. Ich erlaube mir zu diesem Zwecke die Worte
Haploid und Diploid, bezw. haploidische und diploidische Generation vorzuschlagen."
1319:
and other nutrient limitation, lower ploidy is selected as expected. However under normal nutrient levels or under limitation of only
4065:"The mutation load under tetrasomic inheritance and its consequences for the evolution of the selfing rate in autotetraploid species"
4289:
Gerstein AC, Cleathero LA, Mandegar MA, Otto SP (March 2011). "Haploids adapt faster than diploids across a range of environments".
2150:
4880:
629:. All or nearly all mammals are diploid organisms. The suspected tetraploid (possessing four-chromosome sets) plains viscacha rat (
168:), and in others entire tissues and organ systems may be polyploid despite the rest of the body being diploid (as in the mammalian
4935:
4930:
3466:
Cosín, Darío J. Díaz; Novo, Marta; Fernández, Rosa (2011). "Reproduction of
Earthworms: Sexual Selection and Parthenogenesis".
4972:
4613:
3483:
3450:
2207:
1955:
1905:
1788:
875:
31:
4977:
2485:
2253:
703:
is the state where all cells have multiple sets of chromosomes beyond the basic set, usually 3 or more. Specific terms are
434:
chromosomes in total. The chromosomes in each pair, one of which comes from the sperm and one from the egg, are said to be
330:
4378:
3500:
4735:
3622:
2635:
1235:
occurs in most plants, with individuals "alternating" ploidy level between different stages of their sexual life cycle.
3172:"Physiological responses of the halophilic archaeon Halobacterium sp. strain NRC1 to desiccation and gamma irradiation"
359:
The short-lived diploid state of haploid organisms, a zygote generated by the union of two haploid gametes during sex.
4476:
4354:
3794:
2889:
1308:
of haploids, which eases nutrient uptake, thereby increasing the internal nutrient-to-demand ratio. Mable 2001 finds
461:. Most fungi and algae are haploid during the principal stage of their life cycle, as are some primitive plants like
172:). For many organisms, especially plants and fungi, changes in ploidy level between generations are major drivers of
2909:
4752:
2224:
674:
that contain two copies of their RNA genome in each viral particle are also said to be diploid. Examples include
4449:
2972:"Brassica carinata genome characterization clarifies U's triangle model of evolution and polyploidy in Brassica"
2839:"Temperature dependence in Proliferation of tetraploid Meth-A cells in comparison with the parent diploid cells"
2463:
641:) have been regarded as the only known exceptions (as of 2004). However, some genetic studies have rejected any
2600:
Svartman, Marta; Stone, Gary; Stanyon, Roscoe (2005). "Molecular cytogenetics discards polyploidy in mammals".
457:
switch between a haploid and a diploid state, with one of the stages emphasized over the other. This is called
282:) means "duplex" or "two-fold". Diploid therefore means "duplex-shaped" (compare "humanoid", "human-shaped").
4598:
2409:
2132:
4469:
597:
5003:
120:
organisms can be described according to the number of sets of chromosomes present (the "ploidy level"):
5013:
4242:"Strong Purifying Selection in Haploid Tissue-Specific Genes of Scots Pine Supports the Masking Theory"
4197:
1232:
679:
458:
4745:
2906:"Genes involved in tissue and organ development: Polytene chromosomes, endoreduplication and puffing"
2202:. Stuttgart: J.B. Metzler'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung und Carl Ernst Poeschel Verlag GmbH. p. 169.
1145:
3862:
1208:, males develop from unfertilized eggs, making them haploid for their entire lives, even as adults.
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4583:
1372:
1327:
1310:
1249:
1159:
827:
364:
The diploid zygote which has just been fertilized by the union of haploid egg and sperm during sex.
35:
1244:
zygote by mitosis. However, in many situations somatic cells double their copy number by means of
473:, spend the majority of their life cycle in the diploid stage. Most animals are diploid, but male
3029:"Multiplicity of genome equivalents in the radiation-resistant bacterium Micrococcus radiodurans"
2820:"Study of the fractional composition of the proteins in the compound fruit of polyploid mulberry"
2715:"Flow cytometry and GISH reveal mixed ploidy populations and Spartina nonaploids with genomes of
2339:
1492:
1305:
1304:
should encourage haploidy in preference to higher ploidies. This hypothesis is due to the higher
810:
801:
17:
4104:
Baduel, Pierre; Quadrana, Leandro; Hunter, Ben; Bomblies, Kirsten; Colot, Vincent (2019-12-20).
3394:"Mutations affecting quantitative traits in the selfed progeny of double monoploid maize stocks"
940:, where affected individuals have three copies of chromosome 21) or missing a chromosome (as in
4705:
4678:
3687:
Crosland MW, Crozier RH (1986). "Myrmecia pilosula, an Ant with Only One Pair of
Chromosomes".
2249:
631:
435:
98:
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3221:
2838:
5008:
4740:
4638:
3667:
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2879:
1491:
However, commercial potato crops (as well as many other crop plants) are commonly propagated
1185:
1016:, though usually the ploidy of each nucleus is described individually. For example, a fungal
973:
755:
Polyploidy occurs commonly in plants, but rarely in animals. Even in diploid organisms, many
637:
614:
586:
2200:
Historisches
Worterbüch der Biologie - Geschichte und Theorie der biologischen Grundbegriffe
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of an organism that are expressed exclusively in the diploid stage are under less efficient
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4885:
4870:
4700:
4648:
4623:
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4411:
4117:
4021:
3966:
3907:
3825:
3696:
3128:
2942:
Ramsey, Justin; Schemske, Douglas W. (November 2002). "Neopolyploidy in
Flowering Plants".
2268:
2077:"Polyploidy and its effect on evolutionary success: old questions revisited with new tools"
1603:
1584:
1293:
1266:
1184:
Ploidy can also vary between individuals of the same species or at different stages of the
982:
712:
578:
4240:
Cervantes S, Kesälahti R, Kumpula TA, Mattila TM, Helanterä H, Pyhäjärvi T (August 2023).
4206:
4184:"Integrating Networks, Phylogenomics, and Population Genomics for the Study of Polyploidy"
4183:
745:, and not by diploid–diploid hybridization followed by chromosome doubling. The so-called
8:
4628:
2932:
Encyclopedia of the Life
Sciences (2002) "Polyploidy" Francesco D'Amato and Mauro Durante
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160:
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188:. The number of chromosomes found in a single complete set of chromosomes is called the
4219:
4182:
Blischak, Paul D.; Mabry, Makenzie E.; Conant, Gavin C.; Pires, J. Chris (2018-11-02).
4161:
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3101:
3004:
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2747:
2714:
2690:
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2284:
2254:"Homologous versus antithetic alternation of generations and the origin of sporophytes"
2169:
2109:
2076:
2013:
1911:
1870:
1824:
1347:
1151:
1007:
In the strictest sense, ploidy refers to the number of sets of chromosomes in a single
863:
815:
592:
chromosome pairs. It also shows both the female (XX) and male (XY) versions of the two
314:
286:
4434:
4399:
4033:
3930:
3895:
3053:
3028:
2819:
422:) are haploid cells. The haploid gametes produced by most organisms combine to form a
393:
These gametes might still be called haploid even though they are numerically diploid.
4690:
4602:
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4302:
4271:
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3990:
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3811:
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3763:
3712:
3641:
3603:
3554:
3479:
3446:
3423:
3301:
3272:"46,XX/69,XXX diploid-triploid mixoploidy with hypothyroidism and precocious puberty"
3252:
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2035:
2005:
1997:
1951:
1930:
1901:
1784:
1363:
1286:
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1012:
report the total combined ploidy of all nuclei present within the cell membrane of a
760:
741:
In plants, this probably most often occurs from the pairing of meiotically unreduced
675:
655:
4223:
3847:
3724:
3659:
3377:
3356:
Pehu E (1996). "The current status of knowledge on the cellular biology of potato".
