Great Depression in the United States

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middle-class voters turned sharply against him after the recession of 1937–38 undermined repeated promises that recovery was at hand. Historically, local political machines were primarily interested in controlling their wards and citywide elections; the smaller the turnout on election day, the easier it was to control the system. However, for Roosevelt to win the presidency in 1936 and 1940, he needed to carry the electoral college and that meant he needed the largest possible majorities in the cities to overwhelm rural voters. The machines came through for him. The 3.5 million voters on relief payrolls during the 1936 election cast 82% percent of their ballots for Roosevelt. The rapidly growing, energetic labor unions, chiefly based in the cities, turned out 80% for FDR, as did Irish, Italian and Jewish communities. In all, the nation's 106 cities over 100,000 population voted 70% for FDR in 1936, compared to his 59% elsewhere. Roosevelt worked very well with the big city machines, with the one exception of his old nemesis,

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estimate is by Michael Darby in 1976. He put the unemployment rate at a peak of 22.5 percent in 1932. Job losses were less severe among women, workers in non durable industries (such as food and clothing), services and sales workers, and those employed by the government. Unskilled inner city men had much higher unemployment rates. Age also played a factor. Young people had a hard time getting their first job. Men over the age of 45, if they lost their job, would rarely find another one because employers had their choice of younger men. Millions were hired in the Great Depression, but men with weaker credentials were not, and they fell into a long-term unemployment trap. The migration in the 1920s that brought millions of farmers and townspeople to the bigger cities suddenly reversed itself. Unemployment made the cities unattractive, and the network of kinfolk and more ample food supplies made it wise for many to go back. City governments in 1930–31 tried to meet the depression by expanding

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began conducting steed discount sales such as fire sales and short sales. Due to the inability to immediately determine current value worth these fire sales and short sales would result in massive losses when recuperating any possible revenue for outstanding and defaulted loans. This would allow healthy banks to take advantage of the struggling units forcing additional losses resulting in banks not being able to deliver on depositor demands and creating a failing cycle that would become widespread. Investment would continue to stay low through the next half-decade as the private sector would hoard savings due to uncertainty of the future. The federal government would run additional policy changes such as the Check tax, monetary restrictions (including reduction of money supply by burning), High Wage Policy, and the New Deal through the Hoover and Roosevelt administration.

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and threatened to scald anyone who attempted to move furniture out on to the street. Black mothers in Cleveland, unable to convince a local power company to delay shutting off electricity in the homes of families who had not paid their bills, won restoration of power after they hung wet laundry over every utility line in the neighborhood. They also left crying babies on the desks of caseworkers at the Cleveland Emergency Relief Association, refusing to retrieve them until free milk had been provided for each child. These actions reflected a sense of humor but sometimes housewife rage exploded. In Chicago, angry Polish housewives doused thousands of pounds of meat with kerosene and set it on fire at the warehouses of the Armour Company to dramatize their belief that high prices were not the result of shortages.

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products", "protections", "security", and "dependability”. In 1930, a legal verdict allowed contraceptive companies to freely advertise their products if the product's sole purpose was not birth control. Companies that previously avoided the birth control market capitalized on this opportunity and the demand for birth control was rapidly growing. Department stores became the most popular place to receive female contraception and these stores created departments where women could shop for contraception in privacy. When women were becoming wary of purchasing inside department stores, manufacturers switched to selling at their homes. In 1930, female contraceptives outnumbered condom sales five to one. By 1940, the market size was three times what it was in 1935.

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shelters in the North were segregated and turned away from the aid that was offered there. While other shelters accepted African Americans, the fear of racial violence and discrimination from the municipal organizers or other residents was still a threat that lingered over their heads. Many homeless shelters were also located in inconvenient neighborhoods for African Americans, so they were unable to access them. If municipal shelters for African Americans in the North were limited, they were nonexistent in the South. Many homeless African Americans relied on aid from their own communities. Churches and Black-run organizations often provided their own soup kitchens and shelters to make up for aid the government wasn't providing its African American citizens.

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call raised for increasing in federal intervention and spending. But Hoover refused to allow the federal government to force fixed prices, control the value of the business or manipulate the currency, in contrast, he started to control the dollar price. For official dollar prices, he expanded the credit base through free market operations in federal reserve system to ensure the domestic value of the dollar. He also tended to provide indirect aid to banks or local public works projects, refused to use federal funds to give aid to citizens directly, which he believed would lower public morale. Instead, he focused on volunteer fundraising to raise money for relief of the needy.

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turning. In December 1929, after the beginning phases of the depression had begun, President Hoover continued to promote high wages. It wasn't until 1931 that business owners began reducing wages in order to stay afloat. Later that year, The Hoover Administration created the Check Tax to generate extra government funding. The tax added a two-cent tax to the purchase of all bank checks, directly affecting the common man. This additional cost pushed people away from using checks, so instead, the majority of the population increased their usage of cash. Banks had already closed due to cash shortage, but this reaction to the Check Tax rapidly increased the pace.

1716: 209: 2068: 34: 6915: 1708:, ill-regulated markets that permitted overoptimistic loans by banks and investors, and the lack of high-growth new industries. These all interacted to create a downward economic spiral of reduced spending, falling confidence and lowered production. Industries that suffered the most included construction, shipping, mining, logging, and agriculture. Also hard hit was the manufacturing of durable goods like automobiles and appliances, whose purchase consumers could postpone. The economy hit bottom in the winter of 1932–1933; then came four years of growth until the 1964:

expectations. In the years leading up to 1929, the rising stock market prices had created vast sums of wealth in relation to amounts invested, in turn encouraging borrowing to buy more stock. However, on October 24 (Black Thursday), share prices began to fall and panic selling caused prices to fall sharply. On October 29 (Black Tuesday), share prices fell by $ 14 billion in a single day, more than $ 30 billion in the week. The value that evaporated that week was ten times more than the entire federal budget and more than all of what the U.S. had spent on

2949:, launched a crusade against the New Deal, warning that a dangerous man had seized control of the economy and threatened America's conservative traditions. Scholars remain divided as well. When asked whether "as a whole, government policies of the New Deal served to lengthen and deepen the Great Depression," 74% of American university professors specializing in economic history disagreed, 21% agreed with provisos, and 6% fully agreed. Among respondents who taught or studied economic theory, 51% disagreed, 22% agreed with provisos, and 22% fully agreed. 2003: 2996: 1724: 3022:, when looking only at the supply of consumer goods, significant GDP growth only resumed in 1946. (Higgs does not estimate the value to consumers of collective goods like victory in war.) To Keynesians, the war economy showed just how large the fiscal stimulus required to end the downturn of the Depression was, and it led, at the time, to fears that as soon as America demobilized, it would return to Depression conditions and industrial output would fall to its pre-war levels. The incorrect prediction by 2154:, as President Herbert Hoover strongly encouraged. However, tax revenues were plunging, and the cities as well as private relief agencies were totally overwhelmed by 1931; no one was able to provide significant additional relief. People fell back on the cheapest possible relief, including soup kitchens providing free meals to anyone who showed up. After 1933, new sales taxes and infusions of federal money helped relieve the fiscal distress of the cities, but the budgets did not fully recover until 1941. 2084:

Regulatory questions began to hit the debating table around banking qualifications as a result; discussions would continue into the Great Depression as not only were banks failing but some would disappear altogether with no rhyme or reason. The panic of financial crisis would increase in the Great Depression due to the lack of confidence in the regulatory and recovery displayed during the 1920s, this ultimately drove a nation of doubts, uneasiness, and lack of consumer confidence in the banking system.

2942:. Insurance and poor relief ("public assistance" or "welfare") are constituent parts of the legislation, which provided pensions to the aged, benefit payments to dependent mothers, crippled children and blind people, and unemployment insurance. The Social Security Act still plays a significant role of the American health and human service system so far. Much of the economy had recovered by 1936, but persistent, long-term unemployment lasted until rearmament began for World War II in 1940. 2332:

downturned economy, jobs were scarce and Black men were a huge target of the lay-offs, making up a large population of the unemployed during the Depression. Black folks were also still unable to vote at this time in the Jim Crow south, meaning Black families were facing immense compounding pressures. These conditions set the precedent for Black women to take action and demand the government expand welfare. In collaboration with their white counterparts, Black women would help to form the

2849: 2185: 3078:) were sharply reduced as unions pushed their members to work harder. Tens of thousands of new factories and shipyards were built, with new bus services and nursery care for children making them more accessible. Wages soared for workers, making it quite expensive to sit at home. Employers retooled so that unskilled new workers could handle jobs that previously required skills that were now in short supply. The combination of all these factors drove unemployment below 2% in 1943. 1850: 10367: 10331: 1617: 1578: 10377: 1627: 3130: 3035: 2742:

reason was that the relationship between various credit institutions and the community was in a drastic adjustment process, the normal supply channels for money supply were blocked. Later, some economists argued that the Fed should do a large-scale opening market business at that time, but the essence of the statement was that the US government should be quick to implement measures to expand fiscal spending and fiscal deficits.

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without any additional regulatory oversight or qualifications. This dilemma introduced several high-risk and marginal business returns to the banking market. Banking growth would continue through the first two decades well outside of previous trends disregarding the current economic and population standards. Banking profitability and loan standards begin to deteriorate as early as 1900 as a result.

2662:'s economy expanded at the rate of 5% of GDP per year after the years of modernization. Manufacturing and mining came to account for more than 30% of GDP, more than twice the value for the agricultural sector. Most industrial growth, however, was geared toward expanding the nation's military power. Beginning in 1937 much of Japan's energy was focused on a large-scale war and occupation of China. 162: 145: 2903: 2114:. This idea would continue from 1929 to 1933 causing the greatest financial crisis ever seen at the banking level pushing the economic recovery efforts further from resolution. An increase in the currency-deposit ratio and a money stock determinant forced money stock to fall and income to decline. This panic-induced banking failure took a mild recession to a major recession. 2249:

political players within their communities. Black women and immigrant women were essential to these movements, mobilizing their communities to advocate for better conditions. This activism included food boycotts, anti-eviction rallies, the establishment of barter networks, calls for price regulations for food and housing, and gardening co-ops to battle food insecurity.

3147: 2336:. "Don't Buy Where You Can't Work" boycotts broke out in Black communities, using the role of the homemaking consumer to leverage jobs for Black adults. Black housewives lead marches calling for the government to regulate prices on food while nurses from Black communities set up reproductive health and pre/post natal clinics. Midwife 3148: 2040:. As a result of this change nearly two thirds of the banks formed over the next ten years were quite small, averaging just above the 25,000 in required capital. The number of banks would nearly double (number of banks divided by Real GDP) from 1890 to 1920 due to the lack of oversight and qualification when banking 2314:

weighing on them outside of the workplace. The 1930s brought falling wages and high unemployment, which had workplaces implementing strong efforts to keep women and Black folks out of jobs to better employ the preferred white male population, as well as keeping the few female and/or Black workers out of unions.

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Roosevelt's declining popularity in 1938 was evident throughout the US in the business community, the press, and the Senate and House. Many were labeling the recession the "Roosevelt Recession". In late December 1938, Roosevelt looked to gain popularity with the American people, and try to regain the

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In the "First New Deal" of 1933–34, a wide variety of programs were targeted toward the depression and agriculture in rural areas, in the banking industry, and for the economy as a whole. Relief programs were set up for the long-term unemployed who are routinely passed over whenever new jobs did open

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Even though Hoover was a philanthropist before becoming president, his opponents regarded him as unconcerned about the plight of impoverished citizens. During the administration of Hoover, the US economic policies had moved to activism and interventionism. In his re-election campaign, Hoover tried to

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The commitment to maintain the gold standard system prevented the Federal Reserve expanded its money supply operations in 1930 and 1931, and it promoted Hoover's destructive balancing budgetary action to avoid the gold standard system overwhelming the dollar. As the Great Depression became worse, the

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Hoover changed his approach to fighting the Depression. He justified his call for more federal assistance by noting that "We used such emergency powers to win the war; we can use them to fight the Depression, the misery, and suffering from which are equally great." This new approach embraced a number

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By the end of 1931, Hoover had decided to recommend a large increase in taxes to balance the budget; in addition, Congress approved the tax increase in 1932, a substantial reduction in personal immunity to increase the number of taxpayers, and the interest rates had risen sharply, the lowest marginal

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of long-term studying of the Great Depression pointed out that in the 1929, before and after the collapse of the stock market, the Fed lowered interest rates, tried to expand the money supply and eased the financial market tensions for several times; however, they were not successful. The fundamental

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The Great Depression began in the United States of America and quickly spread worldwide. It had severe effects in countries both rich and poor. Personal income, consumption, industrial output, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%. Unemployment in

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Homeless individuals that did not stay in shelters sometimes stayed in shantytowns, or "Hoovervilles" (named after Herbert Hoover, the president in office when the Depression began). These "Hoovervilles" were self-made communities of homeless people that followed their own rules and established their

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Women in the United States have a long history of activism regarding housing and the cost of food despite the common and longstanding misconception that homemakers are passive and apolitical. The rising prices in the U.S. meant a new issue for consumers: the concept of being an "ethical consumer" and

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seemed doomed. The Democrats capitalized on the magnetic appeal of Roosevelt to urban America. The key groups were low-skilled and Catholics, Jews, and Blacks were especially impacted. The Democrats promised and delivered in terms of political recognition, labor union membership, and relief jobs. The

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could not effectively tackle the banking crisis as state bank and trust companies were not compelled to be a member, paper eligible discount member banks heavily restricted access to the Federal Reserve, power between the twelve Federal Reserve banks was decentralized and federal level leadership was

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Since many banks had also invested their clients' savings in the stock market, these banks were forced to close when the stock market crashed. After the stock market crash and the bank closures, people were afraid of losing more money. Because of their fears of further economic challenge, individuals

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The need for these war materials created a huge spurt in production, thus leading to a promising level of employment in America. Moreover, Britain chose to pay for their materials in gold. This stimulated the gold inflow and raised the monetary base, which in turn, stimulated the American economy to

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Using these cost-plus contracts in 1941–1943, factories hired hundreds of thousands of unskilled workers and trained them, at government expense. The military's own training programs concentrated on teaching technical skills involving machinery, engines, electronics and radio, preparing soldiers and

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Business-oriented observers explained the recession and recovery in very different terms from the Keynesian economists. They argued the New Deal had been very hostile to business expansion in 1935–37. They said it had encouraged massive strikes which had a negative impact on major industries and had

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began and corporate energies had to be directed to winning the war. By 1939, the effects of the 1937 recession had disappeared. Employment in the private sector recovered to the level of the 1936 and continued to increase until the war came and manufacturing employment leaped from 11 million in 1940

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By 1936, all the main economic indicators had regained the levels of the late 1920s, except for unemployment, which remained high. In 1937, the American economy unexpectedly fell, lasting through most of 1938. Production declined sharply, as did profits and employment. Unemployment jumped from 14.3%

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On April 5, Roosevelt ordered all gold coins and gold certificates in denominations of more than $ 100 turned in for other money. It required all persons to deliver all gold coin, gold bullion and gold certificates owned by them to the Federal Reserve by May 1 for the set price of $ 20.67 per ounce.

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At the beginning of 1933, during the last few weeks of Hoover's term, the American financial system was paralyzed. The Great Depression had been extended by the interventionist policy for four years. The bank crisis caused serious deflationary pressures. In fact, the worst period of 1932 – the Great

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In terms of the financial reform, since the recession, Hoover had been trying to repair the economy. He founded government agencies to encourage labor harmony and support local public works aid which promoted cooperation of government and business, stabilize prices, and strive to balance the budget.

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The stock market crash in 1929 not only affected the business community and the public's economic confidence, but it also led to the banking system soon after the turmoil. The boom of the US economy in the 1920s was based on high indebtedness, and the rupture of the debt chain caused by the collapse

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In 1936, thousands of women in New Jersey had an abortion "insurance" with more being card-carrying members to a "Birth Control Club", which allowed them access to regular exams and abortions for a fee. This shows that compared to the past, women were now expecting to have abortions, and looking for

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Economic historians led by Price Fishback have examined the impact of New Deal spending on improving health conditions in the 114 largest cities, 1929–1937. They estimated that every additional $ 153,000 in relief spending (in 1935 dollars, or $ 1.95 million in year 2000 dollars) was associated with

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existing loans. In the race to liquidate assets the banking system began to fail on a wide scale. In November 1930 the first major banking crisis began with over 800 banks closing their doors by January 1931. By October 1931 over 2100 banks were suspended with the highest suspension rate recorded in

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The economy in America was now beginning to show signs of recovery and the unemployment rate was lowering following the abysmal year of 1938. The biggest shift towards recovery, however, came with the decision of Germany to invade France in May 1940. After France had been defeated in June, the U.S.

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Hopkins made it his mission to strengthen ties between the Roosevelt administration and the business community. While Roosevelt believed in complete reform through the New Deal, Hopkins took a more administrative position; he felt that recovery was imperative and that The New Deal would continue to

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As the Great Depression trekked onward, homelessness spiked. For the first time in American history, the issue of homelessness was brought to the forefront of the public eye. In search of work, men would board trains and travel across the country, in hopes of finding a way of sending money to their

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Although the African American community was one of the hardest hit during the Great Depression, their struggle during this time often went unnoticed. Homeless African Americans were practically invisible during this time as the effects of Jim Crow and segregation were in full force. Many municipal

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In New York City, organized bands of Jewish housewives fiercely resisted eviction, arguing that they were merely doing their jobs by defending their homes and those of their neighbors. Barricading themselves in apartments, they made speeches from tenement windows, wielded kettles of boiling water,

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era resulting in real estate value reductions. In addition, the year 1921 was the peak for banking expansion with roughly 31,000 banks in activity, however, with the failures at the agricultural level 505 banks would close between 1921 and 1930 marking the largest banking system failure on record.

