6191:
4641:
4946:
6429:
5101:
6554:
commercialization expanded in the late-Ming and early-Qing, mid-sized cities began popping up to direct the flow of domestic, commercial trade. Some towns of this nature had such a large volume of trade and merchants flowing through them that they developed into full-fledged market-towns. Some of these more active market-towns even developed into small cities and became home to the new rising merchant class. The proliferation of these mid-sized cities was only made possible by advancements in long-distance transportation and communication. As more and more
Chinese citizens were travelling the country conducting trade they increasingly found themselves in a far-away place needing a place to stay; in response the market saw the expansion of guild halls to house these merchants.
6008:
the source and amount of their income. Literati families drew income from landholding, as well as from lending money. Officials drew a salary, which, as the years went by, were less and less adequate, leading to widespread reliance on "squeeze", irrgular payments. Those who prepared for but failed the exams, like those who passed but were not appointed to office, could become tutors or teachers, private secretaries to sitting officials, administrators of guilds or temples, or other positions that required literacy. Others turned to fields such as engineering, medicine, or law, which by the nineteenth century demanded specialized learning. By the nineteenth century, it was no longer shameful to become an author or publisher of fiction.
4569:(1814–64), a disappointed civil service examination candidate who, influenced by Christian teachings, had a series of visions and believed himself to be the son of God, the younger brother of Jesus Christ, sent to reform China. A friend of Hong's, Feng Yunshan, utilized Hong's ideas to organize a new religious group, the God Worshippers' Society (Bai Shangdi Hui), which he formed among the impoverished peasants of Guangxi province. Amid widespread social unrest and worsening famine, the rebellion not only posed the most serious threat towards Qing rulers, it has also been called the "bloodiest civil war of all time"; during its fourteen-year course from 1850 to 1864 between 20 and 30 million people died. Hong Xiuquan, a failed
6050:, that is, the local family lineage with descent through the male line, often translated as "clan". A shift in marital practices, identity and loyalty had begun during the Song dynasty when the civil service examination began to replace nobility and inheritance as a means for gaining status. Instead of intermarrying within aristocratic elites of the same social status, they tended to form marital alliances with nearby families of the same or higher wealth, and established the local people's interests as first and foremost which helped to form intermarried townships. The neo-Confucian ideology, especially the Cheng-Zhu thinking favored by Qing social thought, emphasised patrilineal families and genealogy in society.
6942:. Manchu leaders employed Jesuits to use cannon and gunpowder to great effect in the conquest of China, and the court sponsored their research in astronomy. The aim of these efforts, however, was to reform and improve inherited science and technology, not to replace it. Scientific knowledge advanced during the Qing, but there was not a change in the way this knowledge was organized or the way scientific evidence was defined or its truth tested. Those who studied the physical universe shared their findings with each other and identified themselves as men of science, but they did not have a separate and independent professional role with its own training and advancement. They were still literati.
5336:
4384:
3883:
precedents and example cast a long shadow. First, the
Manchus had entered "South of the Wall" because Dorgon had responded decisively to Wu Sangui's appeal, then, instead of sacking Beijing as the rebels had done, Dorgon insisted, over the protests of other Manchu princes, on making it the dynastic capital and reappointing most Ming officials. No major Chinese dynasty had directly taken over its immediate predecessor's capital, but keeping the Ming capital and bureaucracy intact helped quickly stabilize the regime and sped up the conquest of the rest of the country. Dorgon then drastically reduced the influence of the eunuchs and directed Manchu women not to
3724:
1634:
5510:
189:
6545:, which equaled roughly 1.3 ounces of silver. A third-party had to be brought in to assess the weight and purity of the silver, resulting in an extra "meltage fee" added on to the price of transaction. Furthermore, since the "meltage fee" was unregulated it was the source of corruption. The Yongzheng emperor cracked down on the corrupt "meltage fees", legalizing and regulating them so that they could be collected as a tax. From this newly increased public coffer, the Yongzheng emperor increased the salaries of the officials who collected them, further legitimizing silver as the standard currency of the Qing economy.
3974:
6578:
105:
7334:
4622:
3766:
5463:
2589:
956:
7180:
6859:
international trade. By the eighteenth century, the most significant export China had was tea. British demand for tea increased exponentially up until they figured out how to grow it for themselves in the hills of northern India in the 1880s. By the end of the eighteenth century, tea exports going through the Canton Cohong system amounted to one-tenth of the revenue from taxes collected from the
British and nearly the entire revenue of the British East India Company; in fact, until the early nineteenth century tea comprised ninety percent of exports leaving Canton.
5208:, until the system was abolished in 1905. The Qing divided the positions into civil and military positions, each having nine grades or ranks, each subdivided into a and b categories. Civil appointments ranged from an attendant to the emperor or a Grand Secretary in the Forbidden City (highest) to being a prefectural tax collector, deputy jail warden, deputy police commissioner, or tax examiner. Military appointments ranged from being a field marshal or chamberlain of the imperial bodyguard to a third class sergeant, corporal or a first or second class private.
7101:
6828:
6501:
3746:
according to how much grain they had: those with less than 5 to 7 sin were treated badly, while those with more were rewarded with property. Due to a Han revolt in 1623, Nurhaci turned against them and enacted discriminatory policies and killings against them. He ordered that Han who assimilated to the
Jurchen (in Jilin) before 1619 be treated equally with Jurchens, not like the conquered Han in Liaodong. Hong Taiji recognized the need to attract Han Chinese, explaining to reluctant Manchus why he needed to treat the Ming defector General
5475:
7029:
4218:), became the Yongzheng Emperor. He felt a sense of urgency about the problems that had accumulated in his father's later years. In the words of one recent historian, he was "severe, suspicious, and jealous, but extremely capable and resourceful", and in the words of another, he turned out to be an "early modern state-maker of the first order". First, he promoted Confucian orthodoxy and cracked down on unorthodox sects. In 1723 he outlawed Christianity and expelled most Christian missionaries. He expanded his father's system of
3867:
giving them social and legal privileges. Han defectors swelled the ranks of the Eight
Banners so greatly that ethnic Manchus became a minority – only 16% in 1648, with Han Bannermen dominating at 75% and Mongol Bannermen making up the rest. Gunpowder weapons like muskets and artillery were wielded by the Chinese Banners. Normally, Han Chinese defector troops were deployed as the vanguard, while Manchu Bannermen were used predominantly for quick strikes with maximum impact, so as to minimize ethnic Manchu losses.
