2055:
The compression of the gel in closed system lead to change in salt concentration, whereas the compression in open system, while the gel is exchanging ions with bulk, lead to the change in the number of ions. The consequence of the compression and swelling in open and closed system conditions mimics the reverse Carnot Cycle of refrigerator machine. The only difference is that instead of heat this cycle transfers salt ions from the bulk of low salinity to a bulk of high salinity. Similarly to the Carnot cycle this cycle is fully reversible, so can in principle work with an ideal thermodynamic efficiency. Because the method is free from the use of osmotic membranes it can compete with reverse osmosis method. In addition, unlike the reverse osmosis, the approach is not sensitive to the quality of feed water and its seasonal changes, and allows the production of water of any desired concentration.
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found probable iodine deficiency disorders in a population reliant on desalinated seawater. A possible link of heavy desalinated water use and national iodine deficiency was suggested by
Israeli researchers. They found a high burden of iodine deficiency in the general population of Israel: 62% of school-age children and 85% of pregnant women fall below the WHO's adequacy range. They also pointed out the national reliance on iodine-depleted desalinated water, the absence of a universal salt iodization program and reports of increased use of thyroid medication in Israel as a possible reasons that the population's iodine intake is low. In the year that the survey was conducted, the amount of water produced from the desalination plants constitutes about 50% of the quantity of fresh water supplied for all needs and about 80% of the water supplied for domestic and industrial needs in Israel.
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misleading due to the depth at which it occurred. If the dilution was observed during the summer season, there is possibility that there could have been a seasonal thermocline event that could have prevented the concentrated brine to sink to sea floor. This has the potential to not disrupt the sea floor ecosystem and instead the waters above it. Brine dispersal from the desalination plants has been seen to travel several kilometers away, meaning that it has the potential to cause harm to ecosystems far away from the plants. Careful reintroduction with appropriate measures and environmental studies can minimize this problem.
1796:. The system uses pumps to create a low-pressure, low-temperature environment in which water boils at a temperature gradient of 8–10 °C (14–18 °F) between two volumes of water. Cool ocean water is supplied from depths of up to 600 m (2,000 ft). This water is pumped through coils to condense the water vapor. The resulting condensate is purified water. LTTD may take advantage of the temperature gradient available at power plants, where large quantities of warm wastewater are discharged from the plant, reducing the energy input needed to create a temperature gradient.
1564:(EPA). These structures can have the same impacts on the environment as desalination facility intakes. According to EPA, water intake structures cause adverse environmental impact by sucking fish and shellfish or their eggs into an industrial system. There, the organisms may be killed or injured by heat, physical stress, or chemicals. Larger organisms may be killed or injured when they become trapped against screens at the front of an intake structure. Alternative intake types that mitigate these impacts include beach wells, but they require more energy and higher costs.
33:
963:(as oxidants against bacteria and viruses), such as chlorine, ozone, sodium or calcium hypochlorite. At regular intervals, depending on the membrane contamination; fluctuating seawater conditions; or when prompted by monitoring processes, the membranes need to be cleaned, known as emergency or shock-flushing. Flushing is done with inhibitors in a fresh water solution and the system must go offline. This procedure is environmentally risky, since contaminated water is diverted into the ocean without treatment. Sensitive
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1873:, as well as on military operations, the prototype is the size of a suitcase, measuring 42 × 33.5 × 19 cm and weighing 9.25 kg. The process is fully automated, notifying the user when the water is safe to drink, and can be controlled by a single button or smartphone app. As it does not require a high pressure pump the process is highly energy efficient, consuming only 20 watt-hours per liter of drinking water produced, making it capable of being powered by common portable
817:(MED) works through a series of steps called "effects". Incoming water is sprayed onto pipes which are then heated to generate steam. The steam is then used to heat the next batch of incoming sea water. To increase efficiency, the steam used to heat the sea water can be taken from nearby power plants. Although this method is the most thermodynamically efficient among methods powered by heat, a few limitations exist such as a max temperature and max number of effects.
9353:
896:
387:
1665:, possibly at above ambient temperature, and contain residues of pretreatment and cleaning chemicals, their reaction byproducts and heavy metals due to corrosion (especially in thermal-based plants). Chemical pretreatment and cleaning are a necessity in most desalination plants, which typically includes prevention of biofouling, scaling, foaming and corrosion in thermal plants, and of biofouling, suspended solids and scale deposits in membrane plants.
1609:
2187:. It can be activated by low-grade heat (less than 70 °C (158 °F), which may not require active heating. In a study, TSSE removed up to 98.4 percent of the salt in brine. A solvent whose solubility varies with temperature is added to saltwater. At room temperature the solvent draws water molecules away from the salt. The water-laden solvent is then heated, causing the solvent to release the now salt-free water.
354:, designed a large pilot plant to gather data on RO, but was successful enough to provide freshwater to the residents of Coalinga. This was a milestone in desalination technology, as it proved the feasibility of RO and its advantages compared to existing technologies (efficiency, no phase change required, ambient temperature operation, scalability, and ease of standardization). A few years later, in 1975, the first
403:
8171:
769:. The IBTS is an industrial desalination (power)plant on one side and a greenhouse operating with the natural water cycle (scaled down 1:10) on the other side. The various processes of evaporation and condensation are hosted in low-tech utilities, partly underground and the architectural shape of the building itself. This integrated biotectural system is most suitable for large scale
1910:
1877:. Using a filterless design at low pressures or replaceable filters significantly reduces maintenance requirements, while the device itself is self cleaning. However, the device is limited to producing 0.33 liters of drinking water per minute. There are also concerns that fouling will impact the long-term reliability, especially in water with high
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zone. For example, once a pipeline containing the brine reaches the sea floor, it can split into many branches, each releasing brine gradually through small holes along its length. Mixing can be combined with power plant or wastewater plant dilution. Furthermore, zero liquid discharge systems can be adopted to treat brine before disposal.
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the production of potable water (a stand-alone facility), or excess energy may be produced and incorporated into the energy grid. Cogeneration takes various forms, and theoretically any form of energy production could be used. However, the majority of current and planned cogeneration desalination plants use either
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the pure water vapor after it is drawn through a demister (removing residual impurities) causing it to compress against tubes in the collection chamber. The compression of the vapor increases its temperature. The heat is transferred to the input water falling in the tubes, vaporizing the water in the
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islands. The plant's capacity is 100,000 L (22,000 imp gal; 26,000 US gal)/day, at a capital cost of INR 50 million (€922,000). The plant uses deep water at a temperature of 10 to 12 °C (50 to 54 °F). In 2007, NIOT opened an experimental, floating LTTD plant off the
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or power plant. With medium to large power plant and desalination plants, the power plant's cooling water flow is likely to be several times larger than that of the desalination plant, reducing the salinity of the combination. Another method to dilute the brine is to mix it via a diffuser in a mixing
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is generating excess heat and electricity generation from a single process. Cogeneration can provide usable heat for desalination in an integrated, or "dual-purpose", facility where a power plant provides the energy for desalination. Alternatively, the facility's energy production may be dedicated to
304:
After World War II, many technologies were developed or improved such as Multi Effect Flash desalination (MEF) and Multi Stage Flash desalination (MSF). Another notable technology is freeze-thaw desalination. Freeze-thaw desalination, (cryo-desalination or FD), excludes dissolved minerals from saline
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use solar energy to fill a buffer tank on a hill with seawater. The reverse osmosis process receives its pressurized seawater feed in non-sunlight hours by gravity, resulting in sustainable drinking water production without the need for fossil fuels, an electricity grid or batteries. Nano-tubes are
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membrane systems typically use less energy than thermal desalination processes. Energy cost in desalination processes varies considerably depending on water salinity, plant size and process type. At present the cost of seawater desalination, for example, is higher than traditional water sources, but
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While noting costs are falling, and generally positive about the technology for affluent areas in proximity to oceans, a 2005 study argued, "Desalinated water may be a solution for some water-stress regions, but not for places that are poor, deep in the interior of a continent, or at high elevation.
125:
An estimate in 2018 found that "18,426 desalination plants are in operation in over 150 countries. They produce 87 million cubic meters of clean water each day and supply over 300 million people." The energy intensity has improved: It is now about 3 kWh/m (in 2018), down by a factor of 10 from 20–30
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A process employing electrokinetic shock waves can be used to accomplish membraneless desalination at ambient temperature and pressure. In this process, anions and cations in salt water are exchanged for carbonate anions and calcium cations, respectively using electrokinetic shockwaves. Calcium and
2143:
In 2008, Siemens Water
Technologies announced technology that applied electric fields to desalinate one cubic meter of water while using only a purported 1.5 kWh of energy. If accurate, this process would consume one-half the energy of other processes. As of 2012 a demonstration plant was operating
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Experiments were conducted in the US and Japan to test the approach. In Japan, a spray-flash evaporation system was tested by Saga
University. In Hawaii, the National Energy Laboratory tested an open-cycle OTEC plant with fresh water and power production using a temperature difference of 20 °C
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Wave powered desalination systems generally convert mechanical wave motion directly to hydraulic power for reverse osmosis. Such systems aim to maximize efficiency and reduce costs by avoiding conversion to electricity, minimizing excess pressurization above the osmotic pressure, and innovating on
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involves using either a mechanical compressor or a jet stream to compress the vapor present above the liquid. The compressed vapor is then used to provide the heat needed for the evaporation of the rest of the sea water. Since this system only requires power, it is more cost effective if kept at a
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The
Passarell process uses reduced atmospheric pressure rather than heat to drive evaporative desalination. The pure water vapor generated by distillation is then compressed and condensed using an advanced compressor. The compression process improves distillation efficiency by creating the reduced
2054:
The idea of the method is in the fact that when the hydrogel is put into contact with aqueous salt solution, it swells absorbing a solution with the ion composition different from the original one. This solution can be easily squeezed out from the gel by means of sieve or microfiltration membrane.
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2512:
Despite the issues associated with desalination processes, public support for its development can be very high. One survey of a
Southern California community saw 71.9% of all respondents being in support of desalination plant development in their community. In many cases, high freshwater scarcity
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bottles or energy-consuming water transport. In
Central California, a startup company WaterFX is developing a solar-powered method of desalination that can enable the use of local water, including runoff water that can be treated and used again. Salty groundwater in the region would be treated to
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Due to the nature of the process, there is a need to place the plants on approximately 25 acres of land on or near the shoreline. In the case of a plant built inland, pipes have to be laid into the ground to allow for easy intake and outtake. However, once the pipes are laid into the ground, they
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submitted a report to the state legislature recommending that urban water suppliers achieve an indoor water use efficiency standard of 55 US gallons (210 litres) per capita per day by 2023, declining to 47 US gallons (180 litres) per day by 2025, and 42 US gallons (160 litres) by 2030 and beyond.
288:
was issued a
British patent for a vertical tube seawater distilling unit that, thanks to its simplicity of design and ease of construction, gained popularity for shipboard use. Land-based units did not significantly appear until the latter half of the nineteenth century. In the 1860s, the US Army
6229:
Szeptycki, L., E. Hartge, N. Ajami, A. Erickson, W. N. Heady, L. LaFeir, B. Meister, L. Verdone, and J.R. Koseff (2016). Marine and
Coastal Impacts on Ocean Desalination in California. Dialogue report compiled by Water in the West, Center for Ocean Solutions, Monterey Bay Aquarium and The Nature
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disorders. Israeli researchers claimed a possible link between seawater desalination and iodine deficiency, finding iodine deficits among adults exposed to iodine-poor water concurrently with an increasing proportion of their area's drinking water from seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO). They later
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Freeze–thaw desalination (or freezing desalination) uses freezing to remove fresh water from salt water. Salt water is sprayed during freezing conditions into a pad where an ice-pile builds up. When seasonal conditions warm, naturally desalinated melt water is recovered. This technique relies on
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Reverse osmosis uses a thin-film composite membrane, which comprises an ultra-thin, aromatic polyamide thin-film. This polyamide film gives the membrane its transport properties, whereas the remainder of the thin-film composite membrane provides mechanical support. The polyamide film is a dense,
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mimics the natural water cycle, in which the sun heats sea water enough for evaporation to occur. After evaporation, the water vapor is condensed onto a cool surface. There are two types of solar desalination. The first type uses photovoltaic cells to convert solar energy to electrical energy to
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Brine is denser than seawater and therefore sinks to the ocean bottom and can damage the ecosystem. Brine plumes have been seen to diminish over time to a diluted concentration, to where there was little to no effect on the surrounding environment. However studies have shown the dilution can be
312:
in 1955 in accordance with the Saline Water
Conversion Act of 1952. This act was motivated by a water shortage in California and inland western United States. The Department of the Interior allocated resources including research grants, expert personnel, patent data, and land for experiments to
2275:. The facility would produce 190,000 cubic metres of drinking water per day, enough to supply about 100,000 homes. As of June 2012, the cost for the desalinated water had risen to $ 2,329 per acre-foot. Each $ 1,000 per acre-foot works out to $ 3.06 for 1,000 gallons, or $ 0.81 per cubic meter.
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equals the ambient pressure and vapor pressure increases with temperature. Effectively, liquids boil at a lower temperature, when the ambient atmospheric pressure is less than usual atmospheric pressure. Thus, because of the reduced pressure, low-temperature "waste" heat from electrical power
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The current trend in dual-purpose facilities is hybrid configurations, in which the permeate from reverse osmosis desalination is mixed with distillate from thermal desalination. Basically, two or more desalination processes are combined along with power production. Such facilities have been
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trees grow in seawater; they secrete salt by trapping it in parts of the root, which are then eaten by animals (usually crabs). Additional salt is removed by storing it in leaves that fall off. Some types of mangroves have glands on their leaves, which work in a similar way to the seabird
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Factors that determine the costs for desalination include capacity and type of facility, location, feed water, labor, energy, financing and concentrate disposal. Costs of desalinating sea water (infrastructure, energy, and maintenance) are generally higher than fresh water from rivers or
244:
and Robert
Fitzgerald (and others), respectively). Nevertheless, neither of the two inventions entered service as a consequence of scale-up difficulties. No significant improvements to the basic seawater distillation process were made during the 150 years from the mid-1600s until 1800.
920:
it is expected that costs will continue to decrease with technology improvements that include, but are not limited to, improved efficiency, reduction in plant footprint, improvements to plant operation and optimization, more effective feed pretreatment, and lower cost energy sources.
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The energy intensity of seawater desalination has improved: It is now about 3 kWh/m (in 2018), down by a factor of 10 from 20-30 kWh/m in 1970. This is similar to the energy consumption of other freshwater supplies transported over large distances, but much higher than local fresh
4499:
Brodersen, Katie M.; Bywater, Emily A.; Lanter, Alec M.; Schennum, Hayden H.; Furia, Kumansh N.; Sheth, Maulee K.; Kiefer, Nathaniel S.; Cafferty, Brittany K.; Rao, Akshay K.; Garcia, Jose M.; Warsinger, David M. (2022). "Direct-drive ocean wave-powered batch reverse osmosis".
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tubes. Water vapor condenses on the outside of the tubes as product water. By combining several physical processes, Passarell enables most of the system's energy to be recycled through its evaporation, demisting, vapor compression, condensation, and water movement processes.
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and efficiency remain the most cost-effective approaches in areas with a large potential to improve the efficiency of water use practices. Wastewater reclamation provides multiple benefits over desalination of saline water, although it typically uses desalination membranes.
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that "salt water, when it turns into vapour, becomes sweet and the vapour does not form salt water again when it condenses," and that a fine wax vessel would hold potable water after being submerged long enough in seawater, having acted as a membrane to filter the salt.
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Note: "Electrical equivalent" refers to the amount of electrical energy that could be generated using a given quantity of thermal energy and an appropriate turbine generator. These calculations do not include the energy required to construct or refurbish items consumed.
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uses a temperature difference across a membrane to evaporate vapor from a brine solution and condense pure water on the colder side. The design of the membrane can have a significant effect on efficiency and durability. A study found that a membrane created via co-axial
464:
Desalination is currently expensive compared to most alternative sources of water, and only a very small fraction of total human use is satisfied by desalination. It is usually only economically practical for high-valued uses (such as household and industrial uses) in
4631:
2390:
As of 2008, "World-wide, 13,080 desalination plants produce more than 12 billion gallons of water a day, according to the International Desalination Association." An estimate in 2009 found that the worldwide desalinated water supply will triple between 2008 and 2020.
239:
published reports on desalination. These reports and others, set the climate for the first patent dispute concerning desalination apparatus. The two first patents regarding water desalination were approved in 1675 and 1683 (patents No.184 and No. 226, published by
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Another possibility is making the desalination plant movable, thus avoiding that the brine builds up into a single location (as it keeps being produced by the desalination plant). Some such movable (ship-connected) desalination plants have been constructed.
1809:, with a capacity of 1,000,000 L (220,000 imp gal; 260,000 US gal)/day. A smaller plant was established in 2009 at the North Chennai Thermal Power Station to prove the LTTD application where power plant cooling water is available.
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2113:
of higher permeability than current generation of membranes may lead to eventual reduction in the footprint of RO desalination plants. It has also been suggested that the use of such membranes will lead to reduction in the energy needed for desalination.
364:
As of 2021 22,000 plants were in operation In 2024 the Catalan government installed a floating offshore plant near the port of Barcelona and purchased 12 mobile desalination units for the northern region of the Costa Brava to combat the severe drought.
1370:, but alternatives are not always available. Desalination costs in 2013 ranged from US$ 0.45 to US$ 1.00/m. More than half of the cost comes directly from energy cost, and since energy prices are very volatile, actual costs can vary substantially.
2050:. The box is connected to two big tanks with high and low salinity by two taps which can be opened and closed as desired. The chain of buckets expresses the fresh water consumption followed by refilling the low-salinity reservoir by salt water.
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void-free polymer with a high surface area, allowing for its high water permeability. A recent study has found that the water permeability is primarily governed by the internal nanoscale mass distribution of the polyamide active layer.
1800:(36 °F) between surface water and water at a depth of around 500 m (1,600 ft). LTTD was studied by India's National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) in 2004. Their first LTTD plant opened in 2005 at Kavaratti in the
1881:. The researchers are working to increase the efficiency and production rate with the intent to commercialise the product in the future, however a significant limitation is the reliance on expensive materials in the current design.