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In 1934, the government price of gold was increased to $ 35 per ounce, effectively increasing the gold on the Federal Reserve's balance sheets by 69 percent. This increase in assets allowed the Federal Reserve to further inflate the money supply. The abandonment of the gold standard made the Wall

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In the spring and summer of 1933, the Roosevelt administration and the Congress took several actions that effectively suspended the gold standard. Roosevelt took office on March 4, 1933, and thirty-six hours later, he declared a nationwide bank moratorium in order to prevent a run on the banks by

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were all run by working-class women demanding better conditions to work and raise their families under. The speeches and demonstrations done by these groups of women underscored the dichotomy of the positions they assumed in society under early feminism: The home may be the woman's place, but the

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With the start of full-scale war mobilization in the summer of 1940, the economies of the cities rebounded. Even before Pearl Harbor, Washington pumped massive investments into new factories and funded round-the-clock munitions production, guaranteeing a job to anyone who showed up at the factory

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caused individuals to start to withdraw gold shares and move the investments out of the country or began to hoard gold for future investment. The market continued to suffer due to these reactions, and as a result caused several of the everyday individuals to speculate on the economy in the coming

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drove a booming agricultural market that drove optimism at the consumer and lending level which, in turn, resulted in a more lax approach in the lending process. Over banked conditions existed which pressured struggling banks to increase their services (specifically to the agricultural customers)

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to provide emergency assistance to banks and financial institutions that were on the verge of bankruptcy. Hoover's fiscal policy had accelerated the recession. In December 1929, as means of showing government confidence in the economy, Hoover reduced all income tax rates by 1% in 1929 due to the

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396 million in 1929 turned into losses of $ 98 million in 1933. Exports shrank by 50% from 1929 to 1933. The worst hit were areas dependent on primary industries such as farming, mining and logging, as prices fell and there were few alternative jobs. Some families saw most or all of their assets

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The efforts of these "Militant Housewives" had lasting effects on the United States, predominantly the expansion of welfare and the growth of diverse feminist movements, as well as the strengthening of unionization movements in the US. Black women's involvement in Communist organizing produced a

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Formal organizations were formed by housewives as well, based on the power of these earlier community-based demonstrations: United Council of Working Class Women, Women's Committee of the Washington Commonwealth Federation, Women's Committee against the High Cost of Living, Housewives Industrial

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The Great Depression's political landscape proved conducive to the first large-scale movement of class-conscious working-class women organizers since the country's founding. Housewives, mothers, and working-class women regardless of employment status were driven by rising market prices to become

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of Northern Republicans and Southern Democrats took control of Congress, outvoted the urban liberals, and halted the expansion of New Deal ideas. Roosevelt survived in 1940 thanks to his margin in the Solid South and in the cities. In the North the cities over 100,000 gave Roosevelt 60% of their

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The government did not calculate unemployment rates in the 1930s. The most widely accepted estimates of unemployment rates for the Great Depression are those by Stanley Lebergott from the 1950s. He estimated that unemployment reached 24.9 percent in the worst days of 1933. Another commonly cited

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Whether this caused the Great Depression is still heavily debated due to many other attributing factors. However, it is evident that the banking system suffered massive reductions across the country due to the lack of consumer confidence. As withdraw requests would exceed cash availability banks

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attempted to correct the economic situation quickly, but was unsuccessful. Throughout Hoover's presidency, businesses were encouraged to keep wage rates high. President Hoover and many academics believed that high wage rates would maintain a steady level of purchasing power, keeping the economy

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case. Only a few states allowed physicians to provide information and contraception. Despite this, women and companies found ways around this law to receive and provide birth control. The most popular method was to conceal the intended function of products by marketing them as "feminine hygiene

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As women either returned or began to enter the workforce, the deplorable conditions quickly became clear to them. The lack of sanitation practices, poor wages, and otherwise unsafe work environments were no longer issues that workers were willing to power through when so many other burdens were

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The boycotts done by housewives predominantly revolved around targeting unfair businesses in their communities that price-gauged their shops or refused to support their workers' livelihoods to an acceptable degree. Housewives in New York were particularly active at this time, but housewives and

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that put young men to work in construction jobs, especially in rural areas. Prohibition was repealed, fulfilling a campaign pledge and generating new tax revenues for local and state governments. A series of relief programs were designed to provide jobs, in cooperation with local governments.

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were stronger than ever, for they mobilized their precinct workers to help families who needed help the most navigate the bureaucracy and get on relief. FDR won the vote of practically every demographic in 1936, including taxpayers, small business and the middle class. However, the Protestant

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is often cited as the beginning of the Great Depression. It began on October 24, 1929, and kept going down until March 1933. It was the longest and most devastating stock market crash in the history of the United States. Much of the stock market crash can be attributed to exuberance and false

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Black women served a particularly radical role through the furthering of working-class women's movements. The Great Depression had particularly strong effects on the Black community in the 1920s and 30s, forcing Black women to reckon with their relationship to the U.S. government. Due to the

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Homeless individuals who were not transient often stayed in municipal shelters, which were government-run homeless shelters that provided housing and food. Because these shelters were often placed in large urban areas, they were often overcrowded with poor-quality food and state of living.

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During the financial crisis of 1933 culminating in the banking holiday of March 1933, gold had flowed out from the Fed in large quantities, to individuals and companies in the United States worried about bank failures, and to foreign entities worried about the depreciation of the dollar.

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was suspended and a series of panels comprising business leaders in each industry set regulations that ended what was called "cut-throat competition", believed to be responsible for forcing down prices and profits nationwide. Several Hoover agencies were continued, most notably the

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There is little agreement on what caused the Great Depression, and the topic has become highly politicized. At the time the great majority of economists around the world recommended the "orthodox" solution of cutting government spending and raising taxes. However, British economist

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The government began heavy military spending in 1940, and started drafting millions of young men that year. By 1945, 17 million had entered service to their country, but that was not enough to absorb all the unemployed. During the war, the government subsidized wages through

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continuing budget surplus. By 1930, the surplus had turned into a fast-growing deficit of economic contraction. In 1931, the US federal fiscal revenue and expenditure changed from the financial surplus to a deficit for the first time (the deficit was less than 2.8% of GDP).

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Between the 1920s and 1930s, The United States began to try the tight money policy to promote economic growth. In terms of the fiscal policy, the US government failed to reach a consensus on the fiscal issue. President Hoover began to expand federal spending, setting up the

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in future economics, and agricultural defaults on outstanding loans. With these compounding issues the banking system struggled to keep up with the public's increasing demand for cash withdrawals. This overall decreased the money supply and forced the banks to resort to

2828:. Title III of this act, also known as the Thomas amendment, gave the President power to reduce the dollar's gold content by as much as 50%. President Roosevelt also used the silver standard instead of gold to exchange dollars, it determined by the price of the bank. 2764:

of initiatives. Unfortunately for the President, none proved especially effective. Just as important, with the presidential election approaching, the political heat generated by the Great Depression and the failure of Hoover's policies grew only more withering.

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in 1937 to 19.0% in 1938. A contributing factor to the Recession of 1937 was a tightening of monetary policy by the Federal Reserve. The Federal Reserve doubled reserve requirements between August 1936 and May 1937 leading to a contraction in the money supply.

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in the ever-changing markets. As the government acted minimally at the time to protect consumers from predatory market tactics, many women as workers, housewives, and mothers found activism a natural part of their role in the name of protecting their families.

2014:(FDIC) was not in place resulting in a loss of roughly $ 1.36 billion (or 20%) of the total $ 6.8 billion accounted for within the failed banks. These losses came directly from everyday individuals' savings, investments and bank accounts. As a result, 1947:

Let me end my talk by abusing slightly my status as an official representative of the Federal Reserve. I would like to say to Milton and Anna: Regarding the Great Depression, you're right. We did it. We're very sorry. But thanks to you, we won't do it

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raises multiple issues: what factors set off the first downturn in 1929; what structural weaknesses and specific events turned it into a major depression; how the downturn spread from country to country; and why the economic recovery was so prolonged.

2938:, which operated as a strong stimulus to the growth of labor unions. Unemployment fell by ⅔ in Roosevelt's first term (from 25% to 9%, 1933–1937). The second set of reforms launched by the Roosevelt administration during the same period included the 2581:, Between 1929 and 1939, the gross national product dropped 40%, compared to 37% in the U.S. Unemployment reached 28% at the depth of the Depression in 1929 and 1930, while wages bottomed out in 1933. Many businesses closed, as corporate profits of 2018:

fell from the high seven-hundreds in 1929 to the low to mid six-hundreds in 1933 before seeing any recovery for the first time in nearly 4 years. Federal leadership intervention is highly debated on its effectiveness and overall participation. The

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of the bank had produced widespread and far-reaching adverse effects. It is precisely because of the shaky banking system, the United States was using monetary policy to save the economy that had been severely constrained. The American economist

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Depression had passed, but the recovery was slow and weak. Roosevelt understood that traditional political and financial policy was not an adequate response to the crisis, and his administration chose to pursue the more radical measures of the

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conducted a study and found that 12.8% of maternal deaths were due to septic abortion. With lower-class women attempting to self-abort due to their new poverty, preventing them from visiting a physician or a midwife to perform the abortion.

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gate. The war brought a restoration of prosperity and hopeful expectations for the future across the nation. It had the greatest impact on the cities of the West Coast, especially Los Angeles, San Diego, San Francisco, Portland and Seattle.

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persuade Americans that direct monetary relief from the federal government would be devastating to the economy in the long run. However, this message was highly unpopular, and consequently Hoover was defeated by Franklin Roosevelt in the

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months. Rumors of market stability and banking conditions began to spread, consumer confidence continued to drop and panic began to set in. Contagion spread like wildfire pushing Americans all over the country to withdraw their deposits

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ways to help lower the cost in the future. Maternal mortality rates rose during the depression, resulting from infections or hemorrhages of self-performed abortions, or methods that women used to try and control their reproduction. The

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was an attempt to achieve the confidence he so badly needed. The appointment came as a surprise to most because of Hopkins' lack of business experience, but proved to be vastly important in shaping the years following the recession.

3059:. Government contractors were paid in full for their costs, plus a certain percentage profit margin. That meant the more wages a person was paid the higher the company profits since the government would cover them plus a percentage. 1999:

the St. Louis Federal Reserve District, with 2 out of every 5 banks suspended. The economy as a whole experienced a massive reduction in banking footholds across the country amounting to more than nine thousand closed banks by 1933.

2055:. Throughout the corn and cotton belts real estate increases drove the demand for more local funding to continue to supply rising agricultural economics. The rural banking structures would supply the needed capital to meet the farm 1972:

from all classes stopped purchasing and consuming. Thousands of individual investors who believed they could get rich by investing on margin lost everything they had. The stock market crash severely impacted the American economy.

3138: 2992:, Roosevelt embarked on an antidote to the depression, reluctantly abandoning his efforts to balance the budget and launching a $ 5 billion spending program in the spring of 1938 in an effort to increase mass purchasing power. 7046: 7016: 6879: 2180:

built and repaired the public infrastructure in dramatic fashion, but did little to foster the recovery of the private sector. FERA, CCC and especially WPA focused on providing unskilled jobs for long-term unemployed men.

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needed to be maintained in order to attract international investors who bought foreign assets with gold. However, the high interest also inhibited domestic business borrowing. The U.S. interest rates were also affected by

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initially experienced sharp economic contractions, which were followed by reasonably strong recoveries, with some sectors of their economies even experiencing strong growth in the latter half of the 1930s. Meanwhile, in

7041: 7118: 6956: 2413:

were illegal prior to and during the Great Depression. With the economic downturn, more families turned toward birth control and abortion to help control family sizing, due to not being able to afford children.

2464:. Construction was virtually halted in many countries. Farming and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by approximately 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few alternate sources of jobs, areas dependent on 7021: 5630:

Population health did not decline and indeed generally improved during the 4 years of the Great Depression, 1930–1933, with mortality decreasing for almost all ages, and life expectancy increasing by several

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program which was intended to encourage people to voluntarily move to Mexico, but thousands, including many U.S. citizens, were deported against their will. Altogether about 400,000 Mexicans were repatriated.

5516: 1980:

A large contribution was the closure and suspension of thousands of banks across the country. Financial institutions failed for several reasons, including unregulated lending procedures, confidence in the

4671: 6799: 2471:

Most economies started to recover by 1933–34. However, in the U.S. and some others the negative economic impact often lasted until the beginning of World War II, when war industries stimulated recovery.

3120:

By the end of 1941, before American entry into the war, defense spending and military mobilization had started one of the greatest booms in American history thus ending the last traces of unemployment.

2967:

A homeless family of five walks along U.S. 99, bound for San Diego, where the father hoped to enroll in welfare because he once lived there. They walked from Phoenix, Arizona, where they picked cotton,

2100:

as the country's currency gauge throughout the following years. As a result, the American shareholders with the majority of the gold reserves began to grow wary of the value of gold in the near future.

6869: 2389:

own society. Men, women, and even some children lived in these shantytowns and people from all different types of socio-economic backgrounds lived together, which was very uncommon during the time of

6971: 5309: 2059:, however, this came with a price of reliability and low risk lending. Economic growth was promising from 1887 to 1920 with an average of 6 percent growth in GDP. In particular, the participation in 6889: 6734: 7011: 6961: 3964:

Price V. Fishback, Michael R. Haines, and Shawn Kantor, "Births, deaths, and New Deal relief during the Great Depression." The Review of Economics and Statistics 89.1 (2007): 1–14, citing page

7064: 2306:) outside the show marched in protest of the boycott, opening a national conversation about the definition of ethical consumerism. This was one of America's first highly effective acts of 2290:

New ways of activism came out of these boycotts and a renewed awareness of where folks were putting their money came with concerns from American consumers. One unique demonstration by the

7111: 7026: 1773:

The memory of the Depression also shaped modern theories of government and economics and resulted in many changes in how the government dealt with economic downturns, such as the use of

7084: 7069: 7059: 7006: 6976: 3733:

Walter, John R. "Failures: The Great Contagion or the Great Shakeout?" Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond Economic Quarterly Volume 91/1 Winter 2005 91.1 (2005): 39–53. Web. May 21, 2017.

1890:

to adjust, or increase their own interest rates to maintain the gold standard. At the time, the U.S. was pegged to the gold standard. Therefore, Americans converted their dollars into

7031: 2284: 7001: 6874: 6809: 6744: 2772:, which was reflected in the letter emphasizing "more effective supporting for each national committee" and volunteer service -" appealing for funding" from outside the government. 6996: 6991: 6986: 6784: 6966: 4770: 3614: 7104: 6981: 6904: 6849: 6819: 2385:

to access free food. However, these kitchens were also overcrowded and often ran out of food before everyone could be served, so they were not always a reliable source of food.

6293:

Romasco, Albert U. "Hoover-Roosevelt and the Great Depression: A Historiographic Inquiry into a Perennial Comparison." In John Braeman, Robert H. Bremner and David Brody, eds.

3751:

Walter, John R. "Failures: The Great Contagion or the Great Shakeout?" Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond Economic Quarterly Volume 91/1 Winter 2005 91.1 (2005): 45–46. Web. 2005

3706:

Walter, John R. "Failures: The Great Contagion or the Great Shakeout?" Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond Economic Quarterly Volume 91/1 Winter 2005 91.1 (2005): 39–41. Web. 2005

3007:

threatened anti-trust attacks on big corporations. But all those threats diminished sharply after 1938. For example, the antitrust efforts fizzled out without major cases. The

2814:, giving the President the power to control international and domestic gold exports. It also gave the treasury secretary the power to surrender of gold coins and certificates. 8022: 6936: 6884: 6859: 6834: 6794: 6779: 6749: 1656: 5248:

Hall, Thomas E., and Ferguson, David J. "The Great Depression: An International Disaster of Perverse Economic Policies". Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 1998. p. 155

4486:

Robert Skidelsky, "The Great Depression: Keynes´s Perspective," in: Elisabeth Müller-Luckner, Harold James, The Interwar Depression in an International Context," (2002) p. 99

2010:

The closures resulted in a massive withdrawal of deposits by millions of Americans estimated at near $ 6.8 billion ($ 136 billion in 2023 dollars). During this time the

8027: 6951: 6946: 6899: 6839: 6814: 6804: 6759: 6854: 6824: 6754: 6941: 6829: 3113:

economy would skyrocket in the months following. France's defeat meant that Britain and other allies would look to the U.S. for large supplies of materials for the war.

2357:

families back home. These men became known as "transients", which was the most common way to refer to these unemployed, homeless individuals. Large urban areas, such as

2895:, which provided large-scale financial aid to banks, railroads, and other agencies. Reforms that had never been enacted in the 1920s now took center stage, such as the 2821:

On April 20, President Roosevelt issued a formal proclamation prohibiting gold exports and prohibiting the conversion of money and deposits into gold coins and ingots.

2514:(1919–1933) fully recovered and was prosperous in the late 1920s. The Great Depression hit in 1929 and was severe. The political system descended into violence and the 6864: 6789: 5810: 4510:"Index numbers of employment as reported by employers in leading cities, as of the first of each month, January 1935 to December 1936, with yearly averages since 1922" 3556: 2267:

mothers across the country mobilized in this ongoing time of hardship. Historian Annelise Orleck recounts the following demonstrations from a variety of communities:

9594: 8773: 917: 469: 6398: 5508: 3066:

Structural walls were lowered dramatically during the war, especially informal policies against hiring women, minorities, and workers over 45 or under 18. In 1941,

3026:

and other Keynesians that a new depression would start after the war failed to take account of pent-up consumer demand as a result of the Depression and World War.

2831:

On June 5, Congress enacted a joint resolution nullifying the clauses in many public and private obligations that permitted creditors to demand repayment in gold.

2586:

disappear and their debts became heavier as prices fell. Local and provincial government set up relief programs but there was no nationwide New Deal-like program.

