25:
82:
629:
311:
291:, and was the basis for the machines CCC and Friden built over the next 15 years. This improved machine was contemporaneous with the first generation of commercial computers. Applications for Flexowriters exploded in the 1950s, covering territory in commercial printing, machine tools, computers, and many forms of office automation. This versatility was helped by Friden's willingness to engineer and build many different configurations. In the late 1950s, CCC was purchased by
782:
698:
414:
766:
706:
97:
650:
controlled the spacing of the print. Spacing codes were stored in relays inside the machine as a line of text progressed. At least some
Justowriters used carbon (as opposed to ink-impregnated fabric) ribbons to produce cleaner type, suitable for mass photo-set reproduction, sometimes referred to as cold type composition.
620:. Computypers were electromechanical; they had no electronics, at least in their earlier models. The calculator mechanism, inside a desk-like enclosure, was much like a Friden model STW desktop calculator, except that it had electrical input (via solenoids) and output (low-torque rotary switches on the dial shafts) .
753:
As the cam continued to rotate, the spring-loaded lever pushed on the pin to move it toward home position, but if the key were still down, the cam (now out of contact with the power roll) stalled because the projection on the cam would catch on another part of the release lever. The cam stalled until
733:
Referring to the photo of the cam assembly (often simply called a cam; it was not meant to be disassembled), the holes in the side plates at the lower left were for the assembly's pivot rod, which was fixed to the frame. At the extreme upper left was part of a disconnectable pivot that pulled down on
688:
There was an "accounting" model with an ultra-wide carriage and two-color ribbon for printing out wide financial reports. The Friden accounting model was called "5010 COMPUTYPER" and was capable of arithmetic functions (addition, subtraction, multiplication & division) at electronic speeds and to
583:
and printers. Programmers would type their programs on
Flexowriters, which would punch the program onto paper tape. The tapes could then be loaded into computers to run the programs. Computers could then use their own punches to make paper tapes that could be used by the Flexowriters to print output.
363:
The 2300 series were cosmetically similar to the 2200 series, although without the function keys or numeric keypad, with a simplified plugboard, and operating at 145 words per minute (12 characters per second). In addition to the basic 2301, the 2302 supported the auxiliary tape readers and punches
808:
There was a holder for a large roll of paper tape on the back of the unit, with tape feeding around to a punch on the left side, toward the rear. The tape reader was on the same side, toward the front, and was essentially identical to the reader shown on the front of the square housing in the photo
387:
print mechanisms. With its fixed type font and paper-tape recording medium, the
Flexowriter had difficulty competing with these machines, although some Flexowriter documentation emphasized the fact that, unlike IBM's MT/ST tapes, Flexowriter users could cut and splice paper tapes, particularly if
773:
The basic mechanism looked just like an IBM electric typewriter from the late 1940s. In fact, some
Flexowriter parts were identical in fit and function to the early IBM electric typewriters (those with rotary carriage escapements, a gear-driven power roll, and a governor-controlled variable speed
761:
Carriage return was done by a non-stretch very durable textile tape attached to the platen advance mechanism at the left of the carriage. For a return, the tape wound up on a small reel operated from the drive system through a clutch. A cam engaged the clutch; it was disengaged by the left margin
725:
As a result, the platen carriage was very heavy, and when the "Carriage Return" key was pressed, the carriage moved with about 20 pounds (9.1 kg) of force and enough momentum to injure a careless operator. If used only as manual typewriters, and properly maintained, Flexowriters might last a
749:
When a key was pressed down, it moved the release lever and unlatched the cam for that letter; the spring-loaded lever pressing on the pin rotated the cam until it engaged the power roll. As the cam continued to turn, increasing radius rotated the cam's frame slightly (clockwise in the photo) to
172:
operating against a hard rubber drive roller to drive the print mechanism. This was the foundation of essentially all later electric typewriters. The typewriter could be equipped with a "remote control" mechanism allowing one typewriter to control another or to record and play back typed data
1116:
Automated cordiality will be one of the services offered to physicians and dentists who take space in a new medical center.... The typist will insert the homey touch in the appropriate place as the Friden automated, programmed "Flexowriter" rattles off the form letters requesting payment... or
777:
The early IBM rotary-escapement proportional-spacing typewriters (three wheel rotary escapement, spur gear differentials) had code bars to control the amount of carriage movement for the current character. They were operated by the cams. However, the
Flexowriter's mechanical encoder was a very