477:
Unfortunately, that includes some of the places with the biggest water problems.", and, "Indeed, one needs to lift the water by 2000 m, or transport it over more than 1600 km to get transport costs equal to the desalination costs."
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Ibrahim, Yazan; Ismail, Roqaya A.; Ogungbenro, Adetola; Pankratz, Tom; Banat, Fawzi; Arafat, Hassan A. (January 15, 2021). "The sociopolitical factors impacting the adoption and proliferation of desalination: A critical review".
320:(RO) research, and international cooperation (for example, the First International Water Desalination Symposium and Exposition in 1965). The Office of Saline Water merged into the Office of Water Resources Research in 1974.
4953:
Culp, Tyler E.; Khara, Biswajit; Brickey, Kaitlyn P.; Geitner, Michael; Zimudzi, Tawanda J.; Wilbur, Jeffrey D.; Jons, Steven D.; Roy, Abhishek; Paul, Mou; Ganapathysubramanian, Baskar; Zydney, Andrew L. (January 1, 2021).
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7853:. reported from Yuma, Ariz., and Kirk Johnson from Denver. Western States (US); Utah; Arizona; California; Colorado; Nevada; New Mexico; Wyoming; Montana; Colorado River; Las Vegas (Nev); Yuma (Ariz): Select.nytimes.com
2355:, which began desalinizing 25 million gallons (95000 m) of water per day in December 2007. In the United States, the cost of desalination is $ 3.06 for 1,000 gallons, or 81 cents per cubic meter. In the United States,
542:
wrote in 2011 that desalination plants can be energy intensive and costly. Therefore, water-stressed regions might do better to focus on conservation or other water supply solutions than invest in desalination plants.
1546:
In 2014, the Israeli facilities of Hadera, Palmahim, Ashkelon, and Sorek were desalinizing water for less than US$ 0.40 per cubic meter. As of 2006, Singapore was desalinating water for US$ 0.49 per cubic meter.
437:) which enters the vessel from the right side (darker shades indicate lower temperature). The steam condenses on the pipes on top of the vessel in which the fresh sea water moves from the left to the right.
1278:, which use their petroleum resources to offset limited water resources. The advantage of dual-purpose facilities is they can be more efficient in energy consumption, thus making desalination more viable.
986:
uses a semi-permeable membrane to effect separation of water from dissolved solutes. The driving force for this separation is an osmotic pressure gradient, such as a "draw" solution of high concentration.
368:
In 2012, cost averaged $ 0.75 per cubic meter. By 2022, that had declined (before inflation) to $ 0.41. Desalinated supplies are growing at a 10%+ compound rate, doubling in abundance every seven years.
943:. In extreme cases, the RO membranes are destroyed. To mitigate damage, various pretreatment stages are introduced. Anti-scaling inhibitors include acids and other agents such as the organic polymers
7897:
273:. Knowledge of the thermodynamics of steam processes and the need for a pure water source for its use in boilers generated a positive effect regarding distilling systems. Additionally, the spread of
4378:
915:(RO). The RO membrane processes use semipermeable membranes and applied pressure (on the membrane feed side) to preferentially induce water permeation through the membrane while rejecting salts.
5754:
2712:
Ebrahimi, Atieh; Najafpour, Ghasem D; Yousefi Kebria, Daryoush (2019). "Performance of microbial desalination cell for salt removal and energy generation using different catholyte solutions".
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commonly provide electricity in remote areas. About 40–50% of the energy output is low-grade heat that leaves the engine via the exhaust. Connecting a thermal desalination technology such as
330:
By the late 1960s and the early 1970s, RO started to show promising results to replace traditional thermal desalination units. Research took place at state universities in California, at the
8193:
1014:
utilizes electric potential to move the salts through pairs of charged membranes, which trap salt in alternating channels. Several variances of electrodialysis exist such as conventional
361:
As of 2000, more than 2000 plants were operated. The largest are in Saudi Arabia, Israel, and UAE and the biggest plant with a volume of 1,401,000 m3/d is in Saudi Arabia (Ras Al Khair).
231:, reported that he had been able to supply his men with fresh water by means of shipboard distillation. Additionally, during the early 1600s, several prominent figures of the era such as
3941:
114:; however, these alternatives are not always available and depletion of reserves is a critical problem worldwide. Desalination processes are using either thermal methods (in the case of
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2144:
in Singapore. Researchers at the University of Texas at Austin and the University of Marburg are developing more efficient methods of electrochemically mediated seawater desalination.
3572:
2121:-composite membranes have shown to be capable of removing various contaminants to the parts per billion level, and have little or no susceptibility to high salt concentration levels.
4026:
Le Quesne, W. J. F.; Fernand, L.; Ali, T. S.; Andres, O.; Antonpoulou, M.; Burt, J. A.; Dougherty, W. W.; Edson, P. J.; El Kharraz, J.; Glavan, J.; Mamiit, R. J. (December 1, 2021).
2048:
1091:
A minimum energy consumption for seawater desalination of around 1 kWh/m has been determined, excluding prefiltering and intake/outfall pumping. Under 2 kWh/m has been achieved with
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is withdrawn at 0.1 m/s (0.33 ft/s), which is slow enough to let fish escape. The plant provides nearly 140,000 m (4,900,000 cu ft) of clean water per day.
2770:
Elsaid, Khaled; Kamil, Mohammed; Sayed, Enas Taha; Abdelkareem, Mohammad Ali; Wilberforce, Tabbi; Olabi, A. (2020). "Environmental impact of desalination technologies: A review".
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measuring two square metres can distill from 40 to 60 litres per day from any local water source – five times more than conventional stills. It eliminates the need for plastic
7755:
1710:
have a possibility of leaking into and contaminating nearby aquifers. Aside from environmental risks, the noise generated by certain types of desalination plants can be loud.
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as it has a km footprint for the water distillation and the same for landscape transformation in desert greening, respectively the regeneration of natural fresh water cycles.
262:
catalogued heat-based methods going back to the 1500s, and formulated practical advice that was publicized to all U.S. ships on the reverse side of sailing clearance permits.
1764:, improving its efficiency and increasing its electricity output. This results in an energy-neutral desalination solution. An example plant was commissioned by Dutch company
1752:
needed in many industrial processes, but ideal for the lower temperatures needed for desalination. In fact, such pairing with waste heat can even improve electrical process:
2279:
As new technological innovations continue to reduce the capital cost of desalination, more countries are building desalination plants as a small element in addressing their
5488:
8383:
6471:
5066:
6726:
6612:
Ovadia, Yaniv S.; Arbelle, Jonathan E.; Gefel, Dov; Brik, Hadassah; Wolf, Tamar; Nadler, Varda; Hunziker, Sandra; Zimmermann, Michael B.; Troen, Aron M. (August 2017).
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Panagopoulos, Argyris; Haralambous, Katherine-Joanne; Loizidou, Maria (November 25, 2019). "Desalination brine disposal methods and treatment technologies - A review".
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converted to water carriers, or pipelines. The idea is politically unpopular in Canada, where governments imposed trade barriers to bulk water exports as a result of a
205:
to a cookstove. During the Middle Ages elsewhere in Central Europe, work continued on distillation refinements, although not necessarily directed towards desalination.
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2198:
A small-scale offshore system uses wave energy to desalinate 30–50 m/day. The system operates with no external power, and is constructed of recycled plastic bottles.
1977:
1944:
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stored near the nostrils above the beak. The bird then "sneezes" the brine out. As freshwater is not usually available in their environments, some seabirds, such as
7275:
4456:
Hicks, Douglas C.; Mitcheson, George R.; Pleass, Charles M.; Salevan, James F. (1989). "Delbouy: Ocean wave-powered seawater reverse osmosis desalination systems".
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To limit the environmental impact of returning the brine to the ocean, it can be diluted with another stream of water entering the ocean, such as the outfall of a
488:, transport costs could match desalination costs. Desalinated water is also expensive in places that are both somewhat far from the sea and somewhat high, such as
469:
areas. However, there is growth in desalination for agricultural use and highly populated areas such as Singapore or California. The most extensive use is in the
3761:
Angelakis, Andreas N.; Valipour, Mohammad; Choo, Kwang-Ho; Ahmed, Abdelkader T.; Baba, Alper; Kumar, Rohitashw; Toor, Gurpal S.; Wang, Zhiwei (August 16, 2021).
3023:"Moreover, it is possible to see the water of the sea boiled by sailors, who, catching the vapors in sponges, relieve their thirst fairly well in times of need."
6125:"Minimal Liquid Discharge (MLD) and Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) strategies for wastewater management and resource recovery – Analysis, challenges and prospects"
5844:
Evaluating the Performance of Single Slope Passive Solar Still for Different Slope of Cover and Water Depths by Thermal Modeling: In Moderate Climatic Condition
5387:
1246:
Given the energy-intensive nature of desalination and the associated economic and environmental costs, desalination is generally considered a last resort after
212:
in 1560. It is believed that a garrison of 700 Spanish soldiers was besieged by the Turkish army and that, during the siege, the captain in charge fabricated a
4145:
6173:
2513:
corresponds to higher public support for desalination development whereas areas with low water scarcity tend to have less public support for its development.
2368:
7893:
4192:
1309:
in the US military is capable of using nuclear power to desalinate 1,500,000 L (330,000 imp gal; 400,000 US gal) of water per day.
2876:
Reducing the Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Water and Sanitation Services: Overview of emissions and their potential reduction illustrated by utility know-how
2190:
It can desalinate extremely salty brine up to seven times as salty as the ocean. For comparison, the current methods can only handle brine twice as salty.
5168:
Van der Bruggen, Bart; Vandecasteele, Carlo (June 2002). "Distillation vs. membrane filtration: overview of process evolutions in seawater desalination".
2402:. It is a site featuring multiple plants using different desalination technologies and is capable of producing 2.2 million cubic meters of water per day.
7556:
7697:
5152:"Demonstration of the Natural Freeze-Thaw Process for the Desalination of Water From The Devils Lake Chain to Provide Water for the City of Devils Lake"
1110:
by around 10%, about the amount of energy used by domestic refrigerators. Domestic consumption is a relatively small fraction of the total water usage.
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5368:
4612:
2219:
began operating a reverse osmosis seawater desalination plant in 2006. The Perth desalination plant is powered partially by renewable energy from the
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948:
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This project is the world's first commercial-scale wave energy array that is connected to the grid and has the ability to produce desalinated water.
5577:
Misra, B. M.; Kupitz, J. (2004). "The role of nuclear desalination in meeting the potable water needs in water scarce areas in the next decades".
338:. Many studies focus on ways to optimize desalination systems. The first commercial RO plant, the Coalinga desalination plant, was inaugurated in
182:
mentioned that people found that the bamboo mats used for steaming rice would form a thin outer layer after long use. The as-formed thin film had
7049:
Rud, Oleg; Borisov, Oleg; Košovan, Peter (2018). "Thermodynamic model for a reversible desalination cycle using weak polyelectrolyte hydrogels".
2206:
Trade Arabia claims Saudi Arabia to be producing 7.9 million cubic meters of desalinated water daily, or 22% of world total as of 2021 yearend.
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8243:
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5876:
5133:"HH Sheikh Maktoum bin Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum honours 10 winners from 8 countries at Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Global Water Award"
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1003:, freezes seawater in a vacuum. Under vacuum conditions the ice, desalinated, is melted and diverted for collection and the salt is collected.
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during the 1880s that provided freshwater to the British troops there. It consisted of six-effect distillers with a capacity of 350 tons/day.
6588:"High burden of Iodine deficiency found in Israel's first national survey – האוניברסיטה העברית בירושלים – The Hebrew University of Jerusalem"
1329:
A proposed alternative to desalination in the American Southwest is the commercial importation of bulk water from water-rich areas either by
7671:
6049:
5749:
State Agencies Recommend Indoor Residential Water Use Standard to Legislature, California Department of Water Resources, November 30, 2021,
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927:
The reverse osmosis process requires maintenance. Various factors interfere with efficiency: ionic contamination (calcium, magnesium etc.);
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There are several methods. Each has advantages and disadvantages but all are useful. The methods can be divided into membrane-based (e.g.,
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1701:, comprising over 95% of its energy source. In 2023, desalination consumed nearly half of the residential sector's energy in the region.
538:
Not everyone is convinced that desalination is or will be economically viable or environmentally sustainable for the foreseeable future.
7230:"Dais Analytic Corporation Announces Product Sale to Asia, Functional Waste Water Treatment Pilot, and Key Infrastructure Appointments"
5792:"A real options approach to the design and architecture of water supply systems using innovative water technologies under uncertainty"
5612:
Ludwig, H. (2004). "Hybrid systems in seawater desalination – practical design aspects, present status and development perspectives".
3891:"Comparison of Desalination Technologies Using Renewable Energy Sources with Life Cycle, PESTLE, and Multi-Criteria Decision Analyses"
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Thus, it may be more economical to transport fresh water from somewhere else than to desalinate it. In places far from the sea, like
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9377:
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3812:
1341:
309:
6279:
Yolanda Fernández-Torquemada (March 16, 2009). "Dispersion of brine discharge from seawater reverse osmosis desalination plants".
5934:. Clean, Efficient and Affordable Energy for a Sustainable Future: The 7th International Conference on Applied Energy (ICAE2015).
5260:"Electrodialysis process for carbon dioxide capture coupled with salinity reduction: A statistical and quantitative investigation"
4632:"Theoretical framework for predicting inorganic fouling in membrane distillation and experimental validation with calcium sulfate"
3967:
2307:
China and India, the world's two most populous countries, are turning to desalination to provide a small part of their water needs
223:, desalination was primarily of concern to oceangoing ships, which otherwise needed to keep on board supplies of fresh water. Sir
8016:
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5407:
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3015:(c. 329–379 AD) mentioned that sailors produced fresh water via distillation. Saint Basil with Sister Agnes Clare Way, trans.,
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stated, "In November, Connecticut-based Poseidon Resources Corp. won a key regulatory approval to build the $ 300 million water-
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The first major land-based desalination plant may have been installed under emergency conditions on an island off the coast of
6243:
5074:
3388:"A cryogel solar vapor generator with rapid water replenishment and high intermediate water content for seawater desalination"
197:, but desalination became feasible on a large scale only in the modern era. A good example of this experimentation comes from
7585:
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5662:, Dana Haasz, Christine Henges-Jeck, Veena Srinivasan, Gary Wolff, Katherine Kao Cushing, and Amardip Mann. (November 2003.)
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17:
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Einav, Rachel; Harussi, Kobi; Perry, Dan (February 2003). "The footprint of the desalination processes on the environment".
3942:"From NEWater to vertical farming: Key milestones in Singapore's 50-year journey towards sustainability | The Straits Times"
3647:
Koutroulis, E.; et., al. (2010). "Design optimization of desalination systems power-supplied by PV and W/G energy sources".
2874:
4667:
4335:
Khawaji, Akili D.; Kutubkhanah, Ibrahim K.; Wie, Jong-Mihn (March 2008). "Advances in seawater desalination technologies".
2745:"Making the Deserts Bloom: Harnessing nature to deliver us from drought, Distillations Podcast and transcript, Episode 239"
1789:
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6015:
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806:. Each subsequent flash process utilizes energy released from the condensation of the water vapor from the previous step.
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induced a need for freshwater in remote parts of the world, thus creating the appropriate climate for water desalination.
7346:"Desalination and hydrogen, chlorine, and sodium hydroxide production via electrophoretic ion exchange and precipitation"
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1889:
Adsorption-based desalination (AD) relies on the moisture absorption properties of certain materials such as Silica Gel.
1334:
417:
out F – heat exchange G – condensation collection (desalinated water)
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2475:, possess this gland, which allows them to drink the salty water from their environments while they are far from land.
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power desalination. The second type converts solar energy to heat, and is known as solar thermal powered desalination.
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5778:
Some in California have to limit their daily water usage to 55 gallons. Here's what that means for everyday activities
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atmospheric pressure is reduced, thus lowering the temperature required to evaporate the water. Liquids boil when the
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The results of these efforts included the construction of over 200 electrodialysis and distillation plants globally,
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4152:
2067:. AquaDania's WaterStillar has been installed at Dahab, Egypt, and in Playa del Carmen, Mexico. In this approach, a
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6614:"First Israeli National Iodine Survey Demonstrates Iodine Deficiency Among School-Aged Children and Pregnant Women"
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system to the diesel engine exhaust repurposes this low-grade heat for desalination. The system actively cools the
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3281:
8283:
6195:
Lattemann, Sabine; Höpner, Thomas (2008). "Environmental impact and impact assessment of seawater desalination".
5822:
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4188:
1785:
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1055:, resourcing the natural anode and cathode gradient of the electro-active bacteria and thus creating an internal
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Ovadia, Yaniv S; Gefel, Dov; Aharoni, Dorit; Turkot, Svetlana; Fytlovich, Shlomo; Troen, Aron M (October 2016).
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technology that desalinates seawater using submerged buoys. Wave-powered desalination plants began operating on
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5258:
Mustafa, Jawad; Al-Marzouqi, Ali H.; Ghasem, Nayef; El-Naas, Muftah H.; Van der Bruggen, Bart (February 2023).
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Haarhoff, Johannes (February 1, 2009). "The Distillation of Seawater on Ships in the 17th and 18th Centuries".
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Fritzmann, C; Lowenberg, J; Wintgens, T; Melin, T (2007). "State-of-the-art of reverse osmosis desalination".
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in the U.S. military uses nuclear power to desalinize 400,000 US gallons (1,500,000 L) of water per day.
1817:
In October 2009, Saltworks Technologies announced a process that uses solar or other thermal heat to drive an
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can be paid for in large part if not entirely from the sale of the desalinated water produced as a byproduct.
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1982:
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capable of producing 40 barrels of fresh water per day, though details of the device have not been reported.
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5365:
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Birkett, James D. (January 1, 1984). "A brief illustrated history of desalination: From the bible to 1940".
