2257:. Svensmark is one of several scientists outspokenly opposed to the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming, leading to concerns that the proposition that cosmic rays are connected to global warming could be ideologically biased rather than scientifically based. Other scientists have vigorously criticized Svensmark for sloppy and inconsistent work: one example is adjustment of cloud data that understates error in lower cloud data, but not in high cloud data; another example is "incorrect handling of the physical data" resulting in graphs that do not show the correlations they claim to show. Despite Svensmark's assertions, galactic cosmic rays have shown no statistically significant influence on changes in cloud cover, and have been demonstrated in studies to have no causal relationship to changes in global temperature.
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1139:. Some of these subsequently decay into muons and neutrinos, which are able to reach the surface of the Earth. Some high-energy muons even penetrate for some distance into shallow mines, and most neutrinos traverse the Earth without further interaction. Others decay into photons, subsequently producing electromagnetic cascades. Hence, next to photons, electrons and positrons usually dominate in air showers. These particles as well as muons can be easily detected by many types of particle detectors, such as
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prototypes for space and balloon-borne detection of air showers, currently operating experiments for high-energy cosmic rays are ground based. Generally direct detection is more accurate than indirect detection. However the flux of cosmic rays decreases with energy, which hampers direct detection for the energy range above 1 PeV. Both direct and indirect detection are realized by several techniques.
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1000:. At higher energies, up to 500 GeV, the ratio of positrons to electrons begins to fall again. The absolute flux of positrons also begins to fall before 500 GeV, but peaks at energies far higher than electron energies, which peak about 10 GeV. These results on interpretation have been suggested to be due to positron production in annihilation events of massive
293:
surface of the Earth is such that about one per second passes through a volume the size of a person's head. Together with natural local radioactivity, these muons are a significant cause of the ground level atmospheric ionisation that first attracted the attention of scientists, leading to the eventual discovery of the primary cosmic rays arriving from beyond our atmosphere.
1484:) Collaboration released the first version of its completely open source app for Android devices. Since then the collaboration has attracted the interest and support of many scientific institutions, educational institutions, and members of the public around the world. Future research has to show in what aspects this new technique can compete with dedicated EAS arrays.
576:, unaware of Rossi's earlier report, detected the same phenomenon and investigated it in some detail. He concluded that high-energy primary cosmic-ray particles interact with air nuclei high in the atmosphere, initiating a cascade of secondary interactions that ultimately yield a shower of electrons, and photons that reach ground level.
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satellite gamma-ray observatories have mapped the gamma-ray sky. The most recent is the Fermi
Observatory, which has produced a map showing a narrow band of gamma ray intensity produced in discrete and diffuse sources in our galaxy, and numerous point-like extra-galactic sources distributed over the celestial sphere.
755:, although the authors specifically stated that further investigation would be required to confirm Centaurus A as a source of cosmic rays. However, no correlation was found between the incidence of gamma-ray bursts and cosmic rays, causing the authors to set upper limits as low as 3.4 × 10×
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Pierre Auger
Collaboration; Aab, A.; Abreu, P.; Aglietta, M.; Al Samarai, I.; Albuquerque, I. F. M.; Allekotte, I.; Almela, A.; Alvarez Castillo, J.; Alvarez-Muñiz, J.; Anastasi, G. A.; Anchordoqui, L.; Andrada, B.; Andringa, S.; Aramo, C.; Arqueros, F.; Arsene, N.; Asorey, H.; Assis, P.; Aublin, J.;
1507:
Another method detects radio waves emitted by air showers. This technique has a high duty cycle similar to that of particle detectors. The accuracy of this technique was improved in the last years as shown by various prototype experiments, and may become an alternative to the detection of atmospheric
1435:
There are several ground-based methods of detecting cosmic rays currently in use, which can be divided in two main categories: the detection of secondary particles forming extensive air showers (EAS) by various types of particle detectors, and the detection of electromagnetic radiation emitted by EAS
1452:
to make them detectable. Therefore, several arrays use water/ice-Cherenkov detectors as alternative or in addition to scintillators. By the combination of several detectors, some EAS arrays have the capability to distinguish muons from lighter secondary particles (photons, electrons, positrons). The
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solution, that removes the surface material at a slow, known rate. The caustic sodium hydroxide dissolves the plastic at a faster rate along the path of the ionized plastic. The net result is a conical etch pit in the plastic. The etch pits are measured under a high-power microscope (typically 1600×
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There are two main classes of detection methods. First, the direct detection of the primary cosmic rays in space or at high altitude by balloon-borne instruments. Second, the indirect detection of secondary particle, i.e., extensive air showers at higher energies. While there have been proposals and
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Cosmic ray antiprotons also have a much higher average energy than their normal-matter counterparts (protons). They arrive at Earth with a characteristic energy maximum of 2 GeV, indicating their production in a fundamentally different process from cosmic ray protons, which on average have only
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in their medium, the atmosphere. While these telescopes are extremely good at distinguishing between background radiation and that of cosmic-ray origin, they can only function well on clear nights without the Moon shining, have very small fields of view, and are only active for a few percent of the
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The magnitude of the energy of cosmic ray flux in interstellar space is very comparable to that of other deep space energies: cosmic ray energy density averages about one electron-volt per cubic centimetre of interstellar space, or ≈1 eV/cm, which is comparable to the energy density of visible
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MeV photons) were finally discovered in the primary cosmic radiation by an MIT experiment carried on the OSO-3 satellite in 1967. Components of both galactic and extra-galactic origins were separately identified at intensities much less than 1% of the primary charged particles. Since then, numerous
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who made measurements of ionization due to cosmic rays from deep under water to high altitudes and around the globe. Millikan believed that his measurements proved that the primary cosmic rays were gamma rays; i.e., energetic photons. And he proposed a theory that they were produced in interstellar
137:
Direct measurement of cosmic rays, especially at lower energies, has been possible since the launch of the first satellites in the late 1950s. Particle detectors similar to those used in nuclear and high-energy physics are used on satellites and space probes for research into cosmic rays. Data from
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Supernovae do not produce all cosmic rays, however, and the proportion of cosmic rays that they do produce is a question which cannot be answered without deeper investigation. To explain the actual process in supernovae and active galactic nuclei that accelerates the stripped atoms, physicists use
292:
Of secondary cosmic rays, the charged pions produced by primary cosmic rays in the atmosphere swiftly decay, emitting muons. Unlike pions, these muons do not interact strongly with matter, and can travel through the atmosphere to penetrate even below ground level. The rate of muons arriving at the
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This technique yields a unique curve for each atomic nucleus from 1 to 92, allowing identification of both the charge and energy of the cosmic ray that traverses the plastic stack. The more extensive the ionization along the path, the higher the charge. In addition to its uses for cosmic-ray
808:
in the arrival directions of the highest energy cosmic rays. Since the
Galactic Center is in the deficit region, this anisotropy can be interpreted as evidence for the extragalactic origin of cosmic rays at the highest energies. This implies that there must be a transition energy from galactic to
661:, and later by scientists of the international Pierre Auger Collaboration. Their aim is to explore the properties and arrival directions of the very highest-energy primary cosmic rays. The results are expected to have important implications for particle physics and cosmology, due to a theoretical
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observed simultaneous variations of the rate of ionization over a lake, over the sea, and at a depth of 3 metres from the surface. Pacini concluded from the decrease of radioactivity underwater that a certain part of the ionization must be due to sources other than the radioactivity of the Earth.
1503:
A second method detects the light from nitrogen fluorescence caused by the excitation of nitrogen in the atmosphere by particles moving through the atmosphere. This method is the most accurate for cosmic rays at highest energies, in particular when combined with EAS arrays of particle detectors.
995:
show that positrons in the cosmic rays arrive with no directionality. In
September 2014, new results with almost twice as much data were presented in a talk at CERN and published in Physical Review Letters. A new measurement of positron fraction up to 500 GeV was reported, showing that positron
5984:
Vepsäläinen, Antti P.; Karamlou, Amir H.; Orrell, John L.; Dogra, Akshunna S.; Loer, Ben; Vasconcelos, Francisca; Kim, David K.; Melville, Alexander J.; Niedzielski, Bethany M.; Yoder, Jonilyn L.; Gustavsson, Simon; Formaggio, Joseph A.; VanDevender, Brent A.; Oliver, William D. (August 2020).
2225:
in 1975. It has been postulated that cosmic rays may have been responsible for major climatic change and mass extinction in the past. According to Adrian
Mellott and Mikhail Medvedev, 62-million-year cycles in biological marine populations correlate with the motion of the Earth relative to the
554:
predicted a difference between the intensities of cosmic rays arriving from the east and the west that depends upon the charge of the primary particles—the so-called "east–west effect". Three independent experiments found that the intensity is, in fact, greater from the west, proving that most
605:, published in 1937 described how primary cosmic rays from space interact with the upper atmosphere to produce particles observed at the ground level. Bhabha and Heitler explained the cosmic ray shower formation by the cascade production of gamma rays and positive and negative electron pairs.
63:
Left image: cosmic ray muon passing through a cloud chamber undergoes scattering by a small angle in the middle metal plate and leaves the chamber. Right image: cosmic ray muon losing considerable energy after passing through the plate as indicated by the increased curvature of the track in a
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in the plastic. At the top of the plastic stack the ionization is less, due to the high cosmic ray speed. As the cosmic ray speed decreases due to deceleration in the stack, the ionization increases along the path. The resulting plastic sheets are "etched" or slowly dissolved in warm caustic
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Satellite experiments have found evidence of positrons and a few antiprotons in primary cosmic rays, amounting to less than 1% of the particles in primary cosmic rays. These do not appear to be the products of large amounts of antimatter from the Big Bang, or indeed complex antimatter in the
571:
was larger than the expected accidental rate. In his report on the experiment, Rossi wrote "... it seems that once in a while the recording equipment is struck by very extensive showers of particles, which causes coincidences between the counters, even placed at large distances from one
453:
flight. He found the ionization rate increased approximately fourfold over the rate at ground level. Hess ruled out the Sun as the radiation's source by making a balloon ascent during a near-total eclipse. With the moon blocking much of the Sun's visible radiation, Hess still measured rising
859:
Cosmic rays originate as primary cosmic rays, which are those originally produced in various astrophysical processes. Primary cosmic rays are composed mainly of protons and alpha particles (99%), with a small amount of heavier nuclei (≈1%) and an extremely minute proportion of positrons and
1439:
Extensive air shower arrays made of particle detectors measure the charged particles which pass through them. EAS arrays can observe a broad area of the sky and can be active more than 90% of the time. However, they are less able to segregate background effects from cosmic rays than can
4728:
Avila, G.; Badescu, A. M.; Balaceanu, A.; Barbato, F.; Barreira Luz, R. J.; Beatty, J. J.; Becker, K. H.; Bellido, J. A.; Berat, C.; et al. (The Pierre Auger
Collaboration) (2017). "Observation of a large-scale anisotropy in the arrival directions of cosmic rays above 8×10eV".
4820:
Koch, L.; Engelmann, J. J.; Goret, P.; Juliusson, E.; Petrou, N.; Rio, Y.; Soutoul, A.; Byrnak, B.; Lund, N.; Peters, B. (October 1981). "The relative abundances of the elements scandium to manganese in relativistic cosmic rays and the possible radioactive decay of manganese 54".
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found evidence, later confirmed in many experiments, that cosmic ray intensity increases from the tropics to mid-latitudes, which indicated that the primary cosmic rays are deflected by the geomagnetic field and must therefore be charged particles, not photons. In 1929,
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Cosmic rays impacting other planetary bodies in the Solar System are detected indirectly by observing high-energy gamma ray emissions by gamma-ray telescope. These are distinguished from radioactive decay processes by their higher energies above about 10 MeV.
5128:
Aguilar, M.; Alcaraz, J.; Allaby, J.; Alpat, B.; Ambrosi, G.; Anderhub, H.; et al. (AMS Collaboration) (August 2002). "The Alpha
Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS) on the International Space Station: Part I – Results from the test flight on the space shuttle".
508:
stated in 1931 that "thanks to the fine experiments of
Professor Millikan and the even more far-reaching experiments of Professor Regener, we have now got for the first time, a curve of absorption of these radiations in water which we may safely rely upon".
3157:"Potential benefit of retrospective use of neutron monitors in improving ionising radiation exposure assessment on international flights: issues raised by neutron passive dosimeter measurements and EPCARD simulations during sudden changes in solar activity"
1195:
acts as a barrier to cosmic rays, decreasing the flux at lower energies (≤ 1 GeV) by about 90%. However, the strength of the solar wind is not constant, and hence it has been observed that cosmic ray flux is correlated with solar activity.
496:
In the late 1920s and early 1930s the technique of self-recording electroscopes carried by balloons into the highest layers of the atmosphere or sunk to great depths under water was brought to an unprecedented degree of perfection by the German physicist
6171:
Zeitlin, C.; Hassler, D. M.; Cucinotta, F. A.; Ehresmann, B.; Wimmer-Schweingruber, R.F.; Brinza, D. E.; Kang, S.; Weigle, G.; et al. (31 May 2013). "Measurements of
Energetic Particle Radiation in Transit to Mars on the Mars Science Laboratory".
2120:
Galactic cosmic rays are one of the most important barriers standing in the way of plans for interplanetary travel by crewed spacecraft. Cosmic rays also pose a threat to electronics placed aboard outgoing probes. In 2010, a malfunction aboard the
555:
primaries are positive. During the years from 1930 to 1945, a wide variety of investigations confirmed that the primary cosmic rays are mostly protons, and the secondary radiation produced in the atmosphere is primarily electrons, photons and
1214:
The combined effects of all of the factors mentioned contribute to the flux of cosmic rays at Earth's surface. The following table of participial frequencies reach the planet and are inferred from lower-energy radiation reaching the ground.
358:) baseball. As a result of these discoveries, there has been interest in investigating cosmic rays of even greater energies. Most cosmic rays, however, do not have such extreme energies; the energy distribution of cosmic rays peaks at 300
1341:
In the past, it was believed that the cosmic ray flux remained fairly constant over time. However, recent research suggests one-and-a-half- to two-fold millennium-timescale changes in the cosmic ray flux in the past forty thousand years.
1671:
mSv per year for higher-altitude cities, raising cosmic radiation exposure to a quarter of total background radiation exposure for populations of said cities. Airline crews flying long-distance high-altitude routes can be exposed to
454:
radiation at rising altitudes. He concluded that "The results of the observations seem most likely to be explained by the assumption that radiation of very high penetrating power enters from above into our atmosphere." In 1913–1914,
301:
Cosmic rays attract great interest practically, due to the damage they inflict on microelectronics and life outside the protection of an atmosphere and magnetic field, and scientifically, because the energies of the most energetic
774:, which revealed that "spectral shapes of are different and cannot be described well by a single power law", suggesting a more complex process of cosmic ray formation. In February 2013, though, research analyzing data from
1535:
Cosmic rays kept the level of carbon-14 in the atmosphere roughly constant (70 tons) for at least the past 100,000 years, until the beginning of above-ground nuclear weapons testing in the early 1950s. This fact is used in
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they produce. Measurements of increasing ionization rates at increasing heights above the ground during the decade from 1900 to 1910 could be explained as due to absorption of the ionizing radiation by the intervening air.
546:
discovered charged cosmic-ray particles that could penetrate 4.1 cm of gold. Charged particles of such high energy could not possibly be produced by photons from
Millikan's proposed interstellar fusion process.
1460:
to detect the secondary muons created when a pion decays. Cloud chambers in particular can be built from widely available materials and can be constructed even in a high-school laboratory. A fifth method, involving
6870:
Fimiani, L.; Cook, D. L.; Faestermann, T.; Gómez-Guzmán, J. M.; Hain, K.; Herzog, G.; Knie, K.; Korschinek, G.; Ludwig, P.; Park, J.; Reedy, R. C.; Rugel, G. (2016). "Interstellar 60Fe on the Surface of the Moon".
233:
Of primary cosmic rays, which originate outside of Earth's atmosphere, about 99% are the bare nuclei of common atoms (stripped of their electron shells), and about 1% are solitary electrons (that is, one type of
637:. From that work, and from many other experiments carried out all over the world, the energy spectrum of the primary cosmic rays is now known to extend beyond 10 eV. A huge air shower experiment called the
6601:
2131:, probably caused by a cosmic ray. Strategies such as physical or magnetic shielding for spacecraft have been considered in order to minimize the damage to electronics and human beings caused by cosmic rays.
563:
carried by balloons to near the top of the atmosphere showed that approximately 10% of the primaries are helium nuclei (alpha particles) and 1% are nuclei of heavier elements such as carbon, iron, and lead.
5329:
Lal, D.; Jull, A.J.T.; Pollard, D.; Vacher, L. (2005). "Evidence for large century time-scale changes in solar activity in the past 32 Kyr, based on in-situ cosmogenic C in ice at Summit, Greenland".