4106:
4231:
tax. The increased revenues were to be used for "money to nourish honesty" among local officials and for local irrigation, schools, roads, and charity. Although these reforms were effective in the north, in the south and lower Yangzi valley there were long-established networks of officials and landowners. Yongzheng dispatched experienced Manchu commissioners to penetrate the thickets of falsified land registers and coded account books, but they were met with tricks, passivity, and even violence. The fiscal crisis persisted.
8965:
4321:
4263:
10419:
6036:
10310:
3664:(Shenyang) in 1625. Furthermore, the Khorchin proved a useful ally in the war, lending the Jurchens their expertise as cavalry archers. To guarantee this new alliance, Nurhaci initiated a policy of inter-marriages between the Jurchen and Khorchin nobilities, while those who resisted were met with military action. This is a typical example of Nurhaci's initiatives that eventually became official Qing government policy. During most of the Qing period, the Mongols gave military assistance to the Manchus.
3633:
5366:
4907:
3692:. To redress the technological and numerical disparity, Hong Taiji in 1634 created his own artillery corps, who cast their own cannons in the European design with the help of defector Chinese metallurgists. One of the defining events of Hong Taiji's reign was the official adoption of the name "Manchu" for the united Jurchen people in November 1635. In 1635, the Manchus' Mongol allies were fully incorporated into a separate Banner hierarchy under direct Manchu command. In April 1636,
6566:, began to appear and to control commercial craft or artisanal industries such as carpentry, weaving, banking, and medicine. By the nineteenth century guild halls worked to transform urban areas into cosmopolitan, multi-cultural hubs, staged theatre performances open to general public, developed real estate by pooling funds together in the style of a trust, and some even facilitated the development of social services such as maintaining streets, water supply, and sewage facilities.
6000:
4990:
3871:
Chinese
Bannermen made up the majority of governors in the early Qing, stabilizing Qing rule. To promote ethnic harmony, a 1648 decree allowed Han Chinese civilian men to marry Manchu women from the Banners with the permission of the Board of Revenue if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners, or with the permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners. Later in the dynasty the policies allowing intermarriage were done away with.
6993:
180:
4828:
4235:
5177:
4479:
5969:. Furthermore, such people were usually not allowed to marry with free commoners and were even often required to acknowledge their abasement in society through actions such as bowing. However, throughout the Qing dynasty, the emperor and his court, as well as the bureaucracy, worked towards reducing the distinctions between the debased and free but did not completely succeed even at the end of its era in merging the two classifications together.
3875:
3907:
5567:
5495:
6126:
998:
5000:
6880:) in Beijing the rest remaining in provincial hands, the Hu Pu also managed to raise some miscellaneous taxes and increased the rate of the salt tax these measures doubled revenue by the late 19th century, this however was insufficient for the central government which was facing numerous crises and wars during the period and 9 foreign loans amounting to 40mil taels were contracted by the Qing government prior to 1890.
5029:
6492:
in the traditional economy. Surplus crops were placed onto the national market for sale, integrating farmers into the commercial economy from the ground up. This naturally led to regions specializing in certain cash-crops for export as China's economy became increasingly reliant on inter-regional trade of bulk staple goods such as cotton, grain, beans, vegetable oils, forest products, animal products, and fertilizer.
6338:(1678–1735) announced that Christianity was a "heterodox teaching" and hence proscribed. Since the European Catholic missionaries kept control in their own hands and had not allowed the creation of a native clergy, however, the number of Catholics would grow more rapidly after 1724 and local communities could set their own rules and standards. In 1811, Christian religious activities were further criminalized by the
6892:
themselves thus these loans did not burden the central government finances. A relatively small sum of just over 25,500,000 taels was borrowed for industrial projects, over 5,000,000 taels for
Telegraph lines with less than 1,000,000 taels for miscellaneous purposes. The remainder was primarily for the costs of the Sino-Japanese war and the indemnity in the Treaty of Shimonoseki amounting to over 382,000,000 taels.
3668:
1018:
6397:) mostly about non-religious issues, such as land rights or local taxes, but religious conflict often behind such cases. In the summer of 1900, as foreign powers contemplated the division of China, village youths, known as Boxers, who practiced Chinese martial arts and spiritual practices, reacted against Western power and churches, attacked and murdered Chinese Christians and foreign missionaries in the
4371:, who blamed Qing officials, saying "the officials have forced the people to rebel." Officials in other parts of the country were also blamed for corruption, failing to keep the famine relief granaries full, poor maintenance of roads and waterworks, and bureaucratic factionalism. There soon followed uprisings of "new sect" Muslims against local Muslim officials, and Miao tribesmen in southwest China. The
7348:
6437:
4179:
4637:. China's income fell sharply during the wars as vast areas of farmland were destroyed, millions of lives were lost, and countless armies were raised and equipped to fight the rebels. In 1854, Britain tried to re-negotiate the Treaty of Nanjing, inserting clauses allowing British commercial access to Chinese rivers and the creation of a permanent British embassy at Beijing.
6962:. To keep development in Chinese hands, the Qing government borrowed 34 billion taels of silver from foreign lenders for railway construction between 1894 and 1911. As late as 1900, only 470 km (292 mi) were in operation. Finally, 8,400 km (5,200 mi) of railway was completed. The British and French after 1905 opened lines to Burma and Vietnam.
