Ghana Empire - Knowledge

1264: 1276: 1252: 1288: 1240: 1410:, a twelfth-century writer, described Ghana's royal city as lying on a riverbank, a river he called the "Nile." This followed the geographic custom of his day, which confused the Niger and Senegal Rivers and believed that they formed a single river often called the "Nile of the Blacks". Whether al-Idrisi was referring to a new and later capital located elsewhere, or whether there was confusion or corruption in his text is unclear. However, he does state that the royal palace he knew was built in 510 AH (1116–1117 AD), suggesting that it was a newer town, rebuilt closer to the river than Koumbi Saleh. 1300: 1395: 1371: 1868:, p. 19: "Mali is the name of an extensive territory lying in the far west to the direction of the Ocean. It was Kaya-Magha who founded the first kingdom in that region. His capital was Ghana, an important town in the country of Baghana. It is said that their kingdom was in existence before the hijra, and that twenty-two kings reigned before it and twenty-two afterwards, making forty four in all. In origin they were white, though we do not know to whom they trace their origin. Their subjects, however, were Wa'kore ." 555:), after which he migrated to a variety of locations in western Sudan, in each place leaving children by different wives. In order to take power he had to kill a serpent deity (named Bida), and then marry his daughters, who became the ancestors of the clans that were dominant in the region at the time. Some traditions state he did a deal with Bida to sacrifice one maiden a year in exchange for rainfall, and other versions add a constant supply of gold. Upon Dinga's death, his two sons Khine and Dyabe contested the 717: 1228: 1099:. As Mali became more powerful, the Ghana's role as an ally declined to that of a submissive state, although he was still accorded prestige as the leader of an ancient and storied state. According to a detailed account of al-'Umari, written around 1340 but based on testimony given to him by the "truthful and trustworthy" shaykh Abu Uthman Sa'id al-Dukkali, Ghana still retained its functions as a sort of kingdom within the empire, its ruler being the only one allowed to bear the title 59: 559:, and Dyabe was victorious, founding Wagadu. In some versions, the fall of Wagadu happens when a nobleman tries to save a maiden, despite her objection, and kills the snake, unleashing its curse and annulling the prior deal. This tale appears to have been a fragment of what once was a much longer narrative, now lost, however the legend of Wagadu continues to have a deep-rooted significance in Soninke culture and history. The tradition of 1024: 2294: 1386:, although there have always been controversies about the location of Ghana's capital and whether Koumbi Saleh is the same town as the one described by al-Bakri. The site was excavated in 1949–50 by Paul Thomassey and Raymond Mauny and by another French team in 1975–81. The remains of Koumbi Saleh are impressive, even if the remains of the royal town, with its large palace and burial mounds, have not been located. 1177:

splendid garments and their hair plaited with gold. The governor of the city sits on the ground before the king and around him are ministers seated likewise. At the door of the pavilion are dogs of excellent pedigree that hardly ever leave the place where the king is, guarding him. Around their necks they wear collars of gold and silver studded with a number of balls of the same metals.

1203:) who surrounded his throne when he gave justice, and these included the sons of the "kings of his country" which we must assume are the same kings that al-Ya'qubi mentioned in his account of nearly 200 years earlier. Al-Bakri's detailed geography of the region shows that in his day, or 1067/1068, Ghana was surrounded by independent kingdoms, and Sila, one of them located on the 1350:, one of which was designated for Friday prayers, and had a full group of scholars, scribes and Islamic jurists. Because the majority of these Muslims were merchants, this part of the city was probably its primary business district. It is likely that these inhabitants were largely black Muslims known as the 1185:

including the Baxaran of Maghan and the Gbewaa States south of the sahel region. One of the earliest sources to describe Ghana, al-Ya'qubi, writing in 889/90 (276 AH) says that "under his authority are a number of kings" which included Sama and 'Am (?) and so extended at least to the Niger River

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According to al-Bakri, the major part of the city was called El-Ghaba and was the residence of the king. It was protected by a stone wall and functioned as the royal and spiritual capital of the Empire. It contained a sacred grove of trees in which priests lived. It also contained the king's palace,

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in 1076–77, but this interpretation has been sharply questioned by modern scholars. Conrad and Fisher (1982) argued that the notion of any Almoravid military conquest at its core is merely perpetuated folklore, derived from a misinterpretation or naive reliance on Arabic sources. Dierke Lange agrees

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Beginning in the mid 20th century as more archeological data became available, scholars began to favor a purely local origin for Ghana. These works bring together archaeology, descriptive geographical sources written between 830 and 1400 AD, the Tarikhs from the 16th and 17th centuries, and the oral

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Al-Idrisi, whose account was written in 1154, has the country fully Muslim by that date. He describes an empire as powerful as it had been in the days of al-Bakri, 75 years earlier. In fact, he describes its capital as "the greatest of all towns of the Sudan with respect to area, the most populous,

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Sheryl L. Burkhalter (1992) suggested that there were reasons to believe that there was conflict between the Almoravids and the empire of Ghana. Ibn Khaldun, a 14th-century North African historian who read and cited both al-Bakri and al-Idrisi, reported an ambiguous account of the country's history

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He sits in audience or to hear grievances against officials in a domed pavilion around which stand ten horses covered with gold-embroidered materials. Behind the king stand ten pages holding shields and swords decorated with gold, and on his right are the sons of the kings of his country wearing

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This resurgence did not last, however. By 1203, the Sosso rose against their masters and conquered Ghana. Oral historians link the coming of Islam to the final end of Ghana. When the Muslims Cisse dynasty came to power they killed Bida, the sacred snake and protector of the kingdom. A seven-year

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Testimony about ancient Ghana depended on how well disposed the king was to foreign travelers, from whom the majority of information on the empire comes. Islamic writers often commented on the social-political stability of the empire based on the seemingly just actions and grandeur of the king.

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played a key role in Soninke success as well, allowing products and goods to be transported much more efficiently across the Sahara. These contributing factors all helped the empire remain powerful for some time, providing a rich and stable economy based on trading gold, iron, salt and slaves.

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on imports of salt, and two on exports of salt. Other products had fixed dues; al-Bakri mentioned both copper and "other goods." Imports probably included products such as textiles, ornaments and other materials. Many of the hand-crafted leather goods found in present-day Morocco also had their

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drought ensued, destroying the kingdom and forcing much of the population to flee in search of more hospitable territory. According to much later traditions, from the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Diara Kante took control of Koumbi Saleh and established the Diarisso dynasty. His son,

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but argues that this does not preclude Almoravid political agitation, claiming that Ghana's demise owed much to the latter. Furthermore, the archaeology of ancient Ghana does not show the signs of rapid change and destruction that would be associated with any Almoravid-era military conquests.

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300 BCE. Munsun theorized that, around 700 BCE Libyco-Berbers raiders destroyed this burgeoning state. Their opening of a trade route north, however, eventually changed the economic calculus from raiding to trade, and the native Soninke reasserted themselves around 300 BCE. This trade and the

1821:, p. 19: "It is disputed as to the tribe to which these kings belonged; some say they were Wa'kore , others say they were Wangara which appears improbable. Others say they were Sanhaja which seems to me most likely ... The nearest to the truth is that they were not black." 685:. The archaeologist and historian Raymond Mauny argues that al-Kati's and al-Saadi's theories were based on the presence (after Ghana's demise) of nomadic Berbers originally from Libya, and the assumption that they were the ruling caste in an earlier age. Earlier accounts such 983:

and with the most extensive trade." This capital may not be the same city as the one described by al-Bakri, however. In this period the ruling dynasty, now thoroughly Islamized, re-established control over many of the former vassals who had become independent, including

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Given the scattered nature of the Arabic sources and the ambiguity of the existing archaeological record, it is difficult to determine when and how Ghana declined. With the gradual drying of the Sahel, the all-important epicenters of trade began to most south to the

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in 1067/1068, the capital actually consisted of two cities 10 kilometres (6 mi) apart but "between these two towns are continuous habitations", so that they might be said to have merged into one. The most common identification for this capital is the site of

856:, in a section probably composed around 1580 but citing the chief judge Ida al-Massini who lived somewhat earlier, twenty kings ruled Ghana before the advent of Islam. Al-Sadi purports that approximately 18 through 34 ancient Kaya (kings) ruled before the 3523: 680:

This idea of a foreign origin for Wagadu is generally disregarded by modern scholars. Levtzion and Spaulding, for example, argue that al-Idrisi's testimony should be looked at skeptically due to serious miscalculations in geography and historical

1263: 634:, which the author considered most likely. The author concludes that "the nearest to the truth is that they were not black." This interpretation derived from his opinion that the rulers' genealogies linked them to the Berbers. The 830:

portrays early Ghana as very warlike, with horse-mounted warriors key to increasing its territory and population, although details of their expansion are extremely scarce. Wagadu made its profits from maintaining a monopoly on

1139:. The king claimed as his own all nuggets of gold, and allowed other people to have only 'gold dust'. In addition to the influence exerted by the king in local regions, tribute was received from various tributary states and 786:, on the Niger Bend. This area was historically more fertile than the Tichitt zone, and Lange draws on oral traditions to support his argument, contending that dynastic struggles in the 11th century pushed the capital west. 1721: 966:

Whether the Almoravids conquered Ghana or not, the country certainly did convert to Islam around 1076. This conversion and its accompanying rejection of the earlier, more accommodating Islam may have pushed the

750:(a site associated with the ancestors of the Soninke), which clearly reflected a complex culture that was present by 1600 BC and had architectural and material cultural elements similar to those found at 847:

scattered across West Africa dating to this period, it has been stipulated that relative to Wagadu there were many more simultaneous and preceding kingdoms which have unfortunately been lost to time.