737:
Referring again to the part at the upper left, the mating part had a threaded mounting for adjusting cam clearance from the power roll. The irregular "roundish" part, lower right center, was the cam itself. It rotated in the frame while in contact with the power roll. The surface of the cam in
123:
Elements of the design date to the 1920s, and variants of the machine were produced until the early 1970s; the machines found a variety of uses during the evolution of office equipment in the 20th century, including being among the first electric typewriters, computer input and output devices,
649:
for use in typesetting. This worked by having the user type the document on a
Recording unit, which placed extra codes for spacing on the paper tape. The tape was placed into a second specially adapted Flexowriter which had two paper tape reading heads; one would read the text while the other
212:
IBM experimented with several accessories and enhancements for its electric typewriter. In 1942, IBM filed a patent application for a typewriter that could print justified and proportionally spaced text. This required recording each line of text on a paper tape before it was printed. IBM
149:
of
Rochester and made a production run of 2500 electric typewriters. When the time came to make more units, Remington was suffering a management vacuum and could not complete contract negotiations, so Northeast began work on their own electric typewriter. In 1929, they started selling the
729:
Towards the bottom of the unit there was a large rubber roller ("power roll") that rotated continuously at a few hundred rpm. It provided power for typing as well as power-operated backspace, type basket shift, and power for engaging (and probably disengaging) the carriage return clutch.
670:, and a set of gears between the carriage rack and the escapement, to permit the smallest unit of spacing at the escapement to be quite small at the carriage. The spring-tensioned tape that moved the carriage had far more tension (possibly 20 lbs?) than did a standard Flexowriter.
615:
Friden manufactured equipment which could connect their calculators to
Flexowriters, printing output and performing unit record tasks such as form letters for bills, and eventually manufactured their own computers to further enhance these capabilities. These variants were sold as the
217:. Eventually, IBM settled on a six-hole encoding, as documented in their automatic justifying typewriter patents filed in 1945. Equipping an electric typewriter with both a paper-tape reader and punch created the basic foundation for what would become the Flexowriter.
745:
Below the cam in this photo (hidden) was a spring-loaded lever that pushed against a pin on the cam. On the upper edge of the cam, as shown, was a little projection that engaged the release lever, which was at the lowest part of the image; this was an irregular shape.
665:
automatic typesetters. In addition to punching a tape containing the text to be typeset, it turned on a lamp easily seen by the operator to show that the text on the line being typed could be typeset—it was within justifiable range. The LCC had a four-wheel rotary
466:
character coding had not yet been standardized, each type of computer tended to use its own system for encoding characters; Flexowriters were capable of being configured with numerous encodings particular to the computer system the machine was being used with.
785:
Close-up of the two large 50-pin connectors on the right side of a typical machine, to the rear (right of photo) is the JL1 input socket. In front of this (left of photo) is JL2 output connector with its mating Cannon plug, ready to be attached to a cable, in
741:
This particular cam assembly had a cam that rotated a full turn for each operation; it might operate the backspace, basket shift, or carriage-return clutch disengage mechanism. Cams for typing characters rotated only half a turn, the halves being identical.
318:
Edwin
Blodgett, Chief Engineer of Friden R&D, was replaced in 1964 while ill. It is unclear what effect this had on development, especially as Blodgett was apparently biased against electronics, favoring electromechanical solutions to design problems.
161:. Delco had no interest in a typewriter product line, so they spun the product off as a separate company called Electromatic. Around this time, Electromatic built a prototype automatic typewriter. This device used a wide roll of paper, similar to a
570:
The
Whirlwind I deployment in 1955 is notable as it seems to have been the first time that a typewriter-like input device was directly connected to a general-purpose electronic computer, becoming directly ancestral to today's computer keyboards.
434:
used Flexowriters extensively to handle enormous volumes of routine correspondence with constituents; an advantage of this method was that these letters appeared to have been individually typed by hand. These were complemented by
812:
At various times and in various configurations, "Flexos" came with 5-, 6-, 7-, or 8-channel paper tape reader/punches, could have several auxiliary paper tape units attached, and could also attach to IBM punched card equipment.
809:
of the auxiliary reader. The right side of a Flexowriter had a large (~1") connector for hooking the unit up to computers and other equipment. Depending on the model, this connector might be wired in many different ways.