3105:
2017:
1915:
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1828:
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has confirmed two rounds of whole genome duplication in early vertebrate ancestors.
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4143:
4125:
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3413:
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3283:
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3156:
3136:
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2999:
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2734:
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2609:
2580:
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2529:
2464:"Primo supplemento alle tavole cromosomiche delle Pteridophyta di Alberto Chiarugi"
2384:
2315:
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2088:
2047:
1987:
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1862:
1816:
1377:
1331:
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894:
731:
can exceed this, up to 1048576-ploid in the silk glands of the commercial silkworm
113:
55:
3708:
2358:
2168:
Strasburger, Eduard; Allen, Charles E.; Miyake, Kilchi; Overten, James B. (1905).
936:
In humans, examples of aneuploidy include having a single extra chromosome (as in
266:. "Ploid" is a combination of Ancient Greek -πλόος (-plóos, "-fold") and -ειδής (-
4772:
4593:
4541:
4452:, with information on ploidy level and number of chromosomes of several protists)
4392:
1326:
Older WGDs have also been investigated. Only as recently as 2015 was the ancient
941:
298:
238:
4369:
databases and other sources which may list the ploidy levels of many organisms:
4009:
3475:
3409:
3044:
2613:
2534:
2513:
4663:
4587:
4130:
1992:
1975:
1565:
1343:
1008:
916:
882:
785:
716:
593:
275:
255:
117:
86:
4455:
4081:
4064:
3507:
3190:
2280:
1897:
1255:
4997:
4643:
4257:
4215:
4139:
4090:
4041:
3986:
3978:
3319:
Bender K (1963). "Über die
Erzeugung und Entstehung dihaploider Pflanzen bei
2995:
2987:
2100:
2061:
2001:
1339:
1335:
1193:
1179:
1167:
1088:
937:
909:
746:
226:
165:
4461:
4424:
3954:
3920:
3589:
3248:
862:
Mixoploidy is the case where two cell lines, one diploid and one polyploid,
4618:
4492:
4443:
4310:
4275:
4157:
4049:
3994:
3939:
3716:
3607:
3558:
3427:
3198:
3148:
3097:
3013:
2864:
2804:
2756:
2699:
2621:
2559:"Whole-genome duplications in South American desert rodents (Octodontidae)"
2543:
2118:
2036:"'Why polyploidy is rarer in animals than in plants': myths and mechanisms"
2009:
1776:
1545:
1055:
972:
Homoploid means "at the same ploidy level", i.e. having the same number of
777:
756:
715:
of plants and fruit flies can be 1024-ploid. Ploidy of systems such as the
651:
514:
486:
313:. The two terms were brought into the English language from German through
233:
again has the full complement of 46 chromosomes: 2 sets of 23 chromosomes.
109:
3874:
3305:
3287:
3256:
4837:
4832:
4695:
4673:
4668:
4536:
4388:
4366:
3650:
3062:
2738:
2681:
2225:"Caryoneme alternative to chromosome and a new caryological nomenclature"
1189:
1094:
819:
733:
728:
344:
A haploid organism is on the left and a diploid organism is on the right.
278:
word ᾰ̔πλόος (haplóos) is "single", from ἁ- (ha-, "one, same"). διπλόος (
3140:
2795:
2774:
2585:
2092:
156:
is often used to describe cells with three or more sets of chromosomes.
4857:
4847:
4842:
4827:
4767:
4757:
4633:
4607:
4558:
4548:
4496:
4383:
3369:
3089:
2855:
1971:
1866:
1820:
1521:
1316:
1261:
1037:
931:
839:
695:
671:
618:
470:
466:
401:
338:
in predominantly haploid organisms and predominantly diploid organisms.
302:
173:
153:
82:
3620:
3549:
3532:
1354:
Less efficient natural selection in diploid compared to haploid tissue
944:, where affected individuals have only one sex chromosome). Aneuploid
317:'s 1908 translation of a 1906 textbook by Strasburger and colleagues.
4809:
4553:
4531:
4512:
2514:"Molecular cytogenetics and allotetraploidy in the red vizcacha rat,
1281:
1274:
1219:
1163:
1110:
1033:
1013:
945:
920:
826:
double-strand breaks. This resistance appears to be due to efficient
796:
724:
720:
647:
642:
603:
589:
582:
397:
222:
40:
2666:
species (Brassicaceae)? Evidence from genomic in situ hybridization"
784:
It is possible for polyploid organisms to revert to lower ploidy by
4795:
4579:
2660:
Dierschke T, Mandáková T, Lysak MA, Mummenhoff K (September 2009).
1320:
1029:
1017:
961:
843:
419:
94:
3809:
3391:
1945:
1887:
297:
in 1905. Some authors suggest that Strasburger based the terms on
4965:
4819:
4730:
4725:
3863:"Ecologists find genomic clues to invasive and endangered plants"
2659:
1892:(4th ed.). Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. p. 434.
1845:
Tuguo Tateoka (May 1975). "A contribution to the taxonomy of the
1205:
1166:– for example, humans are generally regarded as diploid, but the
1123:
1114:
957:
806:
768:
742:
663:
439:
217:
4239:
4875:
4526:
4522:
3345:. Edited by B.M. Johri. Springer, Berlin, Germany. pp. 475–518.
3170:
Kottemann M, Kish A, Iloanusi C, Bjork S, DiRuggiero J (2005).
1540:
1481:
1118:
1028:
It is possible on rare occasions for ploidy to increase in the
764:
626:
622:
450:
423:
411:
385:
230:
205:
90:
1928:
1890:
Glossary of Genetics and Cytogenetics: Classical and Molecular
1192:. In humans, only the gametes are haploid, but in many of the
67:
4940:
4925:
4920:
4915:
4910:
4905:
4900:
4895:
4890:
4865:
4803:
4373:
4288:
2167:
1742:
1106:
885:
of polyploids, i.e., by halving the chromosome constitution.
571:"Diploid" redirects here. For the geometrical construct, see
478:
446:
415:
209:
169:
101:
4103:
3810:
Pandit, M. K.; Pocock, M. J. O.; Kunin, W. E. (2011-03-28).
3786:
The Development and Regenerative Potential of Cardiac Muscle
3269:
2877:
2662:"A bicontinental origin of polyploid Australian/New Zealand
878:(where diploid and haploid individuals are different sexes).
1359:
1256:
Adaptive and ecological significance of variation in ploidy
772:
482:
474:
462:
454:
73:
3955:"The significance of responses of the genome to challenge"
3782:
3270:
Järvelä, IE; Salo, MK; Santavuori, P; Salonen, RK (1993).
3169:
3118:
2334:
Strasburger, E.; Noll, F.; Schenck, H.; Karsten, G. 1908.
1802:
1800:
400:
cell is said to be haploid only if it has a single set of
3498:
3076:
Soppa J (2011). "Ploidy and gene conversion in Archaea".
2304:"Biological relevance of polyploidy: ecology to genomics"
1201:
1197:
823:
771:(cell division). The extreme in polyploidy occurs in the
683:
213:
4400:"Host-parasite interactions and the evolution of ploidy"
4181:
3896:"Host-parasite interactions and the evolution of ploidy"
1935:. Philadelphia: P. Blakiston's son & co. p. 60.
994:
azygoid state is monoploid. (See below for dihaploidy.)
4983:
International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature
2511:
1797:
1504:
Examples of various ploidy levels in species with x=11
204:) refers to the total number of chromosomes found in a
4177:
4175:
897:, which are homozygous and used for genetic research.