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the grandest structure in the city, surrounded by other "domed buildings". There was also one mosque for visiting Muslim officials. (El-Ghaba, coincidentally or not, means "The Forest" in Arabic.)

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The name of the other section of the city is not recorded. In the vicinity were wells with fresh water, used to grow vegetables. It was inhabited almost entirely by Muslims, who had with twelve

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heading south, despite not controlling the gold fields themselves. It is possible that Wagadu's dominance on trade allowed for the gradual consolidation of many smaller polities into a

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at some point in the 13th century. Despite its collapse, the empire's influence can be felt in the establishment of numerous urban centers throughout its former territory. In 1957, the

713:, Robert Cornevin and others for being "unacceptable" and "too creative to be useful to historians", particularly in relation to his interpretation of West African genealogies, 1251: 2183:

Kevin McDonald, Robert Vernet, Dorian Fuller and James Woodhouse, "New Light on the Tichitt Tradition" A Preliminary Report on Survey and Excavation at Dhar Nema," pp. 78–80.

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In al-Bakri's time, the rulers of Ghana had begun to incorporate more Muslims into government, including the treasurer, his interpreter, and "the majority of his officials."

1362:. The separate and autonomous towns outside of the main governmental center is a well-known practice used by the Jakhanke tribe of the Mandinka people throughout history. 2951:

Recherches archéologiques sur la capitale de l'empire de Ghana: Etude d'un secteur, d'habitat à Koumbi Saleh, Mauritanie: Campagnes II-III-IV-V (1975–1976)-(1980–1981)

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in the Sahel created areas for human habitation and exploitation which had not been habitable for the best part of a millennium, resulting in Wagadu rising out of the

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and linked them to North African and Middle Eastern origins. Delafosse produced a convoluted theory of an invasion by "Judeo-Syrians", which he linked to the

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further states that "In origin they were white, though we do not know to whom they trace their origin. Their subjects, however, were Wa'kore ." Chronicles by

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It is uncertain among historians when Ghana's ruling dynasty began. The first identifiable mention of the imperial dynasty in written records was made by

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and acquired all their possessions, both their ancient kingdom and that of Ghana." According to a modern tradition, this resurgence of Mali was led by

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The Arabic sources are vague as to how the country was governed. Al-Bakri, far and away the most detailed one, mentions that the king had officials (

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agro-pastoralist chiefdoms that were spread over the western-most portion of the Niger River basin for over a millennium roughly spanning 1300 BCE

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In recent years, the identification of Koumbi Saleh with the 'city of Ghana' described in the sources has been increasingly disputed by scholars.

3631: 547:, although they vary much amongst themselves, the legendary progenitory of the Soninke was a man named Dinga, who came "from the east" (possibly 4782: 5960: 3448:

Conrad, David C.; Fisher, Humphrey J. (1982), "The conquest that never was: Ghana and the Almoravids, 1076. I. The external Arabic sources",

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outnumbered the peoples of the Sudan in their neighborhood and dominated the whole region." He went on to relate that they "vanquished the

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Vicente, Mário; Priehodová, Edita; Diallo, Issa; Podgorná, Eliška; Poloni, Estella S.; Černý, Viktor; Schlebusch, Carina M. (2019-12-02).

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Conrad, David C.; Fisher, Humphrey J. (1983), "The conquest that never was: Ghana and the Almoravids, 1076. II. The local oral sources",

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has shown that, as the desert advanced, the local groups moved southward into the still well-watered areas of what is now northern Mali.

2703: 2315:"Background to the Ghana empire: Archaeological investigations on the transition to statehood in the Dhar Tichitt region (mauritania)" 3290: 992: 5906: 1893:"Population history and genetic adaptation of the Fulani nomads: inferences from genome-wide data and the lactase persistence trait" 1207:, was "almost a match for the king of Ghana." Sama is the only such entity mentioned as a province, as it was in al-Ya'qubi's day. 871:

in the desert to accept its rule sometime between 970 and 1054. Oral traditions indicate that, at its height, the empire controlled

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in the 7th century, the camel had changed the ancient, irregular trade routes into a network running between North Africa and the

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Fall, Mamadou (2021). "Les Terroirs Historiques et la Poussée Soninké". In Fall, Mamadou; Fall, Rokhaya; Mane, Mamadou (eds.).

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served as major catalysts for the transformative social changes that resulted in the empire's formation. By the time of the

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origins in the empire. al-Bakri also mentioned that Muslims played a central role in commerce and held court appointments.

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in 1394, according to which the power of Ghana waned as that of the "veiled people" grew through the Almoravid movement.

3122:"La Chute De La Dynastie Des Sisse: Considerations Sur La Dislocation De L'Empire Du Ghana A Partir De L'Histoire De Gao" 3043: 1011:. During this period Ghana was fully Islamized, and the judicial system had shifted to something more closely resembling 1095:

in 1235 (a date again assigned arbitrarily by Delafosse), the new rulers of Koumbi Saleh became permanent allies of the

5980: 5787: 4787: 2612: 1091:, rebelled with Kangaba and became part of a loose federation of Mande-speaking states. After Soumaoro's defeat at the 1791: 4431: 3925: 3554: 3223: 3636: 2830: 2746: 1956:

Preserving African Cultural Heritage: Proceedings of the Panafrican Archaeological Association 13th Congress, Dakar

58: 2480:"Listening for Silences in Almoravid History: Another Reading of "The Conquest that Never Was" Camilo Gómez-Rivas 5950: 5413: 4176: 3935: 3842: 3372:

Tableau géographique de l'ouest africain au moyen age, d'après les sources écrites, la tradition et l'archéologie

1765: 4575: 3291:"Not quite Venus from the waves: The Almoravid conquest of Ghana in the modern historiography of Western Africa" 1684: 1172:

nobleman living in Spain questioned merchants who visited the empire in the 11th century and wrote of the king:

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out of the Gajaaga. Two other Soninke groups to the south, the Gaja and the Karo, were dominated by the Wagu.

816: 5851: 3621: 2094:"Tracing History in Dia, in the Inland Niger Delta of Mali -Archaeology, Oral Traditions and Written Sources" 1535: 800: 538: 3788: 3783: 3763: 2953:, British Archaeological Reports 680, Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 41, Oxford: Archaeopress, 5846: 5730: 3832: 3547:(in French), translated by Cuoq, Joseph M., Paris: Éditions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique 2705:

The Trans-Saharan Book Trade: Manuscript Culture, Arabic Literacy and Intellectual History in Muslim Africa

101: 1036:, succeeded him and forced the people to pay him tribute. The Sosso also managed to annex the neighboring 5975: 5856: 4893: 3773: 2314: 481: 3055:

Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan down to 1613 and other contemporary documents

1604: 934:. This may have created a succession dispute with Bassi's son Qanamar, providing an opportunity for the 766:

development of ironworking technology were crucial in the formation of the state. Work in Dhar Tichitt,

5985: 4169: 3971: 3837: 3708: 3039: 1320:, gave the name of the empire's capital as "Koumbi". According to the description of the town left by 5814: 4962: 4526: 4032: 3893: 3657: 2129:

Mcintosh, Susan Keech; Mcintosh, Roderick J. (February 1980). "Jenne-Jeno: An Ancient African City".

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Recueil des sources arabes concernant l'Afrique occidentale du VIIIe au XVIe siècle (Bilād al-Sūdān)

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Chu, Daniel and Skinner, Elliot. A Glorious Age in Africa, 1st ed. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1965.

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Historian Dierk Lange has argued that the core of Wagadou was not Koumbi Saleh but in fact lay near

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The earliest proto-polity ancestral to Ghana likely arose from a large collection of ancient proto-

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Trade routes of the Western Sahara c. 1000–1500. Goldfields are indicated by light brown shading:

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Posnansky, Merrick (1981). "The societies of Africa south of the Sahara in the Early Iron Age".

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classical to post-classical era western-Sahelian empire based in the modern-day southeast of

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Haut-Sénégal-Niger: Le Pays, les Peuples, les Langues; l'Histoire; les Civilizations. 3 Vols

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Before the Empire of Ghana: Pastoralism and the Origins of Cultural Complexity in the Sahel

1952:"Seeking the Origins of Takrur: Human Settlement in the Middle Senegal Valley 2500-1000 BP" 643: 5665: 3380:

Munson, Patrick J. (1980), "Archaeology and the prehistoric origins of the Ghana Empire",

520:. This meant the "place of the Wague", the term current in the 19th century for the local 8: 5577: 5457: 5423: 5325: 5145: 5140: 4952: 4671: 4607: 4482: 4467: 4238: 3966: 3903: 1722:"The Conquest That Never Was: Ghana and the Almoravids, 1076. II. The Local Oral Sources" 955: 5293: 5283: 1448: 1418:

The empire was populated by ancient Mande tribes and would come under unity through the

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valley. These "kings" were presumably the rulers of the territorial units often called

430: 1370: 516:(king of gold) was another title for these kings. The Soninke name for the polity was 5799: 5695: 5631: 5626: 5555: 5452: 5167: 5095: 5090: 4932: 4861: 4844: 4839: 4834: 4634: 4585: 4373: 4228: 4192: 4090: 4037: 4022: 3981: 3888: 3798: 3738: 3698: 3585: 3566: 3550: 3529: 3514: 3477: 3409: 3362: 3325: 3235: 3219: 3208: 3189: 3165: 3112: 3077: 3058: 3016: 2968: 2954: 2713: 2682: 2330: 2220: 1932: 1914: 1771: 1690: 1580: 1316: 1191: 1077: 988: 971:

diaspora throughout the region. In 1083, supported by the Almoravids, Ghana attacked