3223:. After his death, the dynasty faced internal revolts, economic disruption, official corruption, foreign intrusion, and the reluctance of Confucian elites to change their mindset. With peace and prosperity, the population rose to 400 million, but taxes and government revenues were fixed at a low rate, soon leading to a fiscal crisis. Following China's defeat in the
3482:, it proclaimed within a Manchu-language memorial that the new land had been absorbed into "China". The Qing government expounded an ideology that it was bringing the "outer" non-Han peoples—such as various populations of Mongolians, as well as the Tibetans—together with the "inner" Han Chinese into "one family", united within the Qing state. Phraseology like
3820:, which defended the capital. Wu Sangui, caught between a Chinese rebel army twice his size and a foreign enemy he had fought for years, cast his lot with the familiar Manchus. Wu Sangui may have been influenced by Li Zicheng's mistreatment of wealthy and cultured officials, including Li's own family; it was said that Li took Wu's concubine
5952:, there also existed a major division among ordinary Chinese between commoners and people with inferior status. They were divided into two categories: one of them, the good "commoner" people, the other "mean" people who were seen as debased and servile. The majority of the population belonged to the first category and were described as
3939:) was so honored. Two months into Shunzhi's personal rule, however, Dorgon was not only stripped of his titles, but his corpse was disinterred and mutilated. Dorgon's fall from grace also led to the purge of his family and associates at court. Shunzhi's promising start was cut short by his early death in 1661 at the age of 24 from
3843:" on 30 October. The Manchus, who had positioned themselves as political heirs to the Ming emperor by defeating Li Zicheng, completed the symbolic transition by holding a formal funeral for the Chongzhen Emperor. However, conquering the rest of China Proper took another seventeen years of battling Ming loyalists,
6145:, who had gained power in 1642, just before the Manchus took Beijing, looked to the Qing court for support. The Kangxi and Qianlong emperors practiced this form of Tibetan Buddhism as one of their household religions and built temples that made Beijing one of its centers, and constructed a replica Lhasa's
3923:, who turned out to be a skilled political operator. Although his support had been essential to Shunzhi's ascent, Dorgon had centralised so much power in his hands as to become a direct threat to the throne. So much so that upon his death he was bestowed the extraordinary posthumous title of Emperor Yi (
6965:
Protestant missionaries by the 1830s translated and printed
Western science and medical textbooks. The textbooks found homes in the rapidly enlarging network of missionary schools and universities. The textbooks opened learning open possibilities for the small number of Chinese students interested in
6887:
The
Financial Reorganisation bureau of the Dynasty (established in 1909) estimated total revenue to be 292,000,000 taels. H.B. Morse estimated in the early 1900s a total of 284,150,000 taels of which 99,062,000 taels was spent by the Central government, 142,374,000 taels by the provincial governments
6858:
was an association of thirteen business firms that had been awarded exclusive rights to conduct trade with
Western merchants in Canton. Until its abolition after the Opium War in 1842, the Canton Cohong system was the only permitted avenue of Western trade into China, and thus became a booming hub of
6457:
led to a huge increase in production. Merchant guilds proliferated in all of the growing Chinese cities and often acquired great social and even political influence. Rich merchants with official connections built up huge fortunes and patronized literature, theater and the arts. Textile and handicraft
5380:
From the early Qing, the central government was characterized by a system of dual appointments by which each position in the central government had a Manchu and a Han Chinese assigned to it. The Han Chinese appointee was required to do the substantive work and the Manchu to ensure Han loyalty to Qing
4585:
and that he was the brother of Jesus Christ. Slavery, concubinage, arranged marriage, opium smoking, footbinding, judicial torture, and the worship of idols were all banned. However, success led to internal feuds, defections and corruption. In addition, British and French troops, equipped with modern
4338:
Population was stagnant for the first half of the 17th century due to civil wars and epidemics, but prosperity and internal stability gradually reversed this trend. The Qianlong Emperor bemoaned the situation by remarking, "The population continues to grow, but the land does not." The introduction of
3898:
hairstyle which was worn by Manchu men, on pain of death. The popular description of the order was: "To keep the hair, you lose the head; To keep your head, you cut the hair." To the Manchus, this policy was a test of loyalty and an aid in distinguishing friend from foe. For the Han Chinese, however,
6867:
The recorded revenues of the central Qing government increased little over the course of the 18th and early 19th century from 36,106,483 taels in 1725 to 43,343,978 taels in 1812 before declining to 38,600,570 taels in 1841, the land tax was the principal source of revenue for the central government
6553:
The second commercial revolution also had a profound effect on the dispersion of the Qing populace. Up until the late Ming there existed a stark contrast between the rural countryside and cities because extraction of surplus crops from the countryside was traditionally done by the state. However, as
6532:
reign the assessment and collection of the land tax was done in silver. Landlords began only accepting rent payments in silver rather than in crops themselves, which in turn incentivized farmers to produce crops for sale in local and national markets rather than for their own personal consumption or
6522:
after the Spanish conquered the Philippines in the 1570s. The re-opening of the southeast coast, which had been closed in the late 17th century, quickly revived trade, which expanded at 4% per annum throughout the latter part of the 18th century. China continued to export tea, silk and manufactures,
6491:
period which saw the emergence of long-distance inter-regional trade of luxury goods. During the second commercial revolution, for the first time, a large percentage of farming households began producing crops for sale in the local and national markets rather than for their own consumption or barter
6486:
During the Ming–Qing period (1368–1911) the biggest development in the Chinese economy was its transition from a command to a market economy, the latter becoming increasingly more pervasive throughout the Qing's rule. From roughly 1550 to 1800 China proper experienced a second commercial revolution,
6461:
The government broadened land ownership by returning land that had been sold to large landowners in the late Ming period by families unable to pay the land tax. To give people more incentives to participate in the market, they reduced the tax burden in comparison with the late Ming, and replaced the
4347:
allowed an improved food supply as well, so that the total population of China during the 18th century ballooned from 100 million to 300 million people. Soon farmers were forced to work ever-smaller holdings more intensely. The only remaining part of the empire that had arable farmland was
4230:
cabinet for the rest of the dynasty. He shrewdly filled key positions with Manchu and Han Chinese officials who depended on his patronage. When he began to realize the extent of the financial crisis, Yongzheng rejected his father's lenient approach to local elites and enforced collection of the land
3950:
The Manchus sent Han Bannermen to fight against Koxinga's Ming loyalists in Fujian. They removed the population from coastal areas in order to deprive Koxinga's Ming loyalists of resources. This led to a misunderstanding that Manchus were "afraid of water". Han Bannermen carried out the fighting and
3745:
Hong Taiji staffed his bureaucracy with many Han Chinese, including newly surrendered Ming officials, but ensured Manchu dominance by an ethnic quota for top appointments. Hong Taiji's reign also saw a fundamental change of policy towards his Han Chinese subjects. Nurhaci had treated Han in Liaodong
3454:
in Manchu. The emperors equated the lands of the Qing state (including, among other areas, present-day Northeast China, Xinjiang, Mongolia, and Tibet) as "China" in both the Chinese and Manchu languages, defining China as a multi-ethnic state, and rejecting the idea that only Han areas were properly
6957:
raised questions that were more political than technological. A British company built the 19 km (12 mi) Shanghai–Woosung line in 1876, obtaining the land under false pretenses, and it was soon torn up. Court officials feared local public opinion and that railways would help invaders, harm
6470:
was made more efficient, and transport opened to private merchants. A system of monitoring grain prices eliminated severe shortages, and enabled the price of rice to rise slowly and smoothly through the 18th century. Wary of the power of wealthy merchants, Qing rulers limited their trading licenses
6007:
The gentry class was divided into groups. Not all who held office were literati, as merchant families could purchase degrees, and not all who passed the exams found employment as officials, since the number of degree-holders was greater than the number of openings. The gentry class also differed in
5995:
was defined by passing at least the first level of civil service examinations and holding a degree, which qualified him to hold imperial office, although he might not actually do so. The gentry member could legally wear gentry robes and could talk to officials as equals. Informally, the gentry then
5750:
respectively, but the post of Ili General was established in 1762 to exercise unified military and administrative jurisdiction over both regions. Dzungaria was fully opened to Han migration by the Qianlong Emperor from the beginning. Han migrants were at first forbidden from permanently settling in
5311:
The formal structure of the Qing government centered on the Emperor as the absolute ruler, who presided over six Boards (Ministries), each headed by two presidents and assisted by four vice presidents. In contrast to the Ming system, however, Qing ethnic policy dictated that appointments were split
4937:
were given positions of influence. The emperor issued a series of edicts and plans were made to reorganize the bureaucracy, restructure the school system, and appoint new officials. Opposition from the bureaucracy was immediate and intense. Although she had been involved in the initial reforms, the
3866:
The Qing had taken shrewd advantage of Ming civilian government discrimination against the military and encouraged the Ming military to defect by spreading the message that the Manchus valued their skills. Banners made up of Han Chinese who defected before 1644 were classed among the Eight Banners,
3741:
Meanwhile, Hong Taiji set up a rudimentary bureaucratic system based on the Ming model. He established six boards or executive level ministries in 1631 to oversee finance, personnel, rites, military, punishments, and public works. However, these administrative organs had very little role initially,
6405:. The Beijing government reacted by implementing substantial fiscal and administrative reforms but this defeat convinced many among the educated elites that popular religion was an obstacle to China's development as a modern nation, and some turned to Christianity as a spiritual tool to build one.