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A – steam in B – seawater in C – potable water out
201:(Florence, 1452), who realized that distilled water could be made cheaply in large quantities by adapting a
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There are now about 21,000 desalination plants in operation around the globe. The biggest ones are in the
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purchased three Normandy evaporators, each rated at 7000 gallons/day and installed them on the islands of
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9223:
5515:
5394:, pp. 1–4 Table 1-1, Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) Water & Sustainability (Volume 4), 2000
3889:
Do Thi, Huyen Trang; Pasztor, Tibor; Fozer, Daniel; Manenti, Flavio; Toth, Andras Jozsef (January 2021).
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2417:
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2158:
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1042:
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Warsinger, David (2020). "Desalination Innovations Needed to Ensure Clean Water for the Next 50 Years".
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Temperature Swing Solvent Extraction (TSSE) uses a solvent instead of a membrane or high temperatures.
139:
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7873:"Technology news and new technology highlights from New Scientist - New Scientist Tech - New Scientist"
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Warsinger, David M.; Mistry, Karan H.; Nayar, Kishor G.; Chung, Hyung Won; Lienhard V, John H. (2015).
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The Efficient Use of Steam: Written for the Fuel Efficiency Committee of the Ministry of Fuel and Power
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manage to create a filterless portable desalination unit, capable of removing both dissolved salts and
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Average water consumption and cost of supply by sea water desalination at US$ 1 per cubic metre (±50%)
281:
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6763:
Development and Prospective of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion and Spray Flash Evaporator Desalination
5532:
Hamed, O. A. (2005). "Overview of hybrid desalination systems – current status and future prospects".
5312:"A comparative study on minimum and actual energy consumption for the treatment of desalination brine"
5204:
4785:
Warsinger, David M.; Tow, Emily W.; Nayar, Kishor G.; Maswadeh, Laith A.; Lienhard V, John H. (2016).
4000:
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2325:) are either in the process of building desalination plants, or are already using them. In late 2011,
8771:
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6124:
5979:
5928:"Design and Cost Analysis of a Solar Photovoltaic Powered Reverse Osmosis Plant for Masdar Institute"
5719:
5311:
5114:
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98:
Due to its energy consumption, desalinating sea water is generally more costly than fresh water from
47:. More generally, desalination is the removal of salts and minerals from a substance. One example is
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7251:
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Proceedings of the Eighth (2009) ISOPE Ocean Mining Symposium, Chennai, India, September 20–24, 2009
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Mechanisms for Long-Term Innovation Technology and Business Development of Reverse Osmosis Membranes
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6562:"Millions of Israeli children said at risk of stunted development, possibly from desalinated water"
6512:"Can desalinated seawater contribute to iodine-deficiency disorders? An observation and hypothesis"
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absorb salt and other contaminants, effectively desalinating the water. This is used in artificial
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250:
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Alsheghri, Ammar; Sharief, Saad Asadullah; Rabbani, Shahid; Aitzhan, Nurzhan Z. (August 1, 2015).
5901:
4421:
Al-Shammiri, M.; Safar, M. (November 1999). "Multi-effect distillation plants: state of the art".
3427:"Freeze desalination by the integration of falling film and block freeze-concentration techniques"
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5259:
4571:
4028:"Is the development of desalination compatible with sustainable development of the Arabian Gulf?"
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Thermally-driven desalination technologies are frequently suggested for use with low-temperature
1619:
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and storm water capture also provide benefits in treating, restoring and recharging groundwater.
871:
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There are currently two technologies with a large majority of the world's desalination capacity:
639:
426:
154:
6326:"Environmental impacts of desalination and brine treatment - Challenges and mitigation measures"
4956:"Nanoscale control of internal inhomogeneity enhances water transport in desalination membranes"
2938:"Investigation and Research on the Status Quo of Informatization Development at Home and Abroad"
83:
use desalination. Modern interest in desalination mostly focuses on cost-effective provision of
9334:
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9049:
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6995:
6056:(Press release). Black & Veatch Ltd., via edie.net, May 4, 2006. Retrieved August 20, 2007.
6008:
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5203:
Mustafa, Jawad; Mourad, Aya A. -H. I.; Al-Marzouqi, Ali H.; El-Naas, Muftah H. (June 1, 2020).
3248:
1030:
5205:"Simultaneous treatment of reject brine and capture of carbon dioxide: A comprehensive review"
5151:
4896:"Electron tomography reveals details of the internal microstructure of desalination membranes"
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kWh/m in 1970. Nevertheless, desalination represented about 25% of the energy consumed by the
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9131:
9126:
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8862:
6182:
5877:"No Batteries Needed: Can Low-Cost Solar Desalination System "Green" Namibia's Desert Coast?"
3386:
Mao, Shudi; Onggowarsito, Casey; Feng, An; Zhang, Stella; Fu, Qiang; Nghiem, Long D. (2023).
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3004:, that if a lid is placed on a boiling pot of seawater, fresh water will condense on the lid.
2992:
1949:
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48:
8124:"Predictors of local support for a seawater desalination plant in a small coastal community"
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5366:"Analysis of the Energy Intensity of Water Supplies for West Basin Municipal Water District"
4300:
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2367:, and Florida use desalination for a very small part of their water supply. Since 2015, the
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7946:"DEWA's Jebel Ali Power Plant and Water Desalination Complex enters Guinness World Records"
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Myth about huge California fines for shower and laundry usage won't die. Here's what's true
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Numerous examples of experimentation in desalination appeared throughout Antiquity and the
8051:
6848:"Portable Seawater Desalination System for Generating Drinkable Water in Remote Locations"
6846:
Yoon, Junghyo; Kwon, Hyukjin J.; Kang, SungKu; Brack, Eric; Han, Jongyoon (May 17, 2022).
6489:
5132:
4121:
2382:, water is pumped 200 miles (320 km) inland though a pipeline to the capital city of
1051:
systems that implements the use of electro-active bacteria to power desalination of water
765:. These effects have been included in a multidisciplinary desalination methodology in the
8:
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9216:
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8867:
8790:
8516:
8307:
7968:
6762:
5647:
5043:
Seawater Desalination – Impacts of Brine and Chemical Discharge on the Marine Environment
4630:
Warsinger, David M.; Tow, Emily W.; Swaminathan, Jaichander; Lienhard V, John H. (2017).
4575:
2962:
2937:
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2235:
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The leading process for desalination in terms of installed capacity and yearly growth is
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4434:
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4091:
Zhou, Yuan (March 2, 2005). "Evaluating the costs of desalination and water transport".
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The United States, France and the United Arab Emirates are working to develop practical
433:
lowers the pressure in the vessel to facilitate the evaporation of the heated seawater (
265:
Beginning about 1800, things started changing as a consequence of the appearance of the
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The cost of untreated fresh water in the developing world can reach US$ 5/cubic metre.
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111:
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7252:"Sandia National Labs: Desalination and Water Purification: Research and Development"
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Our Ocean Railways: Or, The Rise, Progress, and Development of Ocean Steam Navigation
3182:
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2873:
Alix, Alexandre; Bellet, Laurent; Trommsdorff, Corinne; Audureau, Iris, eds. (2022).
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2110:
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1000:
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284:), these type of devices quickly demonstrated their desalination potential. In 1852,
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32:
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7368:
7319:"Chemists Work to Desalinate the Ocean for Drinking Water, One Nanoliter at a Time"
7066:
6867:
6847:
6813:
Tamil Nadu / Chennai News : Low temperature thermal desalination plants mooted
6625:
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3968:"California to decide fate of controversial desalination plant amid brutal drought"
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beats using scarce groundwater or surface water, environmentally and economically.
1870:
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524:. For coastal cities, desalination is increasingly viewed as a competitive choice.
509:
259:
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7505:
6782:
Indian Scientists Develop World's First Low Temperature Thermal Desalination Plant
3813:"Floating desalination unit off Barcelona shore to avoid using water tanker ships"
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8660:
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8048:
Arcata's Wastewater Treatment Plant & The Arcata Marsh and Wildlife Sanctuary
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6800:
6769:
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6232:
https://www.scienceforconservation.org/assets/downloads/Desal_Whitepaper_2016.pdf
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4651:
3713:"Circumstances leading to the first municipal reverse osmosis desalination plant"
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92:
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7646:"EJP | News | France | French-run water plant launched in Israel"
7070:
6216:
6171:"Israel no longer worried about its water supply, thanks to desalination plants"
6034:
5664:"Waste not, want not: The potential for urban water conservation in California."
5598:
5563:
5283:
5228:
5067:"Access to sustainable water by unlimited resources | Climate innovation window"
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membrane technology, leaving limited scope for further energy reductions as the
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7092:
UAE & France Announce Partnership To Jointly Fund Renewable Energy Projects
6140:
6047:"Black & Veatch-Designed Desalination Plant Wins Global Water Distinction,"
6012:
5983:
4900:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
4787:"Energy efficiency of batch and semi-batch (CCRO) reverse osmosis desalination"
4727:
4698:
4492:
4379:"Entropy Generation of Desalination Powered by Variable Temperature Waste Heat"
4196:
3624:
3599:
3425:
Zambrano, A.; Ruiz, Y.; Hernández, E.; Raventós, M.; Moreno, F.L. (June 2018).
2538:
2280:
2118:
1694:
1539:
control pressure, temperature and brine concentrations to optimize efficiency.
1286:
1073:
1072:
The desalination process's energy consumption depends on the water's salinity.
1056:
944:
786:
614:
532:
513:
343:
241:
236:
60:
7724:"Tamil Nadu / Chennai News : Two sites for desalination plant identified"
7672:"Black & Veatch-Designed Desalination Plant Wins Global Water Distinction"
7547:
Australian Broadcasting Corporation, June 25, 2007. Retrieved August 20, 2007.
7141:
6528:
3166:
2989:
Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology
1281:
162:
At the same time the desalination of seawater was recorded in China. Both the
9371:
9274:
9111:
9001:
8958:
8739:
8616:
8502:
8452:
8316:
7849:
RANDAL C. ARCHIBOLD; KIRK JOHNSON & Randal C. Archibold (April 4, 2007).
6879:
6637:
6357:
6148:
5961:
5846:. ASME 2006 International Solar Energy Conference. ASMEDC. pp. 545–553.
5343:
5236:
4987:
4880:
4539:
4485:
4449:
4241:
4061:
3979:
3926:
3798:
3744:
3549:
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3411:
3174:
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2636:
2558:
2533:
2448:
2344:
1540:
1267:
1026:
956:
232:
99:
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4979:
4920:
258:) its still was studied and recorded in great detail. In the United States,
9076:
8810:
8761:
8697:
8553:
8457:
7506:
Perth Seawater Desalination Plant, Seawater Reverse Osmosis (SWRO), Kwinana
7380:
6887:
6645:
6547:
6472:"Estimated iodine intake and status in adults exposed to iodine-poor water"
6365:
6087:, Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security.
6078:
6004:
5851:
5808:
5715:
5682:
5659:
5453:
4995:
4939:
4831:
4223:
Water and wastewater engineering : water supply and wastewater removal
4069:
3633:
3019:(Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 1963), p. 65.
2801:
2695:
2644:
2493:
2379:
2296:
desalinizes water for 49 cents per cubic meter and also treats sewage with
2250:
to offset the Sydney plant's energy use, mitigating concerns about harmful
2076:
become freshwater, and in areas near the ocean, seawater could be treated.
1749:
1560:
In the United States, cooling water intake structures are regulated by the
1323:
1306:
1275:
1263:
1258:
1085:
907:
in conjunction with reverse osmosis have been found to improve efficiency.
718:
714:
695:
694:) is converted to fresh water. The most common desalination processes are
592:
470:
454:
446:
414:
294:
266:
187:
127:
115:
44:
7344:
Shkolnikov, Viktor; Bahga, Supreet S.; Santiago, Juan G. (April 5, 2012).
6629:
5476:, p. 6 figure 1.2, Stephen Dundorf at the IDA World Congress November 2009
4221:
3055:
J. R. Partington, History of Chemistry, Vol. 2-3, Macmillan, London, 1962.
2884:
9172:
9116:
8938:
8916:
8911:
8778:
8655:
8621:
8609:
8497:
8420:
7273:
Team wins $ 4m grant for breakthrough technology in seawater desalination
6587:
6324:
Panagopoulos, Argyris; Haralambous, Katherine-Joanne (December 1, 2020).
6300:
5737:
5097:"Solving fresh water scarcity, using only the sea, sun, earth & wind"
4823:
4112:
3917:
2426:
1874:
1801:
1698:
1690:
1359:
1271:
952:
539:
485:
430:
347:
280:
In parallel with the development and improvement of systems using steam (
194:
179:
103:
84:
7208:"Patent US6383391 – Water-and ion-conducting membranes and uses thereof"
6123:
Panagopoulos, Argyris; Haralambous, Katherine-Joanne (October 1, 2020).
4613:"World's first wave-powered desalination plant now operational in Perth"
4285:
4275:
4256:
3557:
3525:
3387:
3130:
Nebbia, G.; Menozzi, G.N. (1966). "Aspetti storici della dissalazione".
1697:, is expected to double by 2030. Currently, this process primarily uses
1106:
Supplying all US domestic water by desalination would increase domestic
496:. By contrast in other locations transport costs are much less, such as
391:"Making the Deserts Bloom: Harnessing nature to deliver us from drought"
9279:
9096:
9054:
8996:
8965:
8604:
8536:
8474:
8447:
8410:
7372:
6736:. International Society of Offshore and Polar Engineers. Archived from
6309:
3789:
3459:
3403:
2543:
2444:
2356:
2239:
2129:
2086:
1842:
1745:
1633: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1580:
1330:
936:
895:
843:
690:
Desalination is an artificial process by which saline water (generally
339:
323:
The first industrial desalination plant in the United States opened in
228:
183:
88:
68:
64:
7894:
Carlsbad Desalination Plant Hits Milestone: 100 Billion Gallons Served
7649:
7456:"Wave-powered buoys vastly reduce the ecological cost of desalination"
5445:
4871:
4846:
4406:
3907:
3890:
3779:
3762:
3573:"Bankrolling the 10 Breakthrough Technologies: Megascale Desalination"
1723:
Desalination removes iodine from water and could increase the risk of
999:
A different freeze–thaw method, not weather dependent and invented by
9162:
9044:
8852:
8847:
8825:
8714:
8707:
8526:
8521:
8428:
8405:
7728:
4151:(Working paper). Hamburg University. December 9, 2004. Archived from
2464:
2395:
2348:
2326:
2293:
2272:
1878:
1572:
691:
481:
393:, Distillations Podcast and transcript, Episode 239, March 19, 2019,
355:
149:
80:
52:
8268:
8254:
SOLAR TOWER Project – Clean Electricity Generation for Desalination.
7948:(Press release). Media Office, Government of Dubai. October 16, 2022
7144:. Waterdesalination.com (November 16, 2004). Retrieved May 14, 2012.
6035:
Over and drought: Why the end of Israel's water shortage is a secret
2815:
Cohen, Yoram (2021). "Advances in Water Desalination Technologies".
2482:
desalination gland. Salt is extracted to the leaf exterior as small
1608:
9289:
8857:
8783:
8724:
8719:
8667:
8577:
8548:
8541:
8531:
8462:
8436:
8432:
8424:
8200:
external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into
7430:"Inching Towards Abundant Water: New Progress in Desalination Tech"
7411:"Scientists discover a game-changing way to remove salt from water"
7035:. Perth, Western Australia: International Desalination Association.
4668:"Mixed up membrane desalinates water with 99.99 percent efficiency"
4514:
2563:
2478:
2314:
1913:
Scheme of the desalination machine: the desalination box of volume
1826:
1773:
1077:
1029:
from seawater. Preliminary estimates suggest that the cost of such
761:
Water can evaporate through several other physical effects besides
722:
505:
290:
56:
8253:
7118:"Can This Solar Desalination Startup Solve California Water Woes?"
4699:"A review of advances in freeze desalination and future prospects"
4208:
Desalination: Unlocking Lessons from Yesterday's Solution (part 1)
3367:
Birkett, J. D. "The 1861 de Normandy desalting unit at Key West".
2824:
51:. This is important for agriculture. It is possible to desalinate
9157:
8953:
8948:
8894:
8800:
8729:
8572:
8373:
4629:
3238:
R. Fitzgerald et al, Purifying Salt Water, Britain No. 226, 1683.
2553:
2483:
2456:
2433:
2360:
2352:
2337:
2301:
1806:
1792:(LTTD) takes advantage of water boiling at low pressure, even at
1765:
1052:
960:
940:
932:
882:
was able to filter 99.99% of salt after continuous 30 day usage.
879:
501:
497:
209:
7827:
7186:"Patent US8222346 – Block copolymers and method for making same"
3282:"Desalination of Sea Water | Thomas Jefferson's Monticello"
1853:
In 2022, using a technique that utilised multiple stages of ion
9006:
8971:
8795:
8751:
8599:
8397:
8072:
7482:"Saudi Arabia announces new water projects worth $ 667 million"
6490:"Seawater desalination and iodine deficiency: is there a link?"
6388:"Energy is vital to a well-functioning water sector – Analysis"
5385:"U.S. Electricity Consumption for Water Supply & Treatment"
5257:
5202:
4749:
3600:"Optimization of ramified absorber networks doing desalination"
2923:, vol. 3, (Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1931), Book III,
2711:
2606:
2501:
2489:
2460:
2383:
2375:
2322:
2287:
2227:
1822:
1588:
1295:
899:
Schematic representation of a typical desalination plant using
528:
521:
517:
493:
489:
450:
335:
298:
7698:"Drought hopes hinge on desalination - World - NZ Herald News"
7155:"Nanotube membranes offer possibility of cheaper desalination"
6803:. Headlinesindia.com (April 18, 2007). Retrieved May 29, 2011.
5925:
5424:
Semiat, R. (2008). "Energy Issues in Desalination Processes".
4498:
4255:
Curto, Domenico; Franzitta, Vincenzo; Guercio, Andrea (2021).
4189:
Israel refills the Sea of Galilee, supplying Jordan on the way
2371:
has been producing 50 million gallons of drinking water daily.