174: 8012: 4663: 5788:(Yale University Press; 2011) 387 pages; argues that technological innovations in the 1930s laid the foundation for economic success in World War II and postwar 9456: 9275: 779: 636: 5306: 2976:

The Roosevelt administration reacted by launching a rhetorical campaign against monopoly power, which was cast as the cause of the depression, and appointing

9897: 1207: 2760:

rate rose from 25% on taxable income in excess of $ 100,000 to 63% on taxable income in excess of $ 1 million as the rates were made much more progressive.

1727:

Unemployment rate in the US 1910–60, with the years of the Great Depression (1929–39) highlighted; accurate data begins in 1939, represented by a blue line.

8002: 5996: 2092:

With a lack of consumer confidence in the economic direction given by the federal government panic started to spread across the country shortly after the

9620: 9610: 6395:, year by year timeline of events in science and technology, politics and society, culture and international events with embedded audio and video. AS@UVA 6352: 3597: 3109:, popular support for recovery, rather than reform, swept the nation. By the end of 1938 reform had been struck down, as no new reform laws were passed. 1902: 943: 933: 72: 9416: 9263: 7992: 2480:

advocated large-scale government deficit spending to make up for the failure of private investment. No major nation adopted his policies in the 1930s.

1649: 1176: 739: 10334: 7997: 6431: 6422: 3508: 3402: 2079:

Crop failures beginning in 1921 began to impact this poorly regulated system, the expansion areas of corn and cotton suffered the largest due to the

1886:'s decision to raise their interest rates to attract gold to their vaults. In theory, the U.S. would have two potential responses to that: allow the 1581: 3652: 3289:. In the mining counties of West Virginia, Illinois, Kentucky, and Pennsylvania, the proportion of malnourished children was perhaps as high as 90%. 9816: 9441: 9390: 7267: 7127: 2227:

the Republicans made an unexpected comeback, and Roosevelt's efforts to purge the Democratic Party of his political opponents backfired badly. The

1134: 764: 713: 5415: 4705: 9451: 9269: 9164: 8702: 5452: 774: 590: 7096: 5958:

Kubik, Paul J. "Federal Reserve Policy during the Great Depression: The Impact of Interwar Attitudes regarding Consumption and Consumer Credit"

5157: 4539: 4513: 10401: 9586: 8165: 5540: 909: 6366: 5328: 3968: 9573: 4593: 1642: 2213: 10411: 9481: 9421: 9320: 9067: 8995: 8896: 8807: 8783: 8689: 8570: 8486: 8409: 8357: 8277: 7510: 7135: 3697:(1929–1939) highlighted. Based on data from: Louis D. Johnston and Samuel H. Williamson, "What Was the U.S. GDP Then?" MeasuringWorth, 2008 3361: 2047:

The unregulated growth of small rural banking institutions can be partially attributed to the rising cost of agriculture especially in the

804: 744: 629: 568: 546: 513: 480: 425: 381: 359: 326: 293: 260: 153: 1898:

fell, and the exchange rate increased. One of the only things the U.S. could do to get back into equilibrium was increase interest rates.

10252: 9600: 9362: 9177: 5563: 5377: 1598: 1555: 923: 685: 4638: 9943: 9889: 9853: 9426: 8815: 7870: 7817: 6493: 6377: 4766: 3943: 2945:

The New Deal was, and still is, sharply debated. The business community, with considerable support from such conservative Democrats as

2503:" government of Socialists with some Communist support, was in power 1936–1938. It briefly tried major programs favoring labor and the 2315: 1253: 1198: 1171: 749: 6413: 2126: 9499: 9436: 9431: 9384: 8793: 8345: 8305: 3366: 3335: 2665: 2032:

Throughout the early 1900s banking regulations were extremely lax if not non-existent. The Currency Act of 1900 lowered the required

822: 759: 754: 721: 707: 642: 5396: 4232: 1834:

worked in reverse. Banks were forced to liquidate assets (such as calling in loans rather than creating new loans). This caused the

9858: 9770: 9756: 9615: 9566: 9519: 9514: 9461: 9411: 9356: 8859: 8724: 8536: 7728: 7335: 6724: 6709: 6230: 5353: 4926: 3775: 2989: 2782: 1736: 1088: 1074: 938: 889: 842: 837: 784: 734: 679: 6392: 10242: 9902: 9848: 9446: 9405: 9376: 8948: 7340: 7131: 3379: 2553: 2390: 2169: 1866: 1545: 1166: 769: 728: 699: 2963: 9509: 9348: 9333: 9258: 9241: 7706: 7438: 7433: 7428: 7422: 6632: 3096: 2720: 2493: 2303: 1748: 832: 671: 656: 4916:

Robert Whaples, "Where Is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians? The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions,"

10406: 10370: 9938: 9835: 9743: 9488: 9370: 9327: 9192: 8160: 8155: 8142: 7240: 5487: 5266: 4826: 4345: 4242: 4215: 3829: 3520: 3464: 2373:, became flooded with transients searching for work, causing major train stations to be overcrowded with illegal passengers. 2011: 1620: 1248: 1212: 1153: 1061: 811: 693: 650: 248: 9280: 5653: 3483: 1747:, instituted unprecedented programs for relief, recovery and reform, and brought about a major realignment of politics with 9154: 8067: 7959: 6383: 4177:"African American Women and Their Communities in the Twentieth Century: The Foundation and Future of Black Women's Studies" 3171:

13 million people became unemployed. In 1932, 34 million people belonged to families with no regular full-time wage earner.

3071: 3008: 2333: 2648:

saw their greatest unemployment during the 1930s because of a decline in exports to the U.S., and a fall in export prices.

10360: 9777: 9527: 9080: 9020: 8610: 8124: 6617: 5993: 5432: 4856: 3087: 2465: 1608: 1095: 850: 230: 6592: 6196: 4744: 10355: 9842: 9605: 9466: 9398: 9338: 9132: 8635: 8625: 8541: 7855: 5881: 5745: 5720: 4738: 3937: 3566: 2892: 2752: 1937: 1767: 1603: 1160: 928: 789: 661: 6449: 9504: 9494: 9030: 8667: 8504: 8087: 7076: 6676: 6612: 6193: 6127: 6060: 5800: 5672: 4062: 3015:

unions started battling each other more than corporations, and tax policy became more favorable to long-term growth.

2724: 1752: 827: 817: 218: 2988:

Another response to the 1937 deepening of the Great Depression had more tangible results. Ignoring the pleas of the

9803: 9057: 8886: 8719: 8679: 8558: 8092: 7701: 6627: 6546: 4664:"Herbert Hoover on the Great Depression and New Deal, 1931–1933 | The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History" 3742:

Richardson, Gary. "Banking Panics of 1930–31". Federal Reserve History. N.p., November 22, 2013. Web. June 13, 2017

3350: 3265: 3243: 3103: 2879: 2430:

effectively prevented women from accessing or talking about contraception until 1950 when it was repealed with the

2199: 1917: 1854: 1759: 1121: 896: 535: 128: 76: 10004: 9738: 9694: 9090: 8588: 8444: 7919: 7126: 2927: 2489:

Europe as a whole was badly hit, in both rural and industrial areas. Democracy was discredited in most countries.

1782: 1314: 1056: 1007: 112: 3818: 2340:

is noted by many to have been the biggest player in reforming healthcare for Black folks during the Depression.

2277:

Annelise Orleck, "We Are That Mythical Thing Called The Public": Militant Housewives During The Great Depression

1701:

as well as for personal advancement. Altogether, there was a general loss of confidence in the economic future.

9474: 9343: 9110: 7653: 6536: 6516: 6486: 3325: 2935: 2634: 2610:

the Great Depression had the effect of exacerbating economic conditions that had been poor since the mid-1920s.

2457: 1815: 797: 666: 6300:

Szostak, Rick. "Evaluating the historiography of the Great Depression: explanation or single‐theory driven?."

3594: 3210:

One Soviet trading corporation in New York averaged 350 applications a day from Americans seeking jobs in the

2633:

suffered. In 1935, Bennett proposed a series of programs that resembled the New Deal; but was defeated in the

2593:'s economies, which had experienced strong economic growth during the 1920s, were poor for most of the 1930s. 10189: 9798: 9783: 9718: 9708: 9679: 9669: 9207: 7681: 7397: 6739: 6567: 6562: 6077: 3000: 2931: 2700: 2173: 2139: 2037: 1842:), resulting in a significant decline in aggregate investment. The decreased money supply further aggravated 1499: 1116: 1101: 1031: 1021: 992: 982: 9788: 9762: 9748: 9723: 9713: 9664: 9580: 9187: 8697: 8471: 8365: 8150: 8076: 7563: 6702: 6453: 3407: 3261: 3236: 3012: 2882:(NRA) sought to stimulate demand and provide work and relief through increased government spending. To end 2857: 2419: 2319: 2224: 2161:

used massive construction projects to try to jump-start the economy and solve the unemployment crisis. The

1874: 1670: 1106: 1080: 1066: 1036: 1026: 977: 903: 436: 196: 6419: 4965:

Stauffer, Robert F. (2002). "Another Perspective on the Reserve Requirement Increments of 1936 and 1937".

3412: 2818:

By May 10, the government had taken in $ 300 million of gold coin and $ 470 million of gold certificates.

2719:, a series of economic and social policies similar to the New Deal were adopted after the election of its 2344:

number of important political analyses on the subjugation of Black women, termed "triple exploitation" by

10218: 10114: 9684: 8953: 8330: 8295: 7877: 7659: 7591: 6622: 6526: 5834:; Hazarika, Sonali & Narasimhan, Krishnamoorthy. "Financial Distress in the Great Depression" (2011) 3644: 3345: 3269: 3253: 2871: 2825: 2622: 2198:

The Democrats won easy landslide victories in 1932 and 1934, and an even bigger one in 1936; the hapless

2177: 2165: 1530: 1424: 997: 987: 5468: 5412: 9808: 9793: 9658: 9172: 8514: 8290: 8260: 8225: 7934: 7909: 7764: 7759: 7718: 7686: 7473: 7391: 6844: 6769: 6764: 6587: 6577: 6572: 6541: 4697: 3673:"Banking Panics (1930–1933)." Encyclopedia of the Great Depression. Encyclopedia.com. June 13, 2017< 2958: 2907: 2896: 2578: 2448: 1830:

were considered a normal part of economic life. Worried depositors started to withdraw savings, so the

1709: 1126: 1111: 971: 124: 6465: 5449: 3677: 2522:

came to power through a series of elections in the early 1930s. Economic recovery was pursued through

10298: 10283: 10273: 10232: 10154: 10119: 9689: 8756: 8583: 8553: 8322: 7954: 7944: 7691: 6774: 6671: 6602: 6597: 6582: 6521: 6479: 6444: 5963: 5715:

Bremer, William W. "Along the American Way: The New Deal's Work Relief Programs for the Unemployed."

4535: 4509: 3300: 3257: 2345: 2093: 1960: 1740: 1731:

The Depression caused major political changes in America. Three years into the depression, President

1678: 1535: 1464: 1429: 1002: 491: 100: 5537: 5154: 2824:

On May 12, the United States weakened the monetary connection with gold further when FDR signed the

2807:

consumers lacking confidence in the economy. He also forbade banks to pay out gold or to export it.

1719:

US annual real GDP from 1910 to 1960, with the years of the Great Depression (1929–1939) highlighted

10303: 10278: 10194: 10099: 10059: 9651: 9197: 9040: 9025: 8926: 8874: 8832: 8820: 8657: 8459: 8060: 7844: 7632: 5325: 5107:

Higgs, Robert (March 1992). "Wartime Prosperity? A Reassessment of the U.S. Economy in the 1940s".

4589: 2685: 2669: 2291: 1920:

could have stemmed the severity of the Depression, but failed to exercise its role of managing the

1504: 1409: 1369: 964: 8734: 3965: 10293: 10288: 10268: 10159: 10149: 10144: 10124: 9674: 9202: 8519: 8464: 8265: 7949: 7939: 7929: 7924: 7914: 7794: 7789: 7784: 7305: 6695: 5831: 4192: 4176: 3993:""We Are That Mythical Thing Called the Public": Militant Housewives during the Great Depression" 2738: 2431: 1469: 1459: 1454: 1434: 104: 8210: 6386:. Extensive library of projects on America in the Great Depression from American Studies at the 3180:

In the 1920s, the banking system in the U.S. was about $ 50 billion, which was about 50% of GDP.

10324: 10308: 10247: 10074: 9989: 9933: 9217: 9149: 9085: 9013: 8778: 8531: 8476: 8387: 8310: 8215: 8200: 7696: 7626: 7458: 6387: 6103:

A New Deal for Blacks: The Emergence of Civil Rights as a National Issue: The Depression Decade

5307:

Overproduction of Goods, Unequal Distribution of Wealth, High Unemployment, and Massive Poverty

2704: 2614: 2500: 2228: 1715: 1571: 1550: 1384: 1299: 1243: 315: 5560: 5374: 4208:

Sojourning for freedom: black women, American communism, and the making of black left feminism

10109: 10104: 9979: 9702: 9253: 9236: 9212: 9105: 9100: 9047: 8869: 8837: 8645: 8630: 8220: 8195: 8180: 7882: 7865: 7860: 7849: 7812: 7807: 7801: 7412: 7381: 7279: 6336: 6240: 4630: 3615:"The Economic Causes and Impacts of the Stock Market Crash of 1929 (Fall 2012) – Historpedia" 3355: 2917: 2811: 1822:

Many rural banks began to fail in October 1930 when farmers defaulted on loans. There was no

1419: 1414: 1289: 1015: 579: 524: 502: 90: 6206: 5946: 3927: 2934:(WPA), a very large relief agency for the unemployed run by the federal government; and the 2835:

Street stock prices quickly increase; Wall Street's stock trading was exceptionally active.

1861:

until 1934 and controlled nearly half of the global gold supply during the inter-war period.

208: 10380: 10199: 10164: 10069: 10044: 9733: 9230: 9182: 9122: 8958: 8879: 8739: 8662: 8620: 8499: 8449: 8434: 8417: 8317: 8205: 8175: 7448: 7293: 5710:

The Defining Moment: The Great Depression and the American Economy in the Twentieth Century

5593: 3513:

The Defining Moment: The Great Depression and the American Economy in the Twentieth Century

3279: 3067: 1895: 1774: 1630: 1509: 1474: 1379: 1354: 1051: 1041: 348: 337: 282: 2920:, who was responsible for initiatives and programs are collectively known as the New Deal. 2067: 2002: 8: 10184: 10134: 10089: 10079: 10064: 10054: 10039: 10019: 9994: 9984: 9974: 9728: 9548: 9538: 8980: 8729: 8422: 8340: 8335: 8285: 8185: 8053: 7547: 7402: 7310: 7262: 7230: 7211: 6923: 6607: 6371: 5393: 4370:"Contraceptive Consumers: Gender and the Political Economy of Birth Control in the 1930s" 4258: 4130:"'Make Lisle the Style': The Politics of Fashion in the Japanese Silk Boycott, 1937-1940" 3693:

USA annual GDP from 1910–60, in billions of constant 2005 dollars, with the years of the

3106: 2939: 2899:(TVA) designed to electrify and modernize a very poor, mountainous region in Appalachia. 2477: 2217: 2033: 2020: 1986: 1791: 1778: 1494: 1444: 1399: 1389: 1374: 1364: 1349: 1329: 1304: 1294: 1284: 1046: 871: 861: 271: 5902: 5597: 5349: 4930: 3883:

Richard Jensen, "The cities reelect Roosevelt: Ethnicity, religion, and class in 1940."

3786: 2544:

was a poor rural nation that saw mounting political crises that led in 1936–1939 to the

10204: 10179: 10084: 10024: 9999: 9969: 9959: 9558: 9553: 9543: 9533: 9246: 9224: 8744: 8603: 8578: 8548: 8509: 8392: 8235: 8032: 8017: 8007: 7987: 7982: 7977: 7972: 7966: 7284: 7252: 6345: 6263: 6259: 6138: 6106: 6089: 6070: 6036: 5983: 5919: 5845: 5703: 5686: 5676: 5616: 5581: 5199: 5124: 5076: 5068: 5033: 5025: 4990: 4982: 4536:"Index numbers of rates of wages for various classes of labour in Canada, 1913 to 1936" 4389: 4311: 4188: 4157: 4110: 4030: 3398: 3330: 3249:

In the early 1930s, more people emigrated from the United States than immigrated to it.

3056: 2468:

such as grain farming, mining and logging, as well as construction, suffered the most.

2254: 1686: 1514: 1489: 1394: 1334: 1309: 1279: 1269: 881: 876: 866: 856: 392: 370: 2240:

a reduction of one infant death, one suicide, and 2.4 deaths from infectious disease.

2157:

The federal programs launched by Hoover and greatly expanded by President Roosevelt's

10376: 10139: 10094: 10034: 10009: 9964: 9907: 9144: 8975: 8788: 8375: 8170: 8131: 7753: 7747: 7741: 7347: 7320: 7257: 7245: 7206: 7175: 6319: 6216: 6189: 6179: 6148: 6123: 6056: 6046: 5973: 5924: 5877: 5865: 5821: 5804: 5796: 5759: 5741: 5693:

Modernity and the Great Depression: The Transformation of American Society, 1930–1941

5668: 5621: 5128: 5080: 5037: 4994: 4840:

Saving Capitalism: The Reconstruction Finance Corporation and the New Deal, 1933–1940

4822: 4734: 4341: 4303: 4238: 4211: 4149: 4102: 4058: 4022: 4017: 3933: 3562: 3516: 3436: 3340: 3043: 3039: 2999:

Total employment numbers in the United States from 1920 to 1940, excluding farms and

2995: 2630: 2590: 2545: 2204: 2162: 1929: 1839: 1626: 1449: 1404: 1344: 1319: 1274: 1217: 236: 6275:

Cargill, Thomas F., and Thomas Mayer. "The Great Depression and History Textbooks".