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The earliest discussions of Ghana's origins are found in the Sudanese chronicles of

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to the western Sahara in the 3rd century AD and pressure from the nomadic Saharan

758: 709:". Delafosse's works, meanwhile, have been harshly criticised by scholars such as 290: 5866: 5834: 5707: 5675: 5658: 5614: 5609: 5587: 5582: 5540: 5533: 5508: 5368: 5363: 5204: 5085: 4979: 4974: 4942: 4767: 4757: 4651: 4644: 4639: 4624: 4580: 4462: 4448: 4398: 4353: 4348: 4129: 4067: 4052: 3976: 3954: 3847: 3816: 3753: 3685: 3031: 3013:

African dominion : a new history of empire in early and medieval West Africa

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The fortunes of Africa : a 5000-year history of wealth, greed, and endeavour

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In its last centuries, Ghana increasingly lost control of the gold trade to the

903:. Diabe, supposedly the son of Dinga, is sometimes given credit for driving the 5809: 5804: 5767: 5742: 5725: 5636: 5621: 5592: 5550: 5398: 5358: 5353: 5308: 5234: 5194: 5184: 5174: 4989: 4868: 4762: 4629: 4511: 4378: 4363: 4343: 4323: 4318: 4278: 4075: 4027: 3733: 3713: 3245:. Excerpts from Levtzion & Hopkins 1981. Includes an extended introduction. 3104: 1522: 1427: 1419: 1069: 1033: 827: 824: 783: 623: 591: 587: 544: 477: 465: 3393: 1909: 1269:

Western necropolis of Koumbi Saleh showing the density of funerary structures

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Individual burial from the Column Tomb with isolated stele placed at the head

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Written sources vague as to the empire's maximum extent, though according to

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in the 13th noted that rulers of Ghana traced their descent from the clan of

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in 830. Further information about the empire was provided by the accounts of

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Monteil, Charles (1954), "La légende du Ouagadou et l'origine des Soninke",

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The Negroland revisited: Discovery and invention of the Sudanese middle ages

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Lange, Dierk (1996a), "The Almoravid expansion and the downfall of Ghana",

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La première hégémonie peule. Le Fuuta Tooro de Koli Teηella à Almaami Abdul

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to intervene in the empire, promoting pro-Islam candidates for the throne.

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and relied on slave raiding and trading as a principal economic activity.

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Information about the empire at its height is sparse. According to Kati's

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A tradition in historiography maintains that Ghana was conquered by the

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were Black. These regions, part of the core of Wagadu, remained largely

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Tarikh el-fettach par Mahmoūd Kāti et l'un de ses petit fils (2 Vols.)

2831:"Le Tombeau à Colonnes de Koumbi Saleh (Mauritanie – xie-xiie siècle)" 1305:

Burial excavation showing the over-pit system and surface arrangements

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Ghana appears to have had a central core region and was surrounded by

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assigned an arbitrary but widely accepted date of 1230 to the event.

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and others. Ghana was the master of an extensive trade system in the

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Mauny, Raymond (1971), "The Western Sudan", in Shinnie, P.L. (ed.),

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Beginning in the 1920s, French archaeologists excavated the site of

4819: 4602: 4560: 4499: 3768: 2017:"La légende officielle de Soundiata, fondateur de l'Empire manding" 1375: 1321: 1311: 1165: 1117: 972: 864: 702: 647: 464:

After centuries of prosperity, the empire began its decline in the

458: 1967: 1965: 951: 4732: 4661: 4617: 4472: 2021:

Bulletin du Comité d'Études Historiques et Scientifiques de l'AOF

1641:

Willie F. Page; R. Hunt Davis, Jr., eds. (2005), "Ghana Empire",

1347: 1199: 1073: 1045: 1041: 984: 892: 884: 812: 725: 666: 631: 575: 397: 359: 4533: 3642: 2337: 1640: 331: 4565: 4440: 4368: 4338: 4288: 4203: 3728: 3203:

Levtzion, Nehemia; Hopkins, John F. P. eds. and trans. (2000),

2061: 1996:

Monteil, Charles (1966). "Fin de siècle à Médine (1898-1899)".

1962: 1890: 1683:

Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. Jr. (9 February 2010).

1645:, vol. 2 (revised ed.), Facts on File, pp. 85–87 1476:

Kambine Diaresso (sometimes also written as Jarisso): 1087–1090

1132: 1012: 1008: 1000: 900: 896: 872: 733: 721: 674: 469: 1798: 1796: 1794: 1116:

Most of the information about the economy of Ghana comes from

705:(1068 CE) all describe the population and rulers of Ghana as " 5199: 4383: 4333: 4293: 4268: 4223: 1426:

ethnic group, with its citizens living in deeply established

1169: 1121: 1101: 1088: 808: 729: 706: 670: 567: 548: 489: 223: 210: 106: 20: 3251:"Un État Soudanais Médiéval Inconnu: Le Royaume de Zāfūn(u)" 3232:

Medieval West Africa: Views from Arab Scholars and Merchants

1686:

Encyclopedia of African American History [3 volumes]

1007:

throughout the region. It also controlled the gold mines of

597: 4218: 3673: 3549:. Reprinted in 1985 with corrections and additional texts, 1654: 1652: 1431: 1245:

Column Tomb with remains of the corner columns still intact

888: 836: 832: 665:, erroneously concluded that Ghana had been founded by the 443: 387: 4409: 2874: 582:

maintain that the earliest occupants of areas such as the

3218:. First published in 1981 by Cambridge University Press, 2849: 2450: 2438: 1108:

Koumbi Saleh was abandoned sometime in the 15th century.

976: 655: 2153: 1649: 891:

to the north. It also had some degree of influence over

740: 512:, and was the title given to the rulers of the kingdom. 2413: 1120:. He noted that merchants had to pay a tax of one gold 3423:

Bulletin de l'Institut Français de l'Afrique Noire (B)

2633: 2631: 2587: 2563: 2553: 2551: 2403: 2401: 2501:

ibn Khaldun in Levtzion and Hopkins, eds. and trans.

2462: 2186: 2165: 2141: 2073: 2886: 2802:

al-Ya'qubi in Levtzion and Hopkins, eds. and trans.

1977: 1072:, the founder of Mali and ruler of its core area of 461:

when he wrote about the region in the 11th century.