9039:
8879:
8805:
8592:
3424:
2872:
2364:
2329:
will begin using Australia's largest desalination plant, the
2098:
Geothermal energy can drive desalination. In most locations,
1979:
which is separated by a sieve from the outer solution volume
1841:
uses natural evaporation and condensation processes inside a
1769:
1662:
1576:
1536:
1299:
1100:
851:
434:
402:
213:
202:
72:
7293:"New desalination process uses 50% less energy | MINING.com"
6913:"From seawater to drinking water, with the push of a button"
6684:"Desalination plant powered by waste heat opens in Maldives"
6278:
6261:
6084:
Desalination, With a Grain of Salt. A California Perspective
5495:, American Membrane Technology Association (AMTA) April 2009
5167:
5019:
Membranverfahren – Grundlagen der Modul und Anlagenauslegung
2436:
produces ice with little salt, much lower than in seawater.
1845:
powered by solar energy to grow crops in arid coastal land.
1114:
Energy consumption of seawater desalination methods (kWh/m)
8984:
8840:
8835:
8815:
8689:
8640:
8484:
6025:, 2002-09-02, via thenation.com. Retrieved August 20, 2007.
4455:
2769:
2472:
2468:
2157:, which precipitates, leaving fresh water. The theoretical
839:
466:
76:
8264:
Encyclopedia of Desalination and water and Water Resources
8263:
8233:
4146:"Evaluating the costs of desalination and water transport"
3760:
1909:
1270:
as their source of energy. Most plants are located in the
8943:
8587:
5902:"How the world could have 100 percent solar desalination"
4784:
4376:
4025:
4001:"Mini desalination plants could refresh the parched West"
3888:
2991:(Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1980),
1897:
One process was commercialized by Modern Water PLC using
1832:
1818:
1289:, a former nuclear-heated desalination unit in Kazakhstan
975:
also used for the same function (i.e., Reverse Osmosis).
838:
hydraulic and wave power components. One such example is
798:
Water is evaporated and separated from sea water through
8238:
7782:"Bermuda signs contract for seawater desalination plant"
7023:
6509:
3385:
2987:
Joseph Needham, Ho Ping-Yu, Lu Gwei-Djen, Nathan Sivin,
2666:
Fischetti, Mark (September 2007). "Fresh from the Sea".
2290:
desalinizes water for a cost of 53 cents per cubic meter
358:
reverse osmosis desalination plant came into operation.
7851:"No Longer Waiting for Rain, an Arid West Takes Action"
7343:
6815:. The Hindu (April 21, 2007). Retrieved March 20, 2011.
6323:
6122:
5486:"Membrane Desalination Power Usage Put In Perspective"
4952:
3000:(fl. 200 A.D.) wrote, in his commentary on Aristotle's
2172:
1901:, with a number of plants reported to be in operation.
1848:
453:. The world's largest desalination plant is located in
413:
D – brine out (waste) E –
8122:
Heck, N.; Paytan, A.; Potts, D.C.; Haddad, B. (2016).
6939:"A Study of Silica Gel Adsorption Desalination System"
6611:
3369:
International Desalination & Water Reuse Quarterly
3344:
History, Development and Management of Water Resources
2942:
IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science
713:) methods. The traditional process of desalination is
36:
Reverse osmosis desalination plant in Barcelona, Spain
8121:
6108:"Australia Turns to Desalination Amid Water Shortage"
5045:. Sabine Lattemann, Thomas Höppner. January 1, 2003.
4334:
4254:
2398:
Power Generation and Water Production Complex in the
1985:
1952:
1919:
1869:. Designed for use by non-experts in remote areas or
996:
extended periods of natural sub-freezing conditions.
461:) with a capacity of 1,401,000 cubic meters per day.
7933:
A Rising Tide for New Desalinated Water Technologies
7026:"Forward Osmosis Desalination: A Commercial Reality"
5150:
Boysen, John E.; Stevens, Bradley G. (August 2002).
5115:"From Plentiful Seawater to Precious Drinking Water"
2394:
One of the world's largest desalination hubs is the
2310:
In 2007 Pakistan announced plans to use desalination
2085:
pressure in the evaporation chamber. The compressor
1748:
sources, as the low temperatures are not useful for
790:
generation or industrial processes can be employed.
7586:"Carlsbad desal plant, pipe costs near $ 1 billion"
5842:Tiwari, Anil Kr.; Tiwari, G. N. (January 1, 2006).
4372:
4370:
4368:
4366:
2343:Before 2015, the largest desalination plant in the
2340:signed a contract to purchase a desalination plant
1661:Desalination processes produce large quantities of
1543:desalination might be economical on a large scale.
1250:. But this is changing as prices continue to fall.
1025:Electrodialysis can simultaneously remove salt and
7732:. Chennai, India. January 17, 2007. Archived from
7700:. Nzherald.co.nz. November 1, 2006. Archived from
6459:מידעון הפקולטה לחקלאות מזון וסביבה עש רוברט ה סמית
4623:
4600:Wave-powered Desalination Riding High in Australia
3763:"Desalination: From Ancient to Present and Future"
2042:
1971:
1938:
1829:ions from the water using ion-exchange membranes.
43:is a process that removes mineral components from
8249:Classification of Desalination Technologies (CDT)
8184:may not follow Knowledge's policies or guidelines
6845:
6419:
5718:, Heather Cooley, David Groves (September 2005).
4257:"A Review of the Water Desalination Technologies"
3940:Theng, Charlotte Kng Yoong (September 16, 2022).
3840:"Desalinating Water Is Becoming "Absurdly Cheap""
3229:W. Walcot, Purifying Water, Britain No. 184, 1675
820:
793:
520:, Saudi Arabia, water is pumped 320 km inland to
118:) or membrane-based methods (e.g. in the case of
9369:
7648:. Ejpress.org. December 28, 2005. Archived from
6917:MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology
6487:
5520:Encyclopedia of Desalination and Water Resources
4420:
4363:
3340:"History of Desalination Before Large-Scale Use"
3315:
3265:
2590:, via dictionary.com. Retrieved August 19, 2007.
550:
140:Distillation § Desalination by distillation
7909:Desalination is the Solution to Water Shortages
6194:
5789:
5516:"Energy Requirements of Desalination Processes"
5467:"Optimizing Lower Energy Seawater Desalination"
4177:Desalination is the Solution to Water Shortages
3681:
1312:
809:
227:(1562-1622), who made extensive travels in the
8033:including images of the gland and its function
7545:"Sydney desalination plant to double in size,"
4778:
3346:. Vol. I. EOLSS Publishers. p. 381.
2369:Claude "Bud" Lewis Carlsbad Desalination Plant
1904:
1346:California State Water Resources Control Board
308:The Office of Saline Water was created in the
254:was sold to Denmark in the 1780s (as the ship
8284:
8259:Desalination bibliography Library of Congress
7990:Proctor, Noble S.; Lynch, Patrick J. (1993).
7508:. Water Technology. Retrieved March 20, 2011.
7024:Thompson N.A.; Nicoll P.G. (September 2011).
6727:"Low Temperature Thermal DesalinbationPLants"
6712:, February 24, 2014. Retrieved March 18, 2014
6129:Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering
5874:
5720:"California water 2030: An efficient future."
5149:
3682:Fujiwara, Masatoshi; Aoshima, Yaichi (2022).
3646:
3129:
2936:Zhang, Huachao; Xu, Haoyuan (March 1, 2021).
1406:Passive solar (improved double slope, India)
1398:Passive solar (improved single-slope, India)
327:in 1961 after a decade of regional drought.
7989:
7161:Public Affairs. May 18, 2006. Archived from
6488:Ovadia YS, Troen AM, Gefel D (August 2013).
5841:
5650:. Howstuffworks.com. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
5309:
3597:
3570:
3196:Baker, M.N. (1981). "Quest for Pure Water".
2808:
2739:
2737:
2735:
2659:
2425:Evaporation of water over the oceans in the
1047:Microbial desalination cells are biological
832:
297:. Another land-based plant was installed at
6687:European Innovation Partnerships (EIP) news
5783:
5740:. Sunbeltwater.com. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
5576:
4414:
1422:Reverse Osmosis (Concentrated solar power)
8291:
8277:
8244:Working principles in desalination systems
7756:"Pakistan embarks on nuclear desalination"
6720:
6718:
6699:"Island finally gets its own water supply"
5705:. 50 (S). National Academy of Engineering.
5310:Panagopoulos, Argyris (December 1, 2020).
5016:
4330:
4328:
4326:
4324:
4322:
4320:
4318:
4316:
4314:
4226:. Lawrence K. Wang. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley.
3530:Journal (American Water Works Association)
3480:
3478:
1779:
1731:
1689:The energy demand for desalination in the
8220:Learn how and when to remove this message
8147:
7923:, The Wall. St Journal, January 17, 2008.
7803:Applause, At Last, For Desalination Plant
7106:, CNBC European Business, October 1, 2008
6996:"Modern Water taps demand in Middle East"
6537:
6527:
6415:
6413:
6411:
6409:
6308:
6244:"Innovative floating desalination system"
5951:
5807:
5700:
5553:
4929:
4919:
4870:
4813:
4726:
4650:
4513:
4405:
4284:
4274:
4120:
4051:
3916:
3906:
3788:
3778:
3623:
3458:
3214:
2961:
2732:
2665:
1649:Learn how and when to remove this message
1550:
1036:
459:Ras Al-Khair Power and Desalination Plant
8117:
8115:
8113:
7896:, Times of San Diego, November 1, 2022,
7428:Ramirez, Vanessa Bates (June 18, 2019).
7044:
7042:
6967:"FO plant completes 1-year of operation"
3756:
3754:
3144:
2588:The American Heritage Science Dictionary
2416:
2147:
1908:
1390:Passive solar (30.42% energy efficient)
1377:Cost Comparison of Desalination Methods
1342:California Department of Water Resources
1280:
894:
857:
531:was using desalination to replenish the
401:
310:United States Department of the Interior
31:
7805:, The Tampa Tribune, December 22, 2007.
7674:. Edie.net. May 4, 2006. Archived from
7427:
6907:
6905:
6715:
6102:
6100:
5694:
4311:
4219:
3486:"Records of the office of Saline Water"
3475:
3337:
3081:
2935:
2043:{\displaystyle V_{out}=V_{box}-V_{gel}}
1736:Other desalination techniques include:
1203:Electrical equivalent of thermal energy
1076:desalination requires less energy than
14:
9370:
8234:International Desalination Association
7966:
7784:. Caribbean Net News. January 20, 2007
7568:Kranhold, Kathryn. (January 17, 2008)
7159:Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
7115:
6852:Environmental Science & Technology
6841:
6839:
6837:
6406:
6118:
6116:
5837:
5835:
5833:
5611:
5426:Environmental Science & Technology
5423:
4665:
3523:
3266:Thomas Jefferson (November 21, 1791).
2507:
2313:All Australian capital cities (except
1833:Evaporation and condensation for crops
1812:
776:
756:
725:to leave salt and impurities behind).
512:, and, of course, coastal cities like
8298:
8272:
8110:
8014:
7535:. Morning Edition, NPR, June 18, 2007
7526:An Environmentally Green Plant Design
7453:
7147:
7039:
7033:Proceedings of the IDA World Congress
6725:Sistla, Phanikumar V.S.; et al.
5768:, The Sacramento Bee, January 8, 2020
5531:
5305:
5303:
5301:
4844:
4696:
3965:
3939:
3837:
3751:
3333:
3331:
3329:
3268:"Report on Desalination of Sea Water"
3195:
3125:
3123:
3121:
3077:
3075:
3073:
3071:
3069:
3067:
3065:
3063:
3061:
2915:Aristotle with E.W. Webster, trans.,
2868:
2866:
2864:
2862:
2860:
2814:
2246:was purpose-built to generate enough
2226:A desalination plant now operates in
1430:Reverse Osmosis (Photovoltaic power)
1067:
744:
8164:
7620:"The Changing Image Of Desalination"
7479:
6902:
6775:
6097:
5506:Total Water Use in the United States
4893:
4090:
3710:
3298:
2707:
2705:
2609:The Science of the Total Environment
2602:
2600:
2598:
2596:
2173:Temperature swing solvent extraction
2058:
1892:
1849:Ion concentration polarisation (ICP)
1790:low-temperature thermal desalination
1718:
1631:adding citations to reliable sources
1602:
850:in Western Australia in 2013 and in
190:functions, which could adsorb salt.
7353:Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics
7227:
7116:Peters, Adele (February 10, 2014).
6834:
6317:
6113:
6066:Water: Cooling Water Intakes (316b)
5830:
5021:. Germany: Springer Verlag Berlin.
4201:
3524:Report, Committee Progress (1966).
3366:
2564:Soil salinity and groundwater model
2429:is a natural desalination process.
1884:
1335:North American Free Trade Agreement
903:. Hybrid desalination plants using
165:Classic of Mountains and Water Seas
87:for human use. Along with recycled
24:
7830:. Carlsbaddesal.com. July 27, 2006
7408:
7282:, The Straits Times, June 23, 2008
7094:, Clean Technica, January 25, 2015
6724:
6106:Sullivan, Michael (June 18, 2007)
5522:(DESWARE). Retrieved June 24, 2013
5364:Wilkinson, Robert C. (March 2007)
5298:
4845:Thiel, Gregory P. (June 1, 2015).
4567:Australian Renewable Energy Agency
4301:"2.2 Desalination by distillation"
4210:, Water Matters, January 17, 2009.
3865:"Largest water desalination plant"
3838:Zimet, Saul (September 22, 2023).
3571:David Talbot (November 23, 2015).
3542:10.1002/j.1551-8833.1966.tb01688.x
3338:Birkett, James D. (May 15, 2010).
3326:
3118:
3058:
2857:
2819:. Vol. 17. WORLD SCIENTIFIC.
2688:10.1038/scientificamerican0907-118
2453:secretes highly concentrated brine
2138:
1224:Total equivalent electrical energy
1006:
978:
890:
25:
9414:
8160:
6761:Haruo Uehara and Tsutomu Nakaoka
6169:Greenberg, Joel (March 20, 2014)
4678:from the original on July 6, 2021
3966:Canon, Gabrielle (May 11, 2022).
2702:
2593:
2105:
1713:
1062:
286:Alphonse René le Mire de Normandy
9352:
9351:
8169:
8128:Environmental Science and Policy
8066:
8036:
8008:
7983:
7960:
7938:
7926:
7914:
7902:
7887:
7865:
7842:
7820:
7817:, Las Vegas Sun, March 21, 2008.
7815:Desalination gets a serious look
7808:
7796:
7774:
7748:
7716:
7690:
7664:
7638:
7612:
7603:Desalination gets a serious look
7595:
7578:
7562:
7550:
7538:
7511:
7499:
7473:
7454:Blain, Loz (November 21, 2022).
7447:
7421:
7402:
7337:
7311:
7285:
7266:
7244:
7221:
7205:
7199:
7177:
7135:
7109:
7097:
7085:
7017:
6988:
6959:
6931:
6818:
6806:
6787:
6755:
6692:
6677:
6652:
6605:
6580:
6554:
6503:
6481:
6464:
6448:
6380:
6281:Desalination and Water Treatment
6272:
6254:
6236:
6223:
6188:
6163:
6071:
6059:
6040:
6028:
5998:
5968:
5919:
5894:
5868:
5816:
5790:Zhang, S.X.; V. Babovic (2012).
5771:
5759:
4666:Irving, Michael (July 6, 2021).
4197:Video at Reuters YouTube channel
4143:Yuan Zhou and Richard S.J. Tol.
3711:Loeb, Sidney (January 1, 1984).
3598:Singleton, M.; et., al. (2011).
3392:Journal of Materials Chemistry A
2773:Science of The Total Environment
2486:, which then fall off the leaf.
2439:Seabirds distill seawater using
2421:Mangrove leaf with salt crystals
2300:for industrial and potable use (
1607:
972:solar-powered desalination units
904:
385:
305:water through crystallization.
9378:Environmental issues with water
7967:Harris, Tom (August 29, 2002).
7828:"Carlsbad Desalination Project"
7601:Sweet, Phoebe (March 21, 2008)
7480:Team, S. W. M. (May 31, 2022).
7183:
6350:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111773
5875:Andrew Burger (June 20, 2019).
5743:
5731:
5728:. Retrieved September 20, 2007.
5709:
5691:. Retrieved September 20, 2007.
5685:, and Gary Wolff. (June 2006.)
5675:
5672:. Retrieved September 20, 2007.
5653:
5640:
5605:
5570:
5525:
5509:
5498:
5479:
5460:
5417:
5397:
5378:
5358:
5251:
5196:
5161:
5143:
5125:
5107:
5089:
5059:
5035:
5010:
4946:
4887:
4838:
4743:
4697:Najim, Abdul (April 19, 2022).
4690:
4659:
4605:
4593:
4574:. February 2015. Archived from
4554:
4293:
4248:
4213:
4182:
4170:
4137:
4084:
4053:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.112940
4019:
3993:
3959:
3933:
3882:
3857:
3831:
3805:
3704:
3675:
3640:
3591:
3564:
3517:
3492:
3418:
3379:
3360:
3309:
3292:
3274:
3259:
3241:
3232:
3223:
3208:
3189:
3138:
3049:
3028:
2978:
2929:
2794:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141528
2629:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.351
2257:A January 17, 2008, article in
1786:ocean thermal energy conversion
1704:
1618:needs additional citations for
1562:Environmental Protection Agency
1294:implemented in Saudi Arabia at
1253:
739:
546:
372:
350:, in conjunction with staff at
71:of the desalination process is
5982:. January 2010. Archived from
4122:11858/00-001M-0000-0011-FF1E-C
2963:10.1088/1755-1315/692/2/022040
2909:
2763:
2577:
2333:to raise low reservoir levels.
2193:
2161:of this method is on par with
1857:followed by a single stage of
1579:, in 2007. Water there and at
1119:Desalination Method ⇨
990:
821:Vapor-compression distillation
800:multi-stage flash distillation
794:Multi-stage flash distillation
730:multi-stage flash distillation
656:Multiple-effect humidification
573:Multi-stage flash distillation
144:Distilled water § History
13:
1:
8239:European Desalination Society
7521:energy recovery devices from
6442:10.1016/S0011-9164(02)01057-3
5738:Sun Belt Inc. Legal Documents
5646:Tom Harris (August 29, 2002)
5634:10.1016/S0011-9164(04)00151-1
5190:10.1016/S0011-9164(02)00259-X
4617:www.engineersaustralia.org.au
4443:10.1016/S0011-9164(99)00154-X
4191:, Reuters, January 30, 2023,
3316:Fraser-Macdonald, A. (1893).