6096:

The American Dole: Unemployment Relief and the Welfare State in the Great Depression

5842:

Down and Out on the Family Farm: Rural Rehabilitation in the Great Plains, 1929–1945

5737: 5727: 3223:

Between 1929 and 1932, the income of the average American family was reduced by 40%.

10169: 10049: 10014: 9912: 9827: 9822: 9313: 8751: 8714: 8640: 8598: 8494: 8454: 8255: 8250: 7834: 7829: 7675: 7664: 7325: 7315: 7225: 7185: 7180: 7155: 7150: 7146: 6687: 6502: 6407: 5611: 5601: 5116: 5060: 5017: 4978: 4974: 4381: 4295: 4141: 4094: 4012: 4004: 3810:

Richard J. Jensen, "The causes and cures of unemployment in the Great Depression."

3694: 3500: 3099: 3047: 2594: 2560: 2549: 2541: 2444: 2307: 2072: 2056: 1831: 1674: 1479: 1359: 1324: 1222: 1145: 1140: 622: 447: 148: 48: 6440: 5936: 5484: 5258: 3826: 3461: 10237: 10174: 10129: 10029: 9035: 8968: 8864: 8825: 8709: 8652: 8524: 8427: 8325: 8245: 8240: 8190: 7903: 7893: 7643: 7584: 7579: 7573: 7165: 6426: 5892:

Daughters of the Great Depression: Women, Work, and Fiction in the American 1930s

5733: 5657: 5650: 5567: 5544: 5491: 5456: 5450:

Persons Obtaining Legal Permanent Resident Status in the United States of America

5419: 5400: 5381: 5332: 5313: 5161: 4335: 3972: 3833: 3822: 3681: 3601: 3487: 3480: 3468: 3311: 3304: 2708: 2673: 2659: 2511: 2337: 1991: 1921: 1906: 1797: 1723: 1698: 1540: 1484: 1439: 1339: 414: 3914:

The Bad City in the Good War: San Francisco, Los Angeles, Oakland, and San Diego

2980:

to break up large trusts; Arnold was not effective, and the campaign ended once

1785:. It also shaped modern American literature, resulting in famous novels such as 9917: 8985: 8963: 8941: 8919: 8914: 8439: 8370: 8300: 8045: 7192: 7170: 6414:

An Age of Lost Innocence: Childhood Realities and Adult Fears in the Depression

5861: 4098: 3896: 3504: 2977: 2769: 2626: 2531: 2461: 2192: 2143: 1786: 1732: 1227: 304: 86: 43: 38: 6135:

Building New Deal Liberalism: The Political Economy of Public Works, 1933–1956

5436: 5120: 4852: 1766:) and the South to places such as California and the cities of the North (the 10395: 9127: 8904: 7620: 7614: 7605: 7599: 7541: 7532: 7523: 7505: 7494: 7482: 7452: 7274: 6402: 6008: 5873: 5179:

Arsenal of World War II: The Political Economy of American Warfare, 1940–1945

4728: 4307: 4299: 4153: 4106: 4026: 3155: 3083: 2887: 2618: 2607: 2589:

The effects of the Great Depression in Canada were heavily regionalized. The

2527: 2504: 2427: 2406: 2378: 2370: 2362: 2106: 2097: 1982: 1913: 1887: 1878: 1870: 1858: 1705: 108: 6466:

Richardson, Gary. "Banking Panics of 1930–31." Federal Reserve History. 2017

5990:

A Rabble of Dead Money: The Great Crash and the Global Depression: 1929–1939

5606: 3275:

In 1932 deflation was 10.7 percent and real interest rate was 11.49 percent.

2848: 2243: 2184: 1903:

Winner of the Swedish Central Bank Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences

9116: 9052: 8593: 7364: 7357: 7352: 7221: 7216: 7160: 6248:

Vol. 4, No. 2 (Spring, 1990), pp. 67–83, evaluates different theories

6222: 5625: 5143:

Economics in the Long Run: New Deal Theorists and Their Legacies, 1932–1993

4385: 3293: 3286: 3220:

Corporate profits dropped from $ 10 billion in 1929 to $ 1 billion in 1932.

3211: 3204: 3023: 3019: 2981: 2926:

In 1934–36 came the much more controversial "Second New Deal". It featured

2535: 2519: 2295: 2209: 2151: 1940: 1835: 1827: 1690: 6458:"Banking Panics (1930–1933)." Encyclopedia of the Great Depression (2017) 6067:

Hoover, Roosevelt, and the Brains Trust : from depression to New Deal

4145: 1849: 157: 68: 9008: 8936: 8852: 8672: 8397: 7774: 7330: 7289: 7235: 5008:

Gressley, Gene M. (1964). "Thurman Arnold, Antitrust, and the New Deal".

3252:

With little economic activity there was scant demand for new coinage. No

3075: 2716: 2564: 2358: 2135: 2060: 2052: 1995: 1965: 4315: 4283: 3885:

Ethnicity. An Interdisciplinary Journal of the Study of Ethnic Relations

2922:

Bottom: a public mural from one of the artists employed by the New Deal.

33: 9095: 9003: 8909: 8842: 8615: 7558: 6653: 6249: 6026: 6016: 5943:

Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945

5855: 5828:

Fuller, Robert Lynn, "Phantom of Fear" The Banking Panic of 1933 (2012)

5779: 5769: 5203: 5072: 5029: 4986: 4393: 4369: 4161: 4129: 4114: 4082: 4034: 3992: 3082:

nation's confidence in the economy. His decision that December to name

3070:

banned racial discrimination in war-related employment, and set up the

2681: 2677: 2515: 2496:

worsened, there were no programs in Britain comparable to the New Deal.

1910: 557: 403: 8931: 6435: 6244:

White, Eugene N. "The Stock Market Boom and Crash of 1929 Revisited".

5683:

The Nickel and Dime Decade: American Popular Culture during the 1930s.

4083:"Learning from the History of Poor and Working-Class Women's Activism" 3846:

Breadlines knee-deep in wheat: Food assistance in the Great Depression

3815: 3307:

to be 122,775,046. About 40% of the population was under 20 years old.

3117:

its highest point since the summer of 1929 when the depression began.

8761: 8380: 8230: 7369: 7300: 7201: 7197: 6928: 6531: 6326:

One Third of a Nation: Lorena Hickock Reports on the Great Depression

6280: 5852:

To Ask for an Equal Chance: African Americans in the Great Depression

3859:

Big City Boss in Depression and War: Mayor Edward J. Kelly of Chicago

3285:

New York social workers reported that 25% of all schoolchildren were

3200: 3129: 2883: 2645: 2080: 2048: 1925: 1843: 1694: 116: 5835: 5665:

Pride, Prejudice, and Politics: Roosevelt Versus Recovery, 1933–1938

5509:"Deeper depression unlikely, expect U-shaped recovery post COVID-19" 5095:

Pride, Prejudice, and Politics: Roosevelt Versus Recovery, 1933–1938

5021: 4953:

The Economics of Recession and Revival: An Interpretation of 1937–38

4921: 4806:

Interpreting American History: The New Deal and the Great Depression

4563:

The Rowell-Sirois Commission and the Remaking of Canadian Federalism

4008: 3925: 3232:

There were two million homeless people migrating around the country.

3034: 2672:

during most of the 1930s, in addition to internal struggles between

2220:, and based on Jewish and Italian voters mobilized by labor unions. 1735:, widely blamed for not doing enough to combat the crisis, lost the 9137: 9075: 8847: 8766: 6914: 6658: 6471: 6186:

Riding the Rails: Teenagers on the Move During the Great Depression

6043:

Workfare or fair work: Women, Welfare, and Government Work Programs

5064: 4590:"History, Economic–Labour Policy–1966 Encyclopaedia of New Zealand" 3872:

City of Ambition: FDR, LaGuardia, and the Making of Modern New York

3226:

Nine million savings accounts were wiped out between 1930 and 1933.

2946: 2911: 2796: 2768:

His work focused on indirect relief from state governments and the

2707:-led governments concentrated on cutting spending and reducing the 2410: 2323:"home" was no longer just the family's isolated home and property. 2158: 1933: 1744: 120: 6033:

Put to Work: The WPA and Public Employment in the Great Depression

5927:, "The Causes and Cures of Unemployment in the Great Depression", 4340:(2nd ed.). University of California Press. pp. 132–159. 4087:

The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science

4234:

Down and Out, on the Road : The Homeless in American History

3217:

Over one million families lost their farms between 1930 and 1934.

2789: 2598: 2523: 2454:

the U.S. rose to 25%, and in some countries rose as high as 33%.

2366: 2041: 1758:

There were mass migrations of people from badly hit areas in the

1704:

The usual explanations include numerous factors, especially high

179: 6053:

Roosevelt, the Great Depression, and the Economics of * Recovery

6013:

The Great Depression and the New Deal: A Very Short Introduction

4793:

The Great Depression and the New Deal: A Very Short Introduction

2381:

also became popular during this time as they were a way for the

5786:

A Great Leap Forward: 1930s Depression and U.S. Economic Growth

5776:

Dancing in the Dark: A Cultural History of the Great Depression

5244: 5242: 5240: 4905:

Invisible Hands: The Businessmen's Crusade Against the New Deal

3193:

fell around 30%; the stock market lost almost 90% of its value.

3174:

Industrial production fell by nearly 45% between 1929 and 1932.

2602: 2382: 2102: 1883: 6459: 5708:

Bordo, Michael D., Claudia Goldin, and Eugene N. White, eds.,

5580:

Tapia Granados, J. A.; Diez Roux, A. V. (September 28, 2009).

5190:

Jensen (1989); Edwin E. Witte, "What The War Is Doing to Us".

4767:"The Great Depression and the Role of Government Intervention" 3674: 2745: 2582: 1943:

who in 2002 said in a speech honoring Friedman and Schwartz:

1891: 1763: 1682: 6452:.Recorded live on March 20, 2012, 10:35am MST at a class at 5700:

The New Deal and the Unemployed: The View from New York City

5237: 4284:"African Americans and Homelessness: Moving Through History" 3776:"Recent Unemployment Rate Estimates for the 1920s and 1930s" 3554: 3177:

Homebuilding dropped by 80% between the years 1929 and 1932.

2838: 2548:. Damage was great. 1939 saw the takeover of the country by 2400: 6380:, "An Overview of the Great Depression", by Randall Parker. 5980:

Depression Decade: From New Era through New Deal, 1929–1941

4462:

Depression Decade: From New Era through New Deal, 1929–1941

3292:

Many people became ill with diseases such as tuberculosis (

2641: 2351: 2299: 2232:

votes, while the rest of the North favored Willkie 52–48%.

1823: 161: 4691: 4689: 3604:

Conference to Honor Milton Friedman, University of Chicago

3471:. Memory.loc.gov (April 6, 1998). Retrieved on 2013-07-14. 3183:

From 1929 to 1932, about 5,000 banks went out of business.

2902: 2006:

People outside a closed bank after 1929 stock market crash

1846:, putting more pressure on already struggling businesses. 144: 6318:(1951), massive compilation of many public opinion polls 5992:(PublicAffairs, 2017), 389 pp. popular economic history; 5469:

The Facts Behind the Current Controversy Over Immigration

3595:

FederalReserve.gov: "Remarks by Governor Ben S. Bernanke"

3190: 2244:

Housewives' and Mothers' Activism in the Great Depression

2044:

were being issued in the first two decades of the 1900s.

2015: 6256:

The Great Depression in America: A Cultural Encyclopedia

1743:

by a landslide. Roosevelt's economic recovery plan, the

5579: 4686: 4055:

A Consumer's Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption

3242:

In the last prosperous year (1929), there were 279,678

3229:

273,000 families were evicted from their homes in 1932.

2567:

state were tightened. The economy was never prosperous.

2134:

One visible effect of the depression was the advent of

6145:

Hitting Home: The Great Depression in Town and Country

5051:

Roose, Kenneth D. (1948). "The Recession of 1937–38".

2625:. It raised tariffs on U.S. goods and lowered them on 2298:

was a fashion show, attended by high society women of

4565:. Vancouver, British Columbia: UBC Press. p. 26. 4561:

Wardhaugh, Robert Alexander; Ferguson, Barry (2021).

3490:. Faculty.washington.edu. Retrieved on July 14, 2013. 6717: 6344:(1937) reprints best newspaper stories of 1935–136. 5226: 5224: 4698:"Roosevelt's Gold Program | Federal Reserve History" 3314:

increased from about 57 years in 1929 to 63 in 1933.

2318:, Farmer-Labor Women's Federation of Minnesota, and 2261: 2146:

whose policies Michelson blamed for the depression.

1770:). Racial tensions also increased during this time. 1697:, plunging farm incomes, and lost opportunities for 6353:

Hard Times: An Oral History of the Great Depression

6171:(1967). History of entire region by leading scholar 5982:(1947), non-technical overview of economic history 5860: 5803:classic monetarist explanation; highly statistical 3427: 6130:economist blames Federal Reserve and gold standard 5793:A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960 5649:(Princeton University Press, 2000) (Chapter One – 4730:A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960 4727:Friedman, Milton; Schwartz, Anna Jacobson (1971). 4631:"Herbert Hoover: Domestic Affairs | Miller Center" 4210:. Durham : Duke University Press. pp. 11–12. 3926:Robert Whaples and Randall E. Parker, ed. (2013). 3550: 3548: 3435: 3246:recorded, but in 1933 only 23,068 came to the U.S. 3038:A woman working in a military aircraft factory in 1685:came in 1931–1933, and recovery came in 1940. The 6155:Technological Innovation and the Great Depression 5221: 4658: 4656: 4560: 4230: 2121: 1968:. By 1930 the value of shares had fallen by 90%. 10393: 8075: 6416:. American Studies at the University of Virginia 6003:The Depression Dilemmas of Rural Iowa, 1929–1933 5945:(1999), wide-ranging survey by leading scholar; 4879:Decade: From New Era through New Deal, 1929–1941 4726: 3499: 2438: 6162:Did Monetary Forces Cause the Great Depression? 5586:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 3545: 3452:Chandler (1970); Jensen (1989); Mitchell (1964) 2036:of investors from 50,000 to 25,000 to create a 6176:Boston, the Great Depression, and the New Deal 4653: 4424:(3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill/Irwin. p. 98. 4413: 3411:. No. February/March 2007. Archived from 3186:By 1933, 11,000 of US 25,000 banks had failed. 2790:Roosevelt administration and the gold standard 2348:in her 1936 article "Toward a Brighter Dawn." 2130:Huts and unemployed men in New York City, 1935 1894:to buy more French assets, the demand for the 8346:Drafting and ratification of the Constitution 8061: 7112: 6703: 6487: 6450:"Chairman Ben Bernanke Lecture Series Part 1" 6147:(1970), readings by experts on local history 6021:Roose, Kenneth D. "The Recession of 1937–38" 5403:, Frank G. Steindl, Oklahoma State University 5302: 5300: 5298: 5296: 5294: 5292: 5290: 5288: 5286: 5284: 4419: 3929:Routledge Handbook of Modern Economic History 3534: 3532: 2460:were hit hard, especially those dependent on 2027: 1650: 9270:Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization 7037:South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands 6335:1937. sociological study of Muncie, Indiana 6324:Lowitt, Richard and Beardsley Maurice, eds. 6290:(2002) interviews with 11 leading economists 5651:"The Macroeconomics of the Great Depression" 5582:"Life and death during the Great Depression" 5459:, Source: US Department of Homeland Security 5384:, By Cameron Stacy, salon.com, April 2, 2008 5155:Great Depression and World War Michael Lewis 4614: 3645:"What caused the Wall Street Crash of 1929?" 3561:(New ed.). Princeton University Press. 3362:Great Depression in Washington State Project 2692: 47:is an iconic photograph associated with the 6460:Encyclopedia.com | Free Online Encyclopedia 6367:Rare Color Photos from the Great Depression 6213:The Great Depression: America in the 1930s. 5506: 4420:Frank, Robert H.; Bernanke, Ben S. (2007). 3196:In 1929, the unemployment rate averaged 3%. 2746:Hoover Administration and the gold standard 2571: 1838:to shrink and the economy to contract (the 1809: 8068: 8054: 7119: 7105: 6710: 6696: 6494: 6480: 6408:Franklin D. Roosevelt Library & Museum 6314:Cantril, Hadley and Mildred Strunk, eds.; 6237:The Banking Panics of the Great Depression 6227:The Age of the Great Depression, 1929–1941 5326:Q&A: Lessons from the Great Depression 5281: 4920:, Vol. 55, No. 1 (Mar. 1995), pp. 139–154 4174: 4080: 3540:Phantom of Fear: The Banking Panic of 1933 3529: 3235:Over 60% of Americans were categorized as 3042:in 1942. Millions of American women found 3018:On the other hand, according to economist 2316:International Ladies Garment Workers Union 1712:brought back high levels of unemployment. 1657: 1643: 32: 8794:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 6169:The Emergence of the New South, 1915–1945 6113:Fifty Years Later: The New Deal Evaluated 5766:Great Depression: People and Perspectives 5725: 5615: 5605: 5394:Economic Recovery in the Great Depression 4016: 3367:Strikes in the United States in the 1930s 3336:Entertainment during the Great Depression 2952: 2839:Political responses of the depression era 2401:Contraception during the Great Depression 1936:began in 1933. This view was endorsed by 1689:marked the beginning of a decade of high 178:Unemployed men outside a soup kitchen in 5758:(1970). overview by economic historian. 5234:. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, publisher. 2002. 5007: 4964: 4205: 4127: 3433: 3403:"10 Moments That Made American Business" 3128: 3033: 2994: 2962: 2901: 2847: 2731: 2352:Homelessness during the Great Depression 2183: 2125: 2066: 2001: 1848: 1722: 1714: 173: 8949:Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. 6410:for copyright-free photos of the period 6254:Young, William H., and Nancy K. Young. 6203:Herbert Hoover and the Great Depression 5809:Friedman, Milton and Anna J. Schwartz, 5791:Friedman, Milton and Anna J. Schwartz, 4281: 3625:from the original on September 19, 2016 3555:Milton Friedman; Anna Schwartz (2008). 3438:America's Greatest Depression 1929–1941 3380:List of recessions in the United States 2864: 2563:'s Italy, the economic controls of his 190:This article is part of a series on the 10394: 5356:from the original on December 20, 2008 5269:from the original on February 17, 2009 4817:Olivier Blanchard und Gerhard Illing, 4695: 4333: 4076: 4074: 3990: 3986: 3984: 3982: 3980: 3158:on the Banking Crisis (March 12, 1933) 2494:Great Depression in the United Kingdom 2326: 2304:American Federation of Hosiery Workers 2024:ineffective, inexperienced, and weak. 10402:Great Depression in the United States 9877: 9639: 9301: 8105: 8049: 7100: 6691: 6475: 5909:The Great Depression and the New Deal 5413:A reign of rural terror, a world away 5106: 5050: 4363: 4361: 4359: 4357: 4329: 4327: 4325: 4052: 4048: 4046: 4044: 3139:Fireside Chat 1 On the Banking Crisis 2870:up. The most popular program was the 2142:, to refer sardonically to President 2012:Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation 1954: 16:Period in American history, 1929–1939 6501: 6246:The Journal of Economic Perspectives 6086:The American Farmer and the New Deal 6005:(University of Missouri Press, 2012) 5929:Journal of Interdisciplinary History 5316:, From: President's Economic Council 4674:from the original on August 15, 2017 4538:. Statistics Canada. 31 March 2008. 4512:. Statistics Canada. 31 March 2008. 4495:Robert O. Paxton and Julie Hessler, 4367: 3812:Journal of Interdisciplinary History 3715:(Federal Reserve Board 1933, 63–65). 3203:, the unemployment rate was 50%; in 3124: 3074:to enforce this. Strikes (except in 3072:Fair Employment Practices Commission 2843: 2334:National Welfare Rights Organization 2216:built around the nominal Republican 10412:Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt 6399:Great Myths of the Great Depression 6331:Lynd, Robert S. and Helen M. Lynd. 6288:Reflections on the Great Depression 4967:Journal of Post Keynesian Economics 4927:"EH.R: FORUM: The Great Depression" 4892:Reflections on the Great Depression 4542:from the original on August 6, 2014 4516:from the original on August 6, 2014 4237:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 4175:Clark Hine, Darlene (Spring 2007). 4071: 3977: 3946:from the original on March 30, 2019 3901:The twentieth-century American city 3575:from the original on March 30, 2019 3167:Effects of depression in the U.S.: 3095:hinder recovery. With support from 2538:and, especially, military spending. 2214:supported the complicated coalition 1975: 1932:of the economy from 1929 until the 13: 8636:Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act 8626:Assassination of James A. Garfield 7423:British credit crisis of 1772–1773 6420:Great Depression in the Deep South 6308: 5712:(1998). Advanced economic history. 5639: 5259:"I remember the Wall Street Crash" 4859:from the original on June 11, 2017 4617:The world in depression, 1929–1939 4596:from the original on July 24, 2008 4354: 4322: 4041: 3773: 3397: 3358:, California pension plan, 1938–40 3310:Suicide rates increased; however, 3239:by the federal government in 1933. 3063:sailors for the post-war economy. 2893:Reconstruction Finance Corporation 2753:Reconstruction Finance Corporation 2507:, but engendered stiff opposition. 2105:'s decision to move away from the 600: Modern Era 14: 10423: 8668:Assassination of William McKinley 7136:Commonwealth of Nations countries 6360: 6269: 6229:(1948), scholarly social history 5916:The WPA and Federal Relief Policy 5549:Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute 5538:The Great Depression and New Deal 5216:The U.S. Economy in World War III 4747:from the original on May 30, 2017 4708:from the original on May 15, 2017 4641:from the original on 30 June 2017 4615:Kindleberger, Charles P. (1978). 4577:Ordeal by Fire: Canada, 1910–1945 4193:10.5406/blacwomegendfami.1.1.0001 3655:from the original on June 8, 2017 2637:and no such programs were passed. 2526:, pressure on economic partners, 2262:Demonstrations and Union Activity 1679:Wall Street Crash of October 1929 10375: 10366: 10365: 10330: 10329: 8887:Assassination of John F. Kennedy 8680:Nadir of American race relations 8559:Assassination of Abraham Lincoln 6913: 6880:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 6718:Great Depression in the Americas 6295:The New Deal: The National Level 6025:, 56#3 (1948), pp. 239–248 5953:Rainbow's End: The Crash of 1929 5899:Republican ascendancy, 1921-1933 5870:Capitalism in America: A History 5519:from the original on May 4, 2020 5375:The Great Depression: The sequel 4773:from the original on May 3, 2019 3593:Ben S. Bernanke (Nov. 8, 2002), 3558:The Great Contraction, 1929–1933 3481:American Exodus The Dust Bowl Mi 3351:Timeline of the Great Depression 3278:The U.S. government sponsored a 3143: 2914:, being signed into law in 1933. 2880:National Recovery Administration 2810:On March 9, Congress passed the 2621:retaliated against the American 2534:, and spending programs such as 2096:. President Hoover retained the 1625: 1616: 1615: 1577: 1576: 207: 160: 143: 129:Depopulation of the Great Plains 8589:First transcontinental railroad 7132:recessions in the United States 6302:Journal of Economic Methodology 6279:31#4 (1998), pp. 441–458. 6120:Rethinking the Great Depression 5812:The Great Contraction 1929–1933 5573: 5554: 5531: 5507:Vijayakumar, VK (May 4, 2020). 5500: 5478: 5462: 5443: 5425: 5406: 5387: 5368: 5342: 5319: 5251: 5232:Rethinking the Great Depression 5208: 5184: 5171: 5148: 5135: 5100: 5087: 5044: 5001: 4958: 4945: 4910: 4897: 4884: 4871: 4845: 4832: 4811: 4798: 4785: 4759: 4720: 4623: 4608: 4582: 4569: 4554: 4528: 4502: 4497:Europe in the Twentieth Century 4489: 4480: 4467: 4454: 4441: 4428: 4400: 4275: 4259:"Hoovervilles and Homelessness" 4251: 4224: 4199: 4168: 4121: 3958: 3919: 3906: 3890: 3877: 3864: 3851: 3838: 3804: 3767: 3754: 3745: 3736: 3727: 3724:Federal Reserve Board 1933, 67. 3718: 3709: 3700: 3687: 3667: 3637: 3607: 3515:. University of Chicago Press. 1681:and then spread worldwide. The 5972:(2nd ed, 1993) social history 5647:Essays on the Great Depression 5433:"American History – 1930–1939" 4979:10.1080/01603477.2002.11051343 4733:. Princeton University Press. 4181:Black Women, Gender + Families 4128:Glickman, Lawrence B. (2005). 3587: 3493: 3474: 3455: 3446: 3391: 3326:Causes of the Great Depression 2936:National Labor Relations Board 2122:Social & political impacts 1873:prevented it from engaging in 1816:causes of the Great Depression 1: 5756:America's Greatest Depression 5695:(UP of Kansas, 2017). 277 pp. 4449:World Economic Survey 1932–33 4436:Farm prices: myth and reality 4282:Johnson, Roberta Ann (2010). 3442:. New York, Harper & Row. 3385: 2932:Works Progress Administration 2783:presidential election of 1932 2439:Global comparison of severity 2285:Housewives' League of Detroit 2140:Democratic National Committee 139: 10407:Presidency of Herbert Hoover 9757:Hispanic and Latino American 8611:Second Industrial Revolution 8445:Nat Turner's slave rebellion 8151:Exploration of North America 8077:History of the United States 6454:George Washington University 6432:Soul of a People documentary 6023:Journal of Political Economy 5955:(2001) by economic historian 5719:62 (December 1975): 636–652 5570:Contains 1930 Census results 5350:"About the Great Depression" 5053:Journal of Political Economy 4438:(U of Minnesota Press, 1958) 4422:Principles of Macroeconomics 3434:Chandler, Lester V. (1970). 3189:Between 1929 and 1933, U.S. 3044:work in the defense industry 3029: 2420:New York Academy of Medicine 2320:American Federation of Labor 2225:1938 United States elections 2087: 2071:Approaching dust storm near 1875:expansionary monetary policy 1075:Hispanic and Latino American 7: 9281:Indictments of Donald Trump 8472:First Industrial Revolution 8306:Declaration of Independence 8296:Second Continental Congress 7878:1997 Asian financial crisis 7511:Civil War-era United States 6115:(1985), liberal perspective 5717:Journal of American History 5675:, a conservative viewpoint 5490:September 27, 2011, at the 5399:September 28, 2013, at the 5109:Journal of Economic History 5010:The Business History Review 4918:Journal of Economic History 3675:http://www.encyclopedia.com 3346:Penny auction (foreclosure) 3318: 3260:were minted in 1932–33, no 2940:Social Security Act of 1935 2872:Civilian Conservation Corps 2826:Agricultural Adjustment Act 2458:Cities all around the world 10: 10428: 9878: 9640: 9302: 9173:Killing of Osama bin Laden 8261:First Continental Congress 8106: 7654:Post–World War I recession 7474:Post-Napoleonic Depression 6205:(1959). scholarly history 6078:America's Great Depression 5960:Journal of Economic Issues 5473:American Heritage Magazine 5455:February 17, 2009, at the 5422:, U.S. News, June 22, 2003 4334:Reagan, Leslie J. (2022). 4231:Kenneth L. Kusmer (2002). 4206:McDuffie, Erik S. (2011). 4099:10.1177/000271620157700110 3486:February 28, 2019, at the 3268:from 1930 to 1932, and no 2956: 2908:Tennessee Valley Authority 2897:Tennessee Valley Authority 2449:Great Depression in Canada 2442: 2028:Unregulated banking growth 1901:In the late 20th century, 10351: 10317: 10261: 10225: 10213: 9952: 9926: 9888: 9884: 9873: 9646: 9635: 9308: 9297: 9163: 9066: 8994: 8895: 8806: 8757:Wall Street Crash of 1929 8688: 8569: 8554:Emancipation Proclamation 8485: 8408: 8356: 8323:Articles of Confederation 8276: 8161:Native American epidemics 8141: 8116: 8112: 8101: 8083: 7892: 7828: 7773: 7727: 7642: 7564:2nd Industrial Revolution 7557: 7504: 7497:(1836–1838 and 1839–1843) 7413:1st Industrial Revolution 7411: 7380: 7181:Price-and-wage stickiness 7142: 7055: 7022:Saint Pierre and Miquelon 6922: 6911: 6723: 6667: 6646: 6555: 6522:Wall Street Crash of 1929 6509: 6333:Middletown in Transition. 