3812:"Ploidy influences rarity and invasiveness in plants"
1419:
Number of chromosomes found in a single complete set
585:
of a typical human cell, showing a diploid set of 22
221:
equal; in humans, both are equal to 23. When a human
4189:
Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
2599:
70:
64:
61:
4397:
4172:
3893:
2836:
2817:
2712:
58:
4325:"The Biology of Solanum tuberosum (L.) (Potatoes)"
3465:
1162:accumulate, these changes become less apparent by
274:, "form, likeness"). The principal meaning of the
3530:
3441:Books, Elsevier Science & Technology (1950).
1939:
1429:Total number of chromosomes in all sets combined
1002:
4995:
4235:
4233:
854:, because only part of the genome is amplified.
833:
3686:
3621:Qiu Y.-L., Taylor A. B., McManus H. A. (2012).
3571:
3392:Sprague G.F.; Russell W.A.; Penny L.H. (1960).
2968:
1888:Rieger, R.; Michaelis, A.; Green, M.M. (1976).
4327:. Canadian Food Inspection Agency. 2012-03-05.
3470:. Soil Biology. Vol. 24. pp. 69–86.
2941:
2556:
1970:
1783:. Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 177.
881:Dihaploid and polyhaploid cells are formed by
869:
4491:
4477:
4230:
3341:Nogler, G.A. 1984. Gametophytic apomixis. In
2772:
2706:
2593:
1976:"The Evolutionary Consequences of Polyploidy"
1946:D. Peter Snustad; Michael J. Simmons (2012).
1844:
1623:List of common organisms by chromosome count
1383:
1238:
36:Chromosome § Number in various organisms
4007:
3672:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3623:"Evolution of the life cycle in land plants"
3163:
3112:
3069:
2811:
2512:Gallardo MH, González CA, Cebrián I (2006).
2505:
2170:"Histologische Beiträge zur Vererbungsfrage"
1775:
1079: = 42 (where the monoploid number
1048:), and is distinct from the haploid number (
814:. These two species are highly resistant to
234:
2365:. Bar Harbor, Maine: The Jackson Laboratory
2222:
2029:
2027:
1806:
1474:Chromosome number of a tetraploid organism
923:would consequentially be a multiple of the
4484:
4470:
3952:
3574:"The dynamic nature of eukaryotic genomes"
3234:
3225:. Amsterdam, Academic Press, 2012, p. 217.
3020:
2928:
2926:
2486:"LECTURE 10: CHANGES IN CHROMOSOME NUMBER"
2248:
2068:
1781:Essential Genetics: A Genomics Perspective
1023:
924:
900:
791:
4433:
4423:
4265:
4205:
4147:
4129:
4080:
3929:
3919:
3837:
3649:
3597:
3548:
3531:Schmid, M; Evans, BJ; Bogart, JP (2015).
3459:
3417:
3295:
3052:
3003:
2854:
2794:
2773:Kim E. Hummer; et al. (March 2009).
2768:
2766:
2746:
2713:Simon Renny-Byfield; et al. (2010).
2689:
2653:
2584:
2574:
2563:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
2533:
2319:
2308:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
2108:
2051:
2040:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
1991:
1922:
1840:
1838:
492:In some cases there is evidence that the
465:. More recently evolved plants, like the
4008:Matzke, M.A; Matzke, A.J.M (June 1998).
3318:
2956:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.33.010802.150437
2944:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
2461:
2389:National Human Genome Research Institute
2174:Jahrbücher für Wissenschaftliche Botanik
2024:
1769:
1464:Chromosome number of a diploid organism
1052:) in the organism as it now reproduces.
956:, used for euploid karyotypes), such as
850:In ciliates, the macronucleus is called
577:
329:
325:
39:
4062:
3860:
3854:
3506:. University of Toronto. Archived from
2923:
2878:Kiichi Fukui; Shigeki Nakayama (1996).
2301:
2197:
2074:
1964:
1929:Darlington, C. D. (Cyril Dean) (1937).
1454:Number of chromosomes found in gametes
1439:Number of chromosomes in zygotic cells
1158:Over evolutionary time scales in which
988:
654:diploid cells have 46 chromosomes (the
534: = 42, so that the haploid number
27:Number of sets of chromosomes of a cell
14:
4996:
4456:Chromosome number and ploidy mutations
3803:
3768:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
3355:
3026:
2763:
2341:, rev. with the 8th German ed. (1906)
1950:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 115.
1835:
1083: = 7 and the haploid number
759:are polyploid due to a process called
4973:List of organisms by chromosome count
4465:
4207:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-121415-032302
3783:John O. Oberpriller; A Mauro (1991).
3572:Parfrey LW, Lahr DJ, Katz LA (2008).
3440:
3075:
2908:. The Interactive Fly. Archived from
2881:Plant Chromosomes: Laboratory Methods
2033:
1881:
1298:ploidy nutrient limitation hypothesis
799:is a characteristic of the bacterium
666:(egg and sperm) have 23 chromosomes (
32:List of organisms by chromosome count
3630:Journal of Systematics and Evolution
3501:"Dikaryons, diploids, and evolution"
2557:Gallardo M. H.; et al. (2004).
2346:Lehrbuch der Botanik für Hochschulen
1498:
513:. As an example, the chromosomes of
81:) is the number of complete sets of
4347:An introduction to genetic analysis
2385:"Talking Glossary of Genetic Terms"
1948:Principles of Genetics, 6th edition
89:, and hence the number of possible
24:
4349:, 7th ed. W. H. Freeman, New York
1366:than those genes expressed in the
596:(at bottom right), as well as the
320:
25:
5025:
4360:
4014:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
3499:James B. Anderson; Linda M Kohn.
4365:Some eukaryotic genome-scale or
4303:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2010.02188.x
3839:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2011.01838.x
3642:10.1111/j.1759-6831.2012.00188.x
3325:Zeitschrift für Pflanzenzüchtung
2576:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2004.00331.x
2321:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2004.00328.x
2053:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2004.00332.x
1223:, the ploidy level varies from 4
1188:. In some insects it differs by
1173:
997:
948:are given names with the suffix
864:coexist within the same organism
838:Depending on growth conditions,
555:haploid number. Thus in humans,
152:(7 sets), etc. The generic term
54:
4594:Macrochromosome/Microchromosome
4317:
4282:
4097:
4056:
4001:
3946:
3887:
3861:Gilbert, Natasha (2011-04-06).
3776:
3731:
3680:
3614:
3565:
3524:
3492:
3434:
3384:
3348:
3335:
3312:
3263:
3228:
3213:
2962:
2935:
2898:
2871:
2830:
2628:
2550:
2478:
2455:
2446:
2437:
2428:
2402:
2377:
2351:
2344:, translation by W. H. Lang of
2328:
2295:
2242:
2216:
2191:
2161:
2143:
2125:
1748:
1735:
1211:In the Australian bulldog ant,
538:is 21 and the monoploid number
4398:Nuismer S.; Otto S.P. (2004).
3894:Nuismer S.; Otto S.P. (2004).
2518:(Rodentia, Octodontidae)]"
1003:More than one nucleus per cell
13:
1:
4389:Protist genome-scale database
4034:10.1016/s0169-5347(98)01390-1
3953:McClintock, B. (1984-11-16).
3709:10.1126/science.231.4743.1278
1853:complex (Poaceae) in Japan".
1762:
1745:, from the Latin for "-fold".
857:
834:Variable or indefinite ploidy
689:
4010:"Polyploidy and transposons"
2837:Fujikawa-Yamamoto K (2001).
2818:Talyshinskiĭ, G. M. (1990).
2414:Genomics Education Programme
2302:Bennett, Michael D. (2004).
1109:species, and also occurs in
1097:(four sets of chromosomes, 2
967:
430:pairs of chromosomes, i.e. 2
301:'s conception of the id (or
245:
7:
4384:Fungal genome size database
4374:Animal genome size database
4063:Ronfort, J. (August 1999).