805:. Another reader found that standard 4-40UNC threads appear to fit some of the cover-attachments; internally, the headless set-screws require fluted Bristol keys, which were not commonly available in Great Britain.
798:, and troubleshooting often involved problems with the timing on the relays. Another reader has also found that the timing settings of the various leaf switches (such as in the tape reader) are also important.
399:
began to appear, displacing paper-based systems. Eventually, even the CNC machine tool industry abandoned paper tape, although this was significantly slower because of the long working life of machine tools.
717:
bronze bearings, many hardened steel parts, very strong springs, and a substantial AC motor to move all the parts. Most parts are made of heavy gauge steel. The housing and most removable covers were heavy
632:
As well as paper tape, the same codes/holes might be punched on cards that were easy to file (this example has a pattern of holes for demonstration purposes that is not actually meaningful if read by a
446:", where a long custom-created tape containing individual addresses and salutations was merged with a closed-loop form-letter and printed on continuous-form letterhead; both tapes contained embedded "
116:. It was a heavy-duty electric typewriter capable of being driven not only by a human typing, but also automatically by several methods, including direct attachment to a computer and by use of
713:
As a cutting edge device of their time, Flexowriters, especially some of the specialized types like typesetters, were quite costly. They were made for extreme durability. There were porous
1103:
738:
contact with the power roll had grooves for better grip. As the radius at the contact patch increased, the frame rotated clockwise to pull down on the linkage to type the character.
295:, a maker of electromechanical calculators, and it was under their name that the machines achieved their greatest diversity and success; applications are further detailed below.
348:(a term not yet in use at the time), Friden also sold it with a communications option allowing it to be used as a computer terminal. Members of the 2200 family operated at 135
146:
758:, and prevented repeated typing. (The "key-down" anti-repeat stop could be removed, so that fast repetitive typing could be done, but this change was difficult to undo.)
341:. The case, although modern looking, was entirely metal, giving the machine a shipping weight of 132 pounds (60 kg). The selling price was £2900 (British pounds).
1068:
701:
The power roll is the large rubber roller that continually rotates. Two rows of cams, one above and the other below, surround and engage on it. This is a bottom view.
287:
In 1950, Edwin O. Blodgett filed a patent application on behalf of Commercial Controls Corporation for a "tape controlled typewriter." This machine used a six-level
801:
The screws used in the Flexowriter were unique, having large flat heads with a very narrow screwdriver slot and a unique thread size and pitch. This may have been a
145:
wanted to expand their offerings to include electric typewriters. Having little expertise or manufacturing ability with electrical appliances, they partnered with
726:
century. When reproducing form letters from punched tape, the considerable speed and loud sound of the device made watching it a somewhat frightening experience.
165:
roll. For each key on the typewriter, there was a column on the roll of paper. If the key was to be pressed, then a hole was punched in the column for that key.
329:
There was a major redesign of the Flexowriter in the mid 1960s. The Model 2201 Programatic, introduced in 1965, had a sleek modern styling and 13 programmable
372:
copy. The base price for the 2300 family was £1400 (British pounds). This would be the last hurrah for the line, with production halting in the early 1970s.
268:
letters informing families of the deaths of service personnel in the war. CCC also manufactured other complex mechanical devices for the war effort, including
1133:
545:
395:, introduced in 1969, offered comparable print quality at twice the speed. Larger manufacturers such as IBM and DEC made their own console equipment, and
520:
722:. While the final Singer models did make some use of plastics, even they were quite heavy compared to other electric typewriters of their time.
375:
Sales and innovation declined. In the late 1960s, the market for word processing equipment was shifting to magnetic media. IBM introduced the
1095:
754:
the key was released. When released, the lever would catch the projection so the cam was now in home position. This resembled a simple clock
326:
in 1965. Singer had little or no understanding of the computer industry, and there was a clash of corporate culture with Friden employees.
458:
As the unit record equipment (tabulating machine) industry matured and became the computer industry, Flexowriters were commonly used as
1011:
905:
177:
with one wire per typewriter key. The Electromatic tape perforator used a wide tape, with punch position per key on the keyboard.
100:
Model 1 SPD (Systems Programatic Double-case) equipped for edge-punched cards; most Flexowriters had paper-tape readers and punches
333:. This was the first major change in appearance of Flexowriters in nearly forty years. Programming was done using a 320-contact
196:. This allowed use of a tape only five to seven holes wide to drive automatic typewriters, teleprinters and similar equipment.