3198:Am. Water Works Assoc. 2nd Ed
3017:Saint Basil Exegetic Homilies
2570:
2153:carbonate ions react to form
2124:
2093:
1739:
1684:
1585:Gold Coast Desalination Plant
967:can be irreversibly damaged.
959:. Inhibitors for fouling are
826:Vapor-compression evaporation
711:multistage flash distillation
427:countercurrent heat exchanger
8317:Pollution / quality
8149:10.1016/j.envsci.2016.08.009
7969:"How Aircraft Carriers Work"
7048:
6784:. Retrieved January 1, 2019.
6461:. agri.huji.ac.il. July 2014
5953:10.1016/j.egypro.2015.07.365
5823:"Finding Water in Mogadishu"
5780:, CBS News, December 8, 2021
5336:10.1016/j.energy.2020.118733
5119:SIDS Global Business Network
4815:10.1016/j.watres.2016.09.029
4652:10.1016/j.memsci.2017.01.031
4478:10.1016/0011-9164(89)87006-7
3737:10.1016/0011-9164(84)85015-8
3322:. Chapman and Hall, Limited.
3104:10.1016/0011-9164(84)85014-6
2412:
2331:Wonthaggi desalination plant
2232:Wonthaggi desalination plant
2079:
1313:Alternatives to desalination
1088:that use 0.2 kWh/m or less.
935:and insoluble particulates;
815:Multiple-effect distillation
810:Multiple-effect distillation
579:Multiple-effect distillation
408:multistage flash desalinator
170:Period of the Warring States
7:
8096:10.1016/j.desal.2020.114798
7971:. Science.howstuffworks.com
7921:Water, Water, Everywhere...
7575:. Retrieved March 20, 2011.
7570:Water, Water, Everywhere...
7228:Cao, Liwei (June 5, 2013).
7071:10.1016/j.desal.2018.05.002
6230:Conservancy, Monterey, CA.
6217:10.1016/j.desal.2007.03.009
6037:, Haaretz, January 24, 2014
5796:Journal of Hydroinformatics
5599:10.1016/j.desal.2004.06.053
5564:10.1016/j.desal.2005.03.095
5403:Elimelech, Menachem (2012)
5284:10.1016/j.desal.2022.116263
5229:10.1016/j.desal.2020.114386
4772:10.1016/j.desal.2006.12.009
4639:Journal of Membrane Science
4562:"Perth Wave Energy Project"
4532:10.1016/j.desal.2021.115393
4357:10.1016/j.desal.2007.01.067
3669:10.1016/j.desal.2010.03.018
3451:10.1016/j.desal.2018.02.015
2726:10.1016/j.desal.2018.01.002
2529:Atmospheric water generator
2516:
2374:After being desalinized at
1905:Hydrogel based desalination
1043:Microbial desalination cell
905:liquid nitrogen freeze thaw
709:) and thermal-based (e.g.,
282:multiple-effect evaporators
27:Removal of salts from water
10:
9419:
6689:. Retrieved March 18, 2014
6141:10.1016/j.jece.2020.104418
5648:How Aircraft Carriers Work
5410:February 23, 2014, at the
5371:December 20, 2012, at the
5071:climateinnovationwindow.eu
5017:Rautenbach, Melin (2007).
4728:10.1038/s41545-022-00158-1
4220:Shammas, Nazih K. (2011).
3625:10.1103/PhysRevE.83.016308
2925:§358: 16–18 and §359: 1–5.
2319:Darwin, Northern Territory
2234:was under construction in
2208:
1855:concentration polarisation
1598:
1593:Kurnell Desalination Plant
1569:Kwinana Desalination Plant
1099:energy consumption in the
1040:
931:(DOC); bacteria; viruses;
885:
484:, or in high places, like
148:Ancient Greek philosopher
137:
133:
9347:
9288:
9153:
9146:
9027:
8888:Types / location
8887:
8878:
8688:
8483:
8396:
8366:
8315:
8306:
7994:. Yale University Press.
7935:, MSNBC, March. 17, 2009.
6974:Water Desalination Report
6710:Global Water Intelligence
6660:"Israeli Water Authority"
6529:10.1017/S1368980016000951
6330:Marine Pollution Bulletin
5980:World Nuclear Association
4572:Commonwealth of Australia
4032:Marine Pollution Bulletin
3526:"Saline-Water Conversion"
3305:. H.M. Stationery Office.
3167:10.1080/01457630701266413
3147:Heat Transfer Engineering
2919:, in: Ross, W. D., ed.,
2749:Science History Institute
2201:
2183:is a common technique in
1946:contains a gel of volume
1821:current that removes all
1784:Originally stemming from
1555:
1148:
1139:
1130:
1121:
833:Wave-powered desalination
681:Wave-powered desalination
395:Science History Institute
384:
379:
95:independent of rainfall.
7911:, redOrbit, May 2, 2008.
6976:: 2–3. November 15, 2010
6799:August 27, 2008, at the
4179:, redOrbit, May 2, 2008,
4093:Water Resources Research
2998:Alexander of Aphrodisias
2252:greenhouse gas emissions
1414:Multi Stage Flash (MSF)
1352:
1020:electrodialysis reversal
929:dissolved organic carbon
603:Electrodialysis reversal
516:. After desalination at
7573:The Wall Street Journal
7531:March 27, 2009, at the
7278:April 14, 2009, at the
7142:The "Passarell" Process
6872:10.1021/acs.est.1c08466
6768:March 22, 2012, at the
6704:March 18, 2014, at the
6516:Public Health Nutrition
6176:March 24, 2014, at the
6081:and Wolff, Gary (2006)
6052:March 24, 2010, at the
5491:April 24, 2014, at the
5405:"Seawater Desalination"
4980:10.1126/science.abb8518
4921:10.1073/pnas.1804708115
4508:. Elsevier BV: 115393.
2954:2021E&ES..692b2040Z
2554:Soil desalination model
2549:Pumpable ice technology
2524:Metal–organic framework
2441:countercurrent exchange
2260:The Wall Street Journal
2211:Desalination by country
2100:geothermal desalination
2069:solar thermal collector
1972:{\displaystyle V_{gel}}
1939:{\displaystyle V_{box}}
1780:Low-temperature thermal
1732:Experimental techniques
802:, which is a series of
652:–dehumidification (HDH)
640:Geothermal desalination
313:further advancements.
175:Theory of the Same Year
91:, it is one of the few
59:, to produce water for
8017:"Avian osmoregulation"
5976:"Nuclear Desalination"
5852:10.1115/isec2006-99057
5809:10.2166/hydro.2011.078
5390:June 17, 2013, at the
4464:. Elsevier BV: 81–94.
3869:Guinness World Records
3215:Cleveland, J. (1754),
2921:The Works of Aristotle
2422:
2135:are another approach.
2117:Hermetic, sulphonated
2051:
2044:
1973:
1940:
1551:Environmental concerns
1514:UN recommended minimum
1453:Desalinated Water Cost
1290:
1037:Microbial desalination
908:
717:(i.e., boiling and re-
438:
37:
8044:"Enhancement Marshes"
8023:on September 13, 2018
7992:Manual of Ornithology
7736:on September 30, 2007
7704:on September 29, 2007
6794:Floating plant, India
6630:10.1089/thy.2017.0251
3299:Lyle, Oliver (1956).
3013:St. Basil of Caesarea
2885:10.2166/9781789063172
2420:
2148:Electrokinetic shocks
2045:
1974:
1941:
1912:
1758:membrane distillation
1284:
917:Reverse osmosis plant
898:
863:Membrane distillation
858:Membrane distillation
635:Freezing desalination
621:Membrane distillation
405:
221:Industrial Revolution
152:observed in his work
35:
18:Freezing desalination
9263:remnant natural area
8900:storage and recovery
8566:habitat conservation
8384:Deforestation (REDD)
8190:improve this article
7875:. New Scientist Tech
7762:on December 16, 2008
7523:Energy Recovery Inc.
7486:Smart Water Magazine
6301:10.5004/dwt.2009.576
6262:"Oisann Engineering"
5986:on December 19, 2011
4113:10.1029/2004WR003749
3946:www.straitstimes.com
2817:Materials and Energy
2498:constructed wetlands
2400:United Arab Emirates
2185:chemical engineering
1983:
1950:
1917:
1670:wastewater treatment
1627:improve this article
650:Solar humidification
443:United Arab Emirates
332:Dow Chemical Company
275:European colonialism
9217:Earth Overshoot Day
8791:Marine conservation
8772:non-timber products
8202:footnote references
8140:2016ESPol..66..101H
8088:2021Desal.49814798I
7390:on December 8, 2021
7365:2012PCCP...1411534S
7299:. September 6, 2012
7063:2018Desal.442...32R
7005:. November 23, 2009
6864:2022EnST...56.6733Y
6772:. ioes.saga-u.ac.jp
6434:2003Desal.152..141E
6342:2020MarPB.16111773P
6293:2009DWatT...5..137F
6209:2008Desal.220....1L
5944:2015EnPro..75..319A
5626:2004Desal.164....1L
5591:2004Desal.166....1M
5546:2005Desal.186..207H
5438:2008EnST...42.8193S
5328:2020Ene...21218733P
5276:2023Desal.54816263M
5221:2020Desal.48314386M
5182:2002Desal.143..207V
4972:2021Sci...371...72C
4912:2018PNAS..115.8694C
4894:Culp, T.E. (2018).
4863:2015PhT....68f..66T
4806:2016WatRe.106..272W
4764:2007Desal.216....1F
4719:2022npjCW...5...15N
4578:on February 1, 2016
4524:2022Desal.52315393B
4470:1989Desal..73...81H
4435:1999Desal.126...45A
4398:2015Entrp..17.7530W
4349:2008Desal.221...47K
4276:10.3390/app11020670
4105:2005WRR....41.3003Z
4044:2021MarPB.17312940L
3817:www.catalannews.com
3729:1984Desal..50...53L
3661:2010Desal.258..171K
3616:2011PhRvE..83a6308S
3443:2018Desal.436...56Z
3159:2009HTrEn..30..237H
3096:1984Desal..50...17B
2786:2020ScTEn.74841528E
2680:2007SciAm.297c.118F
2668:Scientific American
2621:2019ScTEn.69333545P
2508:Society and culture
2236:Wonthaggi, Victoria
2221:Emu Downs Wind Farm
1861:, researchers from
1839:Seawater greenhouse
1813:Thermoionic process
1794:ambient temperature
1693:, driven by severe
1441:
1378:
1115:
783:vacuum distillation
777:Vacuum distillation
757:Natural evaporation
662:Seawater greenhouse
180:Eastern Han Dynasty
9398:Water desalination
9202:Ecosystem services
8325:Ambient standards
7626:on October 7, 2007
7519:Pressure Exchanger
7373:10.1039/c2cp42121f
7254:. sandia.gov. 2007
7165:on October 1, 2006
7104:Tapping the Market
6831:, October 29, 2009
6743:on October 4, 2011
6266:Oisann Engineering
6248:www.theexplorer.no
6018:2010-04-29 at the
5826:IPS news item 2008
5472:2015-06-18 at the
3579:on October 3, 2016
3500:"Saline Water Act"
3488:. August 15, 2016.
3404:10.1039/d2ta08317e
3286:www.monticello.org
3253:www.orlogsbasen.dk
3217:Universal Magazine
3011:, Homily IV, § 7,
2879:. IWA Publishing.
2423:
2265:desalination plant
2181:Solvent extraction
2111:Nanotube membranes
2065:solar desalination
2052:
2040:
1969:
1936:
1768:in March 2014 for
1439:
1385:Cost (US$ /liter)
1376:
1368:water conservation
1319:water conservation
1291:
1248:water conservation
1113:
1108:energy consumption
1068:Energy consumption
909:
804:flash evaporations
750:Solar distillation
745:Solar distillation
645:Solar desalination
598:Membrane processes
555:Water desalination
439:
269:and the so-called
112:water conservation
38:
9365:
9364:
9343:
9342:
9142:
9141:
8821:genetic resources
8757:genetic resources
8392:
8391:
8300:Natural resources
8230:
8229:
8222:
8054:on August 8, 2011
8015:Ritchison, Gary.
7652:on August 1, 2012
7157:(Press release).
6858:(10): 6733–6743.
6522:(15): 2808–2817.
6077:Cooley, Heather;
6013:"Who Owns Water?"
5725:Pacific Institute
5688:Pacific Institute
5681:Cooley, Heather,
5669:Pacific Institute
5446:10.1021/es801330u
5121:. March 20, 2018.
5077:on August 4, 2023
4906:(35): 8694–8699.
4872:10.1063/PT.3.2828
4847:"Salty solutions"
4407:10.3390/e17117530
4392:(12): 7530–7566.
4233:978-0-470-41192-6
4158:on March 25, 2009
3908:10.3390/w13213023
3780:10.3390/w13162222
3536:(10): 1231–1237.
3353:978-1-84826-419-9
2894:978-1-78906-317-2
2834:978-981-12-2697-7
2432:The formation of
2238:. A wind farm at
2159:energy efficiency
2155:calcium carbonate
2059:Small-scale solar
1871:natural disasters
1754:Diesel generators
1725:iodine deficiency
1719:Iodine deficiency
1659:
1658:
1651:
1533:
1532:
1437:
1436:
1287:Shevchenko BN-350
1240:
1239:
1165:Electrical energy
1001:Alexander Zarchin
763:solar irradiation
688:
687:
585:Vapor-compression
535:'s water supply.
400:
399:
248:When the frigate
199:Leonardo da Vinci
61:human consumption
49:soil desalination
16:(Redirected from
9410:
9355:
9354:
9306:
9253:Natural heritage
9212:overexploitation
9151:
9150:
8885:
8884:
8831:herbal medicines
8811:FAO Plant Treaty
8351:
8328:
8313:
8312:
8293:
8286:
8279:
8270:
8269:
8225:
8218:
8214:
8211:
8205:
8173:
8172:
8165:
8154:
8153:
8151:
8119:
8108:
8107:
8070:
8064:
8063:
8061:
8059:
8050:. Archived from
8040:
8034:
8032:
8030:
8028:
8019:. Archived from
8012:
8006:
8005:
7987:
7981:
7980:
7978:
7976:
7964:
7958:
7957:
7955:
7953:
7942:
7936:
7930:
7924:
7918:
7912:
7906:
7900:
7891:
7885:
7884:
7882:
7880:
7869:
7863:
7862:
7860:
7858:
7846:
7840:
7839:
7837:
7835:
7824:
7818:
7812:
7806:
7800:
7794:
7793:
7791:
7789:
7778:
7772:
7771:
7769:
7767:
7758:. Archived from
7752:
7746:
7745:
7743:
7741:
7720:
7714:
7713:
7711:
7709:
7694:
7688:
7687:
7685:
7683:
7678:on July 21, 2012
7668:
7662:
7661:
7659:
7657:
7642:
7636:
7635:
7633:
7631:
7622:. Archived from
7616:
7610:
7599:
7593:
7582:
7576:
7566:
7560:
7554:
7548:
7542:
7536:
7515:
7509:
7503:
7497:
7496:
7494:
7492:
7477:
7471:
7470:
7468:
7466:
7451:
7445:
7444:
7442:
7440:
7425:
7419:
7418:
7409:Reilly, Claire.
7406:
7400:
7399:
7397:
7395:
7389:
7383:. Archived from
7359:(32): 11534–45.
7350:
7341:
7335:
7334:
7332:
7330:
7315:
7309:
7308:
7306:
7304:
7289:
7283:
7270:
7264:
7263:
7261:
7259:
7248:
7242:
7241:
7239:
7237:
7225:
7219:
7218:
7216:
7214:
7203:
7197:
7196:
7194:
7192:
7181:
7175:
7174:
7172:
7170:
7151:
7145:
7139:
7133:
7132:
7130:
7128:
7113:
7107:
7101:
7095:
7089:
7083:
7082:
7046:
7037:
7036:
7030:
7021:
7015:
7014:
7012:
7010:
7000:
6992:
6986:
6985:
6983:
6981:
6971:
6963:
6957:
6956:
6954:
6952:
6943:
6935:
6929:
6928:
6926:
6924:
6919:. April 28, 2022
6909:
6900:
6899:
6843:
6832:
6825:Current thinking
6822:
6816:
6810:
6804:
6791:
6785:
6779:
6773:
6759:
6753:
6752:
6750:
6748:
6742:
6731:
6722:
6713:
6696:
6690:
6681:
6675:
6674:
6672:
6670:
6656:
6650:
6649:
6624:(8): 1083–1091.
6609:
6603:
6602:
6600:
6598:
6584:
6578:
6577:
6575:
6573:
6568:. March 27, 2017
6558:
6552:
6551:
6541:
6531:
6507:
6501:
6500:
6494:
6485:
6479:
6468:
6462:
6455:"מידעון הפקולטה"
6452:
6446:
6445:
6428:(1–3): 141–154.
6417:
6404:
6403:
6401:
6399:
6394:. March 22, 2024
6384:
6378:
6377:
6336:(Pt B): 111773.
6321:
6315:
6314:
6312:
6287:(1–3): 137–145.
6276:
6270:
6269:
6258:
6252:
6251:
6240:
6234:
6227:
6221:
6220:
6192:
6186:
6167:
6161:
6160:
6120:
6111:
6104:
6095:
6079:Gleick, Peter H.
6075:
6069:
6068:. water.epa.gov.
6063:
6057:
6044:
6038:
6032:
6026:
6002:
5996:
5995:
5993:
5991:
5972:
5966:
5965:
5955:
5923:
5917:
5916:
5914:
5912:
5898:
5892:
5891:
5889:
5887:
5872:
5866:
5865:
5839:
5828:
5820:
5814:
5813:
5811:
5787:
5781:
5775:
5769:
5763:
5757:
5747:
5741:
5735:
5729:
5716:Gleick, Peter H.