3476:10.1007/978-3-642-14636-7_5
3045:10.1128/JB.134.1.71-75.1978
2843:Cell Structure and Function
2614:10.1016/j.ygeno.2004.12.004
2535:10.1016/j.ygeno.2006.02.010
1932:Recent advances in cytology
1149:, 8n=72), and dodecaploid (
917:sex-determining chromosomes
870:Dihaploidy and polyhaploidy
763:, where duplication of the
635:) and golden viscacha rat (
600:(to scale at bottom left).
10:
5030:
4634:Dinoflagellate chromosomes
4404:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
4379:Plant genome size database
4335:
4131:10.1038/s41467-019-13730-0
3900:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
1993:10.1016/j.cell.2007.10.022
1404:Number of chromosome sets
1384:Glossary of ploidy numbers
1239:Tissue-specific polyploidy
1233:Alternation of generations
1177:
1121:. For example, species of
1062:) is an organism in which
873:
828:homologous recombinational
693:
680:human T-lymphotropic virus
601:
570:
566:
459:alternation of generations
29:
4978:List of sequenced genomes
4953:
4856:
4818:
4788:
4746:Chromosomal translocation
4716:
4619:A chromosome/B chromosome
4610:(or accessory chromosome)
4572:
4503:
4082:10.1017/S0016672399003845
3410:10.1093/genetics/45.7.855
3343:Embryology of angiosperms
3191:10.1007/s00792-005-0437-4
2338:, 3rd English ed. (1908)
2281:10.1007/s12229-008-9012-x
1898:10.1007/978-3-642-96327-8
1855:Journal of Plant Research
1741:Compare the etymology of
1445:Haploid or gametic number
1160:chromosomal polymorphisms
976:. For example, homoploid
927:, which in humans is 23.
822:, conditions that induce
4800:Telomere-binding protein
4614:Supernumerary chromosome
3979:10.1126/science.15739260
3533:"Polyploidy in Amphibia"
2410:"Homologous chromosomes"
2363:Mouse Genome Informatics
1728:
1373:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
1328:whole genome duplication
1311:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
1250:cellular differentiation
1231:in a single population.
874:Not to be confused with
4425:10.1073/pnas.0403151101
3921:10.1073/pnas.0403151101
3249:10.1002/ajmg.1320520314
2198:Toepfer, Georg (2011).
2151:"Greek Word Study Tool"
2133:"Greek Word Study Tool"
1358:The concept that those
1306:surface-to-volume ratio
1127:(African toads) form a
1024:Ancestral ploidy levels
901:Euploidy and aneuploidy
811:Halobacterium salinarum
802:Deinococcus radiodurans
792:In bacteria and archaea
621:, usually one from the
285:Polish-German botanist
235:Euploidy and aneuploidy
4736:Structural alterations
4458:YouTube tutorial video
4258:10.1093/molbev/msad183
3789:. Taylor&Francis.
2988:10.1093/plphys/kiab048
2516:Tympanoctomys barrerae
1515:Number of chromosomes
1137:, 2n=20), tetraploid (
1032:, which can result in
974:homologous chromosomes
632:Tympanoctomys barrerae
607:
377:
46:
4753:Numerical alterations
4741:Chromosomal inversion
4639:Homologous chromosome
4110:Nature Communications
3875:10.1038/news.2011.213
3590:10.1093/molbev/msn032
3537:Cytogenet. Genome Res
3468:Biology of Earthworms
3288:10.1136/jmg.30.11.966
2155:www.perseus.tufts.edu
2137:www.perseus.tufts.edu
2034:Mable, B. K. (2004).
1631:Number of chromosomes
1294:unicellular organisms
1277:deleterious alleles.
1143:, 4n=36), octaploid (
1131:, featuring diploid (
638:Pipanacoctomys aureus
602:Further information:
581:
333:
326:Haploid and monoploid
186:chromosome complement
43:
4961:Extrachromosomal DNA
4649:Satellite chromosome
4624:Lampbrush chromosome
4564:Nuclear organization
3443:Advances in Genetics
2777:Fragaria iturupensis
2636:"Human Retroviruses"
2348:. Macmillan, London.
2336:A Textbook of botany
2261:The Botanical Review
2223:Battaglia E (2009).
1604:Opuntia ficus-indica
1585:Sequoia sempervirens
1269:content and relaxed
1267:transposable element
1155:, 12n=108) species.
1105:) is common in many
989:Zygoidy and azygoidy
983:polyploid speciation
713:Polytene chromosomes
662:) and human haploid
598:mitochondrial genome
161:sexually reproducing
4654:Centromere position
4629:Polytene chromosome
4599:Circular chromosome
4450:Supporting Data Set
4416:2004PNAS..10111036N
4410:(30): 11036–11039.
4122:2019NatCo..10.5818B
4026:1998TEcoE..13R.241M
3971:1984Sci...226..792M
3912:2004PNAS..10111036N
3906:(30): 11036–11039.
3830:2011JEcol..99.1108P
3701:1986Sci...231.1278C
3222:Eukaryotic microbes
3141:10.1038/nature05160
3133:2006Natur.443..569Z
3078:Biochem. Soc. Trans
2796:10.3732/ajb.0800285
2416:. 23 September 2021
2273:2008BotRv..74..395H
2093:10.1038/hdy.2012.79
2075:Madlung, A (2012).
1624:
1505:
1302:nutrient limitation
1271:purifying selection
573:Dyakis dodecahedron
336:sexual reproduction
106:sets of chromosomes
5004:Classical genetics
3817:Journal of Ecology
3445:. Academic Press.
3370:10.1007/bf02357948
3090:10.1042/BST0390150
3027:Hansen MT (1978).
2856:10.1247/csf.26.263
2739:10.1093/aob/mcq008
2682:10.1093/aob/mcp161
1867:10.1007/bf02491243
1847:Agrostis mertensii
1821:10.1007/bf00119108
1622:
1503:
816:ionizing radiation
608:
511:fundamental number
378:
315:William Henry Lang
287:Eduard Strasburger
47:
5014:Genetics concepts
4991:
4990:
4949:
4948:
4686:Centromere number
4603:Linear chromosome
4341:Griffiths, A. J.
4069:Genetics Research
3965:(4676): 792–801.
3550:10.1159/000431388
3485:978-3-642-14635-0
3452:978-0-12-017603-8
3321:Solanum tuberosum
3127:(7111): 569–573.
2462:Fabbri F (1963).
2209:978-3-476-02317-9
1957:978-0-470-90359-9
1907:978-3-540-07668-1
1790:978-0-7637-7364-9
1726:
1725:
1639:Vinegar/fruit fly
1620:
1619:
1499:Specific examples
1486:Solanum tuberosum
1478:
1477:
1470:Tetraploid number
1425:Chromosome number
1364:natural selection
1287:triploid syndrome
1246:endoreduplication
1214:Myrmecia pilosula
1152:X. ruwenzoriensis
1060:Triticum aestivum
761:endoreduplication
676:human foamy virus
625:and one from the
563: = 23.
522:is a multiple of
289:coined the terms
216:cell produced by
182:chromosome number
16:(Redirected from
5021:
4816:
4815:
4780:Polyploidization
4608:Extra chromosome
4523:Genetic material
4486:
4479:
4472:
4463:
4462:
4447:
4437:
4427:
4329:
4328:
4321:
4315:
4314:
4286:
4280:
4279:
4269:
4237:
4228:
4227:
4209:
4179:
4170:
4169:
4151:
4133:
4101:
4095:
4094:
4084:
4060:
4054:
4053:
4005:
3999:
3998:
3950:
3944:
3943:
3933:
3923:
3891:
3885:
3884:
3882:
3881:
3858:
3852:
3851:
3841:
3824:(5): 1108–1115.
3807:
3801:
3800:
3780:
3774:
3773:
3767:
3759:
3757:
3756:
3750:
3744:. Archived from
3743:
3735:
3729:
3728:
3684:
3678:
3677:
3671:
3663:
3653:
3627:
3618:
3612:
3611:
3601:
3569:
3563:
3562:
3552:
3543:(3–4): 315–330.