3584:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 66–87, 3557:. Similar to Levtzion and Hopkins, 1981 & 2000. 3333:Mauny, Raymond A. (1954), "The question of Ghana", 2898: 2815:al-Bakri in Levtzion and Hopkins, eds. and trans., 2764: 2652:al-'Umari in Levtzion and Hopkins, eds. and trans. 2628: 2575: 2548: 2537: 2535: 2520: 2508: 2398: 1498: 1143:on the empire's periphery. The introduction of the 979:, helping to spread Sunni orthodoxy there as well. 2732:al-Bakri in Levtzion and Hopkins, eds. and trans. 2386: 2374: 2362: 2355:al-Bakri in Levtzion and Hopkins, eds. and trans. 1664: 1135:worth 42,000 dinars. The main centre of trade was 3229: 3030:Houdas, Octave; Delafosse, Maurice, eds. (1913), 3006:(in French). Dakar: HGS Editions. pp. 14–39. 2497: 2495: 1971: 1565:Gestrich, Nikolas (2019). "The Empire of Ghana". 1233:Central mausoleum in 1951 (left) and 2007 (right) 5937: 3528:(2nd ed.), Leiden: Brill, pp. 1001–2, 3004:Bipolarisation du Senegal du XVIe - XVIIe siécle 2918:"Mande | West African, Mali, Griot | Britannica" 2532: 2128: 1293:Central mausoleum (the qubba) of the Column Tomb 1044:to the south, where the important goldfields of 746:traditions. In 1969 Patrick Munson excavated at 622:offers three different theories: that they were 3202: 3068:. Reprint of the 1999 edition with corrections. 3029: 2997:, Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press 1845: 1830: 1802: 1682: 524:, or may have meant 'the land of great herds'. 3416: 3335:Journal of the International African Institute 3205:Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West Africa 2995:The Civilizations of Africa: A History to 1800 2880: 2492: 2208:Oxford Research Encyclopedias: African history 1515: 1443:Soninke rulers ("Ghanas") of the Cisse dynasty 930:died in 1063, and was succeeded by his nephew 16:Empire in West Africa from c. 200s to c. 1200s 4425: 4177: 3658: 3288: 3015:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 2681:. United States: Public Affairs. p. 73. 2444: 1003:in the 10th century, that exported salt from 5882:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy 3289:Masonen, Pekka; Fisher, Humphrey J. (1996), 3116:. Reprinted in Lange 2004, pp. 455–493. 2648: 2646: 1719: 19:Not to be confused with the modern country, 2785: 2783: 2781: 2779: 2702:Krätli, Graziano; Lydon, Ghislaine (2011). 2701: 1715: 1713: 1643:Encyclopedia of African History and Culture 1389: 1087:Soumaba Cisse, at the time a vassal of the 1056:In his brief overview of Sudanese history, 1027:Map of successor states to the Ghana Empire 860:and 24 more kaya (kings) ruled afterward. 4432: 4418: 4184: 4170: 3665: 3651: 3632:Kingdom of Ghana, Primary Source Documents 3374:, Dakar: Institut français d'Afrique Noire 3230:Levtzion, Nehemia; Spaulding, Jay (2003), 3074:Archaeology of Islam in Sub-saharan Africa 3042:in 1964 and 1981. The French text is also 2205:Gestrich, Nikolas (2019). "Ghana Empire". 57: 3617:Ghana Empire - World History Encyclopedia 3076:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2967: 2789:al-Bakri (1067) in Levtzion and Hopkins, 2643: 2618: 2292: 1926: 1908: 1602: 799:Towards the end of the 3rd century AD, a 598:Medieval Arab Writers and a Berber Origin 5956:13th-century disestablishments in Africa 3417:Thomassey, Paul; Mauny, Raymond (1951), 3178: 2948: 2892: 2867:al-Bakri, 1067 in Levtzion and Hopkins, 2855: 2776: 2747:"The Story of Africa- BBC World Service" 2674: 2261: 2204: 2159: 1949: 1865: 1853: 1818: 1720:Conrad, David; Fisher, Humphrey (1983). 1710: 1658: 1564: 1393: 1369: 1022: 715: 527: 5706: 3248: 3049: 3046:from Aluka but requires a subscription. 2593: 2569: 2343: 1995: 63:The Ghana Empire at its greatest extent 5938: 3379: 3119: 3090: 3071: 2468: 2456: 2419: 2319:Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 2217:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.396 2192: 2171: 2147: 2079: 1759: 1757: 1755: 1627:al-Kuwarizmi in Levtzion and Hopkins, 1577:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.396 618:). Addressing the rulers' origin, the 4413: 4191: 4165: 3646: 3419:"Campagne de fouilles à Koumbi Saleh" 3369: 3332: 3159: 3010: 2992: 2904: 2828: 2770: 2637: 2605:ibn Khaldun in Levtzion and Hopkins, 2581: 2557: 2526: 2514: 2407: 2239: 2113: 2107: 2085: 2067: 2014: 1983: 1670: 1105:and "who is like a deputy unto him." 794: 741:Modern Archaeology and a Local Origin 5961:8th-century establishments in Africa 3001: 2392: 2380: 2368: 2312: 2242:"The Origins of the Empire of Ghana" 1950:McIntosh, Susan Keech (2017-01-01). 1763: 1598: 1596: 1310:A 17th-century chronicle written in 777: 3164:, Dettelbach, Germany: J. H. Röll, 2541:al-Idrisi in Levtzion and Hopkins, 2306: 2296:General History of Africa: Volume 2 2286: 2268:Canadian Journal of African Studies 2233: 2122: 1877:al-Idrisi in Levtzion and Hopkins, 1752: 1281:Funerary complex of the Column Tomb 1018: 887:, as well as the Awker, Adrar, and 661:French colonial officials, notably 417: 13: 3522:Cornevin, Robert (1965), "Ghana", 3440: 2274:(2). Taylor and Francis: 347–373. 1884: 1839: 1770:. Paris: Karthala. p. 57-60. 1341: 1329:on the rim of the Sahara desert. 961: 532: 14: 6002: 3672: 3610: 2979:Le Pays, les Peuples, les Langues 2091: 1593: 1437: 1051: 612:) and Abd al-Rahman as-Sadi (the 594:until at least the 16th century. 3199:. Reprinted with additions 1980. 2975:(in French), Paris: Émile Larose 1881:, p. 109, and ibn Sa'id, p. 186. 1499:Rulers during Kaniaga occupation 1298: 1286: 1274: 1262: 1250: 1238: 1226: 950:as related to him by 'Uthman, a 364: 350: 336: 322: 308: 283: 269: 3525:Encyclopaedia of Islam Volume 2 3234:, Princeton NJ: Markus Wiener, 3207:, New York, NY: Marcus Weiner, 3162:Ancient Kingdoms of West Africa 2941: 2910: 2861: 2822: 2809: 2796: 2739: 2726: 2695: 2668: 2659: 2599: 2483: 2474: 2425: 2349: 2264:"Reconceptualizing Early Ghana" 2255: 2198: 2177: 2044: 2031: 2008: 1989: 1943: 1871: 1859: 1824: 1812: 1603:Etheredge, Laura (2009-04-14). 1470: 1413: 1213: 817:Muslim conquest of North Africa 650:, either through his protector 3435:. Includes a plan of the site. 3382:The Journal of African History 1676: 1634: 1621: 1558: 1398:The Western Nile according to 1374:The Western Nile according to 1365: 451:Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī 1: 3543:Cuoq, Joseph M., ed. (1975), 2037:African Studies Association, 1972:Levtzion & Spaulding 2003 1568:Oxford Research Encyclopedias 1551: 1536:History of the Soninke people 1158: 999:valley, first established by 910: 539:History of the Soninke people 468:, and would finally become a 237: 233: 200: 49: 45: 5966:Countries in medieval Africa 2331:10.1016/0278-4165(85)90005-4 2240:Abbou, Tahar (August 2020). 1060:related that "the people of 495: 186:1st–3rd century–13th century 102:African traditional religion 7: 4439: 3255:Cahiers d'Études Africaines 2993:Ehret, Christopher (2016), 2103:. Institute of Archaeology. 1846:Houdas & Delafosse 1913 1831:Houdas & Delafosse 1913 1803:Houdas & Delafosse 1913 1529: 1516:Ghanas of Wagadou tributary 1507:Soumaba Cisse as vassal of 1451:(also known as Dinga Cisse) 1332: 1083:This tradition states that 121: 10: 6007: 3709:History of the Mali Empire 3179:Levtzion, Nehemia (1973), 3105:10.1515/islm.1996.73.2.313 2881:Thomassey & Mauny 1951 2070:, pp. 72–74, 508–511. 