1071:, Department of the Army Pamphlet 18-510-21, June 1967; the colophon says "Reprinted by permission of Friden, Incorporated".
352:(11.3 characters per second). The family also included the 2210 and 2211, on which the function keys were replaced with a
1184:
203:
wanted to enter the electric typewriter market, and purchased the Electromatic Corporation, renaming the typewriter the
1173:
488:
68:
46:
599:
The ability to support diverse encodings meant that adapting Flexowriters to generate the paper tapes used to drive
39:
200:
762:
stop, perhaps directly, perhaps via another cam. A light-torque spring kept the return tape wound on the reel.
499:
1037:
Friden announces on-line capability for the world's most versatile automatic writing machine (adversisement),
517:
Combat Operations Center (COC), Colorado Springs, Colo., beginning in 1960. Tape code was essentially base-32.
424:
From its earliest days through to at least the mid-1960s, Flexowriters were used as automatic letter writers.
585:
240:, which also absorbed the National Postal Meter Corporation. CCC was formed by several former IBM employees.
439:
machines which could use a pen to place a signature on letters making them appear to have been hand-signed.
236:
issues. As a result, IBM sold the product line and factory to the Commercial Controls Corporation (CCC) of
142:
302:, the combination of standard text (one tape) with varying name and address information (the other tape).
124:
forerunners of modern word processing, and also having roles in the machine tool and printing industries.
1220:
646:
380:
205:
1038:
994:
827:
232:
machinery, and expanding the product line into automatic typewriters equipped with paper tape raised
1215:
33:
1081:
1025:
524:
90:
673:
174:
50:
1056:
498:, an early experimental transistor-based minicomputer, which was to be a seminal influence on
1117:
informing that the X-ray's of the patient (kidney) (arm) (stomach) (chest) came out negative.
662:
528:
225:
603:
machine tool equipment was a relatively simple affair, and many Flexowriters found homes in
487:
computer, first designed to control a flight simulator, and later becoming the basis of the
442:
Auxiliary paper-tape readers could be attached to a Flexowriter to create an early form of "
1210:
1157:
1007:
822:
802:
709:
Close-up of an almost-typical cam that catches on the power roll when a key is pressed down
484:
392:
253:
897:
8:
1168:
993:
The completely new 2201 FLEXOWRITER automatic writing machine by Friden (advertisement),
237:
138:
1096:"Computer a Help to 'Friendly Doc'; Automated Letter Writer Can Dispense a Cheery Word"
383:
introduced the Astrotype word processing system. Both of these used magnetic tape and
323:
264:). The model name was derived from the fact that these units were used to generate the
535:
447:
158:
360:
instead of the proprietary eight-bit code used by other members of the 2200 family.
560:
459:
427:
While the US White House was using them during the Second World War, in the 1960s,
349:
185:
1162:
1129:
677:
169:
628:
81:
475:
431:
413:
396:
353:
345:
310:
276:
1178:
980:
965:
950:
935:
920:
883:
868:
853:
365:
1204:
428:
778:
different and far more rugged design, although still operated by the cams.
604:
584:
Among the computers which commonly used Flexowriters for this task was the
418:
369:
330:
292:
288:
249:
229:
214:
193:
162:
113:
1084:, British Commercial Computer Digest, 10th Ed., Pergamon, 1969; page 5/11.
1028:, British Commercial Computer Digest, 10th Ed., Pergamon, 1969; page 5/11.
607:
into the 1970s, when magnetic media displaced paper tape in the industry.
1059:, Banking Automation Vol. 1, pages 469-481, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1971.
794:; electrical control operations were done with telephone-style (E-Class)
781:
719:
697:
645:) was developed for the printing industry. It allowed typists to produce
554:
299:
265:
189:
109:
734:
the typing linkage. As installed, "down" was to the right in the photo.
368:
spacing and a carbon ribbon mechanism, making it suitable for preparing
791:
755:
667:
443:
388:
they could recognize some of the common codes such as carriage return.