3528:
3522:
3521:
3519:
3518:
3512:
3505:
3496:
3490:
3489:
3463:
3457:
3456:
3438:
3432:
3431:
3421:
3388:
3382:
3381:
3352:
3346:
3339:
3333:
3332:
3316:
3310:
3309:
3299:
3267:
3261:
3260:
3232:
3226:
3217:
3211:
3210:
3176:
3167:
3161:
3160:
3116:
3110:
3109:
3073:
3067:
3066:
3056:
3024:
3018:
3017:
3007:
2976:Plant Physiology
2966:
2960:
2959:
2939:
2933:
2930:
2921:
2920:
2918:
2917:
2902:
2896:
2895:
2875:
2869:
2868:
2858:
2834:
2828:
2827:
2815:
2809:
2808:
2798:
2770:
2761:
2760:
2750:
2727:Annals of Botany
2710:
2704:
2703:
2693:
2670:Annals of Botany
2657:
2651:
2650:
2648:
2647:
2638:. Archived from
2632:
2626:
2625:
2597:
2591:
2590:
2588:
2578:
2554:
2548:
2547:
2537:
2509:
2503:
2502:
2500:
2499:
2493:Mcb.berkeley.edu
2490:
2482:
2476:
2475:
2459:
2453:
2450:
2444:
2441:
2435:
2432:
2426:
2425:
2423:
2421:
2406:
2400:
2399:
2397:
2395:
2381:
2375:
2374:
2372:
2370:
2355:
2349:
2332:
2326:
2325:
2323:
2299:
2293:
2292:
2258:
2246:
2240:
2239:
2229:
2220:
2214:
2213:
2195:
2189:
2188:
2186:
2185:
2165:
2159:
2158:
2147:
2141:
2140:
2129:
2123:
2122:
2112:
2072:
2066:
2065:
2055:
2031:
2022:
2021:
1995:
1968:
1962:
1961:
1943:
1937:
1936:
1926:
1920:
1919:
1885:
1879:
1878:
1842:
1833:
1832:
1804:
1795:
1794:
1773:
1756:
1752:
1746:
1739:
1625:
1621:
1506:
1502:
1410:Monoploid number
1388:
1387:
1248:as an aspect of
1042:monoploid number
895:doubled haploids
501:, also known as
499:monoploid number
334:A comparison of
229:, the resulting
190:monoploid number
80:
79:
76:
75:
72:
69:
66:
63:
60:
21:
5029:
5028:
5024:
5023:
5022:
5020:
5019:
5018:
4994:
4993:
4992:
4987:
4945:
4852:
4814:
4784:
4773:Paleopolyploidy
4718:
4712:
4568:
4542:Heterochromatin
4505:
4499:
4490:
4393:Ensembl Genomes
4363:
4338:
4333:
4332:
4323:
4322:
4318:
4287:
4283:
4238:
4231:
4180:
4173:
4102:
4098:
4061:
4057:
4006:
4002:
3951:
3947:
3892:
3888:
3879:
3877:
3859:
3855:
3808:
3804:
3797:
3781:
3777:
3761:
3760:
3754:
3752:
3748:
3741:
3739:"Archived copy"
3737:
3736:
3732:
3685:
3681:
3665:
3664:
3625:
3619:
3615:
3570:
3566:
3529:
3525:
3516:
3514:
3510:
3503:
3497:
3493:
3486:
3464:
3460:
3453:
3439:
3435:
3389:
3385:
3358:Potato Research
3353:
3349:
3340:
3336:
3317:
3313:
3282:(11): 966–967.
3268:
3264:
3233:
3229:
3219:Schaechter, M.
3218:
3214:
3174:
3168:
3164:
3117:
3113:
3074:
3070:
3025:
3021:
2967:
2963:
2940:
2936:
2931:
2924:
2915:
2913:
2904:
2903:
2899:
2892:
2876:
2872:
2835:
2831:
2816:
2812:
2775:"Decaploidy in
2771:
2764:
2717:S. alterniflora
2711:
2707:
2658:
2654:
2645:
2643:
2634:
2633:
2629:
2598:
2594:
2555:
2551:
2510:
2506:
2497:
2495:
2488:
2484:
2483:
2479:
2460:
2456:
2451:
2447:
2442:
2438:
2433:
2429:
2419:
2417:
2408:
2407:
2403:
2393:
2391:
2383:
2382:
2378:
2368:
2366:
2357:
2356:
2352:
2333:
2329:
2300:
2296:
2256:
2247:
2243:
2227:
2221:
2217:
2210:
2196:
2192:
2183:
2181:
2166:
2162:
2149:
2148:
2144:
2131:
2130:
2126:
2073:
2069:
2032:
2025:
1969:
1965:
1958:
1944:
1940:
1927:
1923:
1908:
1886:
1882:
1843:
1836:
1805:
1798:
1791:
1774:
1770:
1765:
1760:
1759:
1753:
1749:
1740:
1736:
1731:
1722:2 or polyploid
1501:
1386:
1356:
1258:
1241:
1182:
1176:
1026:
1005:
1000:
991:
970:
942:Turner syndrome
903:
879:
872:
860:
836:
794:
767:occurs without
698:
692:
617:copies of each
613:cells have two
606:
594:sex chromosomes
576:
569:
507:cardinal number
371:
365:
360:
355:
350:
345:
340:
339:
328:
323:
321:Types of ploidy
305:), hence haplo-
299:August Weismann
270:), from εἶδος (
248:
239:Turner syndrome
99:pseudoautosomal
57:
53:
38:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5027:
5017:
5016:
5011:
5006:
4989:
4988:
4986:
4985:
4980:
4975:
4970:
4969:
4968:
4957:
4955:
4951:
4950:
4947:
4946:
4944:
4943:
4938:
4933:
4928:
4923:
4918:
4913:
4908:
4903:
4898:
4893:
4888:
4883:
4878:
4873:
4868:
4862:
4860:
4854:
4853:
4851:
4850:
4845:
4840:
4835:
4830:
4824:
4822:
4813:
4812:
4807:
4792:
4790:
4786:
4785:
4783:
4782:
4777:
4776:
4775:
4770:
4765:
4760:
4750:
4749:
4748:
4743:
4733:
4728:
4722:
4720:
4714:
4713:
4711:
4710:
4709:
4708:
4703:
4698:
4693:
4683:
4682:
4681:
4676:
4671:
4666:
4664:Submetacentric
4661:
4651:
4646:
4641:
4636:
4631:
4626:
4621:
4616:
4611:
4605:
4596:
4591:
4590:or heterosome)
4584:Sex chromosome
4576:
4574:
4570:
4569:
4567:
4566:
4561:
4556:
4551:
4546:
4545:
4544:
4539:
4529:
4520:
4515:
4509:
4507:
4501:
4500:
4489:
4488:
4481:
4474:
4466:
4460:
4459:
4453:
4395:
4386:
4381:
4376:
4362:
4361:External links
4359:
4358:
4357:
4337:
4334:
4331:
4330:
4316:
4281:
4229:
4198:Annual Reviews
4171:
4096:
4055:
4000:
3945:
3886:
3853:
3802:
3795:
3775:
3730:
3695:(4743): 1278.
3679:
3636:(3): 171–194.
3613:
3584:(4): 787–794.
3564:
3523:
3491:
3484:
3458:
3451:
3433:
3404:(7): 855–866.
3383:
3364:(3): 429–435.
3347:
3334:
3311:
3262:
3243:(3): 324–330.
3237:Am J Med Genet
3227:
3212:
3185:(3): 219–227.
3162:
3111:
3084:(1): 150–154.
3068:
3019:
2982:(1): 388–406.
2961:
2950:(1): 589–639.
2934:
2922:
2897:
2890:
2870:
2849:(5): 263–269.
2829:
2810:
2789:(3): 713–716.