6316:Public Opinion, 1935–1946 6297:(1973) v 1 pp. 3–26. 6143:Sternsher, Bernard, ed., 5907:Himmelberg, Robert F. ed 5840:Grant, Michael Johnston. 5726:Cannadine, David (2007). 5418:December 3, 2013, at the 5331:January 18, 2009, at the 5312:February 5, 2009, at the 5121:10.1017/S0022050700010251 4821:, Pearson Studium, 2009, 4702:federalreservehistory.org 4374:Journal of Social History 4337:When Abortion Was a Crime 4134:Journal of Social History 4081:Abramovitz, Mimi (2001). 4018:2027/spo.0499697.0019.109 3991:Orleck, Annelise (1993). 3680:January 28, 2018, at the 3467:October 10, 2014, at the 2918:Franklin Delano Roosevelt 2703:, 1930s conservative and 2693:Australia and New Zealand 2666:China's severe depression 2629:goods. Nevertheless, the 2483: 2466:primary sector industries 2346:Louise Thompson Patterson 2253:reckoning with their own 2094:Wall Street Crash of 1929 1961:Wall Street Crash of 1929 1824:federal deposit insurance 1804: 1741:Franklin Delano Roosevelt 152: 142: 134: 101:Wall Street Crash of 1929 96: 82: 64: 56: 31: 26: 21: 10243:Northern Mariana Islands 8816:Strike wave of 1945–1946 7845:1990s United States boom 7633:Financial crisis of 1914 7042:Turks and Caicos Islands 6340:Mott, Frank Luther, ed. 6286:Parker, Randall E., ed. 6201:Warren, Harris Gaylord. 5850:Greenberg, Cheryl Lynn. 5729:Mellon: An American Life 4929:. Eh.net. Archived from 4924:see also the summary at 4579:(1961), ch. 3, pp 37–39. 4300:10.1177/0021934708315487 4288:Journal of Black Studies 4053:Cohen, Lizabeth (2003). 3932:. Routledge. p. 8. 3097:Secretary of Agriculture 2670:Second Sino-Japanese War 2572:Canada and the Caribbean 2292:League of Women Shoppers 1810:Monetary interpretations 1693:, poverty, low profits, 578: 556: 534: 523: 501: 490: 468: 457: 446: 435: 413: 402: 391: 369: 347: 336: 314: 303: 281: 270: 9778:Middle Eastern American 9595:Technology and industry 8465:Seneca Falls Convention 8266:Continental Association 8166:Settlement of Jamestown 7660:Depression of 1920–1921 7592:Depression of 1882–1885 7506:Early Victorian Britain 7241:Real and nominal values 6527:Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act 6017:excerpt and text search 5856:excerpt and text search 5780:excerpt and text search 5770:excerpt and text search 5768:(2009), social history 5607:10.1073/pnas.0904491106 5543:March 10, 2011, at the 5380:March 22, 2009, at the 5166:The Library of Congress 3832:April 16, 2015, at the 3821:March 21, 2017, at the 3762:It Seems Like Yesterday 2985:to 18 million in 1943. 2739:Charles P. Kindleberger 2653: 2623:high tariff act of 1930 2615:Conservative government 2432:Griswold v. Connecticut 2212:in Manhattan. There he 1755:in retreat until 1938. 1096:Middle Eastern American 918:Technology and industry 105:Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act 9898:Admission to the Union 9264:Afghanistan withdrawal 9259:January 6 insurrection 9178:Rise in mass shootings 9150:Virginia Tech shooting 8703:Paris Peace Conference 8477:Second Great Awakening 8216:American Enlightenment 7765:Recession of 1969–1970 7760:Recession of 1960–1961 7719:Recession of 1937–1938 6957:British Virgin Islands 6542:Recession of 1937–1938 6388:University of Virginia 6111:Sitkoff, Harvard, ed. 5911:(2001), short overview 5566:March 3, 2009, at the 5561:1931 U.S Census Report 5177:Paul A. C. Koistinen, 5160:June 29, 2011, at the 4804:Aaron D. Purcell, ed. 3971:March 5, 2019, at the 3538:Robert Fuller (2012), 3462:The Migrant Experience 3164: 3051: 3003: 2969: 2959:Recession of 1937–1938 2953:Recession of 1937–1938 2923: 2853: 2721:First Labor Government 2635:elections of that year 2280: 2229:conservative coalition 2195: 2131: 2076: 2007: 1952: 1862: 1728: 1720: 1710:recession of 1937–1938 1208:Admission to the Union 183: 125:Recession of 1937–1938 113:Hitler's rise to power 9890:Territorial evolution 9254:George Floyd Protests 9237:Unite the Right rally 9106:Oklahoma City bombing 9101:Republican Revolution 9048:Space Shuttle program 8870:Civil Rights Movement 8838:North Atlantic Treaty 8646:Sherman Antitrust Act 8631:Chinese Exclusion Act 8221:French and Indian War 8211:Prelude to Revolution 8196:First Great Awakening 8156:European colonization 7883:Early 2000s recession 7850:Early 1990s recession 7802:Early 1980s recession 7382:Commercial revolution 7280:Nominal interest rate 6870:Saint Kitts and Nevis 6283:, discusses causation 5494:, by Steve H. Hanke, 5471:, by Allan L. Damon, 5335:, By Barbara Kiviat, 4434:Willard W. Cochrane, 4368:Tone, Andrea (1996). 4146:10.1353/jsh.2005.0032 3356:Ham and Eggs Movement 3272:in the years 1929–33. 3132: 3088:Secretary of Commerce 3037: 2998: 2966: 2905: 2858:Hoover Administration 2851: 2812:Emergency Banking Act 2732:Tight monetary policy 2725:1935 general election 2269: 2191:, a 1934 painting by 2187: 2152:public works projects 2129: 2070: 2005: 1945: 1869:'s commitment to the 1852: 1726: 1718: 1199:Territorial evolution 492:Post-World War II Era 177: 91:Franklin D. Roosevelt 73:First Great Migration 9804:Palestinian American 9231:Obergefell v. Hodges 9123:September 11 attacks 8959:Second-wave feminism 8880:Cuban Missile Crisis 8740:Bath School disaster 8658:Spanish–American War 8621:The Gospel of Wealth 8500:California Gold Rush 8460:Mexican–American War 8450:Nullification crisis 8418:Era of Good Feelings 8318:Confederation period 8226:Proclamation of 1763 8176:Atlantic slave trade 7449:Copper Panic of 1789 6441:The Great Depression 6436:Smithsonian Networks 6425:May 4, 2008, at the 6384:America in the 1930s 6184:Uys, Errol Lincoln. 6133:Smith, Jason Scott. 6084:Saloutos, Theodore. 6075:Rothbard, Murray N. 5970:The Great Depression 5968:McElvaine Robert S. 5876:. pp. 220–272. 5784:Field, Alexander J. 4838:James Stuart Olson, 4408:The Great Depression 4386:10.1353/jsh/29.3.485 4263:depts.washington.edu 3887:(1981) 8#2: 189–195. 3280:Mexican Repatriation 3264:in 1931 or 1933, no 3068:Executive Order 8802 2865:Roosevelt's New Deal 2668:was worsened by the 1857:. The U.S. used the 1826:during that time as 1122:Palestinian American 338:Era of Good Feelings 283:Confederation period 220:Timeline and periods 22:Great Depression era 10253:U.S. Virgin Islands 9739:Lithuanian American 9695:Vietnamese American 9041:End of the Cold War 9031:Invasion of Grenada 8981:Iran hostage crisis 8730:Tulsa race massacre 8537:Election of Lincoln 8532:Dred Scott decision 8520:Kansas–Nebraska Act 8423:Missouri Compromise 8341:Northwest Ordinance 8331:Pennsylvania Mutiny 8326:and Perpetual Union 8286:American Revolution 8201:War of Jenkins' Ear 7785:1973–1975 recession 7729:Post–WWII expansion 7403:Great Frost of 1709 7231:Neutrality of money 7212:Classical dichotomy 7128:Economic expansions 7047:U.S. Virgin Islands 6890:Trinidad and Tobago 6735:Antigua and Barbuda 6372:The Huffington Post 6304:12.1 (2005): 35–61. 6167:Tindall, George B. 6065:* Rosen, Elliot A. 5988:Morris, Charles R. 5978:Mitchell, Broadus. 5814:(New Edition, 2008) 5774:Dickstein, Morris. 5764:Cravens, Hamilton. 5698:Blumberg, Barbara. 5691:Bindas, Kenneth J. 5598:2009PNAS..10617290T 5592:(41): 17290–17295. 5547:, by Joyce Bryant, 5485:A Great Depression? 5265:. October 6, 2008. 4903:Kim Phillips-Fein, 4447:League of Nations, 3870:Mason B. Williams, 3844:Janet Poppendieck, 3542:, pp. 241–42 fn. 45 3399:Gordon, John Steele 3107:Henry Morgenthau Jr 3057:cost-plus contracts 2990:Treasury Department 2554:Nationalist faction 2510:Germany during the 2478:John Maynard Keynes 2327:Black Women's Roles 2218:Fiorello La Guardia 2021:Federal Reserve Act 1987:consumer confidence 1792:The Grapes of Wrath 1779:Keynesian economics 1749:liberalism dominant 1057:Lithuanian American 1008:Vietnamese American 272:American Revolution 9903:Historical regions 9859:Transgender people 9417:Capital punishment 9276:Support of Ukraine 9225:Black Lives Matter 9133:War in Afghanistan 9058:Invasion of Panama 9014:Iran–Contra affair 8875:Early–mid Cold War 8745:Harlem Renaissance 8604:Compromise of 1877 8579:Reconstruction era 8515:Fugitive Slave Act 8510:Compromise of 1850 8455:Westward expansion 8393:Louisiana Purchase 8236:Stamp Act Congress 8181:King William's War 7967:COVID-19 recession 7627:Panic of 1910–1911 7459:Panic of 1796–1797 7285:Real interest rate 7253:Economic expansion 6800:Dominican Republic 6393:The 1930s Timeline 6342:Headlining America 6219:; popular history. 6188:(Routledge, 2003) 6174:Trout, Charles H. 6101:Sitkoff, Harvard. 5925:Jensen, Richard J. 5914:Howard, Donald S. 5866:Wooldridge, Adrian 5836:SSRN link to paper 5818:A Monetary History 5754:Chandler, Lester. 5656:2010-07-04 at the 5214:Harold G. Vester. 5192:Review of Politics 5141:Theodore Rosenof, 4951:Kenneth D. Roose, 4877:Broadus Mitchell, 4696:Richardson, Gary. 4637:. 4 October 2016. 4460:Broadus Mitchell, 4195:– via JSTOR. 3912:Roger W. Lotchin, 3600:2020-03-24 at the 3331:New Deal coalition 3165: 3154:Roosevelt's first 3104:Treasury Secretary 3052: 3004: 2970: 2924: 2854: 2617:of Prime Minister 2205:political machines 2196: 2132: 2077: 2008: 1955:Stock market crash 1863: 1729: 1721: 1687:stock market crash 1177:Transgender people 740:Capital punishment 393:Reconstruction Era 184: 69:Early New Deal Era 10389: 10388: 10347: 10346: 10343: 10342: 9908:American frontier 9869: 9868: 9799:Lebanese American 9784:Egyptian American 9719:Estonian American 9709:Albanian American 9703:European American 9680:Japanese American 9670:Filipino American 9631: 9630: 9293: 9292: 9289: 9288: 9242:COVID-19 pandemic 9145:Hurricane Katrina 9086:Los Angeles riots 8976:Watergate scandal 8821:Start of Cold War 8789:Manhattan Project 8376:Whiskey Rebellion 8206:King George's War 8171:Thirteen Colonies 8132:Pre-Columbian Era 8043: 8042: 7754:Recession of 1958 7748:Recession of 1953 7742:Recession of 1949 7439:Thirteen Colonies 7246:Velocity of money 7176:Paradox of thrift 7094: 7093: 6685: 6684: 6094:Singleton, Jeff. 6051:Rosen, Elliot A. 5822:Great Contraction 5681:Best, Gary Dean. 5663:Best, Gary Dean. 5339:, January 6, 2009 5097:(1990) pp 175–216 4827:978-3-8273-7363-2 4670:. July 24, 2013. 4668:gilderlehrman.org 4592:. Teara.govt.nz. 4406:John A. Garraty, 4347:978-0-520-38742-3 4244:978-0-19-504778-3 4217:978-0-8223-5033-0 4057:. Vintage Books. 3903:(1986) pp. 90–96. 3814:(1989): 553–583 3760:Hans Kaltenborn, 3522:978-0-226-06589-2 3501:Bordo, Michael D. 3415:on April 20, 2008 3408:American Heritage 3341:Great Contraction 3149: 3125:Facts and figures 3040:Fort Worth, Texas 2844:Hoover's response 2591:Prairie Provinces 2546:Spanish Civil War 2255:consumer behavior 2163:alphabet agencies 2075:. April 18, 1935. 1950:— Ben S. Bernanke 1930:Great Contraction 1928:, resulting in a 1924:and ameliorating 1840:Great Contraction 1775:stimulus packages 1667: 1666: 1589: 1588: 1218:American frontier 1117:Lebanese American 1102:Egyptian American 1032:Estonian American 1022:Albanian American 1016:European American 993:Japanese American 983:Filipino American 607: 606: 580:Post-Cold War Era 237:Pre-Columbian Era 199: 172: 171: 168: 167: 10419: 10379: 10369: 10368: 10333: 10332: 10262:Outlying islands 10219:Washington, D.C. 10214:Federal District 9913:Manifest destiny 9886: 9885: 9875: 9874: 9817:Native Americans 9789:Iranian American 9763:Mexican American 9749:Serbian American 9734:Italian American 9724:Finnish American 9714:English American 9665:Chinese American 9652:African American 9637: 9636: 9442:Direct democracy 9432:The Constitution 9391:Higher education 9314:American Century 9299: 9298: 8752:Great Depression 8725:Women's suffrage 8715:Roaring Twenties 8641:Haymarket affair 8599:Enforcement Acts 8388:Jeffersonian era 8336:Shays' Rebellion 8256:Intolerable Acts 8251:Boston Tea Party 8186:Queen Anne's War 8114: 8113: 8103: 8102: 8070: 8063: 8056: 8047: 8046: 7835:Great Regression 7830:Great Moderation 7676:Great Depression 7665:Roaring Twenties 7186:Underconsumption 7156:Effective demand 7147:Aggregate demand 7121: 7114: 7107: 7098: 7097: 7012:Saint Barthélemy 6972:Falkland Islands 6917: 6712: 6705: 6698: 6689: 6688: 6537:Effect in cities 6503:Great Depression 6496: 6489: 6482: 6473: 6472: 5962:, Vol. 30, 1996 5941:Kennedy, David. 5887: 5751: 5634: 5633: 5619: 5609: 5577: 5571: 5558: 5552: 5535: 5529: 5528: 5526: 5524: 5504: 5498: 5482: 5476: 5466: 5460: 5447: 5441: 5440: 5439:on May 27, 2010. 5435:. 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H. 6153:Szostak, Rick. 6001:Ossian Lisa L. 5897:Hicks, John D. 5884: 5862:Greenspan, Alan 5832:Graham, John R. 5816:, chapter from 5748: 5734:Alfred A. Knopf 5658:Wayback Machine 5645:Bernanke, Ben. 5642: 5640:Further reading 5637: 5578: 5574: 5568:Wayback Machine 5559: 5555: 5545:Wayback Machine 5536: 5532: 5522: 5520: 5505: 5501: 5492:Wayback Machine 5483: 5479: 5475:, December 1981 5467: 5463: 5457:Wayback Machine 5448: 5444: 5431: 5430: 5426: 5420:Wayback Machine 5411: 5407: 5401:Wayback Machine 5392: 5388: 5382:Wayback Machine 5373: 5369: 5359: 5357: 5348: 5347: 5343: 5333:Wayback Machine 5324: 5320: 5314:Wayback Machine 5305: 5282: 5272: 5270: 5257: 5256: 5252: 5247: 5238: 5229: 5222: 5213: 5209: 5194:. 