6324:
adapted to Chinese expectations, evangelized from the top down, adopted the robes and lifestyles of literati, becoming proficient in the Confucian classics, and did not challenge Chinese moral values. They proved their value to the early Manchu emperors with their work in gunnery, cartography, and
6068:
Inner Mongols and Khalkha Mongols in the Qing rarely knew their ancestors beyond four generations and Mongol tribal society was not organized among patrilineal clans, contrary to what was commonly thought, but included unrelated people at the base unit of organization. The Qing tried but failed to
5810:
and forced Tibetans to sign a treaty. The Qing court responded by asserting Chinese sovereignty over Tibet, resulting in the 1906 Anglo-Chinese Convention signed between Britain and China. The British agreed not to annex Tibetan territory or to interfere in the administration of Tibet, while China
4474:
in order to open trade and put relations on a basis of equality. The imperial court viewed trade as of secondary interest, whereas the British saw maritime trade as the key to their economy. The Qianlong Emperor told Macartney "the kings of the myriad nations come by land and sea with all sorts of
7044:
The Qing emperors were generally adept at poetry and often skilled in painting, and offered their patronage to Confucian culture. The Kangxi and Qianlong Emperors, for instance, embraced Chinese traditions both to control them and to proclaim their own legitimacy. The Kangxi Emperor sponsored the
6452:
were overthrown. In the following century, markets continued to expand, but with more trade between regions, a greater dependence on overseas markets and a greatly increased population. By the end of the 18th century the population had risen to 300 million from approximately 150 million
5964:
of scholars, farmers, artisans and merchants were "good", or having a status of commoners. On the other hand, slaves or bondservants, entertainers (including prostitutes and actors), tattooed criminals, and those low-level employees of government officials were the "mean people". Mean people were
3882:
The first seven years of the young Shunzhi Emperor's reign were dominated by Dorgon's regency. Because of his own political insecurity, Dorgon followed Hong Taiji's example by ruling in the name of the emperor at the expense of rival Manchu princes, many of whom he demoted or imprisoned. Dorgon's
6895:
Taizu noted that these figures for formal taxation only amounted to half of the total taxation and therefore revenue of the government with these surcharges being levied at a local level by local officials who found the level of taxation far too low to support even basic governance, despite the
6058:
appeared in the given name of each male of each generation, often well into the future. These lineages claimed to be based on biological descent but when a member of a lineage gained office or became wealthy, he might use considerable creativity in selecting a prestigious figure to be "founding
6011:
The Qing gentry were marked as much by their aspiration to a cultured lifestyle as by their legal status. They lived more refined and comfortable lives than the commoners and used sedan-chairs to travel any significant distance. They often showed off their learning by collecting objects such as
7007:
By the end of the nineteenth century, national artistic and cultural worlds had begun to come to terms with the cosmopolitan culture of the West and Japan. The decision to stay within old forms or welcome Western models was now a conscious choice. Classically trained Confucian scholars such as
3870:
This multi-ethnic force conquered Ming China for the Qing. The three Liaodong Han Bannermen officers who played key roles in the conquest of southern China were Shang Kexi, Geng Zhongming, and Kong Youde, who governed southern China autonomously as viceroys for the Qing after the conquest. Han
4254:
to solidify the diplomatic understanding with Russia. In exchange for territory and trading rights, the Qing would have a free hand in dealing with the situation in Mongolia. Yongzheng then turned to that situation, where the Zunghars threatened to re-emerge, and to the southwest, where local
6883:
It was estimated in the 1850s that wages around the capital of Beijing and the Yangtze delta region for a farmer was between 0.99 and 1.02 taels a month assuming every day was worked this would amount to roughly 12 taels a year with over 400,000,000 citizens in 1890 the level of taxation was
6891:
The Qing government during and following the First Sino-Japanese war increasingly took on loans to meet its expenditure requirements a total of 746,220,453 taels of which slightly over 330,000,000 taels was for Railway construction and the repayment to come from the revenues of the railways
6453:
during the late Ming dynasty. The dramatic rise in population was due to several reasons, including the long period of peace and stability in the 18th century and the import of new crops China received from the Americas, including peanuts, sweet potatoes and maize. New species of rice from
6333:
clerics established rural communities that adapted to local folk religious practices by emphasizing healing, festivals, and holy days rather than sacraments and doctrine. By the beginning of the eighteenth century, a spectrum of Christian believers had established communities. In 1724, the
4089:
Kangxi's reign started when he was seven years old. To prevent a repeat of Dorgon's monopolizing of power, on his deathbed his father hastily appointed four regents who were not closely related to the imperial family and had no claim to the throne. However, through chance and machination,
9936:"Treaty of Peace between China and Japan (Treaty of Shimonoseki)". Ch'ing Dynasty Treaties and Agreements Preserved by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China (Taiwan). National Palace Museum. 17 April 1895. 中國將管理下開地方之權並將該地方所有堡壘軍器工廠及一切屬公物件永遠讓於日本...台湾全岛及所有附属各岛屿...澎湖列岛
5855:
were brought under control by an increase in inoculations. In addition, infant deaths were decreased due to improvements in birthing techniques performed by doctors and midwives and an increase in medical books available to the public. Government campaigns decreased the incidence of
7003:
Under the Qing, inherited forms of art flourished and innovations occurred at many levels and in many types. High levels of literacy, a successful publishing industry, prosperous cities, and the Confucian emphasis on cultivation all fed a lively and creative set of cultural fields.