2762:
2733:(4): 527–533.
2705:
2676:(4): 681–688.
2652:
2627:
2608:(4): 425–430.
2592:
2569:(4): 443–451.
2549:
2528:(2): 214–221.
2504:
2477:
2454:
2445:
2436:
2434:Langlet, 1927.
2427:
2401:
2376:
2359:"MGI Glossary"
2350:
2327:
2314:(4): 411–423.
2294:
2267:(3): 395–418.
2241:
2215:
2208:
2190:
2160:
2142:
2124:
2067:
2046:(4): 453–466.
2023:
1986:(3): 452–462.
1972:Otto, Sarah P.
1963:
1956:
1938:
1921:
1906:
1880:
1834:
1815:(2): 234–243.
1796:
1789:
1767:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1758:
1757:
1747:
1733:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1724:
1723:
1720:
1717:
1713:
1712:
1709:
1706:
1702:
1701:
1698:
1695:
1691:
1690:
1687:
1684:
1680:
1679:
1676:
1673:
1669:
1668:
1665:
1662:
1658:
1657:
1654:
1651:
1647:
1646:
1643:
1640:
1636:
1635:
1634:Ploidy number
1632:
1629:
1618:
1617:
1610:
1607:
1599:
1598:
1591:
1588:
1580:
1579:
1572:
1569:
1566:Coffea arabica
1561:
1560:
1553:
1550:
1537:
1536:
1529:
1526:
1517:
1516:
1513:
1510:
1500:
1497:
1476:
1475:
1472:
1466:
1465:
1462:
1460:Diploid number
1456:
1455:
1452:
1441:
1440:
1437:
1435:Zygotic number
1431:
1430:
1427:
1421:
1420:
1417:
1406:
1405:
1402:
1396:
1395:
1392:
1385:
1382:
1355:
1352:
1348:fungal history
1344:mesopolyploidy
1300:suggests that
1257:
1254:
1240:
1237:
1194:social insects
1178:Main article:
1175:
1172:
1101: = 4
1075: = 6
1025:
1022:
1004:
1001:
999:
996:
990:
987:
969:
966:
925:haploid number
902:
899:
883:haploidisation
871:
868:
859:
856:
835:
832:
793:
790:
786:haploidisation
717:salivary gland
694:Main article:
691:
688:
568:
565:
547: = 3
327:
324:
322:
319:
256:back-formation
247:
244:
198:haploid number
166:social insects
159:Virtually all
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5026:
5015:
5012:
5010:
5007:
5005:
5002:
5001:
4999:
4984:
4981:
4979:
4976:
4974:
4971:
4967:
4964:
4963:
4962:
4959:
4958:
4956:
4952:
4942:
4939:
4937:
4934:
4932:
4929:
4927:
4924:
4922:
4919:
4917:
4914:
4912:
4909:
4907:
4904:
4902:
4899:
4897:
4894:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4884:
4882:
4879:
4877:
4874:
4872:
4869:
4867:
4864:
4863:
4861:
4859:
4855:
4849:
4846:
4844:
4841:
4839:
4836:
4834:
4831:
4829:
4826:
4825:
4823:
4821:
4817:
4811:
4808:
4805:
4801:
4797:
4794:
4793:
4791:
4787:
4781:
4778:
4774:
4771:
4769:
4766:
4764:
4761:
4759:
4756:
4755:
4754:
4751:
4747:
4744:
4742:
4739:
4738:
4737:
4734:
4732:
4729:
4727:
4724:
4723:
4721:
4719:and evolution
4715:
4707:
4704:
4702:
4699:
4697:
4694:
4692:
4689:
4688:
4687:
4684:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4672:
4670:
4667:
4665:
4662:
4660:
4657:
4656:
4655:
4652:
4650:
4647:
4645:
4644:Isochromosome
4642:
4640:
4637:
4635:
4632:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4609:
4606:
4604:
4600:
4597:
4595:
4592:
4589:
4585:
4581:
4578:
4577:
4575:
4571:
4565:
4562:
4560:
4557:
4555:
4552:
4550:
4547:
4543:
4540:
4538:
4535:
4534:
4533:
4530:
4528:
4524:
4521:
4519:
4516:
4514:
4511:
4510:
4508:
4502:
4498:
4494:
4487:
4482:
4480:
4475:
4473:
4468:
4467:
4464:
4457:
4454:
4451:
4445:
4441:
4436:
4431:
4426:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4409:
4405:
4401:
4396:
4394:
4390:
4387:
4385:
4382:
4380:
4377:
4375:
4372:
4371:
4370:
4368:
4356:
4355:0-7167-3520-2
4352:
4348:
4344:
4340:
4339:
4326:
4320:
4312:
4308:
4304:
4300:
4297:(3): 531–40.
4296:
4292:
4285:
4277:
4273:
4268:
4263:
4259:
4255:
4251:
4247:
4246:Mol Biol Evol
4243:
4236:
4234:
4225:
4221:
4217:
4213:
4208:
4203:
4199:
4195:
4191:
4190:
4185:
4178:
4176:
4167:
4163:
4159:
4155:
4150:
4145:
4141:
4137:
4132:
4127:
4123:
4119:
4115:
4111:
4107:
4100:
4092:
4088:
4083:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4059:
4051:
4047:
4043:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4011:
4004:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3980:
3976:
3972:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3956:
3949:
3941:
3937:
3932:
3927:
3922:
3917:
3913:
3909:
3905:
3901:
3897:
3890:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3857:
3849:
3845:
3840:
3835:
3831:
3827:
3823:
3819:
3818:
3813:
3806:
3798:
3796:9783718605187
3792:
3788:
3787:
3779:
3771:
3765:
3751:on 2014-02-23
3747:
3740:
3734:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3710:
3706:
3702:
3698:
3694:
3690:
3683:
3675:
3669:
3661:
3657:
3652:
3651:2027.42/92043
3647:
3643:
3639:
3635:
3631:
3624:
3617:
3609:
3605:
3600:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3578:Mol Biol Evol
3575:
3568:
3560:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3542:
3538:
3534:
3527:
3513:on 2013-05-27
3509:
3502:
3495:
3487:
3481:
3477:
3473:
3469:
3462:
3454:
3448:
3444:
3437:
3429:
3425:
3420:
3415:
3411:
3407:
3403:
3399:
3395:
3387:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3351:
3344:
3338:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3315:
3307:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3266:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3231:
3224:
3223:
3216:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3180:
3179:Extremophiles
3173:
3166:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3115:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3072:
3064:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3023:
3015:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2965:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2938:
2929:
2927:
2912:on 2005-05-04
2911:
2907:
2901:
2893:
2891:9780849389191
2887:
2884:. CRC Press.
2883:
2882:
2874:
2866:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2833:
2825:
2821:
2814:
2806:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2778:
2769:
2767:
2758:
2754:
2749:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2722:
2718:
2709:
2701:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2665:
2656:
2642:on 2003-03-30
2641:
2637:
2631:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2596:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2553:
2545:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2517:
2508:
2494:
2487:
2481:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2458:
2452:Manton, 1932.
2449:
2440:
2431:
2415:
2411:
2405:
2390:
2386:
2380:
2364:
2360:
2354:
2347:
2343:
2340:
2337:
2331:
2322:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2298:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2255:
2251:
2245:
2237:
2233:
2226:
2219:
2211:
2205:
2201:
2194:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2164:
2156:
2152:
2146:
2138:
2134:
2128:
2120:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2087:(2): 99–104.