269:
181:
168:
The Electromatic typewriter patents document the use of pivoted spiral
117:
769:
Close-up of one of the relays that controls the electrical operations
714:
580:
384:
376:
334:
298:
Two tape stations allowed implementation of what was then called the
233:
765:
221:
705:
502:
culture at MIT in the late 1950s prior to the introduction of the
1169:
Discussion of Flexowriter code conversion with link to code chart
548:
436:
933:
Albert W. Mills, F.J. Furman, E.J. Rabenda, Punching Apparatus,
1195:
86:
96:
1190:
832:
795:
588:
514:
510:
503:
463:
357:
338:
213:
experimented with a 12-hole paper tape compatible with their
279:
computer was constructed, using an Electromatic for output.
137:
The Flexowriter can trace its roots to some of the earliest
563:
495:
531:, and many later Burroughs machines also used Flexowriters
600:
481:
790:
Flexowriters (at least those prior to 1969) do not have
85:
Friden Flexowriter used as a console typewriter for the
1158:
Friden Flexowriter: a part of Manuals at bitsavers.org
689:
print the results automatically in a useful document.
470:
Computers that used Flexowriters as consoles include:
1191:
Video of a Flexowriter SPD typing from a punched tape
1051:
1049:
1047:
209:, and continuing to use the Electromatic trademark.
866:Russell G. Thompson, Apparatus for remote control,
1055:G. W. A. Dummer, F. P. Thompson, J. M. Robertson,
948:Ronald D. Dodge, Automatic Justifying Typewriter,
610:
1069:2300 Flexowriter Automatic Writing Machine Series
1044:
417:Friden auxiliary paper-tape reader for six-level
1202:
750:operate the typing linkage for that character.
680:based on the Justowriter/Flexowriter platform.
661:product generated paper tapes for Linotype and
997:, Vol. 53, No. 2 (February 1965), pages 75-76.
774:"universal" (wound-rotor/commutator) motor).
337:, and all of the logic was implemented using
220:By the late 1930s, IBM had a nearly complete
978:E. O. Blodgett, Tape Controlled Typewriter,
574:
132:
1041:, Vol. 53, No. 11 (November 1965), page 20.
1093:
881:Chester W. Cumrine, Perforating Machine,
344:Although primarily sold as a stand-alone
69:Learn how and when to remove this message
780:
764:
704:
696:
627:
412:
408:
364:from the 2200 family. The 2304 offered
309:
95:
80:
32:This article includes a list of general
1008:"The Friden Flexowriter, a Guided Tour"
1203:
1181:, including note of CCC produced M-1s.
851:Russell G. Thompson, Power Mechanism,
623:
305:
918:Waldemar A. Ayres, Printing Machine,
1130:"Direct keyboard input to computers"
453:
379:(MT/ST) in 1964. In October, 1968,
18:
1080:Section 5 -- Peripheral Equipment,
1024:Section 5 -- Peripheral Equipment,
963:Ronald D. Dodge, Typewriter Punch,
902:National Museum of American History
579:Flexowriters could also be used as
13:
1106:from the original on June 25, 2024
377:Magnetic Tape Selectric Typewriter
256:model of the Flexowriter known as
114:Friden Calculating Machine Company
38:it lacks sufficient corresponding
14:
1232:
1151:
1094:O'Kane, Lawrence (May 22, 1966).
1082:Flexowriter -- Friden 2300 Series
157:In 1931, Northeast was bought by
1014:from the original on 2024-06-25.
908:from the original on 2024-06-25.
594:
23:
1136:from the original on 2017-07-17
1122:
1087:
1074:
1062:
1031:
1018:
1000:
987:
904:. Catalog Number 1987.0544.01.
611:Unit record and early computing
403:
243:
972:
957:
942:
927:
912:
890:
875:
860:
845:
1:
898:"IBM Electromatic Typewriter"
838:
450:" to switch between readers.
143:Remington Typewriter Company
7:
1196:Computer museum @ hack42.nl
816:
692:
381:Information Control Systems
322:Friden was acquired by the
89:computer on display at the
10:
1237:
1185:Description of Justowriter
1026:Flexowriter -- Friden 2201
683:
314:The Model 2201 Programatic
282:
147:Northeast Electric Company
127:
887:, granted Sept. 11, 1930.
872:, granted March 26, 1935.
857:, granted Sept. 30, 1930.
575:Offline punch and printer
133:Origins and early history
1187:Also discusses Blodgett
1165:Retrieved April 10, 2007
984:, Granted Jan. 25, 1955.
969:, granted Dec. 21, 1945.
954:, granted Dec. 21, 1945.
939:, granted Dec, 23, 1943.