150:
6238:. Chinese folk religion combined elements of the three, with local variations. County magistrates, who were graded and promoted on their ability to maintain local order, tolerated local sects and even patronized local temples as long as they were orderly, but were suspicious of
7073:, whose depiction of a prosperous and happy realm demonstrated the beneficence of the emperor. The emperors undertook tours of the south and commissioned monumental scrolls to depict the grandeur of the occasion. Imperial patronage also encouraged the industrial production of
4097:
The young emperor faced challenges in maintaining control of his kingdom, as well. Three Ming generals singled out for their contributions to the establishment of the dynasty had been granted governorships in Southern China. They became increasingly autonomous, leading to the
155:
156:
5007:
The defeat by Japan in 1895 created a sense of crisis which the failure of the 1898 reforms and the disasters of 1900 only exacerbated. Cixi in 1901 moved to mollify the foreign community, called for reform proposals, and initiated a set of "New Policies", also known as the
5902:
in 1859–1867, made proposals (1860) to open parts of Guandong for Chinese civilian farmer settlers in order to oppose further possible annexations. In the later 19th century, Manchuria was opened up for Han settlers leading to a more extensive migration, which was called
4969:. In 1900, local groups of Boxers proclaiming support for the Qing dynasty murdered foreign missionaries and large numbers of Chinese Christians, then converged on Beijing to besiege the Foreign Legation Quarter. A coalition of European, Japanese, and Russian armies (the
4205:(r. 1735–1796), marked the height of Qing power. Yet, as the historian Jonathan Spence puts it, the empire by the end of the Qianlong reign was "like the sun at midday". In the midst of "many glories", he writes, "signs of decay and even collapse were becoming apparent".
147:
9179:
152:
154:
6413:
established clinics and hospitals, and led medical training in China. Missionaries began establishing nurse training schools in the late 1880s, but nursing of sick men by women was rejected by local tradition, so the number of students was small until the 1930s.
151:
146:
145:
5860:. In Europe population growth in this period was greatest in the cities, but in China growth in cities and the lower Yangzi was low. The greatest growth was in the borderlands and the highlands, where farmers could clear large tracts of marshlands and forests.
144:
153:
149:
148:
6053:
The emperors and local officials exhorted families to compile genealogies in order to stabilize local society. The genealogy was placed in the ancestral hall, which served as the lineage's headquarters and a place for annual ancestral sacrifice. A specific
4102:, which lasted for eight years. Kangxi was able to unify his forces for a counterattack led by a new generation of Manchu generals. By 1681, the Qing government had established control over a ravaged southern China, which took several decades to recover.
188:
5846:
The population grew in numbers, density, and mobility. The population grew from roughly 150 million in 1700, about what it had been a century before, then doubled over the next century, and reached a height of 450 million on the eve of the
5024:
were held, the first in China's history. Sun Yat-sen and revolutionaries debated reform officials and constitutional monarchists such as Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao over how to transform the Manchu-ruled empire into a modernised Han Chinese state.
3773:
Hong Taiji died suddenly in September 1643. As the Jurchens had traditionally "elected" their leader through a council of nobles, the Qing state did not have a clear succession system. The leading contenders for power were Hong Taiji's oldest son
6392:
observed that "o the scholar-gentry, Christian missionaries were foreign subversives, whose immoral conduct and teaching were backed by gunboats". In the next decades, there were some 800 conflicts between village Christians and non-Christians
3993:" era, the zenith of the dynasty's social, economic and military power. The early Manchu rulers established two foundations of legitimacy that help to explain the stability of their dynasty. The first was the bureaucratic institutions and the
6888:
and the remainder by the local government. In 1911 the Consultative assembly estimated total revenue to be 301,910,297 taels. Included in this figure was over 44,000,000 taels from the Likin of which only 13,000,000 was reported to Beijing.
5868:
and Guizhou in the 18th century, and also to Taiwan. After the conquests of the 1750s and 1760s, the court organized agricultural colonies in Xinjiang. This mobility also included the organized movement of Qing subjects overseas, largely to
5996:
presided over local society and could use their connections to influence the magistrate, acquire land, and maintain large households. The gentry thus included not only males holding degrees but also their wives and some of their relatives.
7957:"Ritual Music in the Court and Rulership of the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911)" (p. 136): " was the start of the Qing dynasty, although historians usually date the Qing dynasty started in 1644 when the Manchus conquered Beijing and north China."
6966:
science, and a very small number interested in technology. After 1900, Japan had a greater role in bringing modern science and technology to Chinese audiences but even then they reached chiefly the children of the rich landowning gentry.
6376:
read Morrison's Chinese Bible, as well as Liang Afa's evangelistic pamphlet, and announced to his followers that Christianity in fact had been the religion of ancient China before Confucius and his followers drove it out. He formed the
4161:
was China's first formal treaty with a European power and kept the border peaceful for the better part of two centuries. After Galdan's death, his followers, as adherents to Tibetan Buddhism, attempted to control the choice of the next
3411:) is associated with water, illustrating the triumph of the Qing as the conquest of fire by water. The name possibly also possessed Buddhist implications of perspicacity and enlightenment, as well as connection with the bodhisattva
5947:
According to statute, Qing society was divided into relatively closed estates, of which in most general terms there were five. Apart from the estates of the officials, the comparatively minuscule aristocracy, and the degree-holding
4430:
However, during the 18th century European empires gradually expanded across the world, as European states developed economies built on maritime trade, colonial extraction, and advances in technology. The dynasty was confronted with
5931:. At the end of the 19th century and turn of the 20th century, to counteract increasing Russian influence, the Qing Dynasty abolished the existing administrative system in Manchuria and reclassified all immigrants to the region as
5811:
engaged not to permit any other foreign state to interfere with the territory or internal administration of Tibet. The Qing government also turned Manchuria into three provinces in the early 20th century, officially known as the "
6527:
with the West. The resulting expansion of the money supply supported competitive and stable markets. During the mid-Ming China had gradually shifted to silver as the standard currency for large scale transactions and by the late
6304:
had arrived from Western Asia as early as the Tang dynasty but their insistence that they should be practiced to the exclusion of other religions made them less adaptable than Buddhism, which had quickly been accepted as native.