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Callen 2329: 2287:to name a few. 2279: 2276: 2264: 2246: 2124: 2090: 2030: 1978: 1957: 1949: 1922:monetary system 1918:Federal Reserve 1909:and his fellow 1907:Milton Friedman 1867:U.S. Government 1844:price deflation 1812: 1807: 1798:Of Mice and Men 1783:Social Security 1768:Great Migration 1699:economic growth 1677:began with the 1663: 1591: 1590: 1192: 1184: 1183: 1089:Jewish American 1062:Polish American 1042:German American 998:Korean American 988:Indian American 959: 951: 950: 805:Merchant Marine 775:Law enforcement 643:Racial violence 617: 609: 608: 415:Progressive Era 223: 219: 200: 198:History of the 156: 138: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 107: 103: 89: 75: 71: 52: 17: 12: 11: 5: 10425: 10415: 10414: 10409: 10404: 10387: 10386: 10384: 10383: 10373: 10363: 10361:Historiography 10358: 10352: 10349: 10348: 10345: 10344: 10341: 10340: 10338: 10337: 10327: 10321: 10319: 10315: 10314: 10312: 10311: 10306: 10301: 10299:Navassa Island 10296: 10291: 10286: 10284:Johnston Atoll 10281: 10276: 10274:Howland Island 10271: 10265: 10263: 10259: 10258: 10256: 10255: 10250: 10245: 10240: 10235: 10233:American Samoa 10229: 10227: 10223: 10222: 10217: 10215: 10211: 10210: 10208: 10207: 10202: 10197: 10192: 10187: 10182: 10177: 10172: 10167: 10162: 10157: 10155:South Carolina 10152: 10147: 10142: 10137: 10132: 10127: 10122: 10120:North Carolina 10117: 10112: 10107: 10102: 10097: 10092: 10087: 10082: 10077: 10072: 10067: 10062: 10057: 10052: 10047: 10042: 10037: 10032: 10027: 10022: 10017: 10012: 10007: 10002: 9997: 9992: 9987: 9982: 9977: 9972: 9967: 9962: 9956: 9954: 9950: 9949: 9947: 9946: 9944:The West Coast 9941: 9936: 9930: 9928: 9924: 9923: 9921: 9920: 9918:Indian removal 9915: 9910: 9905: 9900: 9894: 9892: 9882: 9881: 9871: 9870: 9867: 9866: 9864: 9863: 9862: 9861: 9856: 9851: 9839: 9832: 9831: 9830: 9825: 9813: 9812: 9811: 9809:Saudi American 9806: 9801: 9796: 9794:Iraqi American 9791: 9786: 9774: 9767: 9766: 9765: 9753: 9752: 9751: 9746: 9741: 9736: 9731: 9729:Irish American 9726: 9721: 9716: 9711: 9699: 9698: 9697: 9692: 9687: 9682: 9677: 9672: 9667: 9659:Asian American 9655: 9647: 9644: 9643: 9633: 9632: 9629: 9628: 9626: 9625: 9624: 9623: 9618: 9613: 9608: 9603: 9591: 9590: 9589: 9587:Sexual slavery 9577: 9570: 9563: 9562: 9561: 9556: 9551: 9546: 9541: 9536: 9524: 9523: 9522: 9517: 9512: 9507: 9502: 9497: 9485: 9478: 9471: 9470: 9469: 9464: 9459: 9457:Postal service 9454: 9449: 9447:Foreign policy 9444: 9439: 9434: 9429: 9424: 9419: 9414: 9402: 9395: 9394: 9393: 9381: 9380: 9379: 9367: 9366: 9365: 9353: 9352: 9351: 9346: 9341: 9336: 9324: 9317: 9309: 9306: 9305: 9295: 9294: 9291: 9290: 9287: 9286: 9284: 9283: 9278: 9273: 9266: 9261: 9256: 9251: 9250: 9249: 9239: 9234: 9227: 9222: 9221: 9220: 9215: 9210: 9205: 9200: 9195: 9190: 9185: 9175: 9169: 9167: 9161: 9160: 9158: 9157: 9152: 9147: 9142: 9141: 9140: 9135: 9125: 9120: 9113: 9108: 9103: 9098: 9093: 9088: 9083: 9078: 9072: 9070: 9064: 9063: 9061: 9060: 9055: 9050: 9045: 9044: 9043: 9038: 9033: 9023: 9021:Crack epidemic 9018: 9017: 9016: 9011: 9000: 8998: 8992: 8991: 8989: 8988: 8986:Moral Majority 8983: 8978: 8973: 8972: 8971: 8964:Gay liberation 8961: 8956: 8954:Counterculture 8951: 8946: 8945: 8944: 8942:Fall of Saigon 8939: 8934: 8924: 8923: 8922: 8920:Apollo program 8917: 8915:Project Gemini 8907: 8901: 8899: 8893: 8892: 8890: 8889: 8884: 8883: 8882: 8872: 8867: 8862: 8857: 8856: 8855: 8850: 8845: 8840: 8833:Early Cold War 8830: 8829: 8828: 8818: 8812: 8810: 8804: 8803: 8801: 8800: 8799: 8798: 8797: 8796: 8786: 8781: 8771: 8770: 8769: 8764: 8759: 8749: 8748: 8747: 8742: 8737: 8732: 8727: 8722: 8712: 8707: 8706: 8705: 8694: 8692: 8686: 8685: 8683: 8682: 8677: 8676: 8675: 8670: 8665: 8660: 8650: 8649: 8648: 8643: 8638: 8633: 8628: 8623: 8613: 8608: 8607: 8606: 8601: 8596: 8591: 8586: 8575: 8573: 8567: 8566: 8564: 8563: 8562: 8561: 8556: 8546: 8545: 8544: 8539: 8534: 8529: 8528: 8527: 8517: 8512: 8505:Prelude to War 8502: 8497: 8495:Antebellum Era 8491: 8489: 8483: 8482: 8480: 8479: 8474: 8469: 8468: 8467: 8462: 8457: 8452: 8447: 8442: 8440:Trail of Tears 8435:Jacksonian era 8432: 8431: 8430: 8425: 8414: 8412: 8406: 8405: 8403: 8402: 8401: 8400: 8395: 8385: 8384: 8383: 8378: 8371:Federalist Era 8368: 8366:Bill of Rights 8362: 8360: 8354: 8353: 8351: 8350: 8349: 8348: 8343: 8338: 8333: 8328: 8315: 8314: 8313: 8308: 8303: 8301:Lee Resolution 8298: 8293: 8282: 8280: 8274: 8273: 8271: 8270: 8269: 8268: 8263: 8258: 8253: 8248: 8243: 8238: 8233: 8228: 8223: 8218: 8208: 8203: 8198: 8193: 8188: 8183: 8178: 8173: 8168: 8163: 8158: 8153: 8147: 8145: 8139: 8138: 8136: 8135: 8128: 8120: 8118: 8110: 8109: 8099: 8098: 8096: 8095: 8090: 8084: 8081: 8080: 8073: 8072: 8065: 8058: 8050: 8041: 8040: 8038: 8037: 8036: 8035: 8030: 8025: 8023:United Kingdom 8020: 8015: 8010: 8005: 8000: 7995: 7990: 7985: 7980: 7975: 7964: 7963: 7962: 7957: 7955:United Kingdom 7952: 7947: 7942: 7937: 7932: 7927: 7922: 7917: 7912: 7900: 7898: 7897:(2007–present) 7890: 7889: 7887: 7886: 7880: 7875: 7874: 7873: 7868: 7866:United Kingdom 7863: 7858: 7847: 7841: 7839: 7826: 7825: 7823: 7822: 7821: 7820: 7815: 7813:United Kingdom 7810: 7799: 7798: 7797: 7792: 7790:United Kingdom 7781: 7779: 7771: 7770: 7768: 7767: 7762: 7757: 7751: 7745: 7739: 7735: 7733: 7725: 7724: 7722: 7721: 7716: 7715: 7714: 7709: 7707:United Kingdom 7704: 7699: 7694: 7689: 7684: 7673: 7670: 7667: 7662: 7657: 7650: 7648: 7640: 7639: 7637: 7636: 7630: 7624: 7618: 7612: 7609: 7603: 7597: 7594: 7589: 7588: 7587: 7582: 7580:United Kingdom 7570: 7568: 7555: 7554: 7552: 7551: 7545: 7539: 7536: 7530: 7527: 7521: 7517: 7515: 7502: 7501: 7499: 7498: 7492: 7489: 7486: 7480: 7477: 7471: 7468: 7465: 7462: 7456: 7446: 7443: 7442: 7441: 7436: 7431: 7419: 7417: 7409: 7408: 7406: 7405: 7400: 7395: 7388: 7386: 7378: 7377: 7375: 7374: 7373: 7372: 7362: 7361: 7360: 7355: 7345: 7344: 7343: 7338: 7333: 7328: 7323: 7318: 7313: 7308: 7298: 7297: 7296: 7287: 7282: 7272: 7271: 7270: 7265: 7260: 7250: 7249: 7248: 7243: 7238: 7233: 7228: 7219: 7214: 7209: 7195: 7193:Business cycle 7190: 7189: 7188: 7183: 7178: 7173: 7171:Overproduction 7168: 7163: 7158: 7143: 7140: 7139: 7124: 7123: 7116: 7109: 7101: 7092: 7091: 7089: 7088: 7081: 7079: 7074: 7072: 7067: 7062: 7056: 7053: 7052: 7050: 7049: 7044: 7039: 7034: 7029: 7027:Sint Eustatius 7024: 7019: 7014: 7009: 7004: 6999: 6994: 6989: 6984: 6979: 6974: 6969: 6964: 6962:Cayman Islands 6959: 6954: 6949: 6944: 6939: 6933: 6931: 6920: 6919: 6912: 6910: 6908: 6907: 6902: 6897: 6892: 6887: 6882: 6877: 6872: 6867: 6862: 6857: 6852: 6847: 6842: 6837: 6832: 6827: 6822: 6817: 6812: 6807: 6802: 6797: 6792: 6787: 6782: 6777: 6772: 6767: 6762: 6757: 6752: 6747: 6742: 6737: 6731: 6729: 6721: 6720: 6715: 6714: 6707: 6700: 6692: 6683: 6682: 6680: 6679: 6674: 6668: 6665: 6664: 6662: 6661: 6656: 6650: 6648: 6644: 6643: 6641: 6640: 6635: 6633:United Kingdom 6630: 6625: 6620: 6615: 6610: 6605: 6600: 6595: 6590: 6585: 6580: 6575: 6570: 6565: 6559: 6557: 6553: 6552: 6550: 6549: 6544: 6539: 6534: 6529: 6524: 6519: 6513: 6511: 6507: 6506: 6499: 6498: 6491: 6484: 6476: 6470: 6469: 6463: 6456: 6447: 6438: 6429: 6417: 6411: 6405: 6396: 6390: 6381: 6375: 6362: 6361:External links 6359: 6358: 6357: 6348: 6338: 6329: 6322: 6310: 6307: 6306: 6305: 6298: 6291: 6284: 6271: 6270:Historiography 6268: 6267: 6266: 6258:(2 vol. 2007) 6252: 6242: 6233: 6220: 6209: 6199: 6182: 6172: 6165: 6160:Temin, Peter. 6158: 6151: 6141: 6131: 6118:Smiley, Gene. 6116: 6109: 6099: 6092: 6082: 6073: 6063: 6049: 6039: 6029: 6019: 6009:Rauchway, Eric 6006: 5999: 5986: 5976: 5966: 5956: 5951:Klein, Maury. 5949: 5939: 5922: 5912: 5905: 5895: 5890:Hapke, Laura. 5888: 5883:978-0735222441 5882: 5858: 5848: 5838: 5829: 5826: 5825: 5824: 5789: 5782: 5772: 5762: 5752: 5747:978-0679450320 5746: 5723: 5713: 5706: 5696: 5689: 5679: 5661: 5641: 5638: 5636: 5635: 5572: 5553: 5530: 5499: 5496:Cato Institute 5477: 5461: 5442: 5424: 5405: 5386: 5367: 5341: 5318: 5280: 5250: 5236: 5230:Smiley, Gene. 5220: 5207: 5183: 5170: 5147: 5134: 5099: 5086: 5065:10.1086/256675 5059:(3): 239–248. 5043: 5016:(2): 214–231. 5000: 4973:(1): 161–179. 4957: 4944: 4909: 4896: 4883: 4870: 4853:"The New Deal" 4844: 4831: 4810: 4797: 4784: 4758: 4740:978-0691003542 4739: 4719: 4685: 4652: 4622: 4607: 4581: 4568: 4553: 4527: 4501: 4488: 4479: 4466: 4453: 4440: 4427: 4412: 4399: 4380:(3): 485–506. 4353: 4346: 4321: 4294:(4): 583–605. 4274: 4250: 4243: 4223: 4216: 4198: 4167: 4140:(3): 573–608. 4120: 4070: 4063: 4040: 4003:(1): 147–172. 3976: 3957: 3939:978-0415677042 3938: 3918: 3905: 3897:Jon C. Teaford 3889: 3876: 3863: 3850: 3837: 3803: 3774:Smiley, Gene. 3766: 3753: 3744: 3735: 3726: 3717: 3708: 3699: 3686: 3666: 3649:Economics Help 3636: 3606: 3586: 3568:978-0691137940 3567: 3544: 3528: 3521: 3492: 3473: 3454: 3445: 3426: 3389: 3387: 3384: 3383: 3382: 3370: 3369: 3364: 3359: 3353: 3348: 3343: 3338: 3333: 3328: 3322: 3320: 3317: 3316: 3315: 3308: 3297: 3290: 3283: 3276: 3273: 3270:silver dollars 3250: 3247: 3240: 3233: 3230: 3227: 3224: 3221: 3218: 3215: 3208: 3197: 3194: 3187: 3184: 3181: 3178: 3175: 3172: 3153: 3142: 3137: 3136: 3135: 3134: 3133: 3126: 3123: 3031: 3028: 2978:Thurman Arnold 2957:Main article: 2954: 2951: 2910:, part of the 2906:Top left: the 2866: 2863: 2852:Herbert Hoover 2845: 2842: 2840: 2837: 2791: 2788: 2770:private sector 2747: 2744: 2733: 2730: 2729: 2728: 2713: 2694: 2691: 2690: 2689: 2663: 2655: 2652: 2651: 2650: 2638: 2627:British Empire 2611: 2587: 2573: 2570: 2569: 2568: 2557: 2539: 2532:price controls 2508: 2497: 2490: 2485: 2482: 2462:heavy industry 2440: 2437: 2402: 2399: 2353: 2350: 2328: 2325: 2274: 2263: 2260: 2245: 2242: 2193:Arthur Durston 2144:Herbert Hoover 2123: 2120: 2089: 2086: 2029: 2026: 1977: 1974: 1956: 1953: 1926:banking panics 1879:interest rates 1814:Examining the 1811: 1808: 1806: 1803: 1787:John Steinbeck 1733:Herbert Hoover 1665: 1664: 1662: 1661: 1654: 1647: 1639: 1636: 1635: 1634: 1633: 1623: 1612: 1611: 1609:Historiography 1606: 1601: 1593: 1592: 1587: 1586: 1585: 1584: 1574: 1566: 1565: 1561: 1560: 1559: 1558: 1553: 1548: 1543: 1538: 1533: 1525: 1524: 1520: 1519: 1518: 1517: 1512: 1507: 1502: 1497: 1492: 1487: 1482: 1477: 1472: 1467: 1462: 1457: 1452: 1447: 1442: 1437: 1432: 1427: 1422: 1417: 1412: 1407: 1402: 1397: 1392: 1387: 1382: 1377: 1372: 1367: 1362: 1357: 1352: 1347: 1342: 1337: 1332: 1327: 1322: 1317: 1312: 1307: 1302: 1297: 1292: 1287: 1282: 1277: 1272: 1264: 1263: 1259: 1258: 1257: 1256: 1254:The West Coast 1251: 1246: 1238: 1237: 1233: 1232: 1231: 1230: 1228:Indian removal 1225: 1220: 1215: 1210: 1202: 1201: 1193: 1190: 1189: 1186: 1185: 1182: 1181: 1180: 1179: 1174: 1169: 1157: 1150: 1149: 1148: 1143: 1131: 1130: 1129: 1127:Saudi American 1124: 1119: 1114: 1112:Iraqi American 1109: 1104: 1092: 1085: 1084: 1083: 1071: 1070: 1069: 1064: 1059: 1054: 1049: 1047:Irish American 1044: 1039: 1034: 1029: 1024: 1012: 1011: 1010: 1005: 1000: 995: 990: 985: 980: 972:Asian American 968: 960: 957: 956: 953: 952: 949: 948: 947: 946: 941: 936: 931: 926: 914: 913: 912: 910:Sexual slavery 900: 893: 886: 885: 884: 879: 874: 869: 864: 859: 847: 846: 845: 840: 835: 830: 825: 820: 808: 801: 794: 793: 792: 787: 782: 780:Postal service 777: 772: 770:Foreign policy 767: 762: 757: 752: 747: 742: 737: 725: 718: 717: 716: 704: 703: 702: 690: 689: 688: 676: 675: 674: 669: 664: 659: 647: 646: 645: 633: 626: 618: 615: 614: 611: 610: 605: 604: 601: 597: 596: 594: 586: 585: 582: 575: 574: 572: 564: 563: 560: 553: 552: 550: 542: 541: 538: 531: 530: 527: 520: 519: 517: 509: 508: 505: 498: 497: 494: 487: 486: 484: 476: 475: 472: 465: 464: 461: 454: 453: 450: 443: 442: 439: 432: 431: 429: 421: 420: 417: 410: 409: 406: 399: 398: 395: 388: 387: 385: 377: 376: 373: 366: 365: 363: 355: 354: 351: 349:Jacksonian Era 344: 343: 340: 333: 332: 330: 322: 321: 318: 311: 310: 307: 305:Federalist Era 300: 299: 297: 289: 288: 285: 278: 277: 274: 267: 266: 264: 256: 255: 252: 244: 243: 240: 224: 217: 216: 213: 212: 204: 203: 193: 192: 170: 169: 166: 165: 151: 132: 131: 98: 94: 93: 87:Herbert Hoover 84: 80: 79: 66: 62: 61: 58: 54: 53: 44:Migrant Mother 41:'s 1936 photo 39:Dorothea Lange 37: 29: 28: 24: 23: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10424: 10413: 10410: 10408: 10405: 10403: 10400: 10399: 10397: 10382: 10378: 10374: 10372: 10364: 10362: 10359: 10357: 10356:List of years 10354: 10353: 10350: 10336: 10328: 10326: 10325:Urban history 10323: 10322: 10320: 10316: 10310: 10307: 10305: 10304:Palmyra Atoll 10302: 10300: 10297: 10295: 10292: 10290: 10287: 10285: 10282: 10280: 10279:Jarvis Island 10277: 10275: 10272: 10270: 10267: 10266: 10264: 10260: 10254: 10251: 10249: 10246: 10244: 10241: 10239: 10236: 10234: 10231: 10230: 10228: 10226:Insular areas 10224: 10220: 10216: 10212: 10206: 10203: 10201: 10198: 10196: 10195:West Virginia 10193: 10191: 10188: 10186: 10183: 10181: 10178: 10176: 10173: 10171: 10168: 10166: 10163: 10161: 10158: 10156: 10153: 10151: 10148: 10146: 10143: 10141: 10138: 10136: 10133: 10131: 10128: 10126: 10123: 10121: 10118: 10116: 10113: 10111: 10108: 10106: 10103: 10101: 10100:New Hampshire 10098: 10096: 10093: 10091: 10088: 10086: 10083: 10081: 10078: 10076: 10073: 10071: 10068: 10066: 10063: 10061: 10060:Massachusetts 10058: 10056: 10053: 10051: 10048: 10046: 10043: 10041: 10038: 10036: 10033: 10031: 10028: 10026: 10023: 10021: 10018: 10016: 10013: 10011: 10008: 10006: 10003: 10001: 9998: 9996: 9993: 9991: 9988: 9986: 9983: 9981: 9978: 9976: 9973: 9971: 9968: 9966: 9963: 9961: 9958: 9957: 9955: 9951: 9945: 9942: 9940: 9937: 9935: 9932: 9931: 9929: 9925: 9919: 9916: 9914: 9911: 9909: 9906: 9904: 9901: 9899: 9896: 9895: 9893: 9891: 9887: 9883: 9876: 9872: 9860: 9857: 9855: 9852: 9850: 9847: 9846: 9845: 9844: 9840: 9838: 9837: 9833: 9829: 9826: 9824: 9821: 9820: 9819: 9818: 9814: 9810: 9807: 9805: 9802: 9800: 9797: 9795: 9792: 9790: 9787: 9785: 9782: 9781: 9780: 9779: 9775: 9773: 9772: 9768: 9764: 9761: 9760: 9759: 9758: 9754: 9750: 9747: 9745: 9742: 9740: 9737: 9735: 9732: 9730: 9727: 9725: 9722: 9720: 9717: 9715: 9712: 9710: 9707: 9706: 9705: 9704: 9700: 9696: 9693: 9691: 9690:Thai American 9688: 9686: 9683: 9681: 9678: 9676: 9673: 9671: 9668: 9666: 9663: 9662: 9661: 9660: 9656: 9654: 9653: 9649: 9648: 9645: 9638: 9634: 9622: 9619: 9617: 9614: 9612: 9609: 9607: 9604: 9602: 9599: 9598: 9597: 9596: 9592: 9588: 9585: 9584: 9583: 9582: 9578: 9576: 9575: 9571: 9569: 9568: 9564: 9560: 9557: 9555: 9552: 9550: 9547: 9545: 9542: 9540: 9537: 9535: 9532: 9531: 9530: 9529: 9528:Party Systems 9525: 9521: 9518: 9516: 9513: 9511: 9508: 9506: 9503: 9501: 9498: 9496: 9493: 9492: 9491: 9490: 9486: 9484: 9483: 9479: 9477: 9476: 9472: 9468: 9467:Voting rights 9465: 9463: 9460: 9458: 9455: 9453: 9450: 9448: 9445: 9443: 9440: 9438: 9435: 9433: 9430: 9428: 9425: 9423: 9420: 9418: 9415: 9413: 9410: 9409: 9408: 9407: 9403: 9401: 9400: 9396: 9392: 9389: 9388: 9387: 9386: 9382: 9378: 9375: 9374: 9373: 9372: 9368: 9364: 9361: 9360: 9359: 9358: 9354: 9350: 9347: 9345: 9342: 9340: 9337: 9335: 9332: 9331: 9330: 9329: 9325: 9323: 9322: 9318: 9316: 9315: 9311: 9310: 9307: 9300: 9296: 9282: 9279: 9277: 9274: 9272: 9271: 9267: 9265: 9262: 9260: 9257: 9255: 9252: 9248: 9245: 9244: 9243: 9240: 9238: 9235: 9233: 9232: 9228: 9226: 9223: 9219: 9216: 9214: 9211: 9209: 9206: 9204: 9201: 9199: 9196: 9194: 9191: 9189: 9186: 9184: 9181: 9180: 9179: 9176: 9174: 9171: 9170: 9168: 9166: 9162: 9156: 9153: 9151: 9148: 9146: 9143: 9139: 9136: 9134: 9131: 9130: 9129: 9128:War on terror 9126: 9124: 9121: 9119: 9118: 9114: 9112: 9109: 9107: 9104: 9102: 9099: 9097: 9094: 9092: 9089: 9087: 9084: 9082: 9079: 9077: 9074: 9073: 9071: 9069: 9065: 9059: 9056: 9054: 9051: 9049: 9046: 9042: 9039: 9037: 9034: 9032: 9029: 9028: 9027: 9026:Late Cold War 9024: 9022: 9019: 9015: 9012: 9010: 9007: 9006: 9005: 9002: 9001: 8999: 8997: 8993: 8987: 8984: 8982: 8979: 8977: 8974: 8970: 8967: 8966: 8965: 8962: 8960: 8957: 8955: 8952: 8950: 8947: 8943: 8940: 8938: 8935: 8933: 8930: 8929: 8928: 8925: 8921: 8918: 8916: 8913: 8912: 8911: 8908: 8906: 8905:Great Society 8903: 8902: 8900: 8898: 8894: 8888: 8885: 8881: 8878: 8877: 8876: 8873: 8871: 8868: 8866: 8863: 8861: 8860:Post-war boom 8858: 8854: 8851: 8849: 8846: 8844: 8841: 8839: 8836: 8835: 8834: 8831: 8827: 8824: 8823: 8822: 8819: 8817: 8814: 8813: 8811: 8809: 8805: 8795: 8792: 8791: 8790: 8787: 8785: 8782: 8780: 8777: 8776: 8775: 8772: 8768: 8765: 8763: 8760: 8758: 8755: 8754: 8753: 8750: 8746: 8743: 8741: 8738: 8736: 8733: 8731: 8728: 8726: 8723: 8721: 8718: 8717: 8716: 8713: 8711: 8708: 8704: 8701: 8700: 8699: 8696: 8695: 8693: 8691: 8687: 8681: 8678: 8674: 8671: 8669: 8666: 8664: 8661: 8659: 8656: 8655: 8654: 8651: 8647: 8644: 8642: 8639: 