5713:
5707:
5706:
5698:
5692:
5679:
5673:
5660:Gleick, Peter H.
5657:
5651:
5644:
5638:
5637:
5609:
5603:
5602:
5574:
5568:
5567:
5557:
5529:
5523:
5513:
5507:
5502:
5496:
5483:
5477:
5464:
5458:
5457:
5432:(22): 8193–201.
5421:
5415:
5401:
5395:
5382:
5376:
5362:
5356:
5355:
5307:
5296:
5295:
5255:
5249:
5248:
5200:
5194:
5193:
5165:
5159:
5158:
5156:
5147:
5141:
5140:
5129:
5123:
5122:
5111:
5105:
5104:
5103:. March 7, 2023.
5093:
5087:
5086:
5084:
5082:
5073:. Archived from
5063:
5057:
5056:
5039:
5033:
5032:
5014:
5008:
5007:
4950:
4944:
4943:
4933:
4923:
4891:
4885:
4884:
4874:
4842:
4836:
4835:
4817:
4791:
4782:
4776:
4775:
4747:
4741:
4740:
4730:
4694:
4688:
4687:
4685:
4683:
4663:
4657:
4656:
4654:
4636:
4627:
4621:
4620:
4609:
4603:
4597:
4591:
4590:
4585:
4583:
4558:
4552:
4551:
4517:
4496:
4490:
4489:
4453:
4447:
4446:
4418:
4412:
4411:
4409:
4383:
4374:
4361:
4360:
4332:
4309:
4308:
4297:
4291:
4290:
4288:
4278:
4262:Applied Sciences
4252:
4246:
4245:
4217:
4211:
4205:
4199:
4186:
4180:
4174:
4168:
4167:
4165:
4163:
4157:
4150:
4141:
4135:
4134:
4124:
4088:
4082:
4081:
4055:
4038:(Pt A): 112940.
4023:
4017:
4016:
4014:
4012:
3997:
3991:
3990:
3988:
3986:
3963:
3957:
3956:
3954:
3952:
3937:
3931:
3930:
3920:
3910:
3886:
3880:
3879:
3877:
3875:
3861:
3855:
3854:
3852:
3850:
3835:
3829:
3828:
3826:
3824:
3819:. April 18, 2024
3809:
3803:
3802:
3792:
3782:
3758:
3749:
3748:
3708:
3702:
3701:
3679:
3673:
3672:
3644:
3638:
3637:
3627:
3595:
3589:
3588:
3586:
3584:
3575:. Archived from
3568:
3562:
3561:
3521:
3515:
3514:
3512:
3510:
3504:uscode.house.gov
3496:
3490:
3489:
3482:
3473:
3472:
3462:
3422:
3416:
3415:
3383:
3377:
3376:
3364:
3358:
3357:
3335:
3324:
3323:
3313:
3307:
3306:
3296:
3290:
3289:
3278:
3272:
3271:
3263:
3257:
3256:
3245:
3239:
3236:
3230:
3227:
3221:
3220:
3212:
3206:
3205:
3193:
3187:
3186:
3142:
3136:
3135:
3127:
3116:
3115:
3079:
3056:
3053:
3047:
3046:
3040:
3032:
3026:
2982:
2976:
2975:
2965:
2933:
2927:
2913:
2907:
2906:
2870:
2855:
2854:
2812:
2806:
2805:
2767:
2761:
2760:
2758:
2756:
2751:. March 19, 2019
2741:
2730:
2729:
2709:
2700:
2699:
2663:
2657:
2656:
2604:
2591:
2581:
2407:aircraft carrier
2248:renewable energy
2049:
2047:
2046:
2041:
2039:
2038:
2020:
2019:
2001:
2000:
1978:
1976:
1975:
1970:
1968:
1967:
1945:
1943:
1942:
1937:
1935:
1934:
1885:Other approaches
1867:suspended solids
1762:diesel generator
1654:
1647:
1643:
1640:
1634:
1611:
1603:
1528:
1522:
1519:
1508:
1502:
1499:
1488:
1482:
1471:
1465:
1455:US$ /person/day
1450:Litre/person/day
1442:
1438:
1379:
1375:
1141:Mechanical Vapor
1116:
1112:
551:
419:H – brine heater
389:
388:
377:
376:
260:Thomas Jefferson
122:) energy types.
75:. Many seagoing
21:
9418:
9417:
9413:
9412:
9411:
9409:
9408:
9407:
9403:Water treatment
9368:
9367:
9366:
9361:
9339:
9304:
9284:
9270:Systems ecology
9236:Natural capital
9138:
9023:
9012:reclaimed water
8874:
8836:UPOV Convention
8684:
8479:
8388:
8362:
8358:Ozone depletion
8349:
8326:
8302:
8297:
8226:
8215:
8209:
8206:
8187:
8178:This article's
8174:
8170:
8163:
8158:
8157:
8120:
8111:
8071:
8067:
8057:
8055:
8042:
8041:
8037:
8026:
8024:
8013:
8009:
8002:
7988:
7984:
7974:
7972:
7965:
7961:
7951:
7949:
7944:
7943:
7939:
7931:
7927:
7919:
7915:
7907:
7903:
7892:
7888:
7878:
7876:
7871:
7870:
7866:
7856:
7854:
7847:
7843:
7833:
7831:
7826:
7825:
7821:
7813:
7809:
7801:
7797:
7787:
7785:
7780:
7779:
7775:
7765:
7763:
7754:
7753:
7749:
7739:
7737:
7722:
7721:
7717:
7707:
7705:
7696:
7695:
7691:
7681:
7679:
7670:
7669:
7665:
7655:
7653:
7644:
7643:
7639:
7629:
7627:
7618:
7617:
7613:
7600:
7596:
7583:
7579:
7567:
7563:
7555:
7551:
7543:
7539:
7533:Wayback Machine
7516:
7512:
7504:
7500:
7490:
7488:
7478:
7474:
7464:
7462:
7452:
7448:
7438:
7436:
7434:Singularity Hub
7426:
7422:
7407:
7403:
7393:
7391:
7387:
7348:
7342:
7338:
7328:
7326:
7325:. June 27, 2013
7317:
7316:
7312:
7302:
7300:
7291:
7290:
7286:
7280:Wayback Machine
7271:
7267:
7257:
7255:
7250:
7249:
7245:
7235:
7233:
7226:
7222:
7212:
7210:
7204:
7200:
7190:
7188:
7182:
7178:
7168:
7166:
7153:
7152:
7148:
7140:
7136:
7126:
7124:
7114:
7110:
7102:
7098:
7090:
7086:
7047:
7040:
7028:
7022:
7018:
7008:
7006:
7003:The Independent
6998:
6994:
6993:
6989:
6979:
6977:
6969:
6965:
6964:
6960:
6950:
6948:
6941:
6937:
6936:
6932:
6922:
6920:
6911:
6910:
6903:
6844:
6835:
6823:
6819:
6811:
6807:
6801:Wayback Machine
6792:
6788:
6780:
6776:
6770:Wayback Machine
6760:
6756:
6746:
6744:
6740:
6729:
6723:
6716:
6706:Wayback Machine
6697:
6693:
6682:
6678:
6668:
6666:
6658:
6657:
6653:
6610:
6606:
6596:
6594:
6586:
6585:
6581:
6571:
6569:
6560:
6559:
6555:
6508:
6504:
6492:
6486:
6482:
6469:
6465:
6453:
6449:
6418:
6407:
6397:
6395:
6386:
6385:
6381:
6322:
6318:
6277:
6273:
6260:
6259:
6255:
6242:
6241:
6237:
6228:
6224:
6193:
6189:
6178:Wayback Machine
6168:
6164:
6121:
6114:
6105:
6098:
6076:
6072:
6064:
6060:
6054:Wayback Machine
6045:
6041:
6033:
6029:
6020:Wayback Machine
6003:
5999:
5989:
5987:
5974:
5973:
5969:
5932:Energy Procedia
5924:
5920:
5910:
5908:
5900:
5899:
5895:
5885:
5883:
5873:
5869:
5862:
5840:
5831:
5821:
5817:
5788:
5784:
5776:
5772:
5764:
5760:
5748:
5744:
5736:
5732:
5714:
5710:
5699:
5695:
5683:Peter H. Gleick
5680:
5676:
5658:
5654:
5645:
5641:
5610:
5606:
5575:
5571:
5555:10.1.1.514.4201
5530:
5526:
5514:
5510:
5503:
5499:
5493:Wayback Machine
5484:
5480:
5474:Wayback Machine
5465:
5461:
5422:
5418:
5412:Wayback Machine
5402:
5398:
5392:Wayback Machine
5383:
5379:
5375:, Table on p. 4
5373:Wayback Machine
5363:
5359:
5308:
5299:
5256:
5252:
5201:
5197:
5166:
5162:
5154:
5148:
5144:
5131:
5130:
5126:
5113:
5112:
5108:
5095:
5094:
5090:
5080:
5078:
5065:
5064:
5060:
5053:
5041:
5040:
5036:
5029:
5015:
5011:
4966:(6524): 72–75.
4951:
4947:
4892:
4888:
4843:
4839:
4789:
4783:
4779:
4748:
4744:
4703:npj Clean Water
4695:
4691:
4681:
4679:
4664:
4660:
4634:
4628:
4624:
4611:
4610:
4606:
4598:
4594:
4581:
4579:
4560:
4559:
4555:
4497:
4493:
4454:
4450:
4419:
4415:
4381:
4375:
4364:
4333:
4312:
4299:
4298:
4294:
4253:
4249:
4234:
4218:
4214:
4206:
4202:
4187:
4183:
4175:
4171:
4161:
4159:
4155:
4148:
4144:
4142:
4138:
4089:
4085:
4024:
4020:
4010:
4008:
4007:. April 3, 2022
4005:Popular Science
3999:
3998:
3994:
3984:
3982:
3964:
3960:
3950:
3948:
3938:
3934:
3887:
3883:
3873:
3871:
3863:
3862:
3858:
3848:
3846:
3836:
3832:
3822:
3820:
3811:
3810:
3806:
3759:
3752:
3709:
3705:
3698:
3680:
3676:
3645:
3641:
3596:
3592:
3582:
3580:
3569:
3565:
3522:
3518:
3508:
3506:
3498:
3497:
3493:
3484:
3483:
3476:
3423:
3419:
3384:
3380:
3365:
3361:
3354:
3336:
3327:
3314:
3310:
3297:
3293:
3280:
3279:
3275:
3264:
3260:
3249:"Enkel Søgning"
3247:
3246:
3242:
3237:
3233:
3228:
3224:
3213:
3209:
3194:
3190:
3143:
3139:
3128:
3119:
3080:
3059:
3054:
3050:
3043:www.desware.net
3038:
3034:
3033:
3029:
2983:
2979:
2934:
2930:
2914:
2910:
2895:
2871:
2858:
2835:
2813:
2809:
2768:
2764:
2754:
2752:
2743:
2742:
2733:
2710:
2703:
2664:
2660:
2605:
2594:
2582:
2578:
2573:
2568:
2519:
2510:
2500:, for treating
2415:
2298:reverse osmosis
2244:New South Wales
2213:
2204:
2196:
2175:
2167:reverse osmosis
2163:electrodialysis
2150:
2141:
2139:Electrochemical
2127:
2108:
2096:
2082:
2061:
2028:
2024:
2009:
2005:
1990:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1980:
1957:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1947:
1924:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1914:
1907:
1899:forward osmosis
1895:
1893:Forward osmosis
1887:
1859:electrodialysis
1851:
1835:
1815:
1782:
1742:
1734:
1721:
1716:
1707:
1687:
1655:
1644:
1638:
1635:
1624:
1612:
1601:
1558:
1553:
1541:Nuclear-powered
1526:
1520:
1517:
1506:
1500:
1497:
1486:
1480:
1469:
1463:
1454:
1449:
1364:water recycling
1355:
1337:(NAFTA) claim.
1315:
1256:
1153:
1151:
1144:
1142:
1135:
1133:
1126:
1124:
1097:reverse osmosis
1093:reverse osmosis
1070:
1065:
1049:electrochemical
1045:
1039:
1016:electrodialysis
1012:Electrodialysis
1009:
1007:Electrodialysis
993:
984:Forward osmosis
981:
979:Forward osmosis
965:marine habitats
949:polymaleic acid
913:reverse osmosis
901:reverse osmosis
893:
891:Reverse osmosis
888:
868:electrospinning
860:
835:
823:
812:
796:
779:
771:desert greening
767:IBTS Greenhouse
759:
747:
742:
734:reverse osmosis
707:reverse osmosis
700:reverse osmosis
676:water recycling
671:crystallization
669:Methane hydrate
627:Forward osmosis
609:Reverse osmosis
557:
549:
423:pressure vessel
420:
418:
412:
410:
406:Schematic of a
386:
375:
348:Dr. Sidney Loeb
325:Freeport, Texas
318:reverse osmosis
225:Richard Hawkins
146:
136:
120:reverse osmosis
108:water recycling
93:water resources
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
9416:
9406:
9405:
9400:
9395:
9390:
9385:
9380:
9363:
9362:
9360:
9359:
9348:
9345:
9344:
9341:
9340:
9338:
9337:
9328:
9323:
9318:
9313:
9308:
9305:(perpetuation)
9300:
9294:
9292:
9286:
9285:
9283:
9282:
9277:
9272:
9267:
9266:
9265:
9258:Nature reserve
9255:
9250:
9249:
9248:
9243:
9233:
9232:
9231:
9221:
9220:
9219:
9214:
9204:
9199:
9198:
9197:
9192:
9182:
9181:
9180:
9175:
9170:
9165:
9154:
9148:
9144:
9143:
9140:
9139:
9137:
9136:
9135:
9134:
9129:
9119:
9114:
9109:
9104:
9099:
9094:
9089:
9084:
9079:
9074:
9069:
9064:
9063:
9062:
9052:
9047:
9042:
9037:
9031:
9029:
9025:
9024:
9022:
9021:
9016:
9015:
9014:
9004:
8999:
8994:
8993:
8992:
8982:
8977:
8976:
8975:
8963:
8962:
8961:
8956:
8951:
8941:
8936:
8935:
8934:
8929:
8924:
8914:
8909:
8904:
8903:
8902:
8891:
8889:
8882:
8876:
8875:
8873:
8872:
8871:
8870:
8865:
8855:
8850:
8845:
8844:
8843:
8838:
8833:
8828:
8823:
8818:
8813:
8803:
8798:
8793:
8788:
8787:
8786:
8776:
8775:
8774:
8769:
8764:
8759:
8749:
8748:
8747:
8742:
8737:
8735:climate change
8727:
8722:
8717:
8712:
8711:
8710:
8703:Bioprospecting
8700:
8694:
8692:
8686:
8685:
8683:
8682:
8681:
8680:
8675:
8665:
8664:
8663:
8658:
8653:
8648:
8638:
8637:
8636:
8631:
8630:
8629:
8624:
8614:
8613:
8612:
8607:
8597:
8596:
8595:
8585:
8580:
8570:
8569:
8568:
8558:
8557:
8556:
8546:
8545:
8544:
8539:
8534:
8529:
8519:
8514:
8509:
8508:
8507:
8506:
8505:
8489:
8487:
8481:
8480:
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8455:
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8381:
8376:
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8364:
8363:
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8360:
8355:
8354:
8353:
8348:Clean Air Act
8340:
8335:
8330:
8321:
8319:
8310:
8304:
8303:
8296:
8295:
8288:
8281:
8273:
8267:
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8256:
8251:
8246:
8241:
8236:
8228:
8227:
8182:external links
8177:
8175:
8168:
8162:
8161:External links
8159:
8156:
8155:
8109:
8065:
8035:
8007:
8001:978-0300076196
8000:
7982:
7959:
7937:
7925:
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7886:
7864:
7841:
7819:
7807:
7795:
7773:
7747:
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7689:
7663:
7637:
7611:
7594:
7577:
7561:
7559:, Sydney Water
7549:
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7472:
7446:
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7336:
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7284:
7265:
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6714:
6691:
6676:
6651:
6604:
6592:new.huji.ac.il
6579:
6553:
6502:
6497:IDD Newsletter
6480:
6470:Yaniv Ovadia.
6463:
6447:
6405:
6379:
6316:
6271:
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6235:
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6162:
6112:
6096:
6070:
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6039:
6027:
5997:
5967:
5918:
5893:
5881:Solar Magazine
5867:
5860:
5829:
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5782:
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5758:
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5508:
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5478:
5459:
5416:
5396:
5377:
5357:
5297:
5250:
5195:
5176:(3): 207–218.
5160:
5142:
5124:
5106:
5101:www.glispa.org
5088:
5058:
5052:978-0866890625
5051:
5034:
5028:978-3540000716
5027:
5009:
4945:
4886:
4837:
4794:Water Research
4777:
4742:
4689:
4658:
4622:
4604:
4592:
4553:
4491:
4448:
4429:(1–3): 45–59.
4413:
4362:
4343:(1–3): 47–69.
4310:
4292:
4247:
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4200:
4181:
4169:
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3992:
3958:
3932:
3881:
3856:
3844:Human Progress
3830:
3804:
3750:
3703:
3696:
3690:. p. 59.
3674:
3639:
3590:
3563:
3516:
3491:
3474:
3417:
3398:(2): 858–867.
3378:
3359:
3352:
3325:
3308:
3291:
3273:
3258:
3240:
3231:
3222:
3207:
3188:
3153:(3): 237–250.
3137:
3134:. 41–42: 3–20.
3117:
3057:
3048:
3027:
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3005:
2995:
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2856:
2833:
2807:
2762:
2731:
2701:
2674:(3): 118–119.