3033:
792:
Shock front acceleration (theoretical model for supernovae and active galactic nuclei): Incident proton gets accelerated between two shock fronts up to energies of the high-energy component of cosmic rays.
2091:, resulting in injuries to multiple passengers and crew members. Cosmic rays were investigated among other possible causes of the data corruption, but were ultimately ruled out as being very unlikely.
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965:
At high energies the composition changes and heavier nuclei have larger abundances in some energy ranges. Current experiments aim at more accurate measurements of the composition at high energies.
669:
origin of the universe. Currently the Pierre Auger Observatory is undergoing an upgrade to improve its accuracy and find evidence for the yet unconfirmed origin of the most energetic cosmic rays.
2768:
Ackermann, M.; Ajello, M.; Allafort, A.; Baldini, L.; Ballet, J.; Barbiellini, G.; et al. (15 February 2013). "Detection of the characteristic pion decay-signature in supernova remnants".
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1521:
Cosmic rays ionize nitrogen and oxygen molecules in the atmosphere, which leads to a number of chemical reactions. Cosmic rays are also responsible for the continuous production of a number of
771:
778:
revealed through an observation of neutral pion decay that supernovae were indeed a source of cosmic rays, with each explosion producing roughly 3 × 10 – 3 × 10
6945:
R.G. Harrison and D.B. Stephenson, Detection of a galactic cosmic ray influence on clouds, Geophysical Research Abstracts, Vol. 8, 07661, 2006 SRef-ID: 1607-7962/gra/EGU06-A-07661
5018:"First result from the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer on the International Space Station: Precision measurement of the positron fraction in primary cosmic rays of 0.5–350 GeV"
4629:
Adriani, O.; Barbarino, G.C.; Bazilevskaya, G.A.; Bellotti, R.; Boezio, M.; Bogomolov, E.A.; et al. (2011). "PAMELA measurements of cosmic-ray proton and helium spectra".
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to perform cosmic ray readings with an instrument carried to high altitude by a balloon. On 1 April 1935, he took measurements at heights up to 13.6 kilometres using a pair of
3563:(1912). "Über Beobachtungen der durchdringenden Strahlung bei sieben Freiballonfahrten" [On observations of penetrating radiation during seven free balloon flights].
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to the energies of cosmic rays from long distances (about 160 million light years) which occurs above 10 eV because of interactions with the remnant photons from the
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8356:
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4850:"High statistics measurement of the positron fraction in primary cosmic rays of 0.5–500 GeV with the alpha magnetic spectrometer on the International Space Station"
2916:
Aartsen, Mark; et al. (IceCube Collaboration) (12 July 2018). "Neutrino emission from the direction of the blazar TXS 0506+056 prior to the IceCube-170922A alert".
2226:
galactic plane and increases in exposure to cosmic rays. The researchers suggest that this and gamma ray bombardments deriving from local supernovae could have affected
892:. When they interact with Earth's atmosphere, they are converted to secondary particles. The mass ratio of helium to hydrogen nuclei, 28%, is similar to the primordial
693:
through which cosmic rays propagate to Earth. This results in a modulation of the arriving fluxes at lower energies, as detected indirectly by the globally distributed
5371:(2012). "Astrophysics of Galactic charged cosmic rays". In Oswalt, T.D.; McLean, I.S.; Bond, H.E.; French, L.; Kalas, P.; Barstow, M.; Gilmore, G.F.; Keel, W. (eds.).
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detectors. The observation of a secondary shower of particles in multiple detectors at the same time is an indication that all of the particles came from that event.
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8482:
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Freier, Phyllis; Lofgren, E.; Ney, E.; Oppenheimer, F.; Bradt, H.; Peters, B.; et al. (July 1948). "Evidence for Heavy Nuclei in the Primary Cosmic radiation".
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Moskalenko, I.V.; Strong, A.W.; Ormes, J.F.; Potgieter, M.S. (January 2002). "Secondary antiprotons and propagation of cosmic rays in the Galaxy and heliosphere".
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M. D. Ngobeni, Aspects of the modulation of cosmic rays in the outer heliosphere, MSc Dissertation, Northwest University (Potchefstroom campus) South Africa 2006.
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Melott, A. L.; Thomas, B. C. (2009). "Late Ordovician geographic patterns of extinction compared with simulations of astrophysical ionizing radiation damage".
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In addition, the Earth's magnetic field acts to deflect cosmic rays from its surface, giving rise to the observation that the flux is apparently dependent on
923:
This abundance difference is a result of the way in which secondary cosmic rays are formed. Carbon and oxygen nuclei collide with interstellar matter to form
8977:
8793:
8728:
8668:
8596:
8502:
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1120:, mainly oxygen and nitrogen. The interaction produces a cascade of lighter particles, a so-called air shower secondary radiation that rains down, including
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8522:
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8336:
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427:, a device to measure the rate of ion production inside a hermetically sealed container, and used it to show higher levels of radiation at the top of the
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8105:
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by scientists at the Pierre Auger Observatory in Argentina showed ultra-high energy cosmic rays originating from a location in the sky very close to the
567:
During a test of his equipment for measuring the east–west effect, Rossi observed that the rate of near-simultaneous discharges of two widely separated
501:
and his group. To these scientists we owe some of the most accurate measurements ever made of cosmic-ray ionization as a function of altitude and depth.
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mSv per year (13% of total background) for the Earth's population. However, the background radiation from cosmic rays increases with altitude, from 0.3
1409:
polycarbonate, are stacked together and exposed directly to cosmic rays in space or high altitude. The nuclear charge causes chemical bond breaking or
908:. These nuclei appear in cosmic rays in greater abundance (≈1%) than in the solar atmosphere, where they are only about 10 as abundant (by number) as
6420:
1128:. All of the secondary particles produced by the collision continue onward on paths within about one degree of the primary particle's original path.
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ratio of these elements, 24%. The remaining fraction is made up of the other heavier nuclei that are typical nucleosynthesis end products, primarily
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8115:
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In August 2020, scientists reported that ionizing radiation from environmental radioactive materials and cosmic rays may substantially limit the
3015:
2209:", seeded by cosmic ray secondaries. Subsequent development of the lightning discharge then occurs through "conventional breakdown" mechanisms.
8142:
4010:
Freier, Phyllis; Peters, B.; et al. (December 1948). "Investigation of the Primary Cosmic Radiation with Nuclear Photographic Emulsions".
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Anchordoqui, L.; Paul, T.; Reucroft, S.; Swain, J. (2003). "Ultrahigh energy cosmic rays: The state of the art before the Auger Observatory".
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Melott, Adrian L.; Marinho, F.; Paulucci, L. (2019). "Muon Radiation Dose and Marine Megafaunal Extinction at the end-Pliocene Supernova".
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composition of the particle cascade increases at lower elevations, reaching between 40% and 80% of the radiation at aircraft altitudes.
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Carlson, Per; De Angelis, Alessandro (2011). "Nationalism and internationalism in science: the case of the discovery of cosmic rays".
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In 2009, supernovae were said to have been "pinned down" as a source of cosmic rays, a discovery made by a group using data from the
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2014:. Human-made values by UNSCEAR are from the Japanese National Institute of Radiological Sciences, which summarized the UNSCEAR data.
1453:
fraction of muons among the secondary particles is one traditional way to estimate the mass composition of the primary cosmic rays.
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3616:
3435:
2334:
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modulates the cosmic ray flux on Earth, it would consequently affect the rate of cloud formation and hence be an indirect cause of
1148:
5017:
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cameras have been proposed as a practical distributed network to detect air showers from ultra-high-energy cosmic rays. The first
5917:
4267:
Clark, G.; Earl, J.; Kraushaar, W.; Linsley, J.; Rossi, B.; Scherb, F.; Scott, D. (1961). "Cosmic-Ray Air Showers at Sea Level".
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marine megafauna extinction event by substantially increasing radiation levels to hazardous amounts for large seafaring animals.
1387:, on satellites, or high-altitude balloons. However, there are constraints in weight and size limiting the choices of detectors.
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Later experiments have helped to identify the sources of cosmic rays with greater certainty. In 2009, a paper presented at the
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Abramowski, A.; et al. (HESS Collaboration) (2016). "Acceleration of petaelectronvolt protons in the Galactic Centre".
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antiprotons. Secondary cosmic rays, caused by a decay of primary cosmic rays as they impact an atmosphere, include photons,
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209:, which are quanta of electromagnetic radiation (and so have no intrinsic mass) are known by their common names, such as
17:
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as a source of cosmic rays. Since then, a wide variety of potential sources for cosmic rays began to surface, including
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confirmed Victor Hess's earlier results by measuring the increased ionization enthalpy rate at an altitude of 9 km.
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7644:
5486:
Chu, W.; Kim, Y.; Beam, W.; Kwak, N. (1970). "Evidence of a Quark in a High-Energy Cosmic-Ray Bubble-Chamber Picture".
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2011:
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extragalactic sources, and there may be different types of cosmic-ray sources contributing to different energy ranges.
35:
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M. D. Ngobeni and M. S. Potgieter, Cosmic ray anisotropies in the outer heliosphere, Advances in Space Research, 2007.
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Upon striking the atmosphere, cosmic rays violently burst atoms into other bits of matter, producing large amounts of
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becoming smaller and smaller, this is becoming an increasing concern in ground-level electronics as well. Studies by
262:. The precise nature of this remaining fraction is an area of active research. An active search from Earth orbit for
4463:
Sekido, Y.; Masuda, T.; Yoshida, S.; Wada, M. (1951). "The Crab Nebula as an observed point source of cosmic rays".
1096:, in gamma rays with energies greater than 20 MeV. These are produced by cosmic ray bombardment on its surface.
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universe. Rather, they appear to consist of only these two elementary particles, newly made in energetic processes.
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Measurements of the energy and arrival directions of the ultra-high-energy primary cosmic rays by the techniques of
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Introduction to particle and astroparticle physics (multimessenger astronomy and its particle physics foundations)
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4564:"Correlation of the highest energy cosmic rays with nearby extragalactic objects in Pierre Auger Observatory data"
4527:"Correlation of the Highest Energy Cosmic Rays with Nearby Extragalactic Objects in Pierre Auger Observatory Data"
250:. These fractions vary highly over the energy range of cosmic rays. A very small fraction are stable particles of
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2344:
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in the 1990s suggest that computers typically experience about one cosmic-ray-induced error per 256 megabytes of
1676:
mSv of extra radiation each year due to cosmic rays, nearly doubling their total exposure to ionizing radiation.
139:
6514:
6405:
6380:
6263:
4045:
Rossi, Bruno (1934). "Misure sulla distribuzione angolare di intensita della radiazione penetrante all'Asmara".
1543:
1171:
An overview of the space environment shows the relationship between the solar activity and galactic cosmic rays.
9405:
9385:
5699:
5401:
2598:
2515:
2463:
2115:
1655:
Cosmic rays constitute a fraction of the annual radiation exposure of human beings on the Earth, averaging 0.39
1480:
to exploit this proposition was the CRAYFIS (Cosmic RAYs Found in Smartphones) experiment. In 2017, the CREDO (
1015:
nuclei (i.e., anti-alpha particles), in cosmic rays. These are actively being searched for. A prototype of the
142:(2013) have been interpreted as evidence that a significant fraction of primary cosmic rays originate from the
6540:
3718:
Geiger, H.; Rutherford, Lord; Regener, E.; Lindemann, F.A.; Wilson, C.T.R.; Chadwick, J.; et al. (1931).
9130:
7776:
6985:
Boezio, M.; et al. (2000). "Measurement of the flux of atmospheric muons with the CAPRICE94 apparatus".
5448:"Cloud Chambers and Cosmic Rays: A Lesson Plan and Laboratory Activity for the High School Science Classroom"
4109:
2428:
2166:
2143:
1456:
An historic method of secondary particle detection still used for demonstration purposes involves the use of
1093:
6653:
5915:"In-flight upset, 154 km west of Learmonth, Western Australia, 7 October 2008, VH-QPA, Airbus A330-303"
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4849:
4699:
181:) seems to have arisen from an initial belief, due to their penetrating power, that cosmic rays were mostly
9165:
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2630:
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31:
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6290:
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2205:. It has been proposed that essentially all lightning is triggered through a relativistic process, or "
2102:
if they are not shielded adequately which may be critical for realizing fault-tolerant superconducting
1922:
1448:. Also water (liquid or frozen) is used as a detection medium through which particles pass and produce
801:
597:
derived an expression for the probability of scattering positrons by electrons, a process now known as
310:(This is slightly greater than 21 million times the design energy of particles accelerated by the
185:. Nevertheless, following wider recognition of cosmic rays as being various high-energy particles with
5881:
4574:
4537:
3204:
9120:
9115:
8296:
7649:
7502:
7047:
P. K. F. Grieder, Cosmic Rays at Earth: Researcher's Reference Manual and Data Book, Elsevier, 2001.
5594:
4499:
3940:
Rossi, Bruno (May 1934). "Directional Measurements on the Cosmic Rays Near the Geomagnetic Equator".
3019:
2619:
1180:
836:
433:
182:
116:
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9400:
9160:
7587:
7497:
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6570:
3359:
2577: – very-high-energy particles that flow into the Solar System from beyond the Milky Way galaxy
2574:
2384:
2304:
2165:
Comparison of radiation doses, including the amount detected on the trip from Earth to Mars by the
1347:
638:
521:
space as by-products of the fusion of hydrogen atoms into the heavier elements, and that secondary
263:
7072:
Kremer, J.; et al. (1999). "Measurement of Ground-Level Muons at Two Geomagnetic Locations".
5447:
5422:
3905:
Alvarez, Luis; Compton, Arthur Holly (May 1933). "A Positively Charged Component of Cosmic Rays".
3281:
3100:
9240:
7527:
7321:
6548:
5885:
5307:
2681:
2399:
2170:
2147:
1918:
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Increase of ionization with altitude as measured by Hess in 1912 (left) and by Kolhörster (right)
5959:
2319:
1419:
oil-immersion), and the etch rate is plotted as a function of the depth in the stacked plastic.
996:
fraction peaks at a maximum of about 16% of total electron+positron events, around an energy of
736:
9095:
8060:
7970:
7847:
7842:
7768:
7679:
7353:
7152:
C. E. Rolfs and S. R. William, Cauldrons in the Cosmos, The University of Chicago Press, 1988.
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331:
162:
131:
6319:
5016:
Aguilar, M.; Alberti, G.; Alpat, B.; Alvino, A.; Ambrosi, G.; Andeen, K.; et al. (2013).
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713:
suggested that magnetic variable stars could be a source of cosmic rays. Subsequently, Sekido
9150:
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8381:
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7772:
7507:
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3381:
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2589:
2135:
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Reaction products of primary cosmic rays, radioisotope half-lifetime, and production reaction
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936:
650:
633:
arranged within a circle 460 metres in diameter on the grounds of the Agassiz Station of the
391:
311:
5595:"CREDO's first light: The global particle detector begins its collection of scientific data"
5345:
4834:
916:. Due to the high charge and heavy nature of HZE ions, their contribution to an astronaut's
449:
carried three enhanced-accuracy Wulf electrometers to an altitude of 5,300 metres in a
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8162:
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7517:
7474:
7424:
7254:
7229:
TRACER Long Duration Balloon Project: the largest cosmic ray detector launched on balloons.
7210:
7189:
7180:
Taylor, M.; Molla, M. (2010). "Towards a unified source-propagation model of cosmic rays".
7117:
7081:
7004:
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6461:
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5341:
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4189:
4139:
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Proceedings of the Section of Sciences, Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam
3731:
3646:
3526:
3478:
3316:
2935:
2874:
2789:
2454:
2374:
2065:
2037:
1491:, designed to detect low-energy (<200 GeV) cosmic rays by means of analyzing their
1402:
for use in high-altitude balloons. In this method, sheets of clear plastic, like 0.25
841:
767:
622:
112:
104:
76:
6125:
Kerr, Richard (31 May 2013). "Radiation Will Make Astronauts' Trip to Mars Even Riskier".
3131:"Extremely powerful cosmic rays are raining down on us. No one knows where they come from"
1074:'s cosmic ray shadow, as seen in secondary muons detected 700 m below ground, at the
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8:
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9135:
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7852:
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7624:
7537:
7102:
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6518:
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5856:
5421:. Michigan State University National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory. Archived from
3667:
3638:
3596:[Measurements of the penetrating radiation in a free balloon at high altitudes].
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2439:
2271:
A handful of studies conclude that a nearby supernova or series of supernovas caused the
2222:
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4934:
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4751:
4652:
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4441:
4378:
4337:
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4232:
Braunschweig, W.; et al. (1988). "A study of Bhabha scattering at PETRA energies".
4193:
4143:
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4023:
3988:
3953:
3918:
3883:
3848:
3805:
3760:
3735:
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3320:
3053:"Data-driven model of the cosmic-ray flux and mass composition from 10 GeV to 10^11 GeV"
2939:
2878:
2793:
1504:
Similar to the detection of Cherenkov-light, this method is restricted to clear nights.
645:
of Argentina by an international consortium of physicists. The project was first led by
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6994:
6951:"Cloud Chamber Observations of Cosmic Rays at 4300 Meters Elevation and Near Sea-Level"
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2613:
2128:
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1537:
1191:, from supersonic to subsonic speeds. The region between the termination shock and the
855:
Primary cosmic particle collides with a molecule of atmosphere, creating an air shower.
654:
526:
347:
108:
7300:
7201:
Ziegler, J. F. (1981). "The Background in Detectors Caused By Sea Level Cosmic Rays".
5914:
5150:
5074:
4981:"New results from the Alpha Magnetic$ Spectrometer on the International Space Station"
2389:
2138:
may involve a greater radiation risk than previously believed, based on the amount of
1952:
Average annual occupational exposure is 0.7 mSv; mining workers have higher exposure.
705:
Early speculation on the sources of cosmic rays included a 1934 proposal by Baade and
9311:
9200:
8783:
8683:
8653:
8571:
8311:
8196:
8152:
8100:
7907:
7902:
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7414:
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4571:
Proceedings of the 31st ICRC, Łódź, Poland 2009 – International Cosmic Ray Conference
4410:
4253:
4207:
3821:
3698:
3546:
3498:
3457:
Pacini, D. (1912). "La radiazione penetrante alla superficie ed in seno alle acque".
3414:
3387:
3336:
3186:
2971:
2959:
2951:
2890:
2805:
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has proposed a cosmic ray detector that could be integrated into future high-density
2069:
1188:
1184:
710:
598:
505:
379:
39:
7786:
6856:
6795:
6654:"Solar activity and terrestrial climate: an analysis of some purported correlations"
6481:
5986:
5898:
3672:"Unsolved Problems in Physics: Tasks for the Immediate Future in Cosmic Ray Studies"
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2817:
2521:
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6888:
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6691:
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6365:
6353:
6189:
6142:
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5154:
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5102:
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4182:
Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
4159:
4147:
4081:
4027:
3992:
3957:
3922:
3887:
3852:
3809:
3792:
Bothe, Walther; Werner Kolhörster (November 1929). "Das Wesen der Höhenstrahlung".
3739:
3534:
3507:
3486:
3459:
3438:[Observations of radiation of high penetration power at the Eiffel tower].
3436:"Beobachtungen über die Strahlung hoher Durchdringungsfähigkeit auf dem Eiffelturm"
3324:
3176:
3168:
3072:
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2902:
2882:
2855:
2797:
2583:
2404:
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2235:
2190:
2103:
2088:
1415:
848:
However, the term "cosmic ray" is often used to refer to only the extrasolar flux.
560:
7294:
6840:
6809:
Benitez, Narciso; et al. (2002). "Evidence for Nearby Supernova Explosions".
6209:
6146:
5860:
4130:
S. Vernoff (1935). "Radio-Transmission of Cosmic Ray Data from the Stratosphere".
3870:
Johnson, Thomas H. (May 1933). "The Azimuthal Asymmetry of the Cosmic Radiation".
2076:, allowing the processor to repeat the last command following a cosmic-ray event.
1954:
Populations near nuclear plants have an additional ≈0.02 mSv of exposure annually.
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8848:
8386:
8326:
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8010:
7995:
7980:
7887:
7877:
7751:
7736:
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7464:
7454:
7306:
7266:
5921:
5844:
5824:
5804:
5642:
Letessier-Selvon, Antoine; Stanev, Todor (2011). "Ultrahigh energy cosmic rays".
5564:
5546:
5368:
4599:
4536:. International Cosmic Ray Conference. Łódź, Poland. pp. 6–9. Archived from
2538:
2250:
2234:, and might be linked to decisive alterations in the Earth's climate, and to the
1424:
1395:
840:, high-energy particles (predominantly protons) emitted by the sun, primarily in
730:
694:
517:
450:
438:
383:
30:"Cosmic radiation" redirects here. For some other types of cosmic radiation, see
7093:
6579:
2029:
Cosmic rays have sufficient energy to alter the states of circuit components in
398:
from radioactive elements in the ground or the radioactive gases or isotopes of
246:, identical to helium nuclei; and 1% are the nuclei of heavier elements, called
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7459:
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6473:
5837:
5695:
5507:
5353:
4367:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3505:
de Angelis, A. (2010). "Penetrating Radiation at the Surface of and in Water".
2254:
2073:
1496:
1462:
1144:
917:
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were first carried out in 1954 by members of the Rossi Cosmic Ray Group at the
602:
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588:
568:
355:
326:).) One can show that such enormous energies might be achieved by means of the
243:
198:
186:
88:
59:
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6696:
6671:
6284:
6097:
6020:
5673:
5620:
4819:
4302:
4174:
4085:
3619:[Measurements of the penetrating radiation up to heights of 9300 m.].
3328:
3172:
2266:
2201:
Cosmic rays have been implicated in the triggering of electrical breakdown in
1495:, which for cosmic rays are gamma rays emitted as they travel faster than the
1423:
detection, the technique is also used to detect nuclei created as products of
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8995:
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8834:
8778:
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2218:
1612:
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energy density (assumed 3 microgauss) which is ≈0.25 eV/cm, or the
1175:
The flux of incoming cosmic rays at the upper atmosphere is dependent on the
1140:
1025:
580:
539:
498:
235:
222:
202:
158:
84:
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shock front acceleration as a plausibility argument (see picture at right).
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8090:
7938:
7654:
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7129:
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6900:
6848:
6787:
6602:"No, a new study does not show cosmic-rays are connected to global warming"
6201:
6154:
6036:
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4886:
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8095:
7396:
6823:
6286:"Converting Cosmic Rays to Sound During a Transatlantic Flight to Zurich"
5836:
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology of Japan
5089:
4428:
Babcock, H. (1948). "Magnetic variable stars as sources of cosmic rays".
3835:
Rossi, Bruno (August 1930). "On the Magnetic Deflection of Cosmic Rays".
3594:"Messungen der durchdringenden Strahlung im Freiballon in größeren Höhen"
2558:
Central nervous system effects from radiation exposure during spaceflight
2186:
2084:
2049:
2030:
1627:
1001:
788:
752:
718:
686:
551:
489:
350:
recorded in 1991) have energies comparable to the kinetic energy of a 90-
190:
189:, the term "rays" was still consistent with then known particles such as
178:
120:
5935:"Quantum computers may be destroyed by high-energy particles from space"
5158:
4950:
3077:
3052:
2886:
912:. Cosmic rays composed of charged nuclei heavier than helium are called
851:
591:
in an anti-coincidence circuit to avoid counting secondary ray showers.
9047:
9010:
8985:
8883:
8693:
8556:
7391:
6999:
6336:
Ney, Edward P. (14 February 1959). "Cosmic Radiation and the Weather".
4245:
3813:
3538:
3490:
3311:
2239:
2080:
is used to protect data against data corruption caused by cosmic rays.
2077:
2057:
2045:
1642:
1550:
1477:
1473:
1410:
1403:
1383:
Direct detection is possible by all kinds of particle detectors at the
1176:
1131:
Typical particles produced in such collisions are neutrons and charged
1012:
832:, i.e., high-energy particles originating outside the solar system, and
805:
690:
584:
534:
387:
259:
251:
9359:
7169:
Martin Walt, Introduction to Geomagnetically Trapped Radiation, 1994.
5557:
4668:
4151:
709:
suggesting cosmic rays originated from supernovae. A 1948 proposal by
9037:
8902:
8738:
8542:
8422:
8276:
8251:
7731:
7604:
7439:
7386:
7376:
7337:
6421:"Ancient Mass Extinctions Caused by Cosmic Radiation, Scientists Say"
6357:
5738:"Natürliche, durch kosmische Strahlung laufend erzeugte Radionuklide"
5366:
4908:
4396:
3134:
2637:) – Cosmic-ray particle with a kinetic energy greater than 1 EeV
2490:
2484:
2289:
There are a number of cosmic-ray research initiatives, listed below.
2202:
2182:
2139:
2123:
2053:
1927:
For the United States, fallout is incorporated into other categories.
1587:
1526:
1204:
958:
in cosmic rays produced by collisions of iron and nickel nuclei with
952:
928:
901:
889:
722:
411:
395:
211:
194:
151:
143:
6170:
5715:
4628:
4098:
4064:
Auger, P.; et al. (July 1939), "Extensive Cosmic-Ray Showers",
3974:
3617:"Messungen der durchdringenden Strahlungen bis in Höhen von 9300 m."
2601: – Cancer causing exposure to ionizing radiation in spaceflight
2181:
are exposed to at least 10 times the cosmic ray dose that people at
2177:
Flying 12 kilometres (39,000 ft) high, passengers and crews of
1124:, protons, alpha particles, pions, muons, electrons, neutrinos, and
9005:
8917:
8718:
8581:
8566:
8537:
8406:
8181:
8005:
7949:
7943:
7912:
7857:
7825:
7381:
7366:
6770:
6003:
5857:"IBM experiments in soft fails in computer electronics (1978–1994)"
5395:
5106:
4925:
4742:
4346:
4321:
3577:
3205:
https://home.cern/science/physics/cosmic-rays-particles-outer-space
3067:
2930:
2869:
2369:
2329:
2272:
1566:
1560:
1508:
Cherenkov-light and fluorescence light, at least at high energies.
1390:
An example for the direct detection technique is a method based on
1200:
1117:
1075:
948:
944:
940:
913:
869:
666:
522:
282:
255:
247:
147:
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7142:
D. Perkins, Particle Astrophysics, Oxford University Press, 2003.
6869:
6456:
5656:
4848:
Accardo, L.; et al. (AMS Collaboration) (18 September 2014).
4643:
3904:
3521:
3473:
2784:
1011:
There is no evidence of complex antimatter atomic nuclei, such as
130:
in 1912 in balloon experiments, for which he was awarded the 1936
9170:
9000:
8953:
8912:
8868:
8810:
8805:
8768:
8758:
8753:
8708:
8703:
8643:
8576:
8467:
8462:
8412:
8291:
8281:
8034:
7659:
5987:"Impact of ionizing radiation on superconducting qubit coherence"
2526:
2409:
2359:
1692:
1572:
1367:
1208:
1125:
924:
897:
386:
in 1896, it was generally believed that atmospheric electricity,
346:), the highest-energy ultra-high-energy cosmic rays (such as the
286:
206:
27:
High-energy particle, mainly originating outside the Solar System
7023:
R. Clay and B. Dawson, Cosmic Bullets, Allen & Unwin, 1997.
5704:. Washington, D.C.: American Geophysical Union. pp. 41–59.
4175:"The Passage of Fast Electrons and the Theory of Cosmic Showers"
3717:
1818:
Depends on soil composition and building material of structures.
1557:
from nitrogen and oxygen, decay of neutrons from such spallation
1487:
The first detection method in the second category is called the
1362:
1187:
from the Sun, the solar wind undergoes a transition, called the
920:
in space is significant even though they are relatively scarce.
876:. The latter three of these were first detected in cosmic rays.
9221:
9042:
9024:
8487:
8457:
7959:
4108:. Smithsonian Studies in History and Technology. Vol. 53.
3791:
2309:
2227:
2036:, causing transient errors to occur (such as corrupted data in
1121:
1036:
909:
865:
861:
726:
239:
155:
99:
in our own galaxy, and from distant galaxies. Upon impact with
80:
6496:"Did Supernova Explosion Contribute to Earth Mass Extinction?"
5983:
5619:. Los Alamos National Laboratory. 3 April 2002. Archived from
2767:
2083:
In 2008, data corruption in a flight control system caused an
1183:, and the energy of the cosmic rays. At distances of ≈94
770:. This analysis, however, was disputed in 2011 with data from
8256:
8186:
7484:
7371:
5539:
2531:
2468:
2339:
2324:
2314:
2151:
2099:
1406:
1132:
1086:
932:
905:
782:
642:
476:
399:
367:
335:
217:
6406:
10.1175/1520-0477(1975)056<1240:SVATLA>2.0.CO;2
5184:
2836:"Evidence shows that cosmic rays come from exploding stars"
2379:
2155:
1488:
1469:
1441:
1136:
1113:
1071:
1048:
873:
556:
530:
278:
274:
270:
52:
9323:
1039:
in June 1998. By not detecting any antihelium at all, the
461:
6633:"'Cosmoclimatology' – tired old arguments in new clothes"
5698:(2000). J. S. Noller; J. M. Sowers; W. R. Lettis (eds.).
5576:
5127:
5015:
4266:
3410:
Cosmos: An Illustrated History of Astronomy and Cosmology
2134:
On 31 May 2013, NASA scientists reported that a possible
2061:
2041:
1384:
1318:
1292:
1273:
1248:
955:
756:
92:
4063:
2571: – Radioactivity naturally present within the Earth
5276:. Cosmic rays. Pierre Auger Observatory. Archived from
4462:
3621:
Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft
3218:"Astronomy without a telescope – 'Oh-my-God' particles"
2603:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
939:. Spallation is also responsible for the abundances of
55:
versus particle energy at the top of Earth's atmosphere
5641:
884:
Primary cosmic rays mostly originate from outside the
740:
Sources of ionizing radiation in interplanetary space.
9288:
7816:
6755:
5523:"Cosmic ray particle shower? There's an app for that"
5398:
Nuclear tracks in solids: Principles and applications
4009:
2616: – Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray detected in 1991
649:, winner of the 1980 Nobel Prize in Physics from the
6658:
Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics
6228:"Data Point to Radiation Risk for Travelers to Mars"
5328:
4909:"Synopsis: More dark matter hints from cosmic rays?"
2594:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
2579:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
2212:
1354:(CMB) radiation energy density at ≈0.25 eV/cm.
1223:
Relative particle energies and rates of cosmic rays
7100:
6948:
5876:
4788:
3154:
3018:. Goddard Space Flight Center. NASA. Archived from
2840:
American Association for the Advancement of Science
2715:"Nobel Prize in Physics 1936 – Presentation Speech"
2682:"Detecting cosmic rays from a galaxy far, far away"
2217:A role for cosmic rays in climate was suggested by
2109:
1516:
79:or clusters of particles (primarily represented by
7336:
6320:"Runaway Breakdown and the Mysteries of Lightning"
5701:Quaternary Geochronology: Methods and Applications
3869:
2833:
2260:
1925:; still high near nuclear test and accident sites.
1529:, in the Earth's atmosphere through the reaction:
1444:. Most state-of-the-art EAS arrays employ plastic
431:than at its base. However, his paper published in
7232:
6918:
6672:"Solar Influence on Global and Regional Climates"
6166:
6164:
6120:
6118:
4099:J.L. DuBois; R.P. Multhauf; C.A. Ziegler (2002).
2829:
2827:
2709:
2707:
2705:
2703:
983:Preliminary results from the presently operating
9372:
6221:
6219:
5867:, Vol. 40, No. 1, 1996. Retrieved 16 April 2008.
5396:R.L. Fleischer; P.B. Price; R.M. Walker (1975).
4598:
4319:
3383:Radioactivity: A History of a Mysterious Science
2763:
2761:
968:
6919:De Angelis, Alessandro; Pimenta, Mario (2018).
6710:
6385:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
6095:
5960:"Cosmic rays may soon stymie quantum computing"
4102:The Invention and Development of the Radiosonde
3271:
3010:
3008:
689:causes variations in the magnetic field of the
6161:
6115:
5485:
3504:
3215:
3044:
2824:
2744:. Vol. I. Eolss Publishers. p. 165.
2700:
2469:Langton Ultimate Cosmic-Ray Intensity Detector
1465:, can be used to detect cosmic ray particles.
266:as of 2019 had found no unequivocal evidence.
146:explosions of stars. Based on observations of
7802:
7322:
6717:"Cosmic rays, solar activity and the climate"
6541:"Influence of Cosmic Rays on Earth's Climate"
6216:
5181:"EGRET detection of gamma rays from the Moon"
4172:
3109:National Aeronautics and Space Administration
3050:
2758:
2742:Earth System: History and Natural Variability
2735:
2350:High Resolution Fly's Eye Cosmic Ray Detector
1584:(1.39 million years): N(n,p α)Be (spallation)
7103:"Note on the Nature of Cosmic-Ray Particles"
7101:Neddermeyer, S. H.; Anderson, C. D. (1937).
6949:Anderson, C. D.; Neddermeyer, S. H. (1936).
6441:
6381:"Solar Variability and the Lower Atmosphere"
4231:
4044:
3939:
3834:
3724:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A
3413:. University of Chicago Press. p. 686.
3148:
3005:
2987:"Are cosmic rays electromagnetic radiation?"
2610: – Unit of nuclear and particle physics
2560: – Space radiation effects on the brain
2415:Washington Large Area Time Coincidence Array
1761:depends on indoor accumulation of radon gas.
1650:
1482:Cosmic-Ray Extremely Distributed Observatory
480:Hess lands after his balloon flight in 1912.
7179:
5924:(2011). Australian Transport Safety Bureau.
5770:"Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation"
4561:
4524:
4360:
3386:. Oxford University Press. pp. 78–79.
2984:
2278:
817:Cosmic rays can be divided into two types:
529:of gamma rays. In 1927, while sailing from
281:, which have a short half-life) as well as
7809:
7795:
7329:
7315:
6256:"The Effects of Space Weather on Aviation"
6064:
5458:Laboratory for Elementary-Particle Physics
5306:. Pierre Auger Observatory. Archived from
4129:
3666:
3637:
3614:
3591:
3559:
3456:
3251:European Organization for Nuclear Research
2852:
2622: – High-energy particles from the Sun
2068:per month. To alleviate this problem, the
7248:
6998:
6822:
6769:
6740:
6695:
6569:
6538:
6455:
6404:
6378:
6002:
5899:"Intel plans to tackle cosmic ray threat"
5861:"Terrestrial cosmic rays and soft errors"
5655:
5088:
5044:
4924:
4876:
4741:
4708:. London, UK: Guardian News and Media Ltd
4697:
4642:
4404:
4386:
4345:
4201:
3743:
3576:
3520:
3472:
3349:
3310:
3298:International Journal of Modern Physics A
3180:
3076:
3066:
2929:
2868:
2783:
1569:(stable): spallation producing alpha rays
7295:BBC news, Cosmic rays find uranium, 2003
6669:
6630:
6253:
5905:, 8 April 2008. Retrieved 16 April 2008.
5694:
5300:"The mystery of high-energy cosmic rays"
4906:
3758:
2660:. Pearson Education India. p. 478.
2586: – Decrease in cosmic ray intensity
2249:has controversially argued that because
2160:
2018:
1361:
1166:
1103:
850:
787:
735:
475:
460:
410:
87:) that move through space at nearly the
58:
46:
7200:
6808:
6515:"Sun's Shifts May Cause Global Warming"
5865:IBM Journal of Research and Development
5208:Introduction to Astronomy and Cosmology
5205:
4847:
4534:Proceedings of the 31st ICRC, Łódź 2009
4427:
3155:Sovilj MP, Vuković B, Stanić D (2020).
3128:
2915:
2834:Pinholster, Ginger (13 February 2013).
2522:HEAT (High Energy Antimatter Telescope)
2052:at extremely high-altitude, such as in
1667:mSv per year for sea-level areas to 1.0
1135:such as positive or negative pions and
641:is currently operated at a site on the
238:). Of the nuclei, about 90% are simple
14:
9373:
7670:Wireless electronic devices and health
7071:
6984:
6379:Dickinson, Robert E. (December 1975).
5520:
5210:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 198.
4997:from the original on 23 September 2014
4320:Kraushaar, W. L.; et al. (1972).
4309:from the original on 3 September 2018.
3720:"Discussion on Ultra-Penetrating Rays"
3674:. Nobel Lectures. The Nobel Foundation
3380:Malley, Marjorie C. (25 August 2011).
3379:
3161:Arhiv Za Higijenu Rada I Toksikologiju
2655:
879:
608:
7790:
7310:
6911:
6599:
6225:
4896:from the original on 17 October 2014.
3781:from the original on 6 February 2016.
3692:
3406:
2846:
2127:space probe was credited to a single
1430:
627:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
328:centrifugal mechanism of acceleration
7696:List of civilian radiation accidents
7665:Wireless device radiation and health
7660:Biological dose units and quantities
7610:Electromagnetic radiation and health
7037:, Cambridge University Press, 1990.
6631:Benestad, Rasmus E. (9 March 2007).
6512:
6124:
5064:from the original on 13 August 2017.
4497:
4221:from the original on 2 January 2016.
3433:
3354:. Physics and Astronomy Department.
2506:Advanced Thin Ionization Calorimeter
2196:
2010:Figures are for the time before the
1563:(stable): spallation or from tritium
1357:
804:published the observation of a weak
277:(produced from the decay of charged
165:also appear to produce cosmic rays.
6589:from the original on 9 August 2017.
6335:
6098:"Magnetic shielding for spacecraft"
6096:Atkinson, Nancy (24 January 2005).
5373:Planets, Stars, and Stellar Systems
5333:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
4604:"Source of cosmic rays pinned down"
4173:Bhabha, H. J.; Heitler, W. (1937).
3122:
3051:Dembinski, H.; et al. (2018).
2429:ACE (Advanced Composition Explorer)
1843:Generally increases with elevation.
1786:Mainly from radioisotopes in food (
1680:Average annual radiation exposure (
1575:(12.3 years): N(n, H)C (spallation)
1378:
763:cosmic rays from gamma-ray bursts.
746:International Cosmic Ray Conference
525:were produced in the atmosphere by
415:Pacini makes a measurement in 1910.
24:
9181:Nexus for Exoplanet System Science
7645:Radioactivity in the life sciences
7301:Introduction to Cosmic Ray Showers
6254:Phillips, Tony (25 October 2013).
4795:California Institute of Technology
4506:. NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
4498:Gibb, Meredith (3 February 2010).
2717:. Nobelprize.org. 10 December 1936
2626:Track Imaging Cherenkov Experiment
2479:Solar and Heliospheric Observatory
2012:Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
1370:array of air Cherenkov telescopes.
1162:
1023:, was flown into space aboard the
601:. His classic paper, jointly with
437:was not widely accepted. In 1911,
36:Cosmic background (disambiguation)
25:
9422:
9081:Atomic and molecular astrophysics
7818:Molecules detected in outer space
7283:
6303:"NAIRAS Real-time radiation Dose"
6071:Space Settlements: A Design Study
5816:Washington state Dept. of Health
4119:from the original on 5 June 2011.
3643:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1936"
3272:Gaensler, Brian (November 2011).
2838:(Press release). Washington, DC:
2213:Postulated role in climate change
1346:starlight at 0.3 eV/cm, the
629:. The experiment employed eleven
484:
9358:
9346:
9334:
9322:
9310:
9298:
9271:
9259:
9247:
9236:
9235:
8042:
8033:
8024:
7035:Cosmic Rays and Particle Physics
6863:
6802:
6749:
6704:
6663:
6646:
6624:
6593:
6532:
6506:
6488:
6435:
6413:
6372:
6329:
6313:
6295:
6278:
6247:
6089:
5521:Timmer, John (13 October 2014).
5467:from the original on 6 June 2013
5244:National Geophysical Data Center
3503:: Translated with commentary in
2738:"Cosmic Influences on the Earth"
2498:
2110:Significance to aerospace travel
1517:Changes in atmospheric chemistry
1085:
1063:
242:(i.e., hydrogen nuclei); 9% are
9206:Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
7203:Nuclear Instruments and Methods
7061:, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1972
6058:
5977:
5952:
5927:
5908:
5892:
5870:
5850:
5830:
5810:
5790:
5775:
5772:page 339 retrieved 29 June 2011
5762:
5730:
5688:
5635:
5605:
5587:
5569:
5551:
5533:
5514:
5479:
5440:
5408:
5389:
5360:
5322:
5292:
5262:
5232:
5199:
5173:
5121:
5068:
5009:
4973:
4900:
4841:
4813:
4782:
4720:
4691:
4622:
4592:
4555:
4518:
4491:
4456:
4421:
4354:
4313:
4295:
4260:
4225:
4166:
4123:
4092:
4057:
4038:
4003:
3968:
3933:
3898:
3863:
3828:
3785:
3752:
3711:
3693:Rossi, Bruno Benedetto (1964).
3686:
3660:
3631:
3608:
3585:
3553:
3450:
3427:
3400:
3373:
3343:
3288:
3265:
3235:
3216:Nerlich, Steve (12 June 2011).
3209:
3197:
3129:Resnick, Brian (25 July 2019).
3103:. Goddard Space Flight Center.
3093:
2446:Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope
2345:High Energy Stereoscopic System
2292:
2261:Possible mass extinction factor
1394:developed by Robert Fleischer,
888:and sometimes even outside the
306:have been observed to approach
126:Cosmic rays were discovered by
7290:Aspera European network portal
7166:, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1964.
6893:10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.151104
6721:Environmental Research Letters
6670:Lockwood, Mike (16 May 2012).
6600:Plait, Phil (31 August 2011).
6226:Chang, Kenneth (30 May 2013).
5613:"The Detection of Cosmic Rays"
5558:CRAYFIS detector array paper.
5402:University of California Press
5240:"Extreme Space Weather Events"
5046:10.1103/PhysRevLett.110.141102
4943:10.1103/PhysRevLett.113.121102
4878:10.1103/PhysRevLett.113.121101
4698:Jha, Alok (14 February 2013).
4363:"Cosmic rays from super-novae"
4361:Baade, W.; Zwicky, F. (1934).
4303:"The Pierre Auger Observatory"
2978:
2909:
2729:
2674:
2649:
2599:Health threat from cosmic rays
2516:Cosmic Ray Energetics and Mass
2464:Interstellar Boundary Explorer
2116:Health threat from cosmic rays
2048:". This has been a problem in
1043:established an upper limit of
672:High-energy gamma rays (>50
228:
105:showers of secondary particles
13:
1:
9131:Extraterrestrial liquid water
6841:10.1103/PhysRevLett.88.081101
6513:Long, Marion (25 June 2007).
6147:10.1126/science.340.6136.1031
5787:page 8 retrieved 29 June 2011
5617:Milagro Gamma-Ray Observatory
5151:10.1016/S0370-1573(02)00013-3
4110:Smithsonian Institution Press
3280:. No. 41. Archived from
2642:
1917:Peaked in 1963 (prior to the
1094:Compton Gamma Ray Observatory
1047:for the antihelium to helium
969:Primary cosmic ray antimatter
680:
663:Greisen–Zatsepin–Kuzmin limit
559:. In 1948, observations with
304:ultra-high-energy cosmic rays
7223:10.1016/0029-554x(81)91039-9
6742:10.1088/1748-9326/8/4/045022
6067:"Appendix E: Mass Shielding"
4789:Mewaldt, Richard A. (1996).
3407:North, John (15 July 2008).
3034:"mirror copy, also archived"
2631:Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray
2544:TRACER (cosmic ray detector)
2421:
2300:Akeno Giant Air Shower Array
2140:energetic particle radiation
2040:or incorrect performance of
406:
168:
7:
8362:Protonated hydrogen cyanide
7533:Cosmic background radiation
7236:European Physical Journal H
7094:10.1103/physrevlett.83.4241
6580:10.1103/PhysRevLett.81.5027
6065:Globus, Al (10 July 2002).
5743:(in German). Archived from
4700:"Cosmic ray mystery solved"
3592:Kolhörster, Werner (1913).
2736:Cilek, Vaclav, ed. (2009).
2569:Environmental radioactivity
2564:Cosmic ray visual phenomena
2550:
2434:Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer
1352:cosmic microwave background
1108:When cosmic rays enter the
993:International Space Station
985:Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer
975:Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer
635:Harvard College Observatory
473:in 1936 for his discovery.
32:Cosmic background radiation
10:
9427:
7762:
7620:Lasers and aviation safety
7267:10.1140/epjh/e2011-10033-6
7017:10.1103/physrevd.62.032007
6608:. Kalmbach. Archived from
6539:Svensmark, Henrik (1998).
6474:10.1666/0094-8373-35.3.311
5882:"Solar Storms: Fast Facts"
5838:"Radiation in environment"
5508:10.1103/PhysRevLett.24.917
5354:10.1016/j.epsl.2005.02.011
4907:Schirber, Michael (2014).
4823:Astronomy and Astrophysics
3249:. FAQ: Facts and figures.
2658:Atomic and Nuclear Physics
2656:Sharma, Shatendra (2008).
2592: – American physicist
2282:
2267:Pliocene § Supernovae
2264:
2113:
2022:
1633:Chlorine-38 (37.2 minutes)
1624:Chlorine-34 m (32 minutes)
1511:
972:
802:Pierre Auger Collaboration
725:, active galactic nuclei,
700:
373:
107:, some of which reach the
91:. They originate from the
29:
9230:
9121:Earliest known life forms
9116:Diffuse interstellar band
9056:
8976:
8901:
8792:
8727:
8667:
8595:
8587:Protonated cyanoacetylene
8501:
8395:
8357:Protonated carbon dioxide
8317:Hydromagnesium isocyanide
8265:
8051:
8022:
7833:
7824:
7760:
7724:
7688:
7650:Radioactive contamination
7575:
7503:Electromagnetic radiation
7493:
7405:
7352:
7345:
6929:10.1007/978-3-319-78181-5
6697:10.1007/s10712-012-9181-3
6021:10.1038/s41586-020-2619-8
5674:10.1103/RevModPhys.83.907
5644:Reviews of Modern Physics
5077:The Astrophysical Journal
4562:Hague, J.D. (July 2009).
4525:Hague, J.D. (July 2009).
4326:The Astrophysical Journal
4086:10.1103/RevModPhys.11.288
4066:Reviews of Modern Physics
3697:. New York: McGraw-Hill.
3598:Physikalische Zeitschrift
3565:Physikalische Zeitschrift
3440:Physikalische Zeitschrift
3329:10.1142/S0217751X03013879
3173:10.2478/aiht-2020-71-3403
2620:Solar energetic particles
2185:receive. Aircraft flying
2150:while traveling from the
2038:electronic memory devices
1983:
1872:
1735:
1705:
1691:
1688:
1651:Role in ambient radiation
1603:Magnesium-28 (20.9 hours)
1309:
1283:
1264:
1239:
1234:
1227:
1008:one-sixth of the energy.
837:solar energetic particles
830:extragalactic cosmic rays
434:Physikalische Zeitschrift
296:
205:. Meanwhile "cosmic" ray
183:electromagnetic radiation
9166:Iron–sulfur world theory
9161:Photodissociation region
8864:Methyl-cyano-diacetylene
7763:See also the categories
7701:1996 Costa Rica accident
7362:Acoustic radiation force
5375:(1 ed.). Springer.
4485:10.1103/PhysRev.83.658.2
4234:Zeitschrift für Physik C
3360:Georgia State University
2575:Extragalactic cosmic ray
2385:Pierre Auger Observatory
2305:Chicago Air Shower Array
2279:Research and experiments
2193:are at particular risk.
2044:) often referred to as "
1636:Chlorine-39 (56 minutes)
1590:(5730 years): N(n, p)C (
1442:air Cherenkov telescopes
1092:The Moon as seen by the
872:, positrons, muons, and
812:
111:, although the bulk are
9241:Category:Astrochemistry
8831:, fullerene, buckyball)
8518:Cyanobutadiynyl radical
8493:Silicon-carbide cluster
8483:Protonated formaldehyde
7675:Radiation heat-transfer
7528:Gravitational radiation
6873:Physical Review Letters
6811:Physical Review Letters
6549:Physical Review Letters
6307:sol.spacenvironment.net
6194:10.1126/science.1235989
5886:Nature Publishing Group
5563:14 October 2014 at the
5545:14 October 2014 at the
5488:Physical Review Letters
5416:"What are cosmic rays?"
5367:Castellina, Antonella;
5346:2005E&PSL.234..335L
5025:Physical Review Letters
4913:Physical Review Letters
4857:Physical Review Letters
4835:1981A&A...102L...9K
4760:10.1126/science.aan4338
4661:10.1126/science.1199172
4573:: 36–39. Archived from
4289:10.1103/PhysRev.122.637
4032:10.1103/PhysRev.74.1828
3761:"Penetrating Radiation"
3615:Kolhörster, W. (1914).
3253:(CERN). 2021. p. 3
3016:"What are cosmic rays?"
2948:10.1126/science.aat2890
2802:10.1126/science.1231160
2400:Telescope Array Project
2148:Mars Science Laboratory
2089:plunge hundreds of feet
1919:Partial Test Ban Treaty
1659:mSv out of a total of 3
1578:Beryllium-7 (53.3 days)
1489:air Cherenkov telescope
1348:galactic magnetic field
1057:The moon in cosmic rays
631:scintillation detectors
512:In the 1920s, the term
378:After the discovery of
9254:Outer space portal
9096:Circumstellar envelope
8061:Aluminium(I) hydroxide
7971:Phosphorus mononitride
7848:Aluminium monofluoride
7843:Aluminium monochloride
7716:1990 Zaragoza accident
7711:1984 Moroccan accident
7680:Linear energy transfer
7354:Non-ionizing radiation
7182:Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac
7130:10.1103/physrev.51.884
6978:10.1103/physrev.50.263
6427:. 2007. Archived from
6262:. NASA. Archived from
6073:. NASA. Archived from
5847:retrieved 29 June 2011
5827:retrieved 29 June 2011
5818:"Background radiation"
5807:retrieved 29 June 2011
5798:"Background radiation"
4450:10.1103/PhysRev.74.489
4203:10.1098/rspa.1937.0082
3997:10.1103/PhysRev.74.213
3962:10.1103/PhysRev.45.212
3927:10.1103/PhysRev.43.835
3892:10.1103/PhysRev.43.834
3857:10.1103/PhysRev.36.606
3794:Zeitschrift für Physik
3745:10.1098/rspa.1931.0104
3434:Wulf, Theodor (1910).
3058:Proceedings of Science
2989:. NASA. Archived from
2608:Meter water equivalent
2285:Cosmic-ray observatory
2174:
2136:crewed mission to Mars
1621:Sulfur-38 (2.84 hours)
1609:Silicon-32 (101 years)
1606:Silicon-31 (2.6 hours)
1371:
1181:Earth's magnetic field
1172:
856:
793:
741:
717:(1951) identified the
503:
481:
471:Nobel Prize in Physics
466:
416:
332:active galactic nuclei
163:active galactic nuclei
132:Nobel Prize in Physics
115:off into space by the
103:, cosmic rays produce
95:, from outside of the
65:
56:
9406:Concepts in astronomy
9386:Astroparticle physics
9151:Interplanetary medium
9126:Extraterrestrial life
8764:Octatetraynyl radical
8382:Tricarbon monosulfide
7929:Magnesium monohydride
7706:1987 Goiânia accident
7508:Synchrotron radiation
7498:Earth's energy budget
7480:Radioactive materials
7475:Particle accelerators
6780:10.1089/ast.2018.1902
6676:Surveys in Geophysics
5843:22 March 2011 at the
5540:Collaboration website
5206:Morison, Ian (2008).
5187:. NASA. 1 August 2005
4388:10.1073/pnas.20.5.259
3350:Nave, Carl R. (ed.).
3247:Large Hadron Collider
3105:imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov
2590:Gilbert Jerome Perlow
2164:
2019:Effect on electronics
1758:Primarily from radon,
1618:Sulfur-35 (87.5 days)
1597:Sodium-22 (2.6 years)
1472:devices in pervasive
1400:Robert M. Walker
1365:
1305:(a few times a year)
1170:
1104:Secondary cosmic rays
937:cosmic ray spallation
854:
791:
739:
651:University of Chicago
623:extensive air showers
583:was the first to use
494:
479:
464:
414:
394:, was caused only by
312:Large Hadron Collider
221:, depending on their
140:Fermi Space Telescope
77:high-energy particles
62:
50:
9278:Chemistry portal
9266:Astronomy portal
9212:RNA world hypothesis
9196:PAH world hypothesis
8889:Heptatrienyl radical
8821:Buckminsterfullerene
8709:Methylcyanoacetylene
8217:Silicon carbonitride
8192:Methylidynephosphane
8158:Magnesium isocyanide
8066:Aluminium isocyanide
7868:Carbon monophosphide
7777:Radiation protection
7630:Radiation protection
7518:Black-body radiation
7425:Background radiation
7340:(physics and health)
6266:on 28 September 2019
4610:. Tech Media Network
4504:Imagine the Universe
3647:The Nobel Foundation
1639:Argon-39 (269 years)
1600:Sodium-24 (15 hours)
1396:P. Buford Price
1112:, they collide with
822:galactic cosmic rays
768:Very Large Telescope
533:to the Netherlands,
264:anti-alpha particles
38:. For the film, see
9156:Interstellar medium
9136:Forbidden mechanism
8949:Hydrogen isocyanide
8639:Hexatriynyl radical
8222:c-Silicon dicarbide
8127:Hydrogen isocyanide
7991:Silicon monosulfide
7966:Phosphorus monoxide
7934:Methylidyne radical
7893:Fluoromethylidynium
7853:Aluminium(II) oxide
7747:Radiation hardening
7689:Radiation incidents
7625:Medical radiography
7584:Radiation syndrome
7538:Cherenkov radiation
7303:by Konrad Bernlöhr.
7259:2010EPJH...35..309C
7215:1981NIMPR.191..419Z
7194:2010ASPC..424...98T
7122:1937PhRv...51..884N
7086:1999PhRvL..83.4241K
7009:2000PhRvD..62c2007B
6970:1936PhRv...50..263A
6885:2016PhRvL.116o1104F
6833:2002PhRvL..88h1101B
6733:2013ERL.....8d5022S
6715:(7 November 2013).
6688:2012SGeo...33..503L
6562:1998PhRvL..81.5027S
6466:2009Pbio...35..311M
6425:National Geographic
6397:1975BAMS...56.1240D
6350:1959Natur.183..451N
6186:2013Sci...340.1080Z
6180:(6136): 1080–1084.
6139:2013Sci...340.1031K
6013:2020Natur.584..551V
5878:Scientific American
5803:9 June 2011 at the
5785:UNSCEAR 2008 report
5666:2011RvMP...83..907L
5500:1970PhRvL..24..917C
5216:2008iac..book.....M
5143:2002PhR...366..331A
5099:2002ApJ...565..280M
5037:2013PhRvL.110n1102A
4935:2014PhRvL.113l1102A
4869:2014PhRvL.113l1101A
4752:2017Sci...357.1266P
4736:(6357): 1266–1270.
4653:2011Sci...332...69A
4477:1951PhRv...83..658S
4442:1948PhRv...74..489B
4379:1934PNAS...20..259B
4338:1972ApJ...177..341K
4281:1961PhRv..122..637C
4194:1937RSPSA.159..432B
4144:1935Natur.135.1072V
4138:(3426): 1072–1073.
4078:1939RvMP...11..288A
4047:Ricerca Scientifica
4024:1948PhRv...74.1828B
3989:1948PhRv...74..213F
3954:1934PhRv...45..212R
3919:1933PhRv...43..835A
3884:1933PhRv...43..834J
3849:1930PhRv...36..606R
3806:1929ZPhy...56..751B
3774:(9–10): 1115–1127.
3736:1931RSPSA.132..331G
3531:1912NCim....3...93P
3483:1912NCim....3...93P
3321:2003IJMPA..18.2229A
3107:. Science Toolbox.
3078:10.22323/1.301.0533
2940:2018Sci...361..147I
2887:10.1038/nature17147
2879:2016Natur.531..476H
2794:2013Sci...339..807A
2688:. 21 September 2017
2223:Robert E. Dickinson
2034:integrated circuits
2025:Radiation hardening
1685:
1493:Cherenkov radiation
1468:More recently, the
1450:Cherenkov radiation
1436:in the atmosphere.
1235:Particle rate (ms)
1224:
960:interstellar matter
894:elemental abundance
880:Primary cosmic rays
759:·cm on the flux of
659:University of Leeds
609:Energy distribution
572:another." In 1937,
18:Galactic cosmic ray
9391:Ionizing radiation
9176:Molecules in stars
9146:Intergalactic dust
9091:Circumstellar dust
9033:Naphthalene cation
8968:Trihydrogen cation
8944:Hydrogen deuteride
8869:Methyltriacetylene
8704:Hexapentaenylidene
8523:E-Cyanomethanimine
8443:Cyclopropenylidene
8377:Tricarbon monoxide
8367:Silicon tricarbide
8337:Methylene amidogen
8327:Isothiocyanic acid
8242:Thioxoethenylidene
8202:Trihydrogen cation
8016:Titanium(II) oxide
7976:Potassium chloride
7955:Sulfur mononitride
7898:Helium hydride ion
7873:Carbon monosulfide
7742:Radioactive source
7563:Radiation exposure
7543:Askaryan radiation
7523:Particle radiation
7407:Ionizing radiation
6912:Further references
6612:on 12 January 2018
6233:The New York Times
5920:5 May 2022 at the
5823:2 May 2012 at the
5750:on 3 February 2010
5455:Cornell University
5280:on 12 October 2012
4246:10.1007/BF01579904
3814:10.1007/BF01340137
3800:(11–12): 751–777.
3539:10.1007/BF02957440
3491:10.1007/BF02957440
3022:on 28 October 2012
2614:Oh-My-God particle
2537:3 May 2012 at the
2175:
2087:airliner to twice
1679:
1592:neutron activation
1538:radiocarbon dating
1431:Indirect detection
1372:
1222:
1173:
1110:Earth's atmosphere
857:
794:
742:
527:Compton scattering
482:
469:Hess received the
467:
417:
352:kilometre-per-hour
101:Earth's atmosphere
66:
57:
9396:Stellar phenomena
9286:
9285:
9201:Pseudo-panspermia
8897:
8896:
8844:Cyanodecapentayne
8784:N-Methylformamide
8759:Methyldiacetylene
8684:Aminoacetonitrile
8654:Methyl isocyanate
8572:Methyl isocyanide
8453:Isocyanoacetylene
8433:Cyanoformaldehyde
8312:Hydrogen peroxide
8197:Potassium cyanide
8153:Magnesium cyanide
8106:Disilicon carbide
8101:Dicarbon monoxide
7908:Hydrogen fluoride
7903:Hydrogen chloride
7784:
7783:
7765:Radiation effects
7635:Radiation therapy
7571:
7570:
7513:Thermal radiation
7450:Neutron radiation
7415:Radioactive decay
7080:(21): 4241–4244.
6938:978-3-319-78181-5
6713:Wolfendale, A. W.
6660:65 (2003) 801–812
6556:(22): 5027–5030.
6431:on 23 April 2007.
6391:(12): 1240–1248.
6344:(4659): 451–452.
5997:(7822): 551–556.
5711:978-0-87590-950-9
5382:978-90-481-8817-8
5225:978-0-470-03333-3
4801:on 30 August 2009
4305:. Auger Project.
4152:10.1038/1351072c0
4018:(12): 1828–1837.
3759:Clay, J. (1927).
3704:978-0-07-053890-0
3305:(13): 2229–2366.
3061:. ICRC2017: 533.
2985:Christian, Eric.
2924:(6398): 147–151.
2863:(7595): 476–479.
2778:(6424): 807–811.
2751:978-1-84826-104-4
2667:978-81-317-1924-4
2245:Danish physicist
2207:runaway breakdown
2197:Role in lightning
2191:geomagnetic poles
2104:quantum computers
2070:Intel Corporation
2015:
2007:
2006:
1955:
1928:
1844:
1819:
1794:
1791:
1762:
1759:
1523:unstable isotopes
1358:Detection methods
1335:
1334:
1331:(once a century)
1228:Particle energy (
1189:termination shock
711:Horace W. Babcock
599:Bhabha scattering
579:Soviet physicist
561:nuclear emulsions
506:Ernest Rutherford
456:Werner Kolhörster
360:megaelectronvolts
316:teraelectronvolts
40:Cosmic Ray (film)
16:(Redirected from
9418:
9363:
9362:
9351:
9350:
9349:
9339:
9338:
9337:
9327:
9326:
9315:
9314:
9303:
9302:
9294:
9276:
9275:
9274:
9264:
9263:
9262:
9252:
9251:
9250:
9239:
9238:
9186:Organic compound
9086:Chemical formula
8991:Dihydroxyacetone
8939:Hydrogen cyanide
8624:Cyanodiacetylene
8478:Propadienylidene
8372:Thioformaldehyde
8247:Titanium dioxide
8212:Sodium hydroxide
8133:Hydrogen sulfide
8121:Hydrogen cyanide
8081:Carbonyl sulfide
8046:
8037:
8028:
7986:Silicon monoxide
7919:Hydroxyl radical
7831:
7830:
7811:
7804:
7797:
7788:
7787:
7725:Related articles
7640:Radiation damage
7465:Nuclear reactors
7350:
7349:
7331:
7324:
7317:
7308:
7307:
7278:
7252:
7226:
7197:
7133:
7107:
7097:
7020:
7002:
6981:
6955:
6942:
6905:
6904:
6867:
6861:
6860:
6826:
6824:astro-ph/0201018
6806:
6800:
6799:
6773:
6753:
6747:
6746:
6744:
6708:
6702:
6701:
6699:
6682:(3–4): 503–534.
6667:
6661:
6650:
6644:
6643:
6641:
6639:
6628:
6622:
6621:
6619:
6617:
6597:
6591:
6590:
6588:
6573:
6545:
6536:
6530:
6529:
6527:
6525:
6510:
6504:
6503:
6492:
6486:
6485:
6459:
6439:
6433:
6432:
6417:
6411:
6410:
6408:
6376:
6370:
6369:
6358:10.1038/183451a0
6333:
6327:
6317:
6311:
6310:
6299:
6293:
6287:
6282:
6276:
6275:
6273:
6271:
6251:
6245:
6244:
6242:
6240:
6223:
6214:
6213:
6168:
6159:
6158:
6122:
6113:
6112:
6110:
6108:
6102:The Space Review
6093:
6087:
6086:
6084:
6082:
6062:
6056:
6055:
6053:
6051:
6006:
5981:
5975:
5974:
5972:
5970:
5956:
5950:
5949:
5947:
5945:
5931:
5925:
5912:
5906:
5896:
5890:
5889:
5880:(21 July 2008).
5874:
5868:
5854:
5848:
5834:
5828:
5814:
5808:
5794:
5788:
5779:
5773:
5766:
5760:
5759:
5757:
5755:
5749:
5742:
5734:
5728:
5727:
5725:
5723:
5714:. Archived from
5692:
5686:
5685:
5659:
5639:
5633:
5632:
5630:
5628:
5609:
5603:
5602:
5591:
5585:
5584:
5573:
5567:
5555:
5549:
5537:
5531:
5530:
5518:
5512:
5511:
5483:
5477:
5476:
5474:
5472:
5466:
5452:
5444:
5438:
5437:
5435:
5433:
5427:
5420:
5412:
5406:
5405:
5393:
5387:
5386:
5369:Donato, Fiorenza
5364:
5358:
5357:
5340:(3–4): 335–349.
5326:
5320:
5319:
5317:
5315:
5296:
5290:
5289:
5287:
5285:
5266:
5260:
5259:
5257:
5255:
5246:. Archived from
5236:
5230:
5229:
5203:
5197:
5196:
5194:
5192:
5177:
5171:
5170:
5125:
5119:
5118:
5092:
5090:astro-ph/0106567
5072:
5066:
5065:
5063:
5048:
5022:
5013:
5007:
5006:
5004:
5002:
4996:
4985:
4977:
4971:
4970:
4928:
4904:
4898:
4897:
4895:
4880:
4854:
4845:
4839:
4838:
4817:
4811:
4810:
4808:
4806:
4797:. Archived from
4786:
4780:
4779:
4745:
4724:
4718:
4717:
4715:
4713:
4695:
4689:
4688:
4646:
4626:
4620:
4619:
4617:
4615:
4602:(25 June 2009).
4600:Moskowitz, Clara
4596:
4590:
4589:
4587:
4585:
4579:
4568:
4559:
4553:
4552:
4550:
4548:
4542:
4531:
4522:
4516:
4515:
4513:
4511:
4495:
4489:
4488:
4460:
4454:
4453:
4425:
4419:
4418:
4408:
4390:
4358:
4352:
4351:
4349:
4317:
4311:
4310:
4299:
4293:
4292:
4264:
4258:
4257:
4229:
4223:
4222:
4220:
4205:
4188:(898): 432–458.
4179:
4170:
4164:
4163:
4127:
4121:
4120:
4118:
4107:
4096:
4090:
4089:
4072:(3–4): 288–291,
4061:
4055:
4054:
4042:
4036:
4035:
4007:
4001:
4000:
3972:
3966:
3965:
3937:
3931:
3930:
3902:
3896:
3895:
3867:
3861:
3860:
3832:
3826:
3825:
3789:
3783:
3782:
3780:
3765:
3756:
3750:
3749:
3747:
3715:
3709:
3708:
3690:
3684:
3683:
3681:
3679:
3664:
3658:
3657:
3655:
3653:
3635:
3629:
3628:
3612:
3606:
3605:
3589:
3583:
3582:
3580:
3557:
3551:
3550:
3524:
3508:Il Nuovo Cimento
3502:
3476:
3460:Il Nuovo Cimento
3454:
3448:
3447:
3431:
3425:
3424:
3404:
3398:
3397:
3377:
3371:
3370:
3368:
3366:
3347:
3341:
3340:
3314:
3292:
3286:
3285:
3284:on 7 April 2013.
3269:
3263:
3262:
3260:
3258:
3243:"LHC: The guide"
3239:
3233:
3232:
3230:
3228:
3213:
3207:
3201:
3195:
3194:
3184:
3152:
3146:
3145:
3143:
3141:
3126:
3120:
3119:
3117:
3115:
3097:
3091:
3090:
3080:
3070:
3048:
3042:
3041:
3040:on 4 March 2016.
3036:. Archived from
3031:
3029:
3027:
3012:
3003:
3002:
3000:
2998:
2982:
2976:
2975:
2933:
2913:
2907:
2906:
2872:
2850:
2844:
2843:
2831:
2822:
2821:
2787:
2765:
2756:
2755:
2733:
2727:
2726:
2724:
2722:
2711:
2698:
2697:
2695:
2693:
2678:
2672:
2671:
2653:
2636:
2604:
2595:
2584:Forbush decrease
2580:
2405:Tunka experiment
2247:Henrik Svensmark
2236:mass extinctions
2142:detected by the
2009:
1951:
1916:
1842:
1817:
1793:depends on diet.
1792:
1785:
1760:
1757:
1686:
1678:
1675:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1416:sodium hydroxide
1379:Direct detection
1330:
1328:
1316:
1314:
1304:
1302:
1290:
1288:
1271:
1269:
1260:
1258:
1246:
1244:
1225:
1221:
1089:
1067:
1046:
1028:
999:
935:, an example of
785:of cosmic rays.
781:
762:
731:gamma-ray bursts
675:
615:density sampling
365:
341:
321:
309:
308:3 × 10 eV
21:
9426:
9425:
9421:
9420:
9419:
9417:
9416:
9415:
9411:1912 in science
9401:Solar phenomena
9371:
9370:
9369:
9357:
9347:
9345:
9335:
9333:
9321:
9309:
9297:
9289:
9287:
9282:
9272:
9270:
9260:
9258:
9248:
9246:
9226:
9052:
9028:
9019:
8972:
8962:
8905:
8893:
8874:Propionaldehyde
8849:Ethylene glycol
8838:
8830:
8826:
8797:
8795:
8788:
8744:Cyanohexatriyne
8730:
8723:
8670:
8663:
8598:
8591:
8551:
8504:
8497:
8468:Methoxy radical
8398:
8391:
8387:Thiocyanic acid
8268:
8261:
8171:
8111:Ethynyl radical
8047:
8041:
8040:
8039:
8038:
8032:
8031:
8030:
8029:
8020:
8011:Sulfur monoxide
7996:Sodium chloride
7981:Silicon carbide
7888:Diatomic carbon
7878:Carbon monoxide
7820:
7815:
7785:
7780:
7779:
7756:
7752:Havana syndrome
7737:Nuclear physics
7720:
7684:
7577:
7567:
7553:Unruh radiation
7489:
7470:Nuclear weapons
7455:Nuclear fission
7401:
7341:
7335:
7286:
7281:
7116:(10): 884–886.
7105:
7074:Phys. Rev. Lett
7033:T. K. Gaisser,
6953:
6939:
6914:
6909:
6908:
6868:
6864:
6807:
6803:
6754:
6750:
6709:
6705:
6668:
6664:
6651:
6647:
6637:
6635:
6629:
6625:
6615:
6613:
6598:
6594:
6586:
6543:
6537:
6533:
6523:
6521:
6511:
6507:
6502:. 11 July 2016.
6494:
6493:
6489:
6440:
6436:
6419:
6418:
6414:
6377:
6373:
6334:
6330:
6318:
6314:
6301:
6300:
6296:
6285:
6283:
6279:
6269:
6267:
6252:
6248:
6238:
6236:
6224:
6217:
6169:
6162:
6123:
6116:
6106:
6104:
6094:
6090:
6080:
6078:
6063:
6059:
6049:
6047:
5982:
5978:
5968:
5966:
5958:
5957:
5953:
5943:
5941:
5933:
5932:
5928:
5922:Wayback Machine
5913:
5909:
5897:
5893:
5875:
5871:
5855:
5851:
5845:Wayback Machine
5835:
5831:
5825:Wayback Machine
5815:
5811:
5805:Wayback Machine
5795:
5791:
5780:
5776:
5767:
5763:
5753:
5751:
5747:
5740:
5736:
5735:
5731:
5721:
5719:
5712:
5696:Trumbore, Susan
5693:
5689:
5640:
5636:
5626:
5624:
5623:on 5 March 2013
5611:
5610:
5606:
5593:
5592:
5588:
5575:
5574:
5570:
5565:Wayback Machine
5556:
5552:
5547:Wayback Machine
5538:
5534:
5519:
5515:
5494:(16): 917–923.
5484:
5480:
5470:
5468:
5464:
5450:
5446:
5445:
5441:
5431:
5429:
5428:on 12 July 2012
5425:
5418:
5414:
5413:
5409:
5394:
5390:
5383:
5365:
5361:
5327:
5323:
5313:
5311:
5310:on 8 March 2021
5298:
5297:
5293:
5283:
5281:
5268:
5267:
5263:
5253:
5251:
5238:
5237:
5233:
5226:
5204:
5200:
5190:
5188:
5179:
5178:
5174:
5131:Physics Reports
5126:
5122:
5073:
5069:
5061:
5020:
5014:
5010:
5000:
4998:
4994:
4983:
4979:
4978:
4974:
4905:
4901:
4893:
4852:
4846:
4842:
4818:
4814:
4804:
4802:
4787:
4783:
4725:
4721:
4711:
4709:
4696:
4692:
4637:(6025): 69–72.
4627:
4623:
4613:
4611:
4597:
4593:
4583:
4581:
4577:
4566:
4560:
4556:
4546:
4544:
4540:
4529:
4523:
4519:
4509:
4507:
4496:
4492:
4465:Physical Review
4461:
4457:
4430:Physical Review
4426:
4422:
4359:
4355:
4318:
4314:
4301:
4300:
4296:
4269:Physical Review
4265:
4261:
4230:
4226:
4218:
4177:
4171:
4167:
4128:
4124:
4116:
4105:
4097:
4093:
4062:
4058:
4043:
4039:
4012:Physical Review
4008:
4004:
3977:Physical Review
3973:
3969:
3942:Physical Review
3938:
3934:
3913:(10): 835–836.
3907:Physical Review
3903:
3899:
3878:(10): 834–835.
3872:Physical Review
3868:
3864:
3837:Physical Review
3833:
3829:
3790:
3786:
3778:
3763:
3757:
3753:
3716:
3712:
3705:
3691:
3687:
3677:
3675:
3665:
3661:
3651:
3649:
3636:
3632:
3613:
3609:
3590:
3586:
3558:
3554:
3455:
3451:
3432:
3428:
3421:
3405:
3401:
3394:
3378:
3374:
3364:
3362:
3348:
3344:
3293:
3289:
3274:"Extreme speed"
3270:
3266:
3256:
3254:
3241:
3240:
3236:
3226:
3224:
3214:
3210:
3202:
3198:
3153:
3149:
3139:
3137:
3127:
3123:
3113:
3111:
3099:
3098:
3094:
3049:
3045:
3032:
3025:
3023:
3014:
3013:
3006:
2996:
2994:
2983:
2979:
2914:
2910:
2851:
2847:
2832:
2825:
2766:
2759:
2752:
2734:
2730:
2720:
2718:
2713:
2712:
2701:
2691:
2689:
2680:
2679:
2675:
2668:
2654:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2634:
2602:
2593:
2578:
2553:
2548:
2539:Wayback Machine
2501:
2496:
2440:Cassini–Huygens
2424:
2419:
2395:Spaceship Earth
2295:
2287:
2281:
2269:
2263:
2251:solar variation
2221:in 1959 and by
2215:
2199:
2118:
2112:
2106:in the future.
2074:microprocessors
2027:
2021:
1953:
1926:
1923:a spike in 1986
1718:
1673:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1653:
1648:
1630:(300,000 years)
1546:
1533:
1519:
1514:
1463:bubble chambers
1433:
1425:nuclear fission
1381:
1360:
1326:
1324:
1312:
1310:
1300:
1298:
1286:
1284:
1267:
1265:
1256:
1254:
1242:
1240:
1165:
1163:Cosmic-ray flux
1149:water-Cherenkov
1145:bubble chambers
1106:
1101:
1100:
1099:
1098:
1097:
1090:
1081:
1080:
1079:
1068:
1059:
1058:
1044:
1024:
997:
991:) on board the
977:
971:
882:
842:solar eruptions
815:
779:
760:
703:
695:neutron monitor
683:
673:
611:
589:Geiger counters
569:Geiger counters
518:Robert Millikan
492:wrote in 1964:
487:
439:Domenico Pacini
409:
384:Henri Becquerel
376:
363:
339:
319:
307:
299:
244:alpha particles
231:
171:
64:magnetic field.
43:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
9424:
9414:
9413:
9408:
9403:
9398:
9393:
9388:
9383:
9368:
9367:
9355:
9343:
9331:
9319:
9307:
9284:
9283:
9281:
9280:
9268:
9256:
9244:
9231:
9228:
9227:
9225:
9224:
9219:
9214:
9209:
9203:
9198:
9193:
9188:
9183:
9178:
9173:
9168:
9163:
9158:
9153:
9148:
9143:
9138:
9133:
9128:
9123:
9118:
9113:
9111:Cosmochemistry
9108:
9103:
9098:
9093:
9088:
9083:
9078:
9076:Astrochemistry
9073:
9068:
9062:
9060:
9054:
9053:
9051:
9050:
9045:
9040:
9035:
9030:
9026:
9022:
9017:
9013:
9008:
9003:
8998:
8993:
8988:
8982:
8980:
8974:
8973:
8971:
8970:
8965:
8960:
8956:
8951:
8946:
8941:
8936:
8931:
8929:Formyl radical
8926:
8921:
8915:
8909:
8907:
8899:
8898:
8895:
8894:
8892:
8891:
8886:
8881:
8876:
8871:
8866:
8861:
8859:Methyl acetate
8856:
8851:
8846:
8841:
8836:
8832:
8828:
8824:
8818:
8813:
8808:
8802:
8800:
8790:
8789:
8787:
8786:
8781:
8776:
8771:
8766:
8761:
8756:
8751:
8749:Dimethyl ether
8746:
8741:
8735:
8733:
8725:
8724:
8722:
8721:
8716:
8714:Methyl formate
8711:
8706:
8701:
8699:Glycolaldehyde
8696:
8691:
8686:
8681:
8675:
8673:
8665:
8664:
8662:
8661:
8656:
8651:
8646:
8641:
8636:
8634:Glycolonitrile
8631:
8629:Ethylene oxide
8626:
8621:
8620:
8619:
8609:
8603:
8601:
8593:
8592:
8590:
8589:
8584:
8579:
8574:
8569:
8564:
8559:
8554:
8549:
8545:
8540:
8535:
8530:
8528:Cyclopropenone
8525:
8520:
8515:
8509:
8507:
8499:
8498:
8496:
8495:
8490:
8485:
8480:
8475:
8470:
8465:
8460:
8455:
8450:
8445:
8440:
8435:
8430:
8428:Cyanoacetylene
8425:
8420:
8415:
8410:
8403:
8401:
8393:
8392:
8390:
8389:
8384:
8379:
8374:
8369:
8364:
8359:
8354:
8349:
8347:Methyl radical
8344:
8339:
8334:
8329:
8324:
8322:Isocyanic acid
8319:
8314:
8309:
8304:
8299:
8294:
8289:
8287:Isocyanic acid
8284:
8279:
8273:
8271:
8263:
8262:
8260:
8259:
8254:
8249:
8244:
8239:
8234:
8232:Sulfur dioxide
8229:
8224:
8219:
8214:
8209:
8207:Sodium cyanide
8204:
8199:
8194:
8189:
8184:
8179:
8174:
8169:
8165:
8160:
8155:
8150:
8145:
8140:
8135:
8130:
8124:
8118:
8116:Formyl radical
8113:
8108:
8103:
8098:
8093:
8088:
8083:
8078:
8076:Carbon dioxide
8073:
8068:
8063:
8057:
8055:
8049:
8048:
8023:
8021:
8019:
8018:
8013:
8008:
8003:
7998:
7993:
7988:
7983:
7978:
7973:
7968:
7963:
7957:
7952:
7947:
7941:
7936:
7931:
7926:
7924:Iron(II) oxide
7921:
7916:
7910:
7905:
7900:
7895:
7890:
7885:
7880:
7875:
7870:
7865:
7860:
7855:
7850:
7845:
7839:
7837:
7828:
7822:
7821:
7814:
7813:
7806:
7799:
7791:
7782:
7781:
7761:
7758:
7757:
7755:
7754:
7749:
7744:
7739:
7734:
7728:
7726:
7722:
7721:
7719:
7718:
7713:
7708:
7703:
7698:
7692:
7690:
7686:
7685:
7683:
7682:
7677:
7672:
7667:
7662:
7657:
7652:
7647:
7642:
7637:
7632:
7627:
7622:
7617:
7612:
7607:
7602:
7600:Health physics
7597:
7596:
7595:
7590:
7581:
7579:
7573:
7572:
7569:
7568:
7566:
7565:
7560:
7558:Dark radiation
7555:
7550:
7548:Bremsstrahlung
7545:
7540:
7535:
7530:
7525:
7520:
7515:
7510:
7505:
7500:
7494:
7491:
7490:
7488:
7487:
7482:
7477:
7472:
7467:
7462:
7460:Nuclear fusion
7457:
7452:
7447:
7442:
7437:
7432:
7430:Alpha particle
7427:
7422:
7417:
7411:
7409:
7403:
7402:
7400:
7399:
7394:
7389:
7384:
7379:
7374:
7369:
7364:
7358:
7356:
7347:
7343:
7342:
7334:
7333:
7326:
7319:
7311:
7305:
7304:
7298:
7292:
7285:
7284:External links
7282:
7280:
7279:
7243:(4): 309–329.
7230:
7227:
7209:(1): 419–424.
7198:
7177:
7167:
7160:
7150:
7140:
7137:
7134:
7098:
7069:
7057:A. M. Hillas,
7055:
7045:
7031:
7021:
7000:hep-ex/0004014
6982:
6964:(4): 263–271.
6946:
6943:
6937:
6915:
6913:
6910:
6907:
6906:
6879:(15): 151104.
6862:
6801:
6764:(6): 825–830.
6748:
6703:
6662:
6645:
6623:
6592:
6571:10.1.1.522.585
6531:
6505:
6487:
6450:(3): 311–320.
6434:
6412:
6371:
6328:
6312:
6294:
6277:
6246:
6215:
6160:
6133:(6136): 1031.
6114:
6088:
6077:on 31 May 2010
6057:
5976:
5951:
5926:
5907:
5891:
5869:
5849:
5829:
5809:
5796:Princeton.edu
5789:
5774:
5761:
5729:
5718:on 21 May 2013
5710:
5687:
5650:(3): 907–942.
5634:
5604:
5586:
5568:
5550:
5532:
5513:
5478:
5439:
5407:
5388:
5381:
5359:
5321:
5291:
5261:
5250:on 22 May 2012
5231:
5224:
5198:
5172:
5137:(6): 331–405.
5120:
5107:10.1086/324402
5083:(1): 280–296.
5067:
5031:(14): 141102.
5008:
4988:AMS-02 at NASA
4972:
4919:(12): 121102.
4899:
4863:(12): 121101.
4840:
4812:
4781:
4719:
4690:
4621:
4591:
4580:on 28 May 2013
4554:
4543:on 28 May 2013
4517:
4490:
4471:(3): 658–659.
4455:
4420:
4373:(5): 259–263.
4353:
4347:10.1086/151713
4312:
4294:
4275:(2): 637–654.
4259:
4240:(2): 171–177.
4224:
4165:
4122:
4091:
4056:
4037:
4002:
3983:(2): 213–217.
3967:
3948:(3): 212–214.
3932:
3897:
3862:
3827:
3784:
3751:
3710:
3703:
3685:
3659:
3630:
3607:
3584:
3552:
3449:
3426:
3419:
3399:
3392:
3372:
3342:
3312:hep-ph/0206072
3287:
3264:
3234:
3222:Universe Today
3208:
3196:
3167:(2): 152–157.
3147:
3121:
3092:
3043:
3004:
2993:on 31 May 2000
2977:
2908:
2845:
2823:
2757:
2750:
2728:
2699:
2673:
2666:
2647:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2638:
2628:
2623:
2617:
2611:
2605:
2596:
2587:
2581:
2572:
2566:
2561:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2546:
2541:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2513:
2508:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2494:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2448:
2443:
2436:
2431:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2347:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2280:
2277:
2262:
2259:
2255:global warming
2232:mutation rates
2214:
2211:
2198:
2195:
2158:in 2011–2012.
2114:Main article:
2111:
2108:
2020:
2017:
2005:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1996:
1993:
1990:
1987:
1981:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1972:
1969:
1966:
1963:
1957:
1956:
1949:
1946:
1943:
1940:
1937:
1934:
1930:
1929:
1914:
1911:
1908:
1905:
1902:
1899:
1895:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1886:
1883:
1880:
1877:
1874:
1870:
1869:
1867:
1864:
1861:
1858:
1855:
1852:
1846:
1845:
1840:
1837:
1834:
1831:
1828:
1825:
1821:
1820:
1815:
1812:
1809:
1806:
1803:
1800:
1796:
1795:
1783:
1780:
1777:
1774:
1771:
1768:
1764:
1763:
1755:
1752:
1749:
1746:
1743:
1740:
1737:
1733:
1732:
1729:
1726:
1723:
1720:
1715:
1712:
1708:
1707:
1704:
1701:
1698:
1695:
1690:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1646:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1631:
1625:
1622:
1619:
1616:
1610:
1607:
1604:
1601:
1598:
1595:
1585:
1579:
1576:
1570:
1564:
1558:
1547:
1545:
1542:
1531:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1497:speed of light
1458:cloud chambers
1432:
1429:
1392:nuclear tracks
1380:
1377:
1359:
1356:
1339:
1338:
1337:
1336:
1333:
1332:
1322:
1307:
1306:
1296:
1281:
1280:
1277:
1262:
1261:
1252:
1237:
1236:
1233:
1164:
1161:
1141:cloud chambers
1105:
1102:
1091:
1084:
1083:
1082:
1069:
1062:
1061:
1060:
1056:
1055:
1054:
1053:
970:
967:
918:radiation dose
881:
878:
846:
845:
833:
814:
811:
702:
699:
682:
679:
610:
607:
603:Walter Heitler
595:Homi J. Bhabha
516:was coined by
486:
485:Identification
483:
408:
405:
375:
372:
298:
295:
230:
227:
187:intrinsic mass
170:
167:
89:speed of light
73:astroparticles
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9423:
9412:
9409:
9407:
9404:
9402:
9399:
9397:
9394:
9392:
9389:
9387:
9384:
9382:
9379:
9378:
9376:
9366:
9361:
9356:
9354:
9344:
9342:
9332:
9330:
9325:
9320:
9318:
9313:
9308:
9306:
9301:
9296:
9295:
9292:
9279:
9269:
9267:
9257:
9255:
9245:
9243:
9242:
9233:
9232:
9229:
9223:
9220:
9218:
9215:
9213:
9210:
9207:
9204:
9202:
9199:
9197:
9194:
9192:
9189:
9187:
9184:
9182:
9179:
9177:
9174:
9172:
9169:
9167:
9164:
9162:
9159:
9157:
9154:
9152:
9149:
9147:
9144:
9142:
9141:Homochirality
9139:
9137:
9134:
9132:
9129:
9127:
9124:
9122:
9119:
9117:
9114:
9112:
9109:
9107:
9104:
9102:
9099:
9097:
9094:
9092:
9089:
9087:
9084:
9082:
9079:
9077:
9074:
9072:
9069:
9067:
9064:
9063:
9061:
9059:
9055:
9049:
9046:
9044:
9041:
9039:
9036:
9034:
9031:
9029:
9023:
9021:
9014:
9012:
9009:
9007:
9004:
9002:
8999:
8997:
8996:Methoxyethane
8994:
8992:
8989:
8987:
8984:
8983:
8981:
8979:
8975:
8969:
8966:
8964:
8957:
8955:
8952:
8950:
8947:
8945:
8942:
8940:
8937:
8935:
8932:
8930:
8927:
8925:
8922:
8919:
8916:
8914:
8911:
8910:
8908:
8904:
8900:
8890:
8887:
8885:
8882:
8880:
8879:Butyronitrile
8877:
8875:
8872:
8870:
8867:
8865:
8862:
8860:
8857:
8855:
8854:Ethyl formate
8852:
8850:
8847:
8845:
8842:
8840:
8833:
8822:
8819:
8817:
8814:
8812:
8809:
8807:
8804:
8803:
8801:
8799:
8791:
8785:
8782:
8780:
8779:Propionitrile
8777:
8775:
8772:
8770:
8767:
8765:
8762:
8760:
8757:
8755:
8752:
8750:
8747:
8745:
8742:
8740:
8737:
8736:
8734:
8732:
8726:
8720:
8717:
8715:
8712:
8710:
8707:
8705:
8702:
8700:
8697:
8695:
8692:
8690:
8687:
8685:
8682:
8680:
8677:
8676:
8674:
8672:
8666:
8660:
8659:Vinyl alcohol
8657:
8655:
8652:
8650:
8647:
8645:
8642:
8640:
8637:
8635:
8632:
8630:
8627:
8625:
8622:
8618:
8617:Vinyl cyanide
8615:
8614:
8613:
8612:Acrylonitrile
8610:
8608:
8605:
8604:
8602:
8600:
8594:
8588:
8585:
8583:
8580:
8578:
8577:Pentynylidyne
8575:
8573:
8570:
8568:
8565:
8563:
8560:
8558:
8555:
8553:
8546:
8544:
8541:
8539:
8536:
8534:
8531:
8529:
8526:
8524:
8521:
8519:
8516:
8514:
8511:
8510:
8508:
8506:
8500:
8494:
8491:
8489:
8486:
8484:
8481:
8479:
8476:
8474:
8473:Methylenimine
8471:
8469:
8466:
8464:
8461:
8459:
8456:
8454:
8451:
8449:
8446:
8444:
8441:
8439:
8436:
8434:
8431:
8429:
8426:
8424:
8421:
8419:
8416:
8414:
8411:
8408:
8405:
8404:
8402:
8400:
8394:
8388:
8385:
8383:
8380:
8378:
8375:
8373:
8370:
8368:
8365:
8363:
8360:
8358:
8355:
8353:
8352:Propynylidyne
8350:
8348:
8345:
8343:
8342:Methyl cation
8340:
8338:
8335:
8333:
8330:
8328:
8325:
8323:
8320:
8318:
8315:
8313:
8310:
8308:
8305:
8303:
8302:Fulminic acid
8300:
8298:
8295:
8293:
8290:
8288:
8285:
8283:
8280:
8278:
8275:
8274:
8272:
8270:
8264:
8258:
8255:
8253:
8250:
8248:
8245:
8243:
8240:
8238:
8235:
8233:
8230:
8228:
8225:
8223:
8220:
8218:
8215:
8213:
8210:
8208:
8205:
8203:
8200:
8198:
8195:
8193:
8190:
8188:
8185:
8183:
8180:
8178:
8177:Nitrous oxide
8175:
8173:
8166:
8164:
8161:
8159:
8156:
8154:
8151:
8149:
8146:
8144:
8141:
8139:
8136:
8134:
8131:
8128:
8125:
8122:
8119:
8117:
8114:
8112:
8109:
8107:
8104:
8102:
8099:
8097:
8094:
8092:
8089:
8087:
8084:
8082:
8079:
8077:
8074:
8072:
8071:Amino radical
8069:
8067:
8064:
8062:
8059:
8058:
8056:
8054:
8050:
8045:
8036:
8027:
8017:
8014:
8012:
8009:
8007:
8004:
8002:
8001:Sodium iodide
7999:
7997:
7994:
7992:
7989:
7987:
7984:
7982:
7979:
7977:
7974:
7972:
7969:
7967:
7964:
7961:
7958:
7956:
7953:
7951:
7948:
7945:
7942:
7940:
7937:
7935:
7932:
7930:
7927:
7925:
7922:
7920:
7917:
7914:
7911:
7909:
7906:
7904:
7901:
7899:
7896:
7894:
7891:
7889:
7886:
7884:
7883:Cyano radical
7881:
7879:
7876:
7874:
7871:
7869:
7866:
7864:
7863:Carbon cation
7861:
7859:
7856:
7854:
7851:
7849:
7846:
7844:
7841:
7840:
7838:
7836:
7832:
7829:
7827:
7823:
7819:
7812:
7807:
7805:
7800:
7798:
7793:
7792:
7789:
7778:
7774:
7770:
7769:Radioactivity
7766:
7759:
7753:
7750:
7748:
7745:
7743:
7740:
7738:
7735:
7733:
7730:
7729:
7727:
7723:
7717:
7714:
7712:
7709:
7707:
7704:
7702:
7699:
7697:
7694:
7693:
7691:
7687:
7681:
7678:
7676:
7673:
7671:
7668:
7666:
7663:
7661:
7658:
7656:
7653:
7651:
7648:
7646:
7643:
7641:
7638:
7636:
7633:
7631:
7628:
7626:
7623:
7621:
7618:
7616:
7613:
7611:
7608:
7606:
7603:
7601:
7598:
7594:
7591:
7589:
7586:
7585:
7583:
7582:
7580:
7574:
7564:
7561:
7559:
7556:
7554:
7551:
7549:
7546:
7544:
7541:
7539:
7536:
7534:
7531:
7529:
7526:
7524:
7521:
7519:
7516:
7514:
7511:
7509:
7506:
7504:
7501:
7499:
7496:
7495:
7492:
7486:
7483:
7481:
7478:
7476:
7473:
7471:
7468:
7466:
7463:
7461:
7458:
7456:
7453:
7451:
7448:
7446:
7443:
7441:
7438:
7436:
7435:Beta particle
7433:
7431:
7428:
7426:
7423:
7421:
7420:Cluster decay
7418:
7416:
7413:
7412:
7410:
7408:
7404:
7398:
7395:
7393:
7390:
7388:
7385:
7383:
7380:
7378:
7375:
7373:
7370:
7368:
7365:
7363:
7360:
7359:
7357:
7355:
7351:
7348:
7346:Main articles
7344:
7339:
7332:
7327:
7325:
7320:
7318:
7313:
7312:
7309:
7302:
7299:
7296:
7293:
7291:
7288:
7287:
7276:
7272:
7268:
7264:
7260:
7256:
7251:
7246:
7242:
7238:
7237:
7231:
7228:
7224:
7220:
7216:
7212:
7208:
7204:
7199:
7195:
7191:
7187:
7183:
7178:
7176:
7175:0-521-43143-3
7172:
7168:
7165:
7162:B. B. Rossi,
7161:
7159:
7158:0-226-72456-5
7155:
7151:
7149:
7148:0-19-850951-0
7145:
7141:
7138:
7135:
7131:
7127:
7123:
7119:
7115:
7111:
7104:
7099:
7095:
7091:
7087:
7083:
7079:
7075:
7070:
7068:
7067:0-08-016724-1
7064:
7060:
7056:
7054:
7053:0-444-50710-8
7050:
7046:
7044:
7043:0-521-32667-2
7040:
7036:
7032:
7030:
7029:1-86448-204-4
7026:
7022:
7018:
7014:
7010:
7006:
7001:
6996:
6993:(3): 032007.
6992:
6988:
6983:
6979:
6975:
6971:
6967:
6963:
6959:
6952:
6947:
6944:
6940:
6934:
6930:
6926:
6922:
6917:
6916:
6902:
6898:
6894:
6890:
6886:
6882:
6878:
6874:
6866:
6858:
6854:
6850:
6846:
6842:
6838:
6834:
6830:
6825:
6820:
6817:(8): 081101.
6816:
6812:
6805:
6797:
6793:
6789:
6785:
6781:
6777:
6772:
6767:
6763:
6759:
6752:
6743:
6738:
6734:
6730:
6727:(4): 045022.
6726:
6722:
6718:
6714:
6707:
6698:
6693:
6689:
6685:
6681:
6677:
6673:
6666:
6659:
6655:
6649:
6634:
6627:
6611:
6607:
6603:
6596:
6585:
6581:
6577:
6572:
6567:
6563:
6559:
6555:
6551:
6550:
6542:
6535:
6520:
6516:
6509:
6501:
6497:
6491:
6483:
6479:
6475:
6471:
6467:
6463:
6458:
6453:
6449:
6445:
6438:
6430:
6426:
6422:
6416:
6407:
6402:
6398:
6394:
6390:
6386:
6382:
6375:
6367:
6363:
6359:
6355:
6351:
6347:
6343:
6339:
6332:
6325:
6324:Physics Today
6321:
6316:
6308:
6304:
6298:
6292:
6288:
6281:
6265:
6261:
6257:
6250:
6235:
6234:
6229:
6222:
6220:
6211:
6207:
6203:
6199:
6195:
6191:
6187:
6183:
6179:
6175:
6167:
6165:
6156:
6152:
6148:
6144:
6140:
6136:
6132:
6128:
6121:
6119:
6103:
6099:
6092:
6076:
6072:
6068:
6061:
6046:
6042:
6038:
6034:
6030:
6026:
6022:
6018:
6014:
6010:
6005:
6000:
5996:
5992:
5988:
5980:
5965:
5961:
5955:
5940:
5939:New Scientist
5936:
5930:
5923:
5919:
5916:
5911:
5904:
5900:
5895:
5887:
5883:
5879:
5873:
5866:
5862:
5858:
5853:
5846:
5842:
5839:
5833:
5826:
5822:
5819:
5813:
5806:
5802:
5799:
5793:
5786:
5783:
5778:
5771:
5765:
5746:
5739:
5733:
5717:
5713:
5707:
5703:
5702:
5697:
5691:
5683:
5679:
5675:
5671:
5667:
5663:
5658:
5653:
5649:
5645:
5638:
5622:
5618:
5614:
5608:
5600:
5596:
5590:
5582:
5581:credo.science
5578:
5572:
5566:
5562:
5559:
5554:
5548:
5544:
5541:
5536:
5528:
5524:
5517:
5509:
5505:
5501:
5497:
5493:
5489:
5482:
5463:
5459:
5456:
5449:
5443:
5424:
5417:
5411:
5403:
5399:
5392:
5384:
5378:
5374:
5370:
5363:
5355:
5351:
5347:
5343:
5339:
5335:
5334:
5325:
5309:
5305:
5301:
5295:
5279:
5275:
5271:
5265:
5249:
5245:
5241:
5235:
5227:
5221:
5217:
5213:
5209:
5202:
5186:
5182:
5176:
5168:
5164:
5160:
5156:
5152:
5148:
5144:
5140:
5136:
5132:
5124:
5116:
5112:
5108:
5104:
5100:
5096:
5091:
5086:
5082:
5078:
5071:
5060:
5056:
5052:
5047:
5042:
5038:
5034:
5030:
5026:
5019:
5012:
4993:
4989:
4982:
4976:
4968:
4964:
4960:
4956:
4952:
4948:
4944:
4940:
4936:
4932:
4927:
4922:
4918:
4914:
4910:
4903:
4892:
4888:
4884:
4879:
4874:
4870:
4866:
4862:
4858:
4851:
4844:
4836:
4832:
4828:
4824:
4816:
4800:
4796:
4792:
4791:"Cosmic Rays"
4785:
4777:
4773:
4769:
4765:
4761:
4757:
4753:
4749:
4744:
4739:
4735:
4731:
4723:
4707:
4706:
4701:
4694:
4686:
4682:
4678:
4674:
4670:
4666:
4662:
4658:
4654:
4650:
4645:
4640:
4636:
4632:
4625:
4609:
4605:
4601:
4595:
4576:
4572:
4565:
4558:
4539:
4535:
4528:
4521:
4505:
4501:
4500:"Cosmic rays"
4494:
4486:
4482:
4478:
4474:
4470:
4466:
4459:
4451:
4447:
4443:
4439:
4435:
4431:
4424:
4416:
4412:
4407:
4402:
4398:
4394:
4389:
4384:
4380:
4376:
4372:
4368:
4364:
4357:
4348:
4343:
4339:
4335:
4331:
4327:
4323:
4316:
4308:
4304:
4298:
4290:
4286:
4282:
4278:
4274:
4270:
4263:
4255:
4251:
4247:
4243:
4239:
4235:
4228:
4217:
4213:
4209:
4204:
4199:
4195:
4191:
4187:
4183:
4176:
4169:
4161:
4157:
4153:
4149:
4145:
4141:
4137:
4133:
4126:
4115:
4111:
4104:
4103:
4095:
4087:
4083:
4079:
4075:
4071:
4067:
4060:
4053:(1): 579–589.
4052:
4048:
4041:
4033:
4029:
4025:
4021:
4017:
4013:
4006:
3998:
3994:
3990:
3986:
3982:
3978:
3971:
3963:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3936:
3928:
3924:
3920:
3916:
3912:
3908:
3901:
3893:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3877:
3873:
3866:
3858:
3854:
3850:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3831:
3823:
3819:
3815:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3799:
3795:
3788:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3762:
3755:
3746:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3714:
3706:
3700:
3696:
3689:
3673:
3669:
3663:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3634:
3626:
3623:(in German).
3622:
3618:
3611:
3603:
3600:(in German).
3599:
3595:
3588:
3579:
3574:
3571:: 1084–1091.
3570:
3567:(in German).
3566:
3562:
3556:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3536:
3532:
3528:
3523:
3518:
3515:(1): 93–100.
3514:
3510:
3509:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3467:(1): 93–100.
3466:
3462:
3461:
3453:
3445:
3442:(in German).
3441:
3437:
3430:
3422:
3420:9780226594415
3416:
3412:
3411:
3403:
3395:
3393:9780199766413
3389:
3385:
3384:
3376:
3361:
3357:
3353:
3352:"Cosmic rays"
3346:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3313:
3308:
3304:
3300:
3299:
3291:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3268:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3238:
3223:
3219:
3212:
3206:
3200:
3192:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3158:
3151:
3136:
3132:
3125:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3101:"Cosmic Rays"
3096:
3088:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3060:
3059:
3054:
3047:
3039:
3035:
3021:
3017:
3011:
3009:
2992:
2988:
2981:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2912:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2857:
2849:
2841:
2837:
2830:
2828:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2772:
2764:
2762:
2753:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2732:
2716:
2710:
2708:
2706:
2704:
2687:
2686:Science Daily
2683:
2677:
2669:
2663:
2659:
2652:
2648:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2621:
2618:
2615:
2612:
2609:
2606:
2600:
2597:
2591:
2588:
2585:
2582:
2576:
2573:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2559:
2556:
2555:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2536:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2503:
2499:Balloon-borne
2493:
2492:
2487:
2486:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2441:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2426:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2297:
2290:
2286:
2276:
2274:
2268:
2258:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2243:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2224:
2220:
2219:Edward P. Ney
2210:
2208:
2204:
2194:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2179:jet airliners
2172:
2168:
2163:
2159:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2132:
2130:
2126:
2125:
2117:
2107:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2092:
2090:
2086:
2081:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2032:
2026:
2016:
2013:
2003:
2000:
1997:
1994:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1982:
1979:
1976:
1973:
1970:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1958:
1950:
1947:
1944:
1941:
1938:
1935:
1932:
1931:
1924:
1920:
1915:
1912:
1909:
1906:
1903:
1900:
1897:
1896:
1893:
1890:
1887:
1884:
1881:
1878:
1875:
1871:
1868:
1865:
1862:
1859:
1856:
1853:
1851:
1848:
1847:
1841:
1838:
1835:
1832:
1829:
1826:
1823:
1822:
1816:
1813:
1810:
1807:
1804:
1801:
1798:
1797:
1789:
1784:
1781:
1778:
1775:
1772:
1769:
1766:
1765:
1756:
1753:
1750:
1747:
1744:
1741:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1727:
1724:
1722:Typical range
1721:
1716:
1713:
1710:
1709:
1702:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1687:
1683:
1682:millisieverts
1677:
1644:
1641:
1638:
1635:
1632:
1629:
1626:
1623:
1620:
1617:
1614:
1613:Phosphorus-32
1611:
1608:
1605:
1602:
1599:
1596:
1593:
1589:
1586:
1583:
1580:
1577:
1574:
1571:
1568:
1565:
1562:
1559:
1556:
1552:
1549:
1548:
1541:
1539:
1532:n + N → p + C
1530:
1528:
1524:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1485:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1466:
1464:
1459:
1454:
1451:
1447:
1446:scintillators
1443:
1437:
1428:
1426:
1420:
1417:
1412:
1408:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1388:
1386:
1376:
1369:
1364:
1355:
1353:
1349:
1343:
1323:
1320:
1308:
1297:
1294:
1282:
1278:
1275:
1263:
1253:
1250:
1238:
1231:
1226:
1220:
1219:
1218:
1217:
1216:
1212:
1210:
1209:azimuth angle
1206:
1202:
1197:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1169:
1160:
1156:
1154:
1153:scintillation
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1129:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1095:
1088:
1077:
1076:Soudan 2
1073:
1066:
1052:
1050:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1033:
1027:
1026:Space Shuttle
1022:
1018:
1014:
1009:
1005:
1003:
994:
990:
986:
981:
976:
966:
963:
961:
957:
954:
950:
946:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
921:
919:
915:
911:
907:
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
877:
875:
871:
867:
863:
853:
849:
843:
839:
838:
834:
831:
827:
823:
820:
819:
818:
810:
807:
803:
800:In 2017, the
798:
790:
786:
784:
777:
773:
769:
764:
761:1 GeV – 1 TeV
758:
754:
751:
747:
738:
734:
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
698:
696:
692:
688:
678:
670:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
640:
639:Auger Project
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
606:
604:
600:
596:
592:
590:
586:
582:
581:Sergei Vernov
577:
575:
570:
565:
562:
558:
553:
548:
545:
541:
536:
532:
528:
524:
519:
515:
510:
507:
502:
500:
499:Erich Regener
493:
491:
478:
474:
472:
463:
459:
457:
452:
448:
443:
440:
436:
435:
430:
426:
423:developed an
422:
413:
404:
401:
397:
393:
389:
385:
381:
380:radioactivity
371:
369:
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
337:
333:
329:
325:
317:
313:
305:
294:
290:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
267:
265:
261:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
236:beta particle
226:
224:
223:photon energy
220:
219:
214:
213:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
166:
164:
160:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
135:
133:
129:
124:
122:
118:
117:magnetosphere
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
85:atomic nuclei
82:
78:
74:
70:
61:
54:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
9353:Solar System
9234:
9217:Spectroscopy
9105:
9071:Astrobiology
8924:Formaldehyde
8816:Benzonitrile
8607:Acetaldehyde
8562:Methanethiol
8513:Acetonitrile
8418:Carbodiimide
8297:Formaldehyde
8292:Cyanoethynyl
8143:Iron cyanide
8138:Hydroperoxyl
7939:Nitric oxide
7773:Radiobiology
7655:Radiobiology
7615:Laser safety
7444:
7240:
7234:
7206:
7202:
7185:
7181:
7163:
7113:
7109:
7077:
7073:
7058:
7034:
6990:
6987:Phys. Rev. D
6986:
6961:
6957:
6923:. Springer.
6920:
6876:
6872:
6865:
6814:
6810:
6804:
6761:
6758:Astrobiology
6757:
6751:
6724:
6720:
6706:
6679:
6675:
6665:
6657:
6652:Peter Laut,
6648:
6636:. Retrieved
6626:
6614:. Retrieved
6610:the original
6605:
6595:
6553:
6547:
6534:
6522:. Retrieved
6508:
6499:
6490:
6447:
6444:Paleobiology
6443:
6437:
6429:the original
6424:
6415:
6388:
6384:
6374:
6341:
6337:
6331:
6323:
6315:
6306:
6297:
6280:
6268:. Retrieved
6264:the original
6260:Science News
6259:
6249:
6237:. Retrieved
6231:
6177:
6173:
6130:
6126:
6105:. Retrieved
6101:
6091:
6079:. Retrieved
6075:the original
6070:
6060:
6048:. Retrieved
5994:
5990:
5979:
5967:. Retrieved
5963:
5954:
5942:. Retrieved
5938:
5929:
5910:
5902:
5894:
5872:
5864:
5852:
5832:
5812:
5792:
5777:
5764:
5752:. Retrieved
5745:the original
5732:
5720:. Retrieved
5716:the original
5700:
5690:
5647:
5643:
5637:
5625:. Retrieved
5621:the original
5616:
5607:
5598:
5589:
5580:
5571:
5553:
5535:
5527:Ars Technica
5526:
5516:
5491:
5487:
5481:
5469:. Retrieved
5442:
5430:. Retrieved
5423:the original
5410:
5397:
5391:
5372:
5362:
5337:
5331:
5324:
5312:. Retrieved
5308:the original
5303:
5294:
5282:. Retrieved
5278:the original
5273:
5264:
5252:. Retrieved
5248:the original
5234:
5207:
5201:
5189:. Retrieved
5175:
5159:2078.1/72661
5134:
5130:
5123:
5080:
5076:
5070:
5028:
5024:
5011:
5001:21 September
4999:. Retrieved
4987:
4975:
4951:1721.1/90426
4916:
4912:
4902:
4860:
4856:
4843:
4826:
4822:
4815:
4803:. Retrieved
4799:the original
4784:
4733:
4729:
4722:
4710:. Retrieved
4705:The Guardian
4703:
4693:
4634:
4630:
4624:
4612:. Retrieved
4607:
4594:
4582:. Retrieved
4575:the original
4570:
4557:
4545:. Retrieved
4538:the original
4533:
4520:
4508:. Retrieved
4503:
4493:
4468:
4464:
4458:
4433:
4429:
4423:
4370:
4366:
4356:
4329:
4325:
4315:
4297:
4272:
4268:
4262:
4237:
4233:
4227:
4185:
4181:
4168:
4135:
4131:
4125:
4101:
4094:
4069:
4065:
4059:
4050:
4046:
4040:
4015:
4011:
4005:
3980:
3976:
3970:
3945:
3941:
3935:
3910:
3906:
3900:
3875:
3871:
3865:
3840:
3836:
3830:
3797:
3793:
3787:
3771:
3767:
3754:
3730:(819): 331.
3727:
3723:
3713:
3694:
3688:
3676:. Retrieved
3662:
3650:. Retrieved
3633:
3624:
3620:
3610:
3604:: 1153–1156.
3601:
3597:
3587:
3568:
3564:
3555:
3512:
3506:
3464:
3458:
3452:
3443:
3439:
3429:
3409:
3402:
3382:
3375:
3363:. Retrieved
3356:HyperPhysics
3355:
3345:
3302:
3296:
3290:
3282:the original
3277:
3267:
3255:. Retrieved
3237:
3225:. Retrieved
3221:
3211:
3199:
3164:
3160:
3150:
3138:. Retrieved
3124:
3112:. Retrieved
3104:
3095:
3056:
3046:
3038:the original
3024:. Retrieved
3020:the original
2995:. Retrieved
2991:the original
2980:
2921:
2917:
2911:
2860:
2854:
2848:
2775:
2769:
2741:
2731:
2719:. Retrieved
2690:. Retrieved
2685:
2676:
2657:
2651:
2489:
2483:
2438:
2293:Ground-based
2288:
2270:
2244:
2216:
2200:
2187:polar routes
2176:
2173:(2011–2013).
2133:
2122:
2119:
2093:
2082:
2028:
2008:
1984:
1960:
1849:
1654:
1645:(10.7 years)
1582:Beryllium-10
1534:
1520:
1506:
1502:
1486:
1467:
1455:
1438:
1434:
1421:
1389:
1382:
1373:
1344:
1340:
1213:
1198:
1174:
1157:
1130:
1107:
1040:
1031:
1020:
1016:
1010:
1006:
998:275 ± 32 GeV
988:
982:
978:
964:
922:
886:Solar System
883:
858:
847:
835:
829:
825:
821:
816:
799:
795:
775:
765:
750:radio galaxy
743:
714:
704:
684:
671:
647:James Cronin
618:
614:
612:
593:
578:
574:Pierre Auger
566:
549:
513:
511:
504:
495:
488:
468:
451:free balloon
444:
432:
429:Eiffel Tower
425:electrometer
421:Theodor Wulf
418:
377:
348:OMG particle
300:
291:
268:
232:
216:
210:
191:cathode rays
174:
172:
159:TXS 0506+056
136:
125:
97:Solar System
72:
68:
67:
44:
9381:Cosmic rays
9341:Spaceflight
9317:Mathematics
9191:Outer space
9101:Cosmic dust
9066:Abiogenesis
8978:Unconfirmed
8934:Heavy water
8774:Ethanethiol
8689:Cyanoallene
8679:Acetic acid
8649:Methylamine
8533:Diacetylene
8448:Formic acid
8438:Cyanomethyl
8096:Diazenylium
8086:CCP radical
7962:(molecular)
7946:(molecular)
7915:(molecular)
7397:Ultraviolet
7392:Radio waves
7164:Cosmic Rays
7059:Cosmic Rays
6711:Sloan, T.;
6638:13 November
6326:, May 2005.
6107:24 February
6081:24 February
6050:7 September
5969:7 September
5944:7 September
5754:11 February
5627:22 February
5599:EurekAlert!
5471:23 February
5432:23 February
5270:"How many?"
5191:11 February
4805:26 December
3695:Cosmic Rays
3678:11 February
3652:11 February
3365:17 February
3227:17 February
3140:14 December
2997:11 December
2721:27 February
2692:26 December
2129:flipped bit
2085:Airbus A330
2058:transistors
2056:, but with
2050:electronics
2046:soft errors
1799:Terrestrial
1628:Chlorine-36
1615:(14.3 days)
1019:designated
1004:particles.
1002:dark matter
753:Centaurus A
719:Crab Nebula
687:solar cycle
655:Alan Watson
619:fast timing
585:radiosondes
552:Bruno Rossi
490:Bruno Rossi
447:Victor Hess
260:antiprotons
229:Composition
179:optical ray
128:Victor Hess
121:heliosphere
69:Cosmic rays
9375:Categories
9106:Cosmic ray
9048:Silylidyne
9011:Hemolithin
8986:Anthracene
8903:Deuterated
8884:Pyrimidine
8694:Ethanimine
8557:Ketenimine
8413:Butadiynyl
8237:Thioformyl
8091:Chloronium
7578:and health
7576:Radiation
7445:Cosmic ray
6771:1712.09367
6616:11 January
6004:2001.09190
5782:Japan NIRS
5722:28 October
4926:1701.07305
4829:(11): L9.
4743:1709.07321
4669:2108/55474
4436:(4): 489.
3843:(3): 606.
3668:Hess, V.F.
3639:Hess, V.F.
3627:: 719–721.
3578:1808.02927
3561:Hess, V.F.
3446:: 811–813.
3068:1711.11432
3026:31 October
2931:1807.08794
2870:1603.07730
2643:References
2283:See also:
2265:See also:
2240:Ordovician
2078:ECC memory
2054:satellites
2031:electronic
2023:See also:
1873:Artificial
1790:, C, etc.)
1697:Princeton
1689:Radiation
1643:Krypton-85
1555:spallation
1553:(stable):
1551:Hydrogen-1
1525:, such as
1474:smartphone
1411:ionization
1317:(100
1193:heliopause
1177:solar wind
1013:antihelium
973:See also:
868:, such as
806:anisotropy
723:supernovae
691:solar wind
681:Modulation
544:Kolhörster
535:Jacob Clay
514:cosmic ray
388:ionization
254:, such as
252:antimatter
212:gamma rays
199:alpha rays
195:canal rays
152:gamma rays
9038:Phosphine
8906:molecules
8839:fullerene
8739:Acetamide
8543:Formamide
8423:Cyanamide
8277:Acetylene
8252:Tricarbon
8163:Methylene
8148:Isoformyl
8053:Triatomic
7826:Molecules
7732:Half-life
7605:Dosimetry
7440:Gamma ray
7387:Microwave
7377:Starlight
7338:Radiation
7250:1012.5068
7110:Phys. Rev
6958:Phys. Rev
6566:CiteSeerX
6500:Space.com
6457:0809.0899
6045:210920566
6029:1476-4687
5682:119237295
5657:1103.0031
5304:Auger.org
5284:17 August
5274:Auger.org
5167:122726107
4644:1103.4055
4608:Space.com
4254:121904361
4212:1364-5021
3822:123901197
3547:118487938
3522:1002.1810
3499:118487938
3474:1002.1810
3337:119407673
3257:9 October
3135:Vox Media
2972:133261745
2956:0036-8075
2785:1302.3307
2491:Voyager 2
2485:Voyager 1
2422:Satellite
2203:lightning
2189:near the
2183:sea level
2124:Voyager 2
2098:times of
2096:coherence
1992:0 to tens
1968:0 to tens
1700:Wa State
1588:Carbon-14
1527:carbon-14
1291:(10
1205:longitude
1118:molecules
1032:Discovery
953:manganese
929:beryllium
902:beryllium
890:Milky Way
870:electrons
697:network.
550:In 1930,
523:electrons
445:In 1912,
419:In 1909,
407:Discovery
396:radiation
354:(56
283:neutrinos
256:positrons
203:beta rays
173:The term
169:Etymology
161:in 2018,
148:neutrinos
144:supernova
113:deflected
9025:Linear C
9006:Graphene
8918:Ammonium
8719:Acrolein
8582:Propynal
8567:Methanol
8538:Ethylene
8407:Ammonium
8182:Nitroxyl
8006:Sulfanyl
7950:Imidogen
7944:Nitrogen
7913:Hydrogen
7858:Argonium
7835:Diatomic
7382:Sunlight
7367:Infrared
6901:27127953
6857:41229823
6849:11863949
6796:33930965
6788:30481053
6606:Discover
6584:Archived
6519:Discover
6482:11942132
6202:23723233
6155:23723213
6037:32848227
5964:phys.org
5918:Archived
5903:BBC News
5841:Archived
5821:Archived
5801:Archived
5768:UNSCEAR
5561:Archived
5543:Archived
5462:Archived
5460:. 2006.
5254:19 April
5059:Archived
5055:25166975
4992:Archived
4959:25279617
4891:Archived
4887:25279616
4768:28935800
4712:21 March
4677:21385721
4614:20 March
4584:17 March
4547:17 March
4510:17 March
4415:16587882
4322:"(none)"
4307:Archived
4216:Archived
4114:Archived
3776:Archived
3670:(1936).
3641:(1936).
3191:32975102
3114:23 March
3087:85540966
2964:30002248
2895:26982725
2818:29815601
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