1217: 1111: 807:. The introduction of the 789: 654:or through his son-in-law 536: 484:, under the leadership of 18: 5981:Political history of Mali 5875: 5827: 5344: 4748: 4447: 4199: 4123: 4066: 4003: 3994: 3962: 3953: 3879: 3870: 3806: 3797: 3684: 3429:: 438–462, archived from 3394:10.1017/s0021853700018685 3249:Lewicki, Tadeusz (1971). 2949:Berthier, Sophie (1997), 2675:Meredith, Martin (2014). 2445:Masonen & Fisher 1996 2101:University College London 1910:10.1186/s12864-019-6296-7 1706:– via Google Books. 1521:Soumaba Cisse as ally of 673:(who actually co-founded 380: 248: 244: 220: 207: 194: 190: 182: 178: 168: 156: 146: 134: 130: 120: 112: 97: 79: 68: 56: 44: 28: 3622:African Kingdoms | Ghana 3072:Insoll, Timothy (2003), 2346:, p. 13 and note 5. 2313:Holl, Augustine (1985). 2262:McIntosh, Susan (2008). 1485:Magan Wagadou: 1120–1130 1434:and family structures. 1390:Contested Identification 879:, Bakhunu, Neema, Soso, 642:in the 11th century and 563:mentions Wagadu's fall. 420:), also known as simply 75:(likely a later capital) 3561:Masonen, Pekka (2000), 3370:Mauny, Raymond (1961), 3011:Gomez, Michael (2018). 2431:For example, Levtzion, 1609:Encyclopedia Britannica 1454:Dyabe Cisse: circa 790s 1354:and are today known as 701:(c. 1036 CE), and 5951:1240 disestablishments 3601:Mélanges Ethnologiques 3182:Ancient Ghana and Mali 3120:Lange, Dierk (1996b). 3036:, Paris: Ernest Leroux 2302:. UNESCO. p. 729. 1504:Diara Kante: 1180–1202 1403: 1379: 1179: 1028: 737: 566:The traditions of the 5971:History of Mauritania 5852:Medieval great powers 3759:2012 Tuareg rebellion 3627:Empires of west Sudan 3267:10.3406/cea.1971.2781 3160:Lange, Dierk (2004), 2977:. Gallica: Volume 1, 2829:Capel, Chloe (2021). 2015:Vidal, Jules (1924). 1482:Bannu Bubu: 1100–1120 1422:tribe of the greater 1397: 1373: 1174: 1026: 975:and may have reached 719: 528:Origin Historiography 209:• Conversion to 80:Common languages 5862:European colonialism 5847:Ancient great powers 3833:Environmental issues 3582:The African Iron age 2058:vol. 1, pp. 256-257) 2052:Histoire de l'Africa 1764:Kane, Oumar (2004). 1131:quotes the use of a 954:of Ghana who took a 222:• Conquered by 5918: / 5857:Modern great powers 3774:Ebola disease event 3639:— BBC World Service 3188:, London: Methuen, 2843:10.4000/remmm.16109 2459:, pp. 122–159. 1852:, translation from 1479:Suleiman: 1090–1100 956:pilgrimage to Mecca 867:, Ghana had forced 492:upon independence. 196:• Established 5976:History of Senegal 4309:Mahdiyya caliphate 3972:Telecommunications 3724:Kénédougou Kingdom 2969:Delafosse, Maurice 2922:www.britannica.com 2118:. pp. 71–103. 2056:Haut-Sénégal-Niger 2050:Cornevin, Robert, 1998:Bulletin de l'IFAN 1404: 1400:Muhammad al-Idrisi 1380: 1029: 841:confederated state 835:heading north and 795:Rise of the Empire 738: 693:(c. 944 CE), 226:/Submitted to the 5986:Sahelian kingdoms 5901: 5900: 5823: 5822: 5788:Polish–Lithuanian 4963:Gurjara-Pratihara 4407: 4406: 4193:Sahelian kingdoms 4159: 4158: 4119: 4118: 4033:Human trafficking 3990: 3989: 3949: 3948: 3926:Political parties 3921:National Assembly 3894:Foreign relations 3866: 3865: 3739:Toucouleur Empire 3699:Pre-Imperial Mali 3591:978-0-19-813158-8 3572:978-951-41-0886-0 3535:978-90-04-07026-4 3487:History in Africa 3450:History in Africa 3298:History in Africa 3241:978-1-55876-305-0 3214:978-1-55876-241-1 3195:978-0-8419-0431-6 3171:978-3-89754-115-3 3126:History in Africa 3083:978-0-521-65702-0 3064:978-90-04-12560-5 3057:, Leiden: Brill, 3022:978-0-691-17742-7 2987:Les Civilisations 2960:978-0-86054-868-3 2858:, pp. 22–26. 2719:978-90-04-18742-9 2688:978-1-61039-459-8 2226:978-0-19-027773-4 2039:History in Africa 1777:978-2-84586-521-1 1726:History in Africa 1696:978-1-85109-774-6 1661:, pp. 16–17. 1586:978-0-19-027773-4 1494:Birama: 1160–1180 1317:Tarikh al-fattash 943:Almoravid dynasty 853:Tarikh al-Fettash 778:Niger Bend Theory 663:Maurice Delafosse 620:Tarikh al-Fattash 609:Tarikh al-Fattash 466:second millennium 406: 405: 376: 375: 372: 371: 346:Pre-imperial Mali 318:Kingdom of Diarra 296: 295: 170:• 1203–1235 158:• 1040–1062 5998: 5933: 5932: 5930: 5929: 5928: 5923: 5922:15.667°N 8.000°W 5919: 5916: 5915: 5914: 5911: 5704: 5703: 5369:Austro-Hungarian 5069:Chagatai Khanate 4434: 4427: 4420: 4411: 4410: 4186: 4179: 4172: 4163: 4162: 4139: 4132: 4001: 4000: 3960: 3959: 3877: 3876: 3804: 3803: 3744:Wassoulou Empire 3667: 3660: 3653: 3644: 3643: 3604: 3594: 3575: 3548: 3538: 3517: 3480: 3434: 3412: 3375: 3365: 3328: 3295: 3285: 3283: 3281: 3244: 3217: 3198: 3187: 3174: 3156: 3154: 3152: 3115: 3086: 3067: 3051:Hunwick, John O. 3037: 3026: 3007: 2998: 2976: 2963: 2932: 2931: 2929: 2928: 2914: 2908: 2902: 2896: 2890: 2884: 2878: 2872: 2865: 2859: 2853: 2847: 2846: 2837:(149): 237–262. 2826: 2820: 2813: 2807: 2800: 2794: 2787: 2774: 2768: 2762: 2761: 2759: 2757: 2743: 2737: 2730: 2724: 2723: 2710:Brill Publishers 2699: 2693: 2692: 2672: 2666: 2663: 2657: 2650: 2641: 2635: 2626: 2616: 2610: 2603: 2597: 2591: 2585: 2579: 2573: 2567: 2561: 2555: 2546: 2539: 2530: 2524: 2518: 2512: 2506: 2499: 2490: 2487: 2481: 2478: 2472: 2466: 2460: 2454: 2448: 2442: 2436: 2429: 2423: 2422:, p. 165-6. 2417: 2411: 2405: 2396: 2390: 2384: 2378: 2372: 2366: 2360: 2353: 2347: 2341: 2335: 2334: 2310: 2304: 2303: 2301: 2290: 2284: 2283: 2259: 2253: 2252: 2246: 2237: 2231: 2230: 2202: 2196: 2190: 2184: 2181: 2175: 2169: 2163: 2162:, pp. 8–17. 2157: 2151: 2145: 2139: 2138: 2126: 2120: 2119: 2114:MacDonald, K.C. 2111: 2105: 2104: 2098: 2089: 2083: 2077: 2071: 2065: 2059: 2048: 2042: 2035: 2029: 2028: 2012: 2006: 2005: 1993: 1987: 1981: 1975: 1969: 1960: 1959: 1947: 1941: 1940: 1930: 1912: 1888: 1882: 1875: 1869: 1863: 1857: 1843: 1837: 1828: 1822: 1816: 1810: 1800: 1789: 1788: 1786: 1784: 1761: 1750: 1749: 1717: 1708: 1707: 1705: 1703: 1680: 1674: 1668: 1662: 1656: 1647: 1646: 1638: 1632: 1625: 1619: 1618: 1616: 1615: 1600: 1591: 1590: 1562: 1449:Kaya Magan Cissé 1302: 1290: 1278: 1266: 1254: 1242: 1230: 1093:Battle of Kirina 1019:Sosso occupation 920:and west to the 419: 368: 367: 354: 353: 340: 339: 326: 325: 312: 311: 300: 299: 287: 286: 273: 272: 266: 265: 250: 249: 239: 235: 202: 141:Kaya Magan Cissé 61: 51: 47: 26: 25: 6006: 6005: 6001: 6000: 5999: 5997: 5996: 5995: 5991:Spread of Islam 5936: 5935: 5926: 5924: 5920: 5917: 5912: 5909: 5907: 5905: 5904: 5902: 5897: 5886:American Empire 5871: 5867:African empires 5819: 5702: 5394:Central African 5340: 5158:Romano-Germanic 4744: 4478:Middle Assyrian 4451: 4443: 4438: 4408: 4403: 4195: 4190: 4160: 4155: 4142: 4135: 4128: 4115: 4111:Public holidays 4062: 3986: 3945: 3911:Law enforcement 3862: 3793: 3754:Mali Federation 3680: 3671: 3613: 3608: 3598: 3592: 3579: 3573: 3560: 3542: 3536: 3521: 3499:10.2307/3171690 3484: 3462:10.2307/3171598 3447: 3443: 3441:Further reading 3438: 3347:10.2307/1156424 3310:10.2307/3171941 3293: 3279: 3277: 3242: 3215: 3196: 3185: 3172: 3150: 3148: 3138:10.2307/3171939 3084: 3065: 3023: 2961: 2944: 2938: 2936: 2935: 2926: 2924: 2916: 2915: 2911: 2903: 2899: 2891: 2887: 2879: 2875: 2866: 2862: 2854: 2850: 2827: 2823: 2814: 2810: 2801: 2797: 2788: 2777: 2769: 2765: 2755: 2753: 2745: 2744: 2740: 2731: 2727: 2720: 2700: 2696: 2689: 2673: 2669: 2664: 2660: 2651: 2644: 2636: 2629: 2617: 2613: 2604: 2600: 2592: 2588: 2580: 2576: 2568: 2564: 2556: 2549: 2540: 2533: 2525: 2521: 2513: 2509: 2500: 2493: 2488: 2484: 2479: 2475: 2467: 2463: 2455: 2451: 2443: 2439: 2430: 2426: 2418: 2414: 2406: 2399: 2391: 2387: 2379: 2375: 2367: 2363: 2354: 2350: 2342: 2338: 2311: 2307: 2299: 2291: 2287: 2260: 2256: 2244: 2238: 2234: 2227: 2203: 2199: 2191: 2187: 2182: 2178: 2170: 2166: 2158: 2154: 2146: 2142: 2127: 2123: 2112: 2108: 2096: 2092:Arazi, Noemie. 