2658:
2592:
2586:(definition),
2584:"Desalination"
2575:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2567:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2539:Flexible barge
2536:
2531:
2526:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2509:
2506:
2414:
2411:
2388:
2387:
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2341:
2334:
2311:
2308:
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2291:
2281:water scarcity
2277:
2276:
2255:
2224:
2209:Main article:
2203:
2200:
2195:
2192:
2174:
2171:
2149:
2146:
2140:
2137:
2126:
2123:
2107:
2106:Nanotechnology
2104:
2095:
2092:
2081:
2078:
2060:
2057:
2037:
2034:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2018:
2015:
2012:
2008:
2004:
1999:
1996:
1993:
1989:
1966:
1963:
1960:
1956:
1933:
1930:
1927:
1923:
1906:
1903:
1894:
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1883:
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1834:
1831:
1814:
1811:
1781:
1778:
1741:
1738:
1733:
1730:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1714:Health aspects
1712:
1706:
1703:
1695:water scarcity
1686:
1683:
1657:
1656:
1615:
1613:
1606:
1600:
1597:
1571:opened in the
1557:
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1234:
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1220:
1215:
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1199:
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1189:
1186:
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1182:Thermal energy
1179:
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1175:
1172:
1169:
1166:
1162:
1161:
1157:
1156:
1147:
1138:
1129:
1120:
1103:was 16 kWh/m.
1086:water supplies
1080:desalination.
1074:Brackish water
1069:
1066:
1064:
1063:Design aspects
1061:
1057:supercapacitor
1041:Main article:
1038:
1035:
1031:carbon removal
1008:
1005:
992:
989:
980:
977:
957:polyphosphates
945:polyacrylamide
892:
889:
887:
884:
880:silica aerogel
859:
856:
834:
831:
822:
819:
811:
808:
795:
792:
787:vapor pressure
778:
775:
758:
755:
746:
743:
741:
738:
686:
685:
684:
683:
678:
672:
666:
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664:
659:
653:
642:
637:
632:
631:
630:
624:
618:
615:Nanofiltration
612:
606:
595:
590:
589:
588:
582:
576:
564:
563:
559:
558:
548:
545:
533:Sea of Galilee
398:
397:
382:
381:
380:External audio
374:
371:
344:brackish water
242:William Walcot
237:Walter Raleigh
135:
132:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9415:
9404:
9401:
9399:
9396:
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9379:
9376:
9375:
9373:
9358:
9350:
9349:
9346:
9336:
9335:Non-renewable
9332:
9329:
9327:
9324:
9322:
9319:
9317:
9314:
9312:
9309:
9307:
9301:
9299:
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9281:
9278:
9276:
9275:Urban ecology
9273:
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9107:Privatization
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9032:
9030:
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9017:
9013:
9010:
9009:
9008:
9005:
9003:
9002:Surface water
9000:
8998:
8995:
8991:
8988:
8987:
8986:
8983:
8981:
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8974:
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8969:
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8520:
8518:
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8513:
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8504:
8503:peak farmland
8501:
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8240:
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8235:
8232:
8231:
8224:
8221:
8213:
8210:February 2019
8203:
8199:
8198:inappropriate
8195:
8191:
8185:
8183:
8176:
8167:
8166:
8150:
8145:
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8137:
8133:
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7647:
7641:
7625:
7621:
7615:
7608:
7607:Las Vegas Sun
7604:
7598:
7591:
7590:U-T San Diego
7587:
7581:
7574:
7571:
7565:
7558:
7553:
7546:
7541:
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7530:
7527:
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7374:
7370:
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7362:
7358:
7354:
7347:
7340:
7324:
7323:Science Daily
7320:
7314:
7298:
7294:
7288:
7281:
7277:
7274:
7269:
7253:
7247:
7232:. PR Newswire
7231:
7224:
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7202:
7187:
7180:
7164:
7160:
7156:
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7027:
7020:
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6877:
6873:
6869:
6865:
6861:
6857:
6853:
6849:
6842:
6840:
6838:
6830:
6829:The Economist
6826:
6821:
6814:
6809:
6802:
6798:
6795:
6790:
6783:
6778:
6771:
6767:
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6142:
6138:
6135:(5): 104418.
6134:
6130:
6126:
6119:
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6109:
6103:
6101:
6094:
6093:1-893790-13-4
6090:
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6055:
6051:
6048:
6043:
6036:
6031:
6024:
6021:
6017:
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6010:
6006:
6005:Barlow, Maude
6001:
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5861:0-7918-4745-4
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4997:
4993:
4989:
4985:
4981:
4977:
4973:
4969:
4965:
4961:
4957:
4949:
4941:
4937:
4932:
4927:
4922:
4917:
4913:
4909:
4905:
4901:
4897:
4890:
4882:
4878:
4873:
4868:
4864:
4860:
4856:
4852:
4851:Physics Today
4848:
4841:
4833:
4829:
4825:
4824:1721.1/105441
4821:
4816:
4811:
4807:
4803:
4799:
4795:
4788:
4781:
4773:
4769:
4765:
4761:
4758:(1–3): 1–76.
4757:
4753:
4746:
4738:
4734:
4729:
4724:
4720:
4716:
4712:
4708:
4704:
4700:
4693:
4677:
4673:
4669:
4662:
4653:
4648:
4644:
4640:
4633:
4626:
4618:
4614:
4608:
4601:
4596:
4589:
4577:
4573:
4569:
4568:
4563:
4557:
4549:
4545:
4541:
4537:
4533:
4529:
4525:
4521:
4516:
4511:
4507:
4503:
4495:
4487:
4483:
4479:
4475:
4471:
4467:
4463:
4459:
4452:
4444:
4440:
4436:
4432:
4428:
4424:
4417:
4408:
4403:
4399:
4395:
4391:
4387:
4380:
4373:
4371:
4369:
4367:
4358:
4354:
4350:
4346:
4342:
4338:
4331:
4329:
4327:
4325:
4323:
4321:
4319:
4317:
4315:
4306:
4302:
4296:
4287:
4282:
4277:
4272:
4268:
4264:
4263:
4258:
4251:
4243:
4239:
4235:
4229:
4225:
4224:
4216:
4209:
4204:
4198:
4194:
4190:
4185:
4178:
4173:
4154:
4147:
4140:
4132:
4128:
4123:
4118:
4114:
4110:
4106:
4102:
4098:
4094:
4087:
4079:
4075:
4071:
4067:
4063:
4059:
4054:
4049:
4045:
4041:
4037:
4033:
4029:
4022:
4006:
4002:
3996:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3962:
3947:
3943:
3936:
3928:
3924:
3919:
3918:11311/1197124
3914:
3909:
3904:
3900:
3896:
3892:
3885:
3870:
3866:
3860:
3845:
3841:
3834:
3818:
3814:
3808:
3800:
3796:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3764:
3757:
3755:
3746:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3707:
3699:
3697:9789811948954
3693:
3689:
3686:. Singapore:
3685:
3678:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3650:
3643:
3635:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3617:
3613:
3610:(1): 016308.
3609:
3605:
3601:
3594:
3578:
3574:
3567:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3547:
3543:
3539:
3535:
3531:
3527:
3520:
3505:
3501:
3495:
3487:
3481:
3479:
3470:
3466:
3461:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3421:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3397:
3393:
3389:
3382:
3374:
3370:
3363:
3355:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3334:
3332:
3330:
3321:
3320:
3312:
3304:
3303:
3295:
3287:
3283:
3277:
3269:
3262:
3254:
3250:
3244:
3235:
3226:
3218:
3211:
3203:
3199:
3192:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3141:
3133:
3126:
3124:
3122:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3078:
3076:
3074:
3072:
3070:
3068:
3066:
3064:
3062:
3052:
3044:
3037:
3031:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3003:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2985:
2981:
2973:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2948:(2): 022040.
2947:
2943:
2939:
2932:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2917:Meteorologica
2912:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2877:
2869:
2867:
2865:
2863:
2861:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2830:
2826:
2825:10.1142/12009
2822:
2818:
2811:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2774:
2766:
2750:
2746:
2740:
2738:
2736:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2708:
2706:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2662:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2603:
2601:
2599:
2597:
2589:
2585:
2580:
2576:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2559:Soil salinity
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2534:Dewvaporation
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2521:
2514:
2505:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2485:
2480:
2476:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2449:rete mirabile
2446:
2442:
2437:
2435:
2430:
2428:
2419:
2410:
2408:
2403:
2401:
2397:
2392:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2345:United States
2342:
2339:
2335:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2309:
2306:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2292:
2289:
2286:
2285:
2284:
2282:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2261:
2256:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2222:
2218:
2215:
2214:
2212:
2207:
2199:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2170:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2145:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2122:
2120:
2115:
2112:
2103:
2101:
2091:
2088:
2077:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2056:
2035:
2032:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2016:
2013:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1997:
1994:
1991:
1987:
1964:
1961:
1958:
1954:
1931:
1928:
1925:
1921:
1911:
1902:
1900:
1890:
1882:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1846:
1844:
1840:
1830:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1810:
1808:
1803:
1797:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1777:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1737:
1729:
1726:
1711:
1702:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1671:
1666:
1664:
1653:
1650:
1642:
1632:
1628:
1622:
1621:
1616:This section
1614:
1610:
1605:
1604:
1596:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1565:
1563:
1548:
1544:
1542:
1538:
1535:Desalination
1525:
1516:
1513:
1512:
1505:
1496:
1493:
1492:
1485:
1479:
1476:
1475:
1468:
1462:
1459:
1458:
1452:
1447:
1444:
1443:
1432:
1429:
1428:
1424:
1421:
1420:
1416:
1413:
1412:
1408:
1405:
1404:
1400:
1397:
1396:
1392:
1389:
1388:
1384:
1381:
1380:
1374:
1371:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1350:
1347:
1343:
1338:
1336:
1332:
1327:
1325:
1320:
1310:
1308:
1303:
1301:
1297:
1288:
1283:
1279:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1268:nuclear power
1265:
1260:
1251:
1249:
1244:
1235:
1232:
1229:
1226:
1223:
1222:
1219:
1216:
1214:
1211:
1208:
1205:
1202:
1201:
1198:
1195:
1193:
1190:
1187:
1184:
1181:
1180:
1176:
1173:
1170:
1167:
1164:
1163:
1159:
1158:
1155:
1146:
1137:
1128:
1118:
1117:
1111:
1109:
1104:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1089:
1087:
1081:
1079:
1075:
1060:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1044:
1034:
1032:
1028:
1027:carbonic acid
1023:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1004:
1002:
997:
988:
985:
976:
973:
968:
966:
962:
958:
954:
950:
946:
942:
938:
934:
930:
925:
921:
918:
914:
906:
902:
897:
883:
881:
877:
873:
869:
864:
855:
853:
849:
848:Garden Island
845:
841:
830:
829:small scale.
827:
818:
816:
807:
805:
801:
791:
788:
784:
774:
772:
768:
764:
754:
751:
737:
735:
731:
726:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
703:
701:
697:
693:
682:
679:
677:
673:
670:
667:
663:
660:
657:
654:
651:
648:
647:
646:
643:
641:
638:
636:
633:
628:
625:
622:
619:
616:
613:
610:
607:
604:
601:
600:
599:
596:
594:
591:
586:
583:
580:
577:
574:
571:
570:
569:Distillation
568:
567:
566:
565:
561:
560:
556:
553:
552:
544:
541:
536:
534:
530:
525:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
478:
474:
472:
468:
462:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
436:
432:
428:
424:
416:
409:
404:
396:
392:
383:
378:
370:
366:
362:
359:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
333:
328:
326:
321:
319:
314:
311:
306:
302:
300:
296:
292:
287:
283:
278:
276:
272:
268:
263:
261:
257:
253:
252:
246:
243:
238:
234:
233:Francis Bacon
230:
226:
222:
217:
215:
211:
206:
204:
200:
196:
191:
189:
185:
181:
177:
176:
171:
167:
166:
160:
157:
156:
151:
145:
141:
131:
129:
123:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
100:surface water
96:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
55:, especially
54:
50:
46:
42:
34:
30:
19:
9393:Water supply
9333: /
9207:Exploitation
9092:Conservation
9035:Desalination
9034:
8970:
8863:conservation
8698:Biodiversity
8646:conservation
8493:Agricultural
8421:Fossil fuels
8216:
8207:
8192:by removing
8179:
8131:
8127:
8079:
8076:Desalination
8075:
8068:
8056:. Retrieved
8052:the original
8047:
8038:
8025:. Retrieved
8021:the original
8010:
7991:
7985:
7973:. Retrieved
7962:
7952:December 15,
7950:. Retrieved
7940:
7928:
7916:
7904:
7889:
7877:. Retrieved
7867:
7855:. Retrieved
7844:
7832:. Retrieved
7822:
7810:
7798:
7786:. Retrieved
7776:
7766:November 21,
7764:. Retrieved
7760:the original
7750:
7738:. Retrieved
7734:the original
7727:
7718:
7706:. Retrieved
7702:the original
7692:
7680:. Retrieved
7676:the original
7666:
7654:. Retrieved
7650:the original
7640:
7630:November 21,
7628:. Retrieved
7624:the original
7614:
7606:
7597:
7589:
7580:
7572:
7564:
7552:
7540:
7513:
7501:
7489:. Retrieved
7485:
7475:
7465:November 25,
7463:. Retrieved
7459:
7449:
7437:. Retrieved
7433:
7423:
7414:
7404:
7392:. Retrieved
7385:the original
7356:
7352:
7339:
7327:. Retrieved
7322:
7313:
7301:. Retrieved
7296:
7287:
7268:
7256:. Retrieved
7246:
7234:. Retrieved
7223:
7211:. Retrieved
7206:Wnek, Gary.
7201:
7189:. Retrieved
7184:Cao, Liwei.
7179:
7169:September 7,
7167:. Retrieved
7163:the original
7149:
7137:
7127:February 24,
7125:. Retrieved
7122:Fast Company
7121:
7111:
7099:
7087:
7054:
7051:Desalination
7050:
7032:
7019:
7007:. Retrieved
7002:
6990:
6978:. Retrieved
6973:
6961:
6949:. Retrieved
6945:
6933:
6921:. Retrieved
6916:
6855:
6851:
6828:
6820:
6808:
6789:
6777:
6757:
6745:. Retrieved
6738:the original
6733:
6709:
6694:
6686:
6679:
6667:. Retrieved
6664:water.gov.il
6663:
6654:
6621:
6617:
6607:
6595:. Retrieved
6591:
6582:
6570:. Retrieved
6565:
6556:
6519:
6515:
6505:
6496:
6483:
6476:ResearchGate
6475:
6466:
6458:
6450:
6425:
6422:Desalination
6421:
6396:. Retrieved
6391:
6382:
6333:
6329:
6319:
6284:
6280:
6274:
6265:
6256:
6247:
6238:
6225:
6200:
6197:Desalination
6196:
6190:
6183:McClatchy DC
6181:
6165:
6132:
6128:
6083:
6073:
6061:
6042:
6030:
6022:
6000:
5988:. Retrieved
5984:the original
5970:
5935:
5931:
5921:
5909:. Retrieved
5905:
5896:
5884:. Retrieved
5880:
5870:
5843:
5825:
5818:
5799:
5795:
5785:
5773:
5761:
5745:
5733:
5723:
5711:
5702:
5696:
5686:
5677:
5667:
5655:
5642:
5617:
5614:Desalination
5613:
5607:
5582:
5579:Desalination
5578:
5572:
5540:(1–3): 207.
5537:
5534:Desalination
5533:
5527:
5519:
5511:
5500:
5481:
5462:
5429:
5425:
5419:
5399:
5380:
5360:
5319:
5315:
5267:
5264:Desalination
5263:
5253:
5212:
5209:Desalination
5208:
5198:
5173:
5170:Desalination
5169:
5163:
5145:
5136:
5127:
5118:
5109:
5100:
5091:
5081:February 22,
5079:. Retrieved
5075:the original
5070:
5061:
5042:
5037:
5018:
5012:
4963:
4959:
4948:
4903:
4899:
4889:
4857:(6): 66–67.
4854:
4850:
4840:
4797:
4793:
4780:
4755:
4752:Desalination
4751:
4745:
4706:
4702:
4692:
4680:. Retrieved
4671:
4661:
4642:
4638:
4625:
4616:
4607:
4602:– WaterWorld
4595:
4587:
4580:. Retrieved
4576:the original
4565:
4556:
4505:
4502:Desalination
4501:
4494:
4461:
4458:Desalination
4457:
4451:
4426:
4423:Desalination
4422:
4416:
4389:
4385:
4340:
4337:Desalination
4336:
4304:
4295:
4286:10447/479195
4266:
4260:
4250:
4222:
4215:
4203:
4184:
4172:
4160:. Retrieved
4153:the original
4139:
4099:(3): 03003.
4096:
4092:
4086:
4035:
4031:
4021:
4009:. Retrieved
4004:
3995:
3983:. Retrieved
3972:The Guardian
3971:
3961:
3949:. Retrieved
3945:
3935:
3901:(21): 3023.
3898:
3894:
3884:
3872:. Retrieved
3868:
3859:
3847:. Retrieved
3843:
3833:
3821:. Retrieved
3816:
3807:
3773:(16): 2222.
3770:
3766:
3720:
3717:Desalination
3716:
3706:
3683:
3677:
3655:(1–3): 171.