474:The Electromatic on the
275:In 1944, the pioneering
180:In 1932, a code for the
175:parallel data connection
1057:Friden Flexowriter Data
924:, granted Dec. 4, 1945.
637:A product known as the
541:The Packard Bell PB 250
494:The Lincoln Laboratory
462:for computers. Because
91:Computer History Museum
53:more precise citations.
1179:Firearms code markings
787:
770:
710:
702:
674:American Type Founders
634:
421:
356:, and the 2261, using
315:
101:
93:
981:U.S. patent 2,700,446
966:U.S. patent 2,540,027
951:U.S. patent 2,555,734
936:U.S. patent 2,377,801
921:U.S. patent 2,390,413
884:U.S. patent 1,873,554
869:U.S. patent 1,996,013
854:U.S. patent 1,777,055
784:
768:
708:
700:
631:
529:Burroughs Corporation
527:was purchased by the
416:
409:Automatic typewriters
313:
226:unit record equipment
99:
84:
823:Expensive Typewriter
655:Line Casting Control
254:proportional spacing
139:electric typewriters
624:Commercial printing
432:Members of Congress
393:daisy wheel printer
306:End of product line
248:Around the time of
238:Rochester, New York
1221:Computer terminals
1174:Flexowriter patent
1163:Photos and history
1100:The New York Times
803:conscious decision
788:
771:
711:
703:
635:
448:control characters
422:
324:Singer Corporation
316:
289:punched paper tape
260:(or sometimes the
252:, CCC developed a
106:Friden Flexowriter
102:
94:
1039:Nation's Business
995:Nation's Business
618:Friden Computyper
536:Librascope LGP-30
460:console terminals
454:Console terminals
215:punched-card code
79:
78:
71:
1228:
1145:
1144:
1142:
1141:
1126:
1120:
1119:
1113:
1111:
1091:
1085:
1078:
1072:
1066:
1060:
1053:
1042:
1035:
1029:
1022:
1016:
1015:
1004:
998:
991:
985:
983:
976:
970:
968:
961:
955:
953:
946:
940:
938:
931:
925:
923:
916:
910:
909:
894:
888:
886:
879:
873:
871:
864:
858:
856:
849:
561:English Electric
350:words per minute
258:The Presidential
141:. In 1925, the
112:produced by the
74:
67:
63:
60:
54:
49:this article by
40:inline citations
27:
26:
19:
1236:
1235:
1231:
1230:
1229:
1227:
1226:
1225:
1216:Word processors
1201:
1200:
1154:
1149:
1148:
1139:
1137:
1128:
1127:
1123:
1109:
1107:
1102:. p. 348.
1092:
1088:
1079:
1075:
1067:
1063:
1054:
1045:
1036:
1032:
1023:
1019:
1006:
1005:
1001:
992:
988:
979:
977:
973:
964:
962:
958:
949:
947:
943:
934:
932:
928:
919:
917:
913:
896:
895:
891:
882:
880:
876:
867:
865:
861:
852:
850:
846:
841:
819:
695:
686:
678:phototypesetter
626:
613:
597:
581:offline punches
577:
521:Electrodata 205
456:
411:
406:
397:video terminals
308:
285:
246:
135:
130:
75:
64:
58:
55:
45:Please help to
44:
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1234:
1224:
1223:
1218:
1213:
1199:
1198:
1193:
1188:
1182:
1176:
1171:
1166:
1160:
1153:
1152:External links
1150:
1147:
1146:
1121:
1086:
1073:
1061:
1043:
1030:
1017:
999:
986:
971:
956:
941:
926:
911:
889:
874:
859:
843:
842:
840:
837:
836:
835:
830:
825:
818:
815:
694:
691:
685:
682:
647:justified text
625:
622:
612:
609:
596:
593:
576:
573:
568:
567:
557:
551:
542:
539:
532:
518:
513:DIP computer,
507:
492:
478:
476:Harvard Mark I
455:
452:
410:
407:
405:
402:
354:numeric keypad
346:word processor
307:
304:
284:
281:
277:Harvard Mark I
245:
242:
184:used to drive
134:
131:
129:
126:
77:
76:
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1233:
1222:
1219:
1217:
1214:
1212:
1209:
1208:
1206:
1197:
1194:
1192:
1189:
1186:
1183:
1180:
1177:
1175:
1172:
1170:
1167:
1164:
1161:
1159:
1156:
1155:
1135:
1131:
1125:
1118:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1090:
1083:
1077:
1070:
1065:
1058:
1052:
1050:
1048:
1040:
1034:
1027:
1021:
1013:
1009:
1003:
996:
990:
982:
975:
967:
960:
952:
945:
937:
930:
922:
915:
907:
903:
899:
893:
885:
878:
870:
863:
855:
848:
844:
834:
831:
829:
826:
824:
821:
820:
814:
810:
806:
804:
799:
797:
793:
783:
779:
775:
767:
763:
759:
757:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
721:
716:
707:
699:
690:
681:
679:
675:
671:
669:
664:
660:
656:
651:
648:
644:
643:Just-O-Writer
640:
630:
621:
619:
608:
606:
605:machine shops
602:
595:Machine tools
592:
590:
587:
582:
572:
565:
562:
558:
556:
552:
550:
547:
543:
540:
537:
533:
530:
526:
522:
519:
516:
512:
508:
505:
501:
497:
493:
490:
486:
483:
479:
477:
473:
472:
471:
468:
465:
461:
451:
449:
445:
440:
438:
433:
430:
429:United States
425:
420:
415:
401:
398:
394:
389:
386:
382:
378:
373:
371:
367:
361:
359:
355:
351:
347:
342:
340:
336:
332:
331:function keys
327:
325:
320:
312:
303:
301:
296:
294:
290:
280:
278:
273:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
241:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
218:
216:
210:
208:
207:
202:
197:
195:
192:machines was
191:
187:
183:
178:
176:
171:
166:
164:
160:
155:
153:
148:
144:
140:
125:
121:
119:
115:
111:
107:
98:
92:
88:
83:
73:
70:
62:
59:February 2011
52:
48:
42:
41:
35:
30:
21:
20:
1138:. Retrieved
1124:
1115:
1108:. Retrieved
1099:
1089:
1076:
1064:
1033:
1020:
1002:
989:
974:
959:
944:
929:
914:
901:
892:
877:
862:
847:
811:
807:
800:
789:
776:
772:
760:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
728:
724:
720:die castings
712:
687:
672:
658:
654:
652:
642:
638:
636:
633:Flexowriter)
617:
614:
598:
578:
569:
469:
457:
441:
426:
423:
404:Applications
390:
374:
370:camera-ready
366:proportional
362:
343:
328:
321:
317:
297:
286:
274:
261:
257:
250:World War II
247:
244:World War II
230:punched card
228:and related
219:
211:
206:IBM Model 01
204:
198:
194:standardized
179:
167:
163:player piano
156:
152:Electromatic
151:
136:
122:
105:
103:
65:
56:
37:
1211:Typewriters
792:transistors
676:produced a
639:Justowriter
555:ALWAC III-E
525:ElectroData
485:Whirlwind I
391:The Diablo
300:form letter
270:M1 carbines
266:White House
190:typesetting
110:teleprinter
51:introducing
16:Teleprinter
1205:Categories
1140:2024-01-11
839:References
756:escapement
668:escapement
538:and LGP-21
444:mail merge
419:paper tape
188:and other
182:paper tape
173:through a
118:paper tape
34:references
663:Intertype
385:Selectric
335:plugboard
262:President
234:antitrust
199:In 1933,
1134:Archived
1110:July 23,
1104:Archived
1012:Archived
906:Archived
817:See also
715:sintered
693:Hardware
491:network.
222:monopoly
186:Linotype
684:Finance
549:CAB 500
437:autopen
283:Postwar
128:History
47:improve
796:relays
500:hacker
339:relays
293:Friden
108:was a
87:LGP-30
36:, but
833:PDP-1
786:place
589:PDP-1
515:NORAD
511:BMEWS
504:PDP-1
464:ASCII
358:ASCII
159:Delco
1112:2018
828:TECO
653:The
641:(or
564:KDF9
559:The
553:The
544:The
534:The
509:The
496:TX-0
489:SAGE
480:The
170:cams
104:The
659:LCC
657:or
601:CNC
586:DEC
546:SEA
482:MIT
224:on
201:IBM
1207::
1132:.
1114:.
1098:.
1046:^
1010:.
900:.
591:.
523:.
272:.
154:.
120:.
1143:.
566:.
506:.
72:)
66:(
61:)
57:(
43:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