2090: 2086: 2078: 2074: 2066: 2062: 2049: 2045: 2036: 2032: 2013: 2009: 1994: 1990: 1982: 1978: 1970: 1963: 1948: 1944: 1889: 1885: 1876: 1872: 1864: 1860: 1844: 1840: 1829: 1825: 1817: 1813: 1801: 1792: 1782: 1780: 1778: 1762: 1753: 1738:10.2307/3171690 1718: 1711: 1701: 1699: 1697: 1681: 1677: 1669: 1665: 1657: 1650: 1639: 1635: 1626: 1622: 1613: 1611: 1601: 1594: 1587: 1563: 1559: 1554: 1541:Islam in Africa 1532: 1518: 1501: 1491:Musa: 1140–1160 1488:Gane: 1130–1140 1473: 1445: 1440: 1416: 1392: 1368: 1344: 1342:Muslim district 1335: 1306: 1303: 1294: 1291: 1282: 1279: 1270: 1267: 1258: 1255: 1246: 1243: 1234: 1231: 1222: 1216: 1161: 1114: 1054: 1021: 964: 962:Ghana Resurgent 913: 805:Tichitt culture 797: 792: 780: 754:in the 1920s. 743: 711:Charles Monteil 636:Tarikh al-Sudan 632:Sanhaja Berbers 615:Tarikh al-Sudan 600: 545:oral traditions 541: 535: 533:Oral traditions 530: 498: 402: 365: 351: 337: 323: 309: 284: 277:Tichitt culture 270: 230: 213: 197: 171: 159: 149: 137: 116:Feudal Monarchy 104: 64: 40: 38: 34: 31: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6004: 5994: 5993: 5988: 5983: 5978: 5973: 5968: 5963: 5958: 5953: 5948: 5927:15.667; -8.000 5899: 5898: 5896: 5895: 5894: 5893: 5888: 5879: 5877: 5873: 5872: 5870: 5869: 5864: 5859: 5854: 5849: 5844: 5843: 5842: 5831: 5829: 5825: 5824: 5821: 5820: 5818: 5817: 5812: 5807: 5802: 5797: 5796: 5795: 5785: 5780: 5775: 5770: 5765: 5760: 5755: 5750: 5745: 5740: 5739: 5738: 5733: 5723: 5718: 5712: 5710: 5701: 5700: 5699: 5698: 5693: 5688: 5683: 5678: 5668: 5663: 5662: 5661: 5651: 5646: 5645: 5644: 5639: 5634: 5624: 5619: 5618: 5617: 5612: 5602: 5601: 5600: 5595: 5590: 5585: 5580: 5570: 5569: 5568: 5563: 5553: 5548: 5543: 5538: 5537: 5536: 5531: 5526: 5521: 5516: 5506: 5505: 5504: 5499: 5489: 5484: 5483: 5482: 5477: 5467: 5466: 5465: 5460: 5450: 5449: 5448: 5443: 5433: 5428: 5427: 5426: 5421: 5416: 5411: 5406: 5396: 5391: 5390: 5389: 5384: 5376: 5371: 5366: 5361: 5356: 5350: 5348: 5342: 5341: 5339: 5338: 5333: 5328: 5323: 5322: 5321: 5316: 5311: 5306: 5301: 5296: 5291: 5281: 5276: 5275: 5274: 5269: 5264: 5259: 5254: 5249: 5239: 5238: 5237: 5232: 5227: 5222: 5212: 5207: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5187: 5182: 5177: 5172: 5171: 5170: 5165: 5155: 5154: 5153: 5148: 5143: 5138: 5133: 5128: 5115: 5110: 5105: 5100: 5099: 5098: 5093: 5088: 5078: 5077: 5076: 5071: 5066: 5061: 5051: 5046: 5041: 5036: 5031: 5026: 5025: 5024: 5019: 5014: 5009: 4999: 4998: 4997: 4992: 4987: 4982: 4972: 4971: 4970: 4965: 4960: 4950: 4945: 4940: 4935: 4930: 4929: 4928: 4923: 4918: 4908: 4903: 4902: 4901: 4896: 4891: 4886: 4881: 4876: 4866: 4865: 4864: 4859: 4849: 4848: 4847: 4842: 4837: 4832: 4822: 4817: 4816: 4815: 4805: 4804: 4803: 4798: 4790: 4785: 4780: 4775: 4770: 4765: 4760: 4754: 4752: 4750:Post-classical 4746: 4745: 4743: 4742: 4741: 4740: 4730: 4725: 4724: 4723: 4718: 4708: 4707: 4706: 4696: 4695: 4694: 4689: 4684: 4679: 4674: 4669: 4659: 4654: 4649: 4648: 4647: 4642: 4637: 4632: 4622: 4621: 4620: 4615: 4605: 4600: 4599: 4598: 4593: 4588: 4583: 4578: 4568: 4563: 4558: 4557: 4556: 4551: 4549:Middle Kingdom 4546: 4536: 4531: 4530: 4529: 4524: 4519: 4509: 4508: 4507: 4505:Neo-Babylonian 4502: 4497: 4495:Old Babylonian 4487: 4486: 4485: 4480: 4470: 4465: 4459: 4457: 4445: 4444: 4437: 4436: 4429: 4422: 4414: 4405: 4404: 4402: 4401: 4396: 4391: 4386: 4381: 4376: 4371: 4366: 4361: 4356: 4351: 4346: 4341: 4336: 4331: 4326: 4324:Mossi kingdoms 4321: 4316: 4311: 4306: 4301: 4296: 4291: 4286: 4281: 4279:Hausa kingdoms 4276: 4271: 4266: 4261: 4256: 4251: 4246: 4241: 4236: 4231: 4226: 4221: 4216: 4211: 4206: 4200: 4197: 4196: 4189: 4188: 4181: 4174: 4166: 4157: 4156: 4154: 4153: 4148: 4141: 4140: 4133: 4125: 4124: 4121: 4120: 4117: 4116: 4114: 4113: 4108: 4103: 4098: 4093: 4088: 4083: 4078: 4072: 4070: 4064: 4063: 4061: 4060: 4055: 4050: 4045: 4040: 4035: 4030: 4025: 4020: 4015: 4010: 4008:Child marriage 4004: 3998: 3992: 3991: 3988: 3987: 3985: 3984: 3979: 3974: 3969: 3963: 3957: 3951: 3950: 3947: 3946: 3944: 3943: 3941:Vice President 3938: 3936:Prime Minister 3933: 3928: 3923: 3918: 3913: 3908: 3907: 3906: 3896: 3891: 3886: 3880: 3874: 3868: 3867: 3864: 3863: 3861: 3860: 3855: 3850: 3845: 3843:National parks 3840: 3835: 3830: 3825: 3820: 3813: 3807: 3801: 3795: 3794: 3792: 3791: 3786: 3781: 3776: 3771: 3766: 3761: 3756: 3751: 3746: 3741: 3736: 3734:Massina Empire 3731: 3726: 3721: 3716: 3714:Songhai Empire 3711: 3706: 3701: 3696: 3690: 3688: 3682: 3681: 3670: 3669: 3662: 3655: 3647: 3641: 3640: 3634: 3629: 3624: 3619: 3612: 3611:External links 3609: 3607: 3606: 3596: 3590: 3577: 3571: 3558: 3540: 3534: 3519: 3482: 3444: 3442: 3439: 3437: 3436: 3414: 3388:(4): 457–466, 3377: 3367: 3341:(3): 200–213, 3330: 3286: 3261:(44): 501–25. 3246: 3240: 3227: 3213: 3200: 3194: 3176: 3170: 3157: 3117: 3088: 3082: 3069: 3063: 3047: 3027: 3021: 3008: 2999: 2990: 2965: 2959: 2945: 2943: 2940: 2934: 2933: 2909: 2897: 2885: 2873: 2860: 2848: 2821: 2808: 2795: 2775: 2763: 2738: 2725: 2718: 2694: 2687: 2667: 2658: 2642: 2627: 2619:Delafosse 1912 2611: 2598: 2596:, p. 504. 2586: 2574: 2572:, p. 503. 2562: 2547: 2545:, pp. 109–110. 2531: 2519: 2507: 2491: 2482: 2473: 2471:, p. 230. 2461: 2449: 2437: 2433:Ghana and Mali 2424: 2412: 2397: 2385: 2373: 2361: 2348: 2336: 2305: 2285: 2254: 2249:Vitaminedz.com 2232: 2225: 2197: 2195:, p. 161. 2185: 2176: 2174:, p. 466. 2164: 2152: 2150:, p. 465. 2140: 2121: 2106: 2084: 2082:, p. 458. 2072: 2060: 2043: 2030: 2007: 1988: 1986:, p. 204. 1976: 1961: 1942: 1883: 1870: 1858: 1838: 1823: 1811: 1790: 1776: 1751: 1709: 1695: 1675: 1663: 1648: 1633: 1620: 1592: 1585: 1556: 1555: 1553: 1550: 1549: 1548: 1543: 1538: 1531: 1528: 1527: 1526: 1523:Sundiata Keita 1517: 1514: 1513: 1512: 1509:Soumaoro Kanté 1505: 1500: 1497: 1496: 1495: 1492: 1489: 1486: 1483: 1480: 1477: 1472: 1469: 1468: 1467: 1461: 1455: 1452: 1444: 1441: 1439: 1438:List of rulers 1436: 1415: 1412: 1391: 1388: 1367: 1364: 1343: 1340: 1334: 1331: 1308: 1307: 1304: 1297: 1295: 1292: 1285: 1283: 1280: 1273: 1271: 1268: 1261: 1259: 1256: 1249: 1247: 1244: 1237: 1235: 1232: 1225: 1218:Main article: 1215: 1212: 1160: 1157: 1113: 1110: 1070:Sundiata Keita 1053: 1052:Vassal of Mali 1050: 1048:were located. 