5767:, a ditch and embankment planted with willows intended to restrict the movement of the Han Chinese, as the area was off-limits to civilian Han Chinese until the government started colonizing the area, especially since the 1860s.
3613:. As a vassal of the Ming emperors, he officially considered himself a guardian of the Ming border and a local representative of the Ming dynasty. Nurhaci embarked on an intertribal feud in 1582 that escalated into a campaign to
6091:, patronized and took responsibility for all religions and belief systems. The empire's "spiritual center of gravity" was the "religio-political state". Since the empire was part of the order of the cosmos, which conferred the
4864:, took the throne, in violation of the dynastic custom that the new emperor be of the next generation, and another regency began. In the spring of 1881, Ci'an suddenly died, aged only forty-three, leaving Cixi as sole regent.
3652:" and openly renounced the sovereignty of Ming overlordship in order to complete the unification of those Jurchen tribes still allied with the Ming emperor. After a series of successful battles, he relocated his capital from
143:
5537:, at approximately 13 million km in size. There were originally 18 provinces, all of which in China proper, but later this number was increased to 22, with Manchuria and Xinjiang being divided or turned into provinces.
4666:, which contained clauses deeply insulting to the Chinese, such as a demand that all official Chinese documents be written in English and a proviso granting British warships unlimited access to all navigable Chinese rivers.
3951:
killing, casting doubt on the claim that fear of the water led to the coastal evacuation and ban on maritime activities. Even though a poem refers to the soldiers carrying out massacres in Fujian as "barbarians", both Han
11309:
6408:
By 1900, there were about 1,400 Catholic priests and nuns in China serving nearly 1 million Catholics. Over 3,000 Protestant missionaries were active among the 250,000 Protestant Christians in China. Western medical
4815:
to Japan. The terms might have been harsher, but when a Japanese citizen attacked and wounded Li Hongzhang, an international outcry shamed the Japanese into revising them. The original agreement stipulated the cession of
3455:
part of "China". The government used "China" and "Qing" interchangeably to refer to their state in official documents, including the Chinese-language versions of treaties and maps of the world. The term 'Chinese people' (
5357:
as a body charged with handling Qing military campaigns against the Mongols, but soon took over other military and administrative duties, centralizing authority under the crown. The Grand Councillors served as a sort of
7321:
originated at the court. Although this banquet was probably never common, it reflected an appreciation of Manchu culinary customs. Nevertheless, culinary traditionalists lambasted the opulence of the Manchu Han Feast.
5863:
The population was also remarkably mobile, perhaps more so than at any time in Chinese history. Indeed, the Qing government did far more to encourage mobility than to discourage it. Millions of Han Chinese migrated to
4859:
that ousted several regents for the boy emperor. Between 1861 and 1873, she and Ci'an served as regents, choosing the reign title "Tongzhi" (ruling together). Following the emperor's death in 1875, Cixi's nephew, the
6167:
was important to the imperial family both to maintain their Manchu cultural identity and to promote their imperial legitimacy among tribes in the northeast. Imperial obligations included rituals on the first day of
3750:
leniently. Hong Taiji incorporated Han into the Jurchen "nation" as full (if not first-class) citizens, obligated to provide military service. By 1648, less than one-sixth of the bannermen were of Manchu ancestry.
4094:, the most junior of the four, gradually achieved such dominance as to be a potential threat. In 1669 Kangxi, through trickery, disarmed and imprisoned Oboi – a significant victory for a fifteen-year-old emperor.
3415:. Early European writers used the term "Tartar" indiscriminately for all the peoples of Northern Eurasia but in the 17th century Catholic missionary writings established "Tartar" to refer only to the Manchus and "
6365:, the American treaty and the French treaty signed in 1844, and the 1858 Treaty of Tianjin, distinguished Christianity from the local religions and granted it protected status. Chinese popular cults, such as the
3918:
On 31 December 1650, Dorgon died suddenly, marking the start of the Shunzhi Emperor's personal rule. Because the emperor was only 12 years old at that time, most decisions were made on his behalf by his mother,
16681:
5798:, which was incorporated into the Qing dynasty as a vassal after helping Qing defeat the Zunghars in 1757, maintained its status after Xinjiang turned into a province through the end of the dynasty in the
6557:
Full-fledged trade guilds emerged, which, among other things, issued regulatory codes and price schedules, and provided a place for travelling merchants to stay and conduct their business. Along with the
5939:(民人, civilians, non-bannermen), while replacing provincial generals with provincial governors. From 1902 to 1911, seventy civil administrations were created due to the increasing population of Manchuria.
4973:) then entered China without diplomatic notice, much less permission. Cixi declared war on all of these nations, only to lose control of Beijing after a short, but hard-fought campaign. She fled to
10434:
10432:
10430:
10428:
10426:
10424:
10422:
7226:. The Qing dynasty was a period of literary editing and criticism, and many of the modern popular versions of Classical Chinese poems were transmitted through Qing dynasty anthologies, such as the
6190:
6065:) who would keep watch over and protect the family. Later observers felt that the ancestral cult focused on the family and lineage, rather than on more public matters such as community and nation.
6103:. The emperor and his officials, who were his personal representatives, took responsibility over all aspects of the empire, especially spiritual life and religious institutions and practices. The
10321:
10319:
10317:
10315:
10313:
4518:. British soldiers, using advanced muskets and artillery, easily outmaneuvered and outgunned Qing forces in ground battles. The Qing surrender in 1842 marked a decisive, humiliating blow. The
3793:. They were unable to capitalise on the Manchu succession dispute and the presence of a minor as emperor. In April 1644, the capital, Beijing, was sacked by a coalition of rebel forces led by
4669:
Ratification of the treaty in the following year led to a resumption of hostilities. In 1860, with Anglo-French forces marching on Beijing, the emperor and his court fled the capital for the
6388:
After 1860, enforcement of the treaties allowed missionaries to spread their evangelization efforts outside Treaty Ports. Their presence created cultural and political opposition. Historian
9917:
The Island of Formosa, Past and Present : history, people, resources, and commercial prospects : tea, camphor, sugar, gold, coal, sulphur, economical plants, and other productions
6381:, which emerged in South China as a "collusion of the Chinese tradition of millenarian rebellion and Christian messianism", "apocalyptic revolution, Christianity, and 'communist utopianism
5046:, and nephew to the childless Guangxu Emperor, was appointed successor at the age of two, leaving Zaifeng with the regency. Zaifeng forced Yuan Shikai to resign. The Qing dynasty became a
16745:
12800:
5224:
4945:
4640:
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and Han Bannermen were involved and carried out the worst slaughter. 400,000 Green Standard Army soldiers were used against the Three Feudatories in addition to the 200,000 Bannermen.