2086:
2082:
2078:
2071:
2063:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2030:
2028:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1967:
1959:
1953:
1949:
1942:
1934:
1933:
1925:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1884:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1841:
1839:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1803:
1801:
1792:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1772:
1768:
1751:
1744:
1738:
1734:
1721:
1718:
1715:
1714:
1710:
1707:
1704:
1703:
1699:
1696:
1693:
1692:
1688:
1685:
1682:
1681:
1677:
1675:34, 51, or 68
1674:
1671:
1670:
1666:
1664:32, 34, or 42
1663:
1660:
1659:
1655:
1652:
1649:
1648:
1644:
1641:
1638:
1637:
1633:
1630:
1627:
1626:
1615:
1611:
1608:
1606:
1605:
1601:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1586:
1582:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1570:
1568:
1567:
1563:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1551:
1548:
1547:
1542:
1539:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1527:
1524:
1523:
1519:
1518:
1514:
1511:
1508:
1507:
1496:
1494:
1489:
1487:
1483:
1473:
1471:
1468:
1467:
1463:
1461:
1458:
1457:
1453:
1450:
1446:
1443:
1442:
1438:
1436:
1433:
1432:
1428:
1426:
1423:
1422:
1418:
1415:
1411:
1408:
1407:
1403:
1401:
1400:Ploidy number
1398:
1397:
1393:
1390:
1389:
1381:
1379:
1375:
1374:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1351:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1340:neopolyploidy
1337:
1336:allopolyploid
1334:proven to be
1333:
1332:Baker's yeast
1329:
1324:
1322:
1318:
1313:
1312:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1290:
1288:
1283:
1278:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1263:
1253:
1251:
1247:
1236:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1221:
1216:
1215:
1209:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1181:
1180:Haplodiploidy
1174:Haplodiploidy
1171:
1169:
1168:2R hypothesis
1165:
1161:
1156:
1154:
1153:
1148:
1147:
1142:
1141:
1136:
1135:
1134:X. tropicalis
1130:
1129:ploidy series
1126:
1125:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1090:
1089:einkorn wheat
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1021:
1019:
1015:
1010:
998:Special cases
995:
986:
984:
979:
978:hybridization
975:
965:
963:
959:
955:
952:(rather than
951:
947:
943:
939:
938:Down syndrome
934:
933:
928:
926:
922:
918:
914:
911:
907:
898:
896:
890:
886:
884:
877:
876:haplodiploidy
867:
865:
855:
853:
848:
845:
841:
831:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
812:
808:
804:
803:
798:
789:
787:
782:
780:
779:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
757:somatic cells
753:
751:
749:
744:
738:
736:
735:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
706:
702:
697:
687:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
644:
640:
639:
634:
633:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
605:
599:
595:
591:
588:
584:
580:
574:
564:
562:
559: =
558:
552:
550:
546:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
516:
512:
508:
504:
500:
495:
490:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
443:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
407:
403:
399:
394:
391:
390:more than one
387:
383:
374:
368:
363:
358:
353:
348:
343:
337:
332:
318:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
283:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
257:
253:
243:
240:
236:
232:
228:
227:fertilization
224:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
177:
175:
171:
167:
162:
157:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
110:Somatic cells
107:
103:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
78:
51:
42:
37:
33:
19:
5009:Cytogenetics
4762:
4685:
4653:
4517:
4493:Cytogenetics
4407:
4403:
4364:
4346:
4342:
4319:
4294:
4290:
4284:
4249:
4245:
4193:
4187:
4113:
4109:
4099:
4075:(1): 31–42.
4072:
4068:
4058:
4017:
4013:
4003:
3962:
3958:
3948:
3903:
3899:
3889:
3878:. Retrieved
3866:
3856:
3821:
3815:
3805:
3785:
3778:
3753:. Retrieved
3746:the original
3733:
3692:
3688:
3682:
3668:cite journal
3633:
3629:
3616:
3581:
3577:
3567:
3540:
3536:
3526:
3515:. Retrieved
3508:the original
3494:
3467:
3461:
3442:
3436:
3401:
3397:
3386:
3361:
3357:
3350:
3342:
3337:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3314:
3279:
3275:
3265:
3240:
3236:
3230:
3220:
3215:
3182:
3178:
3165:
3124:
3120:
3114:
3081:
3077:
3071:
3039:(1): 71–75.
3036:
3033:J. Bacteriol
3032:
3022:
2979:
2975:
2964:
2947:
2943:
2937:
2914:. Retrieved
2910:the original
2900:
2880:
2873:
2846:
2842:
2832:
2823:
2813:
2786:
2782:
2776:
2730:
2726:
2720:
2716:
2708:
2673:
2669:
2663:
2655:
2644:. Retrieved
2640:the original
2630:
2605:
2601:
2595:
2586:11336/102012
2566:
2562:
2552:
2525:
2521:
2515:
2507:
2496:. Retrieved
2492:
2480:
2471:
2467:
2457:
2448:
2443:Winge, 1917.
2439:
2430:
2418:. Retrieved
2413:
2404:
2392:. Retrieved
2388:
2379:
2367:. Retrieved
2362:
2353:
2345:
2335:
2330:
2311:
2307:
2297:
2264:
2260:
2244:
2235:
2231:
2218:
2199:
2193:
2182:. Retrieved
2177:
2173:
2163:
2154:
2145:
2136:
2127:
2084:
2080:
2070:
2043:
2039:
1983:
1979:
1966:
1947:
1941:
1931:
1924:
1889:
1883:
1861:(2): 65–87.
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1812:
1808:
1780:
1777:Daniel Hartl
1771:
1750:
1737:
1653:14, 28 or 42
1613:
1602:
1594:
1583:
1575:
1564:
1556:
1544:
1532:
1520:
1493:vegetatively
1490:
1485:
1479:
1469:
1459:
1448:
1444:
1434:
1424:
1413:
1409:
1399:
1394:Description
1371:
1367:
1357:
1325:
1309:
1291:
1279:
1259:
1242:
1228:
1224:
1218:
1212:
1210:
1196:, including
1183:
1157:
1150:
1144:
1138:
1132:
1128:
1122:
1102:
1098:
1093:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1056:Common wheat
1054:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1027:
1006:
992:
971:
953:
949:
930:
929:
912:
905:
904:
891:
887:
880:
861:
851:
849:
837:
809:
800:
795:
783:
778:Ophioglossum
776:
754:
747:
739:
732:
708:
704:
700:
699:
672:Retroviruses
667:
659:
643:polyploidism
636:
630:
610:
609:
560:
556:
553:
548:
544:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:common wheat
510:
506:
502:
498:
493:
491:
487:haplodiploid
444:
431:
427:
410:
405:
395:
389:
381:
379:
372:
366:
361:
356:
351:
346:
341:
310:
306:
294:
290:
284:
279:
271:
267:
263:
259:
251:
249:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
181:
178:
158:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
105:
49:
48:
4706:Polycentric
4696:Monocentric
4679:Holocentric
4674:Acrocentric
4669:Telocentric
4659:Metacentric
4537:Euchromatin
4497:chromosomes
4367:genome size
4291:J Evol Biol
4200:: 253–278.
4116:(1): 5818.
3276:J Med Genet
2779:(Rosaceae)"
2721:S. maritima
1719:100 or more
1661:Crocodilian
1480:The common
1095:Tetraploidy
840:prokaryotes
820:desiccation
805:and of the
734:Bombyx mori
729:trophoblast
471:angiosperms
467:gymnosperms
402:chromosomes
83:chromosomes
4998:Categories
4858:Centromere
4789:Structures
4768:Polyploidy
4758:Aneuploidy
4559:Nucleosome
4549:Chromosome
4020:(6): 241.
3880:2011-04-07
3755:2014-02-18
3517:2012-12-16
3331:: 141–166.
2916:2012-12-16
2826:(5): 8–10.
2783:Am. J. Bot
2646:2008-05-14
2498:2022-03-10
2474:: 237–335.