3652:
3649:Desalination
3648:
3642:
3607:
3604:Phys. Rev. E
3603:
3593:
3581:. Retrieved
3577:the original
3566:
3533:
3529:
3519:
3507:. Retrieved
3503:
3494:
3434:
3431:Desalination
3430:
3420:
3395:
3391:
3381:
3372:
3368:
3362:
3343:
3318:
3311:
3301:
3294:
3285:
3276:
3261:
3252:
3243:
3234:
3225:
3219:, p. 44
3216:
3210:
3201:
3197:
3191:
3150:
3146:
3140:
3131:
3087:
3084:Desalination
3083:
3051:
3042:
3030:
3016:
3008:
3001:
2988:
2980:
2945:
2941:
2931:
2920:
2916:
2911:
2875:
2816:
2810:
2777:
2771:
2765:
2753:. Retrieved
2748:
2717:
2714:Desalination
2713:
2671:
2667:
2661:
2612:
2608:
2587:
2579:
2511:
2488:
2477:
2451:. The gland
2438:
2431:
2424:
2404:
2393:
2389:
2380:Saudi Arabia
2278:
2258:
2205:
2197:
2189:
2179:
2176:
2151:
2142:
2128:
2116:
2109:
2097:
2083:
2062:
2053:
1896:
1888:
1875:solar panels
1852:
1836:
1816:
1798:
1783:
1750:process heat
1743:
1735:
1722:
1708:
1705:Other issues
1699:fossil fuels
1688:
1679:
1675:
1667:
1660:
1645:
1639:January 2012
1636:
1625:Please help
1620:verification
1617:
1566:
1559:
1545:
1534:
1372:
1356:
1339:
1328:
1324:Urban runoff
1316:
1307:supercarrier
1304:
1292:
1276:North Africa
1264:fossil fuels
1259:Cogeneration
1257:
1254:Cogeneration
1245:
1241:
1217:
1212:
1196:
1191:
1134:Distillation
1132:Multi-Effect
1105:
1090:
1082:
1071:
1046:
1024:
1010:
998:
994:
982:
969:
953:phosphonates
926:
922:
910:
861:
836:
824:
813:
797:
780:
760:
748:
740:Distillation
727:
719:condensation
715:distillation
704:
696:distillation
689:
593:Ion exchange
554:
547:Technologies
537:
526:
479:
475:
471:Persian Gulf
463:
455:Saudi Arabia
447:Saudi Arabia
440:
373:Applications
367:
363:
360:
342:in 1965 for
329:
322:
315:
307:
303:
295:Dry Tortugas
279:
271:age of steam
267:steam engine
264:
255:
249:
247:
218:
207:
192:
188:ion exchange
174:
173:
164:
163:
161:
153:
147:
128:water sector
124:
116:distillation
97:
45:saline water
41:Desalination
40:
39:
29:
9388:Fresh water
9326:Nationalism
9298:Common-pool
8939:Hydrosphere
8932:remediation
8917:Groundwater
8512:Degradation
8134:: 101–111.
7557:Fact sheets
6951:November 3,
6669:October 22,
6597:October 22,
6572:October 22,
6310:10045/11309
6009:Tony Clarke
5990:February 1,
5938:: 319–324.
5906:EurekAlert!
5666:(Website).
4800:: 272–282.
4645:: 381–390.
4582:January 26,
4305:www.oas.org
3790:11147/11590
3509:January 20,
3460:2117/116164
3375:(3): 53–57.
3021:From p. 65:
3002:Meteorology
2465:albatrosses
2427:water cycle
2271:, north of
2194:Wave energy
2087:centrifuges
1802:Lakshadweep
1691:Middle East
1448:Consumption
1417:< 0.001
1360:groundwater
1331:oil tankers
1272:Middle East
1143:Compression
1123:Multi-stage
991:Freeze–thaw
674:High grade
540:Debbie Cook
486:Mexico City
431:vacuum pump
219:Before the
195:Middle Ages
155:Meteorology
104:groundwater
85:fresh water
9372:Categories
9321:Extraction
9280:Wilderness
9241:accounting
9224:Management
9190:ecological
9178:tragedy of
9097:Peak water
9082:Efficiency
9055:Sanitation
8997:Stormwater
8990:harvesting
8966:Irrigation
8868:management
8826:gene banks
8767:management
8745:management
8661:resilience
8627:phosphorus
8583:industrial
8561:Management
8537:soundscape
8443:Geothermal
8082:: 114798.
7879:August 13,
7788:August 13,
7740:August 13,
7708:August 13,
7682:August 13,
7656:August 13,
7584:Mike Lee.
7297:MINING.com
6946:Jun Wei WU
6203:(1–3): 1.
6023:The Nation
5703:The Bridge
5414:, p. 12 ff
5322:: 118733.
5270:: 116263.
5215:: 114386.
4515:2107.07137
4269:(2): 670.
4162:August 20,
3874:August 21,
3583:October 3,
3009:Hexaemeron
2780:: 141528.
2755:August 27,
2615:: 133545.
2571:References
2544:Peak water
2492:trees and
2405:A typical
2357:California
2283:problems.
2240:Bungendore
2230:, and the
2130:Biomimetic
2125:Biomimesis
2094:Geothermal
1843:greenhouse
1788:research,
1746:waste heat
1740:Waste heat
1685:Energy Use
1581:Queensland
1573:Australian
1317:Increased
1305:A typical
937:biofouling
844:wave power
425:acts as a
415:condensate
340:California
229:South Seas
184:adsorption
138:See also:
89:wastewater
81:submarines
69:by-product
65:irrigation
9331:Renewable
9316:Depletion
9303:Conflict
9185:Economics
9163:enclosure
9122:Resources
9102:Pollution
9019:Watershed
8922:pollution
8853:Seed bank
8848:Rangeland
8730:Fisheries
8715:Biosphere
8708:biopiracy
8651:fertility
8527:cityscape
8522:Landscape
8429:peak coal
8416:Resources
8367:Emissions
8194:excessive
8104:228881693
8027:April 16,
7975:March 10,
7857:March 10,
7834:March 10,
7729:The Hindu
7491:April 19,
7460:New Atlas
7079:103725391
6923:August 3,
6896:248155686
6880:0013-936X
6638:1050-7256
6398:April 19,
6374:226224643
6358:0025-326X
6157:225309628
6149:2213-3437
5962:1876-6102
5802:: 13–29.
5550:CiteSeerX
5352:224872161
5344:0360-5442
5292:254341024
5245:216273247
5237:0011-9164
5004:229935140
4988:0036-8075
4881:0031-9228
4737:248231737
4672:New Atlas
4548:235898906
4540:0011-9164
4486:0011-9164
4242:639163996
4078:237574682
4062:0025-326X
4011:April 21,
3985:April 21,
3980:0261-3077
3951:April 21,
3927:2073-4441
3799:2073-4441
3745:0011-9164
3723:: 53–58.
3550:0003-150X
3469:0011-9164
3437:: 56–62.
3412:2050-7488
3183:121765890
3175:0145-7632
3132:Acqua Ind
3112:0011-9164
3090:: 17–52.
2972:1755-1307
2903:250128707
2851:224974880
2843:2335-6596
2653:199387639
2637:1879-1026
2413:In nature
2396:Jebel Ali
2349:Tampa Bay
2327:Melbourne
2294:Singapore
2273:San Diego
2133:membranes
2080:Passarell
2022:−
1879:turbidity
1805:coast of
1433:0.000825
1227:13.5–25.5
1160:Energy ⇩
970:Off-grid
854:in 2015.
692:sea water
527:In 2023,
482:New Delhi
356:sea water
251:Protector
150:Aristotle
130:in 2016.
57:sea water
53:saltwater
9357:Category
9290:Resource
9229:adaptive
9127:improved
9087:Conflict
9072:Security
9067:Scarcity
9060:improved
9050:Leaching
8927:recharge
8907:Drinking
8858:Wildlife
8725:Bushmeat
8720:Bushfood
8673:planning
8578:gemstone
8573:Minerals
8554:property
8542:viewshed
8532:seascape
8463:sunlight
8437:peak oil
8433:peak gas
8058:April 5,
7529:Archived
7439:June 19,
7381:22806549
7329:June 29,
7303:June 11,
7276:Archived
6888:35420021
6797:Archived
6766:Archived
6747:June 22,
6702:Archived
6646:28657479
6548:27149907
6539:10271113
6366:33128985
6174:Archived
6050:Archived
6016:Archived
5911:April 5,
5886:April 5,
5751:Original
5620:(1): 1.
5489:Archived
5470:Archived
5454:19068794
5408:Archived
5388:Archived
5369:Archived
4996:33384374
4940:30104388
4832:27728821
4676:Archived
4131:16289710
4070:34537571
3688:Springer
3634:21405775
3558:41264584
3036:"Sample"
2802:32818886
2696:17784633
2645:31374511
2517:See also
2484:crystals
2479:Mangrove
2457:pelicans
2336:In 2007
2315:Canberra
2269:Carlsbad
1827:chlorine
1774:Maldives
1575:city of
1344:and the
1206:9.5–19.5
1078:seawater
961:biocides
933:colloids
723:seawater
562:Methods
506:Zaragoza
291:Key West
256:Hussaren
172:and the
9383:Filters
9158:Commons
9147:Related
9112:Quality
9028:Aspects
8954:glacial
8895:Aquifer
8801:Pasture
8752:Forests
8678:reserve
8453:Nuclear
8423: (
8379:Trading
8374:Airshed
8188:Please
8180:use of
8136:Bibcode
8084:Bibcode
7898:Archive
7394:July 9,
7361:Bibcode
7258:July 9,
7236:July 9,
7213:July 9,
7191:July 9,
7059:Bibcode
7009:May 28,
6980:May 28,
6860:Bibcode
6618:Thyroid
6566:jta.org
6430:Bibcode
6338:Bibcode
6289:Bibcode
6205:Bibcode
5940:Bibcode
5755:Archive
5622:Bibcode
5587:Bibcode
5542:Bibcode
5434:Bibcode
5324:Bibcode
5272:Bibcode
5217:Bibcode
5178:Bibcode
4968:Bibcode
4960:Science
4931:6126755
4908:Bibcode
4859:Bibcode
4802:Bibcode
4760:Bibcode
4715:Bibcode
4682:July 7,
4520:Bibcode
4466:Bibcode
4431:Bibcode
4394:Bibcode
4386:Entropy
4345:Bibcode
4193:Archive
4101:Bibcode
4040:Bibcode
3849:July 5,
3823:May 20,
3725:Bibcode
3657:Bibcode
3612:Bibcode
3439:Bibcode
3155:Bibcode
3092:Bibcode
3007:In his
2950:Bibcode
2782:Bibcode
2676:Bibcode
2617:Bibcode
2461:petrels
2447:with a
2434:sea ice
2361:Arizona
2353:Florida
2347:was at
2338:Bermuda
2302:NEWater
1807:Chennai
1766:Aquaver
1599:Outflow
1425:0.0008
1382:Method
1171:1.5–2.5
1152:Osmosis
1150:Reverse
1053:in situ
941:scaling
886:Osmosis
514:Tripoli
510:Phoenix
502:Bangkok
498:Beijing
210:Tunisia
178:in the
168:in the
134:History
9168:global
9132:policy
9077:Supply
9040:Floods
9007:Sewage
8980:Marine
8972:huerta
8806:Plants
8796:Meadow
8656:health
8634:rights
8622:copper
8600:mining
8498:arable
8398:Energy
8338:Indoor
8102:
7998:
7379:
7077:
7057:: 32.
6894:
6886:
6878:
6644:
6636:
6546:
6536:
6372:
6364:
6356:
6155:
6147:
6110:. NPR.
6091:
6007:, and
5960:
5858:
5552:
5452:
5350:
5342:
5316:Energy
5290:
5243:
5235:
5049:
5025:
5002:
4994:
4986:
4938:
4928:
4879:
4830:
4735:
4713:: 15.
4711:Nature
4546:
4538:
4484:
4240:
4230:
4129:
4076:
4068:
4060:
3978:
3925:
3797:
3743:
3694:
3632:
3556:
3548:
3467:
3410:
3350:
3181:
3173:
3110:
2993:p. 60.
2970:
2901:
2891:
2849:
2841:
2831:
2800:
2694:
2651:
2643:
2635:
2502:sewage
2490:Willow
2384:Riyadh
2376:Jubail
2323:Hobart
2288:Israel
2228:Sydney
2202:Plants
1823:sodium
1589:Sydney
1556:Intake
1537:stills
1494:Africa
1477:Europe
1409:0.007
1401:0.024
1393:0.034
1366:, and
1296:Jeddah
1236:3–5.5
1230:6.5–11
1188:60–110
1185:50–110
1177:3–5.5
529:Israel
522:Riyadh
518:Jubail
494:Harare
490:Riyadh
451:Israel
449:, and
336:DuPont
299:Suakin
142:, and
67:. The
9311:Curse
9117:Right
8959:polar
8949:bergs
8912:Fresh
8880:Water
8593:metal
8517:Field
8468:shade
8458:Solar
8448:Hydro
8333:Index
8100:S2CID
7388:(PDF)
7349:(PDF)
7075:S2CID
7029:(PDF)
6999:(PDF)
6970:(PDF)
6942:(PDF)
6892:S2CID
6741:(PDF)
6730:(PDF)
6493:(PDF)
6370:S2CID
6153:S2CID
5585:: 1.
5348:S2CID
5288:S2CID
5241:S2CID
5155:(PDF)
5137:Suqia
5000:S2CID
4790:(PDF)
4733:S2CID
4709:(1).
4635:(PDF)
4544:S2CID
4510:arXiv
4382:(PDF)
4156:(PDF)
4149:(PDF)
4127:S2CID
4074:S2CID
3895:Water
3767:Water
3554:JSTOR
3179:S2CID
3039:(PDF)
2984:See:
2899:S2CID
2847:S2CID
2720:: 1.
2649:S2CID
2494:reeds
2473:terns
2469:gulls
2445:gland
2443:in a
2365:Texas
2217:Perth
1819:ionic
1770:Gulhi
1663:brine
1577:Perth
1529:0.05
1509:0.06
1489:0.19
1472:0.38
1353:Costs
1300:Yanbu
1209:5–8.5
1145:"MVC"
1136:"MED"
1127:"MSF"
1125:Flash
1101:1970s
852:Perth
658:(MEH)
605:(EDR)
581:(MED)
575:(MSF)
435:brine
214:still
203:still
77:ships
73:brine
9246:good
9195:land
9173:land
8985:Rain
8841:wood
8816:food
8779:Game
8690:Life
8641:Soil
8617:peak
8610:sand
8485:Land
8475:Wind
8350:(US)
8327:(US)
8060:2018
8029:2011
7996:ISBN
7977:2011
7954:2022
7881:2010
7859:2011
7836:2011
7790:2010
7768:2012
7742:2010
7710:2010
7684:2010
7658:2010
7632:2012
7493:2024
7467:2022
7441:2019
7415:CNET
7396:2013
7377:PMID
7331:2013
7305:2016
7260:2013
7238:2013
7215:2013
7193:2013
7171:2007
7129:2015
7011:2011
6982:2011
6953:2016
6925:2022
6884:PMID
6876:ISSN
6749:2010
6671:2017
6642:PMID
6634:ISSN
6599:2017
6574:2017
6544:PMID
6400:2024
6362:PMID
6354:ISSN
6145:ISSN
6089:ISBN
5992:2010
5958:ISSN
5913:2020
5888:2020
5856:ISBN
5450:PMID
5340:ISSN
5233:ISSN
5083:2019
5047:ISBN
5023:ISBN
4992:PMID
4984:ISSN
4936:PMID
4877:ISSN
4828:PMID
4684:2021
4584:2016
4536:ISSN
4482:ISSN
4238:OCLC
4228:ISBN
4164:2007
4066:PMID
4058:ISSN
4013:2023
3987:2023
3976:ISSN
3953:2023
3923:ISSN
3876:2020
3851:2024
3825:2024
3795:ISSN
3741:ISSN
3692:ISBN
3630:PMID
3585:2016
3546:ISSN
3511:2024
3465:ISSN
3408:ISSN
3348:ISBN
3171:ISSN
3108:ISSN
2968:ISSN
2889:ISBN
2839:ISSN
2829:ISBN
2798:PMID
2757:2019
2692:PMID
2641:PMID
2633:ISSN
2471:and
2321:and
2165:and
2119:nano
1837:The
1825:and
1587:and
1567:The
1445:Area
1340:The
1298:and
1285:The
1233:7–12
1218:none
1213:none
1197:none
1192:none
1174:7–12
1154:"RO"
955:and
947:and
939:and
878:and
872:PVDF
842:, a
840:CETO
732:and
698:and
629:(FO)
623:(MD)
617:(NF)
611:(RO)
587:(VC)
492:and
467:arid
429:. A
421:The
352:UCLA
334:and
293:and
235:and
186:and
110:and
79:and
9045:Law
8944:Ice
8784:law
8762:law
8740:law
8668:Use
8605:law
8588:ore
8549:Law
8425:gas
8411:Law
8406:Bio
8343:Law
8308:Air
8196:or
8144:doi
8092:doi
8080:498
7517:PX
7369:doi
7067:doi
7055:442
6868:doi
6626:doi
6534:PMC
6524:doi
6438:doi
6426:152
6392:IEA
6346:doi
6334:161
6305:hdl
6297:doi
6213:doi
6201:220
6137:doi
5948:doi
5848:doi
5804:doi
5630:doi
5618:164
5595:doi
5583:166
5560:doi
5538:186
5442:doi
5332:doi
5320:212
5280:doi
5268:548
5225:doi
5213:483
5186:doi
5174:143
4976:doi
4964:371
4926:PMC
4916:doi
4904:115
4867:doi
4820:hdl
4810:doi
4798:106
4768:doi
4756:216
4723:doi
4647:doi
4643:528
4528:doi
4506:523
4474:doi
4439:doi
4427:126
4402:doi
4353:doi
4341:221
4281:hdl
4271:doi
4117:hdl
4109:doi
4048:doi
4036:173
3913:hdl
3903:doi
3785:hdl
3775:doi
3733:doi
3665:doi
3653:258
3620:doi
3538:doi
3455:hdl
3447:doi
3435:436
3400:doi
3163:doi
3100:doi
2958:doi
2946:692
2881:doi
2821:doi
2790:doi
2778:748
2722:doi
2718:432
2684:doi
2672:297
2625:doi
2613:693
2267:in
2242:in
2073:PET
1863:MIT
1629:by
1591:'s
1583:'s
1483:189
1466:378
1274:or
1266:or
1168:4–6
876:HFP
870:of
781:In
721:of
102:or
63:or
9374::
8435:,
8431:,
8427:,
8142:.
8132:66
8130:.
8126:.
8112:^
8098:.
8090:.
8078:.
8046:.
7726:.
7605:.
7588:.
7484:.
7458:.
7432:.
7413:.
7375:.
7367:.
7357:14
7355:.
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7321:.
7295:.
7120:.
7073:.
7065:.
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7041:^
7031:.
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6972:.
6944:.
6915:.
6904:^
6890:.
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6874:.
6866:.
6856:56
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6850:.
6836:^
6827:,
6732:.
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6708:,
6662:.
6640:.
6632:.
6622:27
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6564:.
6542:.
6532:.
6520:19
6518:.
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