10972:
4977:. The victorious allies then enforced their demands on the Qing government, including compensation for their expenses in invading China and execution of complicit officials, via the
10916:
141:
5349:", which was dominated by the imperial family and Manchu nobility and which was located in the northern part of the Forbidden City. The core institution of the inner court was the
7085:
became popular after European glass making processes were introduced by Jesuits to Beijing. During this period the European trend to imitate Chinese artistic traditions, known as
5444:, such as those at Yangzhou, were particularly lucrative, especially since they were direct, and did not go through absorptive layers of bureaucracy. The department was manned by
4313:, the emperor's handsome young favorite, took advantage of the emperor's indulgence to become one of the most corrupt officials in the history of the dynasty. Qianlong's son, the
142:
17301:
3172:, population and economic growth. Han officials worked under or in parallel with Manchu officials. To maintain prominence over its neighbors, the Qing leveraged and adapted the
193:
The Qing dynasty at its greatest extent in 1760, with modern borders shown for the rest of the world. Claimed territory that was not under its control is shown in light green.
8629:
5012:. Over the next few years the reforms included the restructuring of the national education, judicial, and fiscal systems, the most dramatic of which was the abolition of the
8590:
4360:
had been walled off as a Manchu homeland. Despite prohibitions, by the 18th century Han Chinese streamed into Manchuria, both illegally and legally, over the Great Wall and
6872:
and the opening of China to foreign trade and the mid-century rebellions, two further important sources of revenue were added: the foreign maritime customs revenue and the
16579:
17340:
10193:
6428:
5880:, with the exception of some bannermen. Nonetheless, by 1780, Han Chinese had become 80% of the population. The relatively low populated territory was vulnerable as the
3601:
in the early 17th century. Nurhaci may have spent time in a Han household in his youth, and became fluent in Chinese and Mongolian languages and read the Chinese novels
13043:
6938:. Contrary to stereotypes in some Western writing, 16th and 17th century Qing dynasty officials and literati eagerly explored the technology and science introduced by
984:
970:
931:
917:
903:
889:
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in 1850. The spread of New World crops, such as maize, peanuts, sweet potatoes, and potatoes decreased the number of deaths from malnutrition. Diseases such as
5489:
4942:, arrested and executed several reformers, and took over day-to-day control of policy. Yet many of the plans stayed in place, and the goals of reform were implanted.
6842:
In 1685, the Kangxi emperor legalized private maritime trade along the coast, establishing a series of customs stations in major port cities. The customs station at
5794:. The Qing court sent forces to defeat Yaqub Beg and Xinjiang was reconquered, and then the political system of China proper was formally applied onto Xinjiang. The
5699:) was the highest rank in the provincial administration. There were eight regional viceroys in China proper, each usually took charge of two or three provinces. The
7057:
published in 1716, which remains to this day an authoritative reference. The Qianlong Emperor sponsored the largest collection of writings in Chinese history, the
6471:
and usually refused them permission to open new mines, except in poor areas. These restrictions on domestic resource exploration, as well as on foreign trade, are
4965:
Drought in North China, combined with the imperialist designs of European powers and the instability of the Qing government, created background conditions for the
11737:
4756:. However Japan threatened to enter the war against China due to the Gapsin Coup and China chose to end the war with negotiations. The war ended in 1885 with the
16103:
6111:
to promote civic morality; he kept close watch over religious organizations whose actions might threaten the sovereignty and religious prerogative of the state.
5730:
and garrisons were sent to Mongolia and Tibet to oversee their affairs. These territories were also under supervision of a central government institution called
3688:. Although Hong Taiji was an experienced leader and the commander of two Banners, the Jurchens suffered defeat in 1627, in part due to the Ming's newly acquired
12967:
12603:
8186:
6939:
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In order not to let the routine administration take over the running of the empire, the Qing emperors made sure that all important matters were decided in the "
4506:
to end the opium trade. Lin confiscated the stocks of opium without compensation in 1839, leading Britain to send a military expedition the following year. The
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to silence opposition. Beneath outward prosperity and imperial confidence, the later years of Qianlong's reign were marked by rampant corruption and neglect.
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known as the "Chinese Legation", "Imperial Consulate of China", "Imperial Chinese Consulate (General)" or similar names in seventeen countries, namely the
4295:
and southern China while expanding control over Tibet. The Qianlong Emperor launched several ambitious cultural projects, including the compilation of the
4222:, which brought frank and detailed reports on local conditions directly to the throne without being intercepted by the bureaucracy, and he created a small
787:
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From 1889, when Guangxu began to rule in his own right, to 1898, the Empress Dowager lived in semi-retirement, spending the majority of the year at the
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8134:
5738:
was also put under direct control of the Qing court. Xinjiang, also known as Chinese Turkestan, was subdivided into the regions north and south of the
5408:
which was unique to the Qing dynasty. It was established before the fall of the Ming, but it became mature only after 1661, following the death of the
4219:
6107:, as the emperor's political and spiritual representative, made offerings at officially recognized temples. The magistrate lectured on the Emperor's
5680:
4259:
chieftains resisted Qing expansion. These campaigns drained the treasury but established the emperor's control of the military and military finance.