2468:Caryologia
2250:David Haig
2232:Caryologia
2184:2017-03-11
1763:References
1678:2, 3 or 4
1656:2, 4 or 6
1571:Tetraploid
1522:Eucalyptus
1378:Scots Pine
1317:phosphorus
1262:karyotypes
1186:life cycle
1111:amphibians
1038:speciation
946:karyotypes
932:Aneuploidy
921:karyotypes
858:Mixoploidy
852:ampliploid
797:Polyploidy
709:tetraploid
707:(3 sets),
701:Polyploidy
696:Polyploidy
690:Polyploidy
648:polyploidy
619:chromosome
615:homologous
587:homologous
436:homologous
398:eukaryotic
309:and diplo-
303:germ plasm
174:speciation
150:septaploid
146:heptaploid
144:(6 sets),
140:(5 sets),
138:pentaploid
136:(4 sets),
134:tetraploid
132:(3 sets),
128:(2 sets),
118:individual
30:See also:
4810:Protamine
4717:Processes
4701:Dicentric
4554:Chromatid
4532:Chromatin
4513:Karyotype
4216:1543-592X
4166:209420359
4140:2041-1723
4091:1469-5073
4042:0169-5347
3987:0036-8075
2996:0032-0889
2289:207403936
2101:0018-067X
2062:0024-4066
2002:0092-8674
1716:Gold fish
1609:Octoploid
1590:Hexaploid
1282:aneuploid
1275:recessive
1220:Entamoeba
1164:karyotype
1146:X. wittei
1140:X. laevis
1034:polyploid
1014:syncytium
968:Homoploid
725:endosperm
721:elaiosome
604:Karyotype
590:autosomal
583:Karyogram
530: = 6
449:and many
406:monoploid
380:The term
370:organism.
250:The term
246:Etymology
223:germ cell
154:polyploid
142:hexaploid
124:(1 set),
122:monoploid
95:autosomal
4954:See also
4796:Telomere
4763:Euploidy
4691:Acentric
4588:allosome
4580:Autosome
4506:concepts
4444:15252199
4311:21159002
4276:37565532
4267:10457172
4224:92205236
4158:31862875
4050:21238281
3995:15739260
3940:15252199
3848:38197332
3764:cite web
3725:25465053
3717:17839565
3660:40564254
3608:18258610
3559:26112701
3428:17247970
3398:Genetics
3378:32122774
3199:15844015
3149:17006450
3106:31385928
3098:21265763
3014:33599732
2865:11831358
2805:21628226
2757:20150197
2700:19589857
2664:Lepidium
2622:15780745
2602:Genomics
2544:16580173
2522:Genomics
2420:10 March
2252:(2008).
2238:(4): 48.
2119:23149459
2081:Heredity
2018:10054182
2010:17981114
1974:(2007).
1916:10163081
1875:38029072
1851:flaccida
1829:45850598
1809:Genetica
1779:(2011).
1552:Triploid
1321:nitrogen
1206:termites
1115:reptiles
1030:germline
1018:dikaryon
962:monosomy
906:Euploidy
844:bacteria
842:such as
830:repair.
807:archaeon
750:triangle
748:Brassica
705:triploid
658:number,
352:4 and 5)
347:2 and 3)
264:diploidy
260:haploidy
130:triploid
45:species.
4966:Plasmid
4820:Histone
4731:Meiosis
4726:Mitosis
4412:Bibcode
4336:Sources
4149:6925279
4118:Bibcode
4022:Bibcode
3967:Bibcode
3959:Science
3908:Bibcode
3826:Bibcode
3697:Bibcode
3689:Science
3599:2933061
3419:1210096
3306:8301657
3297:1016611
3257:7810564
3207:8391234
3157:4412830
3129:Bibcode
3005:8154070
2748:2850792
2723:origin"
2691:2729636
2269:Bibcode
2110:3554449
1705:Chicken
1628:Species
1528:Diploid
1509:Species
1368:haploid
1124:Xenopus
1119:insects
1009:nucleus
958:trisomy
954:-ploidy
769:mitosis
743:gametes
664:gametes
656:somatic
611:Diploid
567:Diploid
440:meiosis
412:Gametes
382:haploid
295:diploid
291:haploid
280:diplóos
218:meiosis
196:). The
126:diploid
114:tissues
104:. Here
91:alleles
18:Haploid
4527:Genome
4518:Ploidy
4442:
4435:503737
4432:
4353:
4345:2000.
4343:et al.
4309:
4274:
4264:
4222:
4214:
4164:
4156:
4146:
4138:
4089:
4048:
4040:
3993:
3985:
3938:
3931:503737
3928:
3867:Nature
3846:
3793:
3723:
3715:
3658:
3606:
3596:
3557:
3482:
3449:
3426:
3416:
3376:
3304:
3294:
3255:
3205:
3197:
3155:
3147:
3121:Nature
3104:
3096:
3063:649572
3061:
3054:222219
3051:
3012:
3002:
2994:
2888:
2863:
2803:
2755:
2745:
2698:
2688:
2620:
2542:
2394:6 July
2369:6 July
2287:
2206:
2117:
2107:
2099:
2060:
2016:
2008:
2000:
1954:
1914:
1904:
1873:
1827:
1787:
1541:Banana
1512:Ploidy
1482:potato
1204:, and
1117:, and
775:genus
765:genome
727:, and
682:, and
627:father
623:mother
481:, and
463:mosses
447:plants
424:zygote
386:gamete
252:ploidy
231:zygote
206:gamete
116:, and
50:Ploidy
4804:TINF2
4573:Types
4504:Basic
4252:(8).
4220:S2CID
4196:(1).
4162:S2CID
3844:S2CID
3749:(PDF)
3742:(PDF)
3721:S2CID
3656:S2CID
3626:(PDF)
3511:(PDF)
3504:(PDF)
3374:S2CID
3203:S2CID
3175:(PDF)
3153:S2CID
3102:S2CID
2824:Shelk
2489:(PDF)
2285:S2CID
2257:(PDF)
2228:(PDF)
2014:S2CID
1912:S2CID
1871:S2CID
1825:S2CID
1743:tuple
1729:Notes
1694:Horse
1683:Human
1672:Apple
1650:Wheat
1616:= 88
1597:= 66
1578:= 44
1559:= 33
1549:spp.)
1535:= 22
1360:genes
1227:to 40
1190:caste
1107:plant
950:-somy
910:Greek
652:Human
509:, or
503:basic
479:wasps
455:algae
451:fungi
426:with
416:sperm
376:gene.
276:Greek
272:eîdos
268:eidḗs
258:from
254:is a
210:sperm
170:liver
102:genes
85:in a
4586:(or
4440:PMID
4351:ISBN
4307:PMID
4272:PMID
4212:ISSN
4154:PMID
4136:ISSN
4087:ISSN
4046:PMID
4038:ISSN
3991:PMID
3983:ISSN
3936:PMID
3791:ISBN
3770:link
3713:PMID
3674:link
3604:PMID
3555:PMID
3480:ISBN
3447:ISBN
3424:PMID
3323:"".
3302:PMID
3253:PMID
3195:PMID
3145:PMID
3094:PMID
3059:PMID
3010:PMID
2992:ISSN
2886:ISBN
2861:PMID
2801:PMID
2753:PMID
2719:and
2696:PMID
2618:PMID
2540:PMID
2422:2023
2396:2019
2371:2019
2204:ISBN
2180:: 62
2115:PMID
2097:ISSN
2058:ISSN
2006:PMID
1998:ISSN
1980:Cell
1952:ISBN
1902:ISBN
1785:ISBN
1546:Musa
1525:spp.
1391:Term
1342:and
1296:the
1202:bees
1198:ants
1066:and
960:and
818:and
773:fern
483:ants
475:bees
469:and
453:and
445:All
418:and
293:and
262:and
97:and
93:for
87:cell
34:and
4838:H2B
4833:H2A
4430:PMC
4420:doi
4408:101
4391:of
4299:doi
4262:PMC
4254:doi
4202:doi
4144:PMC
4126:doi
4077:doi
4030:doi
3975:doi
3963:226
3926:PMC
3916:doi
3904:101
3871:doi
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