8637: 8634: 8632: 8629: 8627: 8624: 8622: 8619: 8618: 8617: 8614: 8612: 8609: 8605: 8602: 8600: 8597: 8595: 8592: 8590: 8587: 8585: 8582: 8581: 8580: 8577: 8576: 8574: 8572: 8568: 8560: 8557: 8555: 8552: 8551: 8550: 8547: 8543: 8540: 8538: 8535: 8533: 8530: 8526: 8523: 8522: 8521: 8518: 8516: 8513: 8511: 8508: 8507: 8506: 8503: 8501: 8498: 8496: 8493: 8492: 8490: 8488: 8484: 8478: 8475: 8473: 8470: 8466: 8463: 8461: 8458: 8456: 8453: 8451: 8448: 8446: 8443: 8441: 8438: 8437: 8436: 8433: 8429: 8426: 8424: 8421: 8420: 8419: 8416: 8415: 8413: 8411: 8407: 8399: 8396: 8394: 8391: 8390: 8389: 8386: 8382: 8379: 8377: 8374: 8373: 8372: 8369: 8367: 8364: 8363: 8361: 8359: 8355: 8347: 8344: 8342: 8339: 8337: 8334: 8332: 8329: 8327: 8324: 8321: 8320: 8319: 8316: 8312: 8309: 8307: 8304: 8302: 8299: 8297: 8294: 8292: 8289: 8288: 8287: 8284: 8283: 8281: 8279: 8275: 8267: 8264: 8262: 8259: 8257: 8254: 8252: 8249: 8247: 8244: 8242: 8239: 8237: 8234: 8232: 8229: 8227: 8224: 8222: 8219: 8217: 8214: 8213: 8212: 8209: 8207: 8204: 8202: 8199: 8197: 8194: 8192: 8189: 8187: 8184: 8182: 8179: 8177: 8174: 8172: 8169: 8167: 8164: 8162: 8159: 8157: 8154: 8152: 8149: 8148: 8146: 8144: 8140: 8134: 8133: 8129: 8127: 8126: 8122: 8121: 8119: 8115: 8111: 8104: 8100: 8094: 8091: 8089: 8086: 8085: 8082: 8078: 8071: 8066: 8064: 8059: 8057: 8052: 8051: 8048: 8034: 8031: 8029: 8028:United States 8026: 8024: 8021: 8019: 8016: 8014: 8011: 8009: 8006: 8004: 8001: 7999: 7996: 7994: 7991: 7989: 7986: 7984: 7981: 7979: 7976: 7974: 7970: 7969: 7968: 7965: 7961: 7960:United States 7958: 7956: 7953: 7951: 7948: 7946: 7943: 7941: 7938: 7936: 7933: 7931: 7928: 7926: 7923: 7921: 7918: 7916: 7913: 7911: 7907: 7906: 7905: 7902: 7901: 7899: 7895: 7891: 7884: 7881: 7879: 7876: 7872: 7871:United States 7869: 7867: 7864: 7862: 7859: 7857: 7853: 7852: 7851: 7848: 7846: 7843: 7842: 7840: 7836: 7831: 7827: 7819: 7818:United States 7816: 7814: 7811: 7809: 7805: 7804: 7803: 7800: 7796: 7795:United States 7793: 7791: 7788: 7787: 7786: 7783: 7782: 7780: 7776: 7772: 7766: 7763: 7761: 7758: 7755: 7752: 7749: 7746: 7743: 7740: 7737: 7736: 7734: 7730: 7726: 7720: 7717: 7713: 7712:United States 7710: 7708: 7705: 7703: 7700: 7698: 7695: 7693: 7690: 7688: 7685: 7683: 7679: 7678: 7677: 7674: 7671: 7668: 7666: 7663: 7661: 7658: 7655: 7652: 7651: 7649: 7645: 7641: 7634: 7631: 7628: 7625: 7622: 7621:Panic of 1907 7619: 7616: 7615:Panic of 1901 7613: 7610: 7607: 7606:Panic of 1893 7604: 7601: 7600:Baring crisis 7598: 7595: 7593: 7590: 7586: 7585:United States 7583: 7581: 7577: 7576: 7575: 7572: 7571: 7569: 7565: 7560: 7556: 7549: 7546: 7543: 7542:Panic of 1866 7540: 7537: 7534: 7533:Panic of 1857 7531: 7528: 7525: 7524:Panic of 1847 7522: 7519: 7518: 7516: 7512: 7507: 7503: 7496: 7495:Panic of 1837 7493: 7490: 7487: 7484: 7483:Panic of 1825 7481: 7478: 7475: 7472: 7469: 7466: 7463: 7460: 7457: 7454: 7453:Panic of 1792 7450: 7447: 7444: 7440: 7437: 7435: 7432: 7430: 7426: 7425: 7424: 7421: 7420: 7418: 7414: 7410: 7404: 7401: 7399: 7398:Slump of 1706 7396: 7393: 7390: 7389: 7387: 7383: 7379: 7371: 7368: 7367: 7366: 7363: 7359: 7356: 7354: 7351: 7350: 7349: 7346: 7342: 7339: 7337: 7334: 7332: 7329: 7327: 7324: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7312: 7309: 7307: 7306:Balance sheet 7304: 7303: 7302: 7299: 7295: 7291: 7288: 7286: 7283: 7281: 7278: 7277: 7276: 7275:Interest rate 7273: 7269: 7266: 7264: 7261: 7259: 7256: 7255: 7254: 7251: 7247: 7244: 7242: 7239: 7237: 7234: 7232: 7229: 7227: 7223: 7220: 7218: 7215: 7213: 7210: 7208: 7205: 7204: 7203: 7199: 7196: 7194: 7191: 7187: 7184: 7182: 7179: 7177: 7174: 7172: 7169: 7167: 7164: 7162: 7159: 7157: 7154: 7153: 7152: 7148: 7145: 7144: 7141: 7137: 7133: 7129: 7122: 7117: 7115: 7110: 7108: 7103: 7102: 7099: 7087: 7086: 7085:South America 7082: 7080: 7078: 7077:Latin America 7075: 7073: 7071: 7068: 7066: 7063: 7061: 7060:North America 7058: 7057: 7054: 7048: 7045: 7043: 7040: 7038: 7035: 7033: 7030: 7028: 7025: 7023: 7020: 7018: 7015: 7013: 7010: 7008: 7005: 7003: 7000: 6998: 6995: 6993: 6990: 6988: 6985: 6983: 6980: 6978: 6977:French Guiana 6975: 6973: 6970: 6968: 6965: 6963: 6960: 6958: 6955: 6953: 6950: 6948: 6945: 6943: 6940: 6938: 6935: 6934: 6932: 6930: 6925: 6921: 6916: 6906: 6903: 6901: 6898: 6896: 6895:United States 6893: 6891: 6888: 6886: 6883: 6881: 6878: 6876: 6873: 6871: 6868: 6866: 6863: 6861: 6858: 6856: 6853: 6851: 6848: 6846: 6843: 6841: 6838: 6836: 6833: 6831: 6828: 6826: 6823: 6821: 6818: 6816: 6813: 6811: 6808: 6806: 6803: 6801: 6798: 6796: 6793: 6791: 6788: 6786: 6783: 6781: 6778: 6776: 6773: 6771: 6768: 6766: 6763: 6761: 6758: 6756: 6753: 6751: 6748: 6746: 6743: 6741: 6738: 6736: 6733: 6732: 6730: 6728: 6722: 6713: 6708: 6706: 6701: 6699: 6694: 6693: 6690: 6678: 6675: 6673: 6670: 6669: 6666: 6660: 6657: 6655: 6652: 6651: 6649: 6647:United States 6645: 6639: 6638:United States 6636: 6634: 6631: 6629: 6626: 6624: 6621: 6619: 6616: 6614: 6613:Latin America 6611: 6609: 6606: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6596: 6594: 6591: 6589: 6586: 6584: 6581: 6579: 6576: 6574: 6571: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6560: 6558: 6554: 6548: 6545: 6543: 6540: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6530: 6528: 6525: 6523: 6520: 6518: 6515: 6514: 6512: 6508: 6504: 6497: 6492: 6490: 6485: 6483: 6478: 6477: 6474: 6467: 6464: 6461: 6457: 6455: 6451: 6448: 6446: 6442: 6439: 6437: 6433: 6430: 6428: 6424: 6421: 6418: 6415: 6412: 6409: 6406: 6404: 6403:Lawrence Reed 6400: 6397: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6385: 6382: 6379: 6376: 6374: 6373: 6368: 6365: 6364: 6355: 6354: 6349: 6347: 6343: 6339: 6337: 6334: 6330: 6327: 6323: 6321: 6317: 6313: 6312: 6303: 6299: 6296: 6292: 6289: 6285: 6282: 6278: 6274: 6273: 6265: 6264:vol 2w online 6261: 6257: 6253: 6251: 6247: 6243: 6241: 6238: 6234: 6232: 6228: 6224: 6223:Wecter, Dixon 6221: 6218: 6214: 6210: 6208: 6204: 6200: 6198: 6197:author's site 6195: 6194:0-415-94575-5 6191: 6187: 6183: 6181: 6177: 6173: 6170: 6166: 6163: 6159: 6156: 6152: 6150: 6146: 6142: 6140: 6136: 6132: 6129: 6128:1-56663-472-5 6125: 6121: 6117: 6114: 6110: 6108: 6104: 6100: 6097: 6093: 6091: 6087: 6083: 6080: 6079: 6074: 6072: 6068: 6064: 6062: 6061:0-8139-2368-9 6058: 6054: 6050: 6048: 6044: 6041:Rose, Nancy. 6040: 6038: 6034: 6031:Rose, Nancy. 6030: 6028: 6024: 6020: 6018: 6014: 6010: 6007: 6004: 6000: 5998: 5997:online review 5994: 5991: 5987: 5985: 5981: 5977: 5975: 5971: 5967: 5965: 5961: 5957: 5954: 5950: 5948: 5944: 5940: 5938: 5934: 5930: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5917: 5913: 5910: 5906: 5904: 5900: 5896: 5893: 5889: 5885: 5879: 5875: 5874:Penguin Press 5871: 5867: 5863: 5859: 5857: 5853: 5849: 5847: 5843: 5839: 5837: 5833: 5830: 5827: 5823: 5819: 5815: 5813: 5808: 5807: 5806: 5802: 5801:0-691-04147-4 5798: 5794: 5790: 5787: 5783: 5781: 5777: 5773: 5771: 5767: 5763: 5761: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5743: 5739: 5735: 5731: 5730: 5724: 5722: 5718: 5714: 5711: 5707: 5705: 5701: 5697: 5694: 5690: 5688: 5684: 5680: 5678: 5674: 5673:0-275-93524-8 5670: 5666: 5662: 5659: 5655: 5652: 5648: 5644: 5643: 5632: 5627: 5623: 5618: 5613: 5608: 5603: 5599: 5595: 5591: 5587: 5583: 5576: 5569: 5565: 5562: 5557: 5550: 5546: 5542: 5539: 5534: 5518: 5514: 5510: 5503: 5497: 5493: 5489: 5486: 5481: 5474: 5470: 5465: 5458: 5454: 5451: 5446: 5438: 5434: 5428: 5421: 5417: 5414: 5409: 5402: 5398: 5395: 5390: 5383: 5379: 5376: 5371: 5355: 5351: 5345: 5338: 5334: 5330: 5327: 5322: 5315: 5311: 5308: 5303: 5301: 5299: 5297: 5295: 5293: 5291: 5289: 5287: 5285: 5268: 5264: 5260: 5254: 5245: 5243: 5241: 5233: 5227: 5225: 5217: 5211: 5205: 5201: 5197: 5193: 5187: 5180: 5174: 5167: 5163: 5159: 5156: 5151: 5144: 5138: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5103: 5096: 5090: 5082: 5078: 5074: 5070: 5066: 5062: 5058: 5054: 5047: 5039: 5035: 5031: 5027: 5023: 5019: 5015: 5011: 5004: 4996: 4992: 4988: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4961: 4954: 4948: 4932: 4928: 4923: 4919: 4913: 4906: 4900: 4893: 4887: 4880: 4874: 4858: 4854: 4848: 4841: 4835: 4828: 4824: 4820: 4819:Makroökonomie 4814: 4807: 4801: 4794: 4788: 4772: 4768: 4762: 4746: 4742: 4736: 4732: 4731: 4723: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4692: 4690: 4673: 4669: 4665: 4659: 4657: 4640: 4636: 4632: 4626: 4618: 4611: 4595: 4591: 4585: 4578: 4575:Ralph Allen, 4572: 4564: 4557: 4541: 4537: 4531: 4515: 4511: 4505: 4498: 4492: 4483: 4476: 4470: 4463: 4457: 4450: 4444: 4437: 4431: 4423: 4416: 4409: 4403: 4395: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4379: 4375: 4371: 4364: 4362: 4360: 4358: 4349: 4343: 4339: 4338: 4330: 4328: 4326: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4278: 4264: 4260: 4254: 4246: 4240: 4236: 4235: 4227: 4219: 4213: 4209: 4202: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4171: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4124: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4096: 4092: 4088: 4084: 4077: 4075: 4066: 4064:9780375707377 4060: 4056: 4049: 4047: 4045: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4019: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3987: 3985: 3983: 3981: 3974: 3970: 3967: 3961: 3945: 3941: 3935: 3931: 3930: 3922: 3915: 3909: 3902: 3898: 3893: 3886: 3880: 3873: 3867: 3860: 3857:Roger Biles, 3854: 3847: 3841: 3835: 3831: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3817: 3813: 3807: 3788: 3784: 3777: 3770: 3763: 3757: 3748: 3739: 3730: 3721: 3712: 3703: 3696: 3690: 3683: 3679: 3676: 3670: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3640: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3610: 3603: 3599: 3596: 3590: 3574: 3570: 3564: 3560: 3559: 3551: 3549: 3541: 3535: 3533: 3524: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3496: 3489: 3485: 3482: 3477: 3470: 3466: 3463: 3458: 3449: 3440: 3439: 3430: 3414: 3410: 3409: 3404: 3400: 3394: 3390: 3381: 3378: 3377: 3376: 3375: 3368: 3365: 3363: 3360: 3357: 3354: 3352: 3349: 3347: 3344: 3342: 3339: 3337: 3334: 3332: 3329: 3327: 3324: 3323: 3313: 3309: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3295: 3291: 3288: 3284: 3281: 3277: 3274: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3248: 3245: 3241: 3238: 3234: 3231: 3228: 3225: 3222: 3219: 3216: 3213: 3209: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3195: 3192: 3188: 3185: 3182: 3179: 3176: 3173: 3170: 3169: 3168: 3157: 3156:Fireside Chat 3140: 3131: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3108: 3105: 3101: 3100:Henry Wallace 3098: 3092: 3089: 3085: 3084:Harry Hopkins 3079: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3064: 3060: 3058: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3036: 3027: 3025: 3021: 3016: 3014: 3010: 3002: 2997: 2993: 2991: 2986: 2983: 2979: 2974: 2965: 2960: 2950: 2948: 2943: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2919: 2913: 2909: 2904: 2900: 2898: 2894: 2889: 2888:gold standard 2885: 2881: 2876: 2873: 2862: 2859: 2850: 2836: 2832: 2829: 2827: 2822: 2819: 2815: 2813: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2798: 2787: 2784: 2777: 2773: 2771: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2754: 2743: 2740: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2709:national debt 2706: 2702: 2697: 2696: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2664: 2661: 2658: 2657: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2619:R. B. Bennett 2616: 2612: 2609: 2608:the Maritimes 2604: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2575: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2540: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2528:wage controls 2525: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2506: 2505:working class 2502: 2501:Popular Front 2498: 2495: 2491: 2488: 2487: 2481: 2479: 2473: 2469: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2450: 2446: 2436: 2433: 2429: 2428:Comstock laws 2424: 2421: 2415: 2412: 2408: 2407:birth control 2398: 2394: 2392: 2386: 2384: 2380: 2379:Soup kitchens 2374: 2372: 2371:New York City 2368: 2364: 2363:San Francisco 2360: 2349: 2347: 2341: 2339: 2335: 2324: 2321: 2317: 2311: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2288: 2286: 2273: 2268: 2259: 2256: 2250: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2230: 2226: 2221: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2206: 2201: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2164: 2160: 2155: 2153: 2147: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2128: 2119: 2115: 2113: 2108: 2107:Gold Standard 2104: 2099: 2098:Gold Standard 2095: 2085: 2082: 2074: 2069: 2065: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2045: 2043: 2039: 2038:national bank 2035: 2025: 2022: 2017: 2013: 2004: 2000: 1997: 1993: 1988: 1984: 1983:gold standard 1973: 1969: 1967: 1962: 1951: 1944: 1942: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1914:Anna Schwartz 1912: 1908: 1904: 1899: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1888:exchange rate 1885: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1871:gold standard 1868: 1860: 1859:gold standard 1856: 1851: 1847: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1828:bank failures 1825: 1820: 1817: 1802: 1800: 1799: 1794: 1793: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1771: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1756: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1725: 1717: 1713: 1711: 1707: 1706:consumer debt 1702: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1671:United States 1660: 1655: 1653: 1648: 1646: 1641: 1640: 1638: 1637: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1622: 1614: 1613: 1610: 1607: 1605: 1604:List of years 1602: 1600: 1597: 1596: 1595: 1594: 1583: 1575: 1573: 1572:Urban history 1570: 1569: 1568: 1567: 1563: 1562: 1557: 1554: 1552: 1549: 1547: 1544: 1542: 1539: 1537: 1534: 1532: 1529: 1528: 1527: 1526: 1522: 1521: 1516: 1513: 1511: 1508: 1506: 1503: 1501: 1498: 1496: 1493: 1491: 1488: 1486: 1483: 1481: 1478: 1476: 1473: 1471: 1468: 1466: 1463: 1461: 1458: 1456: 1453: 1451: 1448: 1446: 1443: 1441: 1438: 1436: 1433: 1431: 1428: 1426: 1423: 1421: 1418: 1416: 1413: 1411: 1408: 1406: 1403: 1401: 1398: 1396: 1393: 1391: 1388: 1386: 1383: 1381: 1378: 1376: 1373: 1371: 1368: 1366: 1363: 1361: 1358: 1356: 1353: 1351: 1348: 1346: 1343: 1341: 1338: 1336: 1333: 1331: 1328: 1326: 1323: 1321: 1318: 1316: 1313: 1311: 1308: 1306: 1303: 1301: 1298: 1296: 1293: 1291: 1288: 1286: 1283: 1281: 1278: 1276: 1273: 1271: 1268: 1267: 1266: 1265: 1261: 1260: 1255: 1252: 1250: 1247: 1245: 1242: 1241: 1240: 1239: 1235: 1234: 1229: 1226: 1224: 1221: 1219: 1216: 1214: 1211: 1209: 1206: 1205: 1204: 1203: 1200: 1197: 1196: 1188: 1187: 1178: 1175: 1173: 1170: 1168: 1165: 1164: 1163: 1162: 1158: 1156: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1144: 1142: 1139: 1138: 1137: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1125: 1123: 1120: 1118: 1115: 1113: 1110: 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