9973:
17020:
8095:
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of the 1860s and 1870s Confucian officials in several coastal provinces established an industrial base in military technology. The introduction of
6173:
5517:
Qing China reached its largest extent during the 18th century, when it ruled China proper (eighteen provinces) as well as the areas of present-day
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18887:
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6949:, however, demonstrated the power of steam engine and military technology that had only recently been put into practice in the West. During the
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took large chunks of territory in the Northeast in 1860. The period of cooperation between the reformers and the European powers ended with the
5129:
3479:
2988:
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into Hubei and Hunan provinces. The provincial bureaucracy continued the Yuan and Ming practice of three parallel lines, civil, military, and
5065:
of 10 October 1911 set off a series of uprisings. By November, 14 of the 22 provinces had rejected Qing rule. This led to the creation of the
4117:
To extend and consolidate the dynasty's control in Central Asia, the Kangxi Emperor personally led a series of military campaigns against the
4024:
aspect of their Manchu identity, which allowed them to appeal to the Mongol, Tibetan and Muslim subjects. The Qing used the title of Emperor (
17165:
17136:
16755:
16211:
8690:
Tumen jalafun jecen akū: Manchu studies in honour of Giovanni Stary By Giovanni Stary, Alessandra Pozzi, Juha Antero Janhunen, Michael Weiers
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was also governed by military generals until its division into provinces, though some areas of Xinjiang and Northeast China were lost to the
5346:
5325:
572:
7373:
19522:
16837:
15151:
14979:
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12945:""Preserving the Bonds of Kin": Genealogy Masters and Genealogy Production in the Jiangsu-Zhejiang Area in the Qing and Republican Periods"
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of the child emperor Puyi leading to the fall of the Qing dynasty under the pressure of Yuan Shikai's Beiyang army despite objections from
11624:
16376:
11471:
10232:
10136:
5292:
4910:
4748:
began with a surprise attack by the French on the Chinese southern fleet at Fuzhou. After that the Chinese declared war on the French. A
4744:
in 1858, France expanded control of Indochina. By 1883, France was in full control of the region and had reached the Chinese border. The
4732:
The dynasty lost control of peripheral territories bit by bit. In return for promises of support against the British and the French, the
2921:
8045:
6537:
or cash, used mainly for smaller transactions, silver was not reliably minted into a coin but rather was traded in units of weight: the
6905:
6846:
became by far the most active in foreign trade; by the late Kangxi reign, more than forty mercantile houses specializing in trade with
6325:
astronomy, but fell out of favor for a time until the Kangxi Emperor's 1692 edict of toleration. In the countryside, the newly arrived
5623:
was based on the fifteen administrative units set up by the Ming dynasty, later made into eighteen provinces by splitting for example,
3899:
it was a humiliating reminder of Qing authority that challenged traditional Confucian values. The order triggered strong resistance in
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that defied state authority and rejected imperial doctrines. Some of these sects indeed had long histories of rebellion, such as the
6025:
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9774:
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11662:
8613:
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6809:
5816:
3502:)—both translatable as 'home and abroad as one family'—was employed to convey this idea of Qing-mediated trans-cultural unity.
3087:
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10503:
9736:
9108:
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5320:, which had been an important policy-making body under the Ming, lost its importance during the Qing and evolved into an imperial
3079:
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7383:
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of 1870, which was incited by the murder of French nuns set off by the belligerence of local French diplomats. Starting with the
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employed by previous dynasties, enabling their continued predominance in diplomatic affairs with countries on its periphery like
2768:
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included sacrifices to the ancestors, and the use of shamans, often women, who went into a trance to seek healing or exorcism.
5100:
2180:
520:
246:
10185:
3387:; 'clear', ' pure') in this context. One theory posits a purposeful contrast with the Ming: the character
19487:
17579:
16820:
15418:
14973:
14413:
13795:
13040:
12933:
12914:
12881:
12849:
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12809:
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12502:
12483:
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With respect to these outer regions, the Qing maintained imperial control, with the emperor acting as Mongol khan, patron of
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had appeared. The Yongzheng emperor made a parent corporation comprising those forty individual houses in 1725 known as the
6320:
Several hundred Catholic missionaries arrived from the late Ming period until the proscription of Christianity in 1724. The
6291:
4717:. The reformers then proceeded with institutional reforms, including China's first unified ministry of foreign affairs, the
4629:
The Western powers, largely unsatisfied with the Treaty of Nanjing, gave grudging support to the Qing government during the
4066:
or "(Manchu) Emperor", and among Muslim subjects in Inner Asia the Qing ruler was referred to as the "Khagan of China" (or "
3890:
However, not all of Dorgon's policies were equally popular or as easy to implement. The controversial July 1645 edict (the "
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Bilik, Naran (2007). "Names Have Memories: History, Semantic Identity and Conflict in Mongolian and Chinese Language Use".
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in 1644, which is considered the start of the dynasty's rule. The dynasty lasted until 1912, when it was overthrown in the
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12968:"Reinventing China Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century"
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came from all walks of life. The poetry of the Qing dynasty is a lively field of research, being studied (along with the
5394:
4681:, a younger half-brother of the emperor, who had been left as his brother's proxy in the capital, was forced to sign the
4586:
weapons, had come to the assistance of the Qing imperial army. Nonetheless, it was not until 1864 that Qing armies under
4490:
Since China had little demand for European goods, Europe paid in silver for Chinese goods, an imbalance that worried the
4129:'s invading forces from these regions, which were then incorporated into the empire. Galdan was eventually killed in the
2828:
2522:
1684:
1035:
11577:
5416:. The department's original purpose was to manage the internal affairs of the imperial family and the activities of the
4851:(r. 1850–1861) and came to power in 1861 after her five-year-old son, the Tongzhi Emperor ascended the throne. She, the
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By the end of the 17th century, the Chinese economy had recovered from the devastation caused by the wars in which the
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recommended that Hong as the khan of Later Jin should be the emperor of the Great Qing. When he was presented with the
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invaded Xinjiang from Central Asia with support from the British Empire, and made himself the ruler of the kingdom of
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12523:(1991). "Ch'ing Imperial Marriage and Problems of Rulership". In Rubie Sharon Watson; Patricia Buckley Ebrey (eds.).
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of the Mongols, Hong Taiji renamed his state from "Great Jin" to "Great Qing" and elevated his position from Khan to
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and it was not until the eve of completing the conquest ten years later that they fulfilled their government roles.
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and Cixi in 1908, Manchu conservatives at court blocked reforms and alienated reformers and local elites alike. The
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376:
17365:
15686:
11189:"人学史观视阈下的中西大分流——对"为什么江南不是英国"之新思考 (The Great Divergence from a humanist perspective: Why was Jiangnan not England?)"
10900:
10884:
10868:
10852:
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10751:
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4502:, concerned both over the outflow of silver and the damage that opium smoking was causing to his subjects, ordered
296:
12623:. Cambridge, MA: Council on East Asian Studies Harvard University : Distributed by Harvard University Press.
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10097:
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8351:
Foreign Devils and Philosophers Cultural Encounters between the Chinese, the Dutch, and Other Europeans, 1590–1800
7268:, but its combination of social commentary and psychological insight