1034:Soumaoro Kante 1020: 1017: 963: 960: 912: 909: 796: 793: 791: 788: 784:Lake Faguibine 779: 776: 742: 739: 599: 596: 561:Gassire's lute 534: 531: 529: 526: 497: 494: 478:British colony 472:of the rising 404: 403: 401: 400: 395: 390: 384: 382: 378: 377: 374: 373: 370: 369: 362: 356: 355: 348: 342: 341: 334: 328: 327: 320: 314: 313: 306: 297: 294: 293: 288: 280: 279: 274: 262: 261: 256: 246: 245: 242: 241: 231: 221: 218: 217: 214: 208: 205: 204: 198: 195: 192: 191: 188: 187: 184: 183:Historical era 180: 179: 176: 175: 172: 169: 166: 165: 160: 157: 154: 153: 150: 147: 144: 143: 138: 135: 132: 131: 128: 127: 124: 118: 117: 114: 110: 109: 99: 95: 94: 81: 77: 76: 70: 66: 65: 62: 54: 53: 42: 41: 32: 29: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6003: 5992: 5989: 5987: 5984: 5982: 5979: 5977: 5974: 5972: 5969: 5967: 5964: 5962: 5959: 5957: 5954: 5952: 5949: 5947: 5944: 5943: 5941: 5934: 5931: 5892: 5891:Soviet empire 5889: 5887: 5884: 5883: 5881: 5880: 5878: 5876:Miscellaneous 5874: 5868: 5865: 5863: 5860: 5858: 5855: 5853: 5850: 5848: 5845: 5841: 5838: 5837: 5836: 5833: 5832: 5830: 5826: 5816: 5813: 5811: 5808: 5806: 5803: 5801: 5798: 5794: 5791: 5790: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5741: 5737: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5728: 5727: 5724: 5722: 5719: 5717: 5714: 5713: 5711: 5709: 5705: 5697: 5694: 5692: 5689: 5687: 5684: 5682: 5679: 5677: 5674: 5673: 5672: 5669: 5667: 5664: 5660: 5657: 5656: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5629: 5628: 5625: 5623: 5620: 5616: 5613: 5611: 5608: 5607: 5606: 5603: 5599: 5596: 5594: 5591: 5589: 5586: 5584: 5581: 5579: 5576: 5575: 5574: 5571: 5567: 5564: 5562: 5559: 5558: 5557: 5554: 5552: 5549: 5547: 5544: 5542: 5539: 5535: 5532: 5530: 5527: 5525: 5522: 5520: 5517: 5515: 5512: 5511: 5510: 5507: 5503: 5500: 5498: 5495: 5494: 5493: 5490: 5488: 5485: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5475:German Empire 5473: 5472: 5471: 5468: 5464: 5461: 5459: 5456: 5455: 5454: 5451: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5438: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5429: 5425: 5422: 5420: 5417: 5415: 5412: 5410: 5407: 5405: 5402: 5401: 5400: 5397: 5395: 5392: 5388: 5385: 5383: 5380: 5379: 5377: 5375: 5372: 5370: 5367: 5365: 5362: 5360: 5357: 5355: 5352: 5351: 5349: 5347: 5343: 5337: 5334: 5332: 5329: 5327: 5324: 5320: 5317: 5315: 5312: 5310: 5307: 5305: 5302: 5300: 5297: 5295: 5292: 5290: 5287: 5286: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5277: 5273: 5270: 5268: 5265: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5255: 5253: 5250: 5248: 5245: 5244: 5243: 5240: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5221: 5218: 5217: 5216: 5215:Turco-Persian 5213: 5211: 5208: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5191: 5188: 5186: 5183: 5181: 5178: 5176: 5173: 5169: 5166: 5164: 5161: 5160: 5159: 5156: 5152: 5149: 5147: 5144: 5142: 5139: 5137: 5134: 5132: 5129: 5127: 5124: 5123: 5122: 5119: 5116: 5114: 5111: 5109: 5106: 5104: 5101: 5097: 5094: 5092: 5089: 5087: 5084: 5083: 5082: 5079: 5075: 5072: 5070: 5067: 5065: 5062: 5060: 5057: 5056: 5055: 5052: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5035: 5032: 5030: 5027: 5023: 5020: 5018: 5015: 5013: 5010: 5008: 5005: 5004: 5003: 5000: 4996: 4993: 4991: 4988: 4986: 4983: 4981: 4978: 4977: 4976: 4973: 4969: 4966: 4964: 4961: 4959: 4956: 4955: 4954: 4951: 4949: 4946: 4944: 4941: 4939: 4936: 4934: 4931: 4927: 4924: 4922: 4919: 4917: 4914: 4913: 4912: 4909: 4907: 4904: 4900: 4897: 4895: 4892: 4890: 4887: 4885: 4882: 4880: 4877: 4875: 4872: 4871: 4870: 4867: 4863: 4860: 4858: 4855: 4854: 4853: 4850: 4846: 4843: 4841: 4838: 4836: 4833: 4831: 4828: 4827: 4826: 4823: 4821: 4818: 4814: 4811: 4810: 4809: 4806: 4802: 4799: 4797: 4794: 4793: 4791: 4789: 4786: 4784: 4781: 4779: 4776: 4774: 4771: 4769: 4766: 4764: 4761: 4759: 4756: 4755: 4753: 4751: 4747: 4739: 4736: 4735: 4734: 4731: 4729: 4726: 4722: 4719: 4717: 4714: 4713: 4712: 4709: 4705: 4702: 4701: 4700: 4697: 4693: 4690: 4688: 4685: 4683: 4680: 4678: 4675: 4673: 4670: 4668: 4665: 4664: 4663: 4660: 4658: 4655: 4653: 4650: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4638: 4636: 4633: 4631: 4628: 4627: 4626: 4623: 4619: 4616: 4614: 4611: 4610: 4609: 4606: 4604: 4601: 4597: 4594: 4592: 4589: 4587: 4584: 4582: 4579: 4577: 4574: 4573: 4572: 4569: 4567: 4564: 4562: 4559: 4555: 4552: 4550: 4547: 4545: 4542: 4541: 4540: 4537: 4535: 4532: 4528: 4525: 4523: 4520: 4518: 4515: 4514: 4513: 4510: 4506: 4503: 4501: 4498: 4496: 4493: 4492: 4491: 4488: 4484: 4481: 4479: 4476: 4475: 4474: 4471: 4469: 4466: 4464: 4461: 4460: 4458: 4455: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4435: 4430: 4428: 4423: 4421: 4416: 4415: 4412: 4400: 4397: 4395: 4392: 4390: 4387: 4385: 4382: 4380: 4377: 4375: 4372: 4370: 4367: 4365: 4362: 4360: 4357: 4355: 4352: 4350: 4347: 4345: 4342: 4340: 4337: 4335: 4332: 4330: 4327: 4325: 4322: 4320: 4317: 4315: 4312: 4310: 4307: 4305: 4302: 4300: 4297: 4295: 4292: 4290: 4287: 4285: 4282: 4280: 4277: 4275: 4272: 4270: 4267: 4265: 4262: 4260: 4257: 4255: 4252: 4250: 4247: 4245: 4242: 4240: 4237: 4235: 4232: 4230: 4227: 4225: 4222: 4220: 4217: 4215: 4212: 4210: 4207: 4205: 4202: 4201: 4198: 4194: 4187: 4182: 4180: 4175: 4173: 4168: 4167: 4164: 4152: 4149: 4147: 4144: 4143: 4138: 4134: 4131: 4127: 4126: 4122: 4112: 4109: 4107: 4104: 4102: 4099: 4097: 4094: 4092: 4089: 4087: 4084: 4082: 4079: 4077: 4074: 4073: 4071: 4069: 4065: 4059: 4056: 4054: 4051: 4049: 4046: 4044: 4041: 4039: 4036: 4034: 4031: 4029: 4026: 4024: 4021: 4019: 4018:Ethnic groups 4016: 4014: 4011: 4009: 4006: 4005: 4002: 3999: 3997: 3993: 3983: 3980: 3978: 3975: 3973: 3970: 3968: 3965: 3964: 3961: 3958: 3956: 3952: 3942: 3939: 3937: 3934: 3932: 3929: 3927: 3924: 3922: 3919: 3917: 3914: 3912: 3909: 3905: 3902: 3901: 3900: 3897: 3895: 3892: 3890: 3887: 3885: 3882: 3881: 3878: 3875: 3873: 3869: 3859: 3856: 3854: 3851: 3849: 3846: 3844: 3841: 3839: 3836: 3834: 3831: 3829: 3826: 3824: 3821: 3819: 3818: 3814: 3812: 3809: 3808: 3805: 3802: 3800: 3796: 3790: 3787: 3785: 3782: 3780: 3779:2020 protests 3777: 3775: 3772: 3770: 3767: 3765: 3762: 3760: 3757: 3755: 3752: 3750: 3747: 3745: 3742: 3740: 3737: 3735: 3732: 3730: 3727: 3725: 3722: 3720: 3719:Bamana Empire 3717: 3715: 3712: 3710: 3707: 3705: 3702: 3700: 3697: 3695: 3692: 3691: 3689: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3675: 3668: 3663: 3661: 3656: 3654: 3649: 3648: 3645: 3638: 3637:Ancient Ghana 3635: 3633: 3630: 3628: 3625: 3623: 3620: 3618: 3615: 3614: 3602: 3597: 3593: 3587: 3583: 3578: 3574: 3568: 3564: 3559: 3556: 3555:2-222-01718-1 3552: 3546: 3541: 3537: 3531: 3527: 3526: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3446: 3445: 3433:on 2011-07-26 3432: 3428: 3425:(in French), 3424: 3420: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3378: 3373: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3292: 3287: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3257:(in French). 3256: 3252: 3247: 3243: 3237: 3233: 3228: 3225: 3224:0-521-22422-5 3221: 3216: 3210: 3206: 3201: 3197: 3191: 3184: 3183: 3177: 3173: 3167: 3163: 3158: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3128:(in French). 3127: 3123: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3099:(2): 313–51, 3098: 3094: 3089: 3085: 3079: 3075: 3070: 3066: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3045: 3041: 3035: 3034: 3028: 3024: 3018: 3014: 3009: 3005: 3000: 2996: 2991: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2956: 2952: 2947: 2946: 2939: 2923: 2919: 2913: 2907:, p. 33. 2906: 2901: 2894: 2893:Berthier 1997 2889: 2882: 2877: 2870: 2864: 2857: 2856:Levtzion 1973 2852: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2825: 2818: 2812: 2805: 2799: 2792: 2786: 2784: 2782: 2780: 2773:, p. 44. 2772: 2767: 2752: 2751:www.bbc.co.uk 2748: 2742: 2735: 2729: 2721: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2706: 2698: 2690: 2684: 2680: 2679: 2671: 2662: 2655: 2649: 2647: 2640:, p. 41. 2639: 2634: 2632: 2624: 2620: 2615: 2608: 2602: 2595: 2590: 2584:, p. 40. 2583: 2578: 2571: 2566: 2560:, p. 39. 2559: 2554: 2552: 2544: 2538: 2536: 2529:, p. 26. 2528: 2523: 2517:, p. 38. 2516: 2511: 2504: 2498: 2496: 2486: 2477: 2470: 2465: 2458: 2453: 2446: 2441: 2434: 2428: 2421: 2416: 2410:, p. 37. 2409: 2404: 2402: 2395:, p. 26. 2394: 2389: 2383:, p. 32. 2382: 2377: 2371:, p. 28. 2370: 2365: 2358: 2352: 2345: 2340: 2332: 2328: 2325:(2): 73–115. 2324: 2320: 2316: 2309: 2298: 2297: 2289: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2258: 2250: 2243: 2236: 2228: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2209: 2201: 2194: 2189: 2180: 2173: 2168: 2161: 2160:Levtzion 1973 2156: 2149: 2144: 2136: 2132: 2125: 2117: 2110: 2102: 2095: 2088: 2081: 2076: 2069: 2064: 2057: 2053: 2047: 2040: 2034: 2027:(2): 317–328. 2026: 2022: 2018: 2011: 2003: 1999: 1992: 1985: 1980: 1974:, p. 27. 1973: 1968: 1966: 1957: 1953: 1946: 1938: 1934: 1929: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1911: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1887: 1880: 1874: 1867: 1866:Levtzion 1973 1862: 1855: 1854:Levtzion 1973 1851: 1847: 1842: 1836: 1832: 1827: 1820: 1819:Levtzion 1973 1815: 1808: 1804: 1799: 1797: 1795: 1779: 1773: 1769: 1768: 1760: 1758: 1756: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1716: 1714: 1698: 1692: 1688: 1687: 1679: 1673:, p. 31. 1672: 1667: 1660: 1659:Levtzion 1973 1655: 1653: 1644: 1637: 1630: 1624: 1610: 1606: 1599: 1597: 1588: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1569: 1561: 1557: 1547: 1544: 1542: 1539: 1537: 1534: 1533: 1524: 1520: 1519: 1510: 1506: 1503: 1502: 1493: 1490: 1487: 1484: 1481: 1478: 1475: 1474: 1465: 1462: 1459: 1456: 1453: 1450: 1447: 1446: 1435: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1411: 1409: 1401: 1396: 1387: 1385: 1377: 1372: 1363: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1339: 1330: 1328: 1323: 1319: 1318: 1313: 1301: 1296: 1289: 1284: 1277: 1272: 1265: 1260: 1253: 1248: 1241: 1236: 1229: 1224: 1223: 1221: 1211: 1208: 1206: 1205:Senegal River 1202: 1201: 1195: 1193: 1189: 1184: 1183:vassal states 1178: 1173: 1171: 1167: 1156: 1154: 1149: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1123: 1119: 1109: 1106: 1104: 1103: 1098: 1094: 1090: 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Retrieved 1567: 1560: 1546:Mande People 1471:Sosso rulers 1417: 1414:Demographics 1405: 1384:Koumbi Saleh 1381: 1345: 1336: 1327:Koumbi Saleh 1315: 1309: 1220:Koumbi Saleh 1214:Koumbi Saleh 1209: 1198: 1196: 1187: 1180: 1175: 1162: 1150: 1137:Koumbi Saleh 1127: 1115: 1107: 1100: 1084: 1082: 1055: 1030: 981: 965: 948: 940: 926: 914: 862: 852: 849: 845:large tumuli 798: 781: 762: 756: 752:Koumbi Saleh 748:Dhar Tichitt 744: 679: 660: 635: 619: 613: 608: 601: 565: 542: 517: 513: 509: 505: 501: 499: 470:vassal state 463: 448: 442:and western 436:West African 429: 425: 421: 410:Ghana Empire 409: 407: 304:Sosso Empire 259:Succeeded by 258: 253: 148:• 790s 73:Koumbi Saleh 35: 30:Ghana Empire 5925: / 5230:Khwarezmian 5163:Carolingian 4968:Rashtrakuta 4672:Shaishunaga 4571:Hellenistic 4554:New Kingdom 4544:Old Kingdom 4299:Kanem–Bornu 4249:Futa Jallon 3967:Foreign aid 3904:LGBT rights 3704:Mali Empire 3304:: 197–232, 3132:: 155–178. 3040:Maisonneuve 2469:Insoll 2003 2457:Lange 1996a 2420:Lange 1996b 2193:Lange 1996b 2172:Munson 1980 2148:Munson 1980 2131:Archaeology 2080:Munson 1980 2004:(1–2): 166. 2000:. série B. 1525:: 1235–1240 1511:: 1203–1235 1466:: 1062–1076 1464:Tunka Manin 1460:: 1040–1062 1428:patrilineal 1366:Archaeology 1153:Mali Empire 1097:Mali Empire 1058:Ibn Khaldun 932:Tunka Manin 928:Ghana Bassi 918:Niger river 821:Niger River 772:Dhar Walata 604:Mahmud Kati 514:Kaya Maghan 474:Mali Empire 254:Preceded by 228:Mali Empire 163:Ghana Bassi 152:Dyabe Cisse 136:• 700 5940:Categories 5800:Portuguese 5681:Revival Le 5671:Vietnamese 5314:Later Tran 5284:Vietnamese 5180:Singhasari 5168:Holy Roman 4792:Bulgarian 4728:Satavahana 4699:Phoenician 4635:Achaemenid 4596:Indo-Greek 4576:Macedonian 4490:Babylonian 4374:Toucouleur 4274:Great Fulo 4091:Literature 2983:L'Histoire 2927:2024-04-11 2905:Gomez 2018 2771:Gomez 2018 2638:Gomez 2018 2623:291 Vol. 1 2621:, p. 2582:Gomez 2018 2558:Gomez 2018 2527:Gomez 2018 2515:Gomez 2018 2408:Gomez 2018 2137:(1): 8–14. 2068:Mauny 1961 1984:Mauny 1954 1903:(1): 915. 1848:, p. 1833:, p. 1805:, p. 1671:Gomez 2018 1614:2023-07-09 1552:References 1430:/paternal 1159:Government 1129:Ibn Hawqal 936:Almoravids 911:Almoravids 883:, Gijume, 881:Guidimakha 875:, Jafunu, 801:wet period 697:(977 CE), 695:Ibn Hawqal 689:(872 CE), 683:chronology 580:Mauritania 574:Arabs and 537:See also: 482:Gold Coast 440:Mauritania 393:Mauritania 113:Government 5793:Couronian 5431:Ethiopian 5419:Manchukuo 5374:Brazilian 5220:Ghaznavid 5190:Srivijaya 5141:Trebizond 5126:Byzantine 5108:North Sea 5103:Norwegian 5091:Almoravid 5074:Ilkhanate 5044:Majapahit 5017:Muromachi 4926:Solomonic 4911:Ethiopian 4825:Caliphate 4758:Aragonese 4586:Ptolemaic 4394:Wassoulou 4254:Futa Toro 4038:Languages 4023:Education 3982:Transport 3931:President 3889:Elections 3838:Mountains 3799:Geography 3789:2021 coup 3784:2020 coup 3764:2012 coup 3515:162867483 3493:: 53–78, 3478:163009319 3456:: 21–59, 3410:161981607 3363:143619637 3326:162477947 3113:162370098 3093:Der 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March 3053:(2003), 2971:(1912), 2806:, p. 21. 2793:, p. 80. 2736:, p. 81. 2359:, p. 73. 2280:40380172 1937:31791255 1783:18 March 1530:See also 1376:al-Bakri 1360:Mandinka 1356:Jakhanke 1333:El-Ghaba 1322:Al-Bakri 1312:Timbuktu 1192:Mandinka 1166:Al-Bakri 1118:al-Bakri 1038:Mandinka 973:Tadmekka 905:Mandinka 865:al-Bakri 703:al-Bakri 648:Muhammad 644:Ibn Said 557:kingship 522:nobility 518:Ouagadou 459:al-Bakri 457:scholar 455:Cordoban 434:, was a 48:100–300– 5910:15°40′N 5840:largest 5835:Empires 5815:Swedish 5810:Spanish 5805:Russian 5768:Italian 5743:Chinese 5731:English 5726:British 5721:Belgian 5696:Vietnam 5686:Tay son 5632:Tsarist 5627:Russian 5622:Ottoman 5588:Dzungar 5583:Khoshut 5556:Mexican 5551:Maratha 5534:Pahlavi 5514:Safavid 5509:Iranian 5436:Haitian 5399:Chinese 5359:Ashanti 5331:Wagadou 5257:Eastern 5252:Western 5235:Timurid 5195:Tibetan 5185:Songhai 5175:Serbian 5096:Almohad 5086:Idrisid 4990:Samanid 4980:Tahirid 4975:Iranian 4953:Kannauj 4933:Genoese 4869:Chinese 4862:Eastern 4857:Western 4845:Fatimid 4840:Abbasid 4835:Umayyad 4808:Burmese 4768:Ayyubid 4763:Angevin 4733:Xianbei 4721:Eastern 4716:Western 4662:Magadha 4625:Iranian 4618:Xiongnu 4603:Hittite 4512:Chinese 4500:Kassite 4449:Ancient 4441:Empires 4364:Songhai 4349:Shilluk 4319:Massina 4209:Bagirmi 4130:Outline 4076:Cuisine 4068:Culture 4053:Slavery 3996:Society 3977:Tourism 3955:Economy 3848:Regions 3817:Cercles 3811:Borders 3686:History 3507:3171690 3470:3171598 3355:1156424 3318:3171941 3275:4391129 3146:3171939 1928:6888939 1746:3171690 1631:, p. 7. 1605:"Ghana" 1420:Soninke 1352:Wangara 1348:mosques 1200:mazalim 1170:Moorish 1112:Economy 1074:Kangaba 1042:Kangaba 993:Diafunu 985:Kaniaga 969:Wangara 922:Senegal 893:Kaniaga 885:Gajaaga 825:Soninke 813:Sanhaja 790:History 707:negroes 687:Ya'qubi 667:Berbers 628:Wangara 624:Soninke 592:Soninke 576:Berbers 506:warrior 480:of the 426:Ghanata 398:Senegal 360:Gajaaga 203:100–300 88:Malinke 84:Soninke 69:Capital 5913:8°00′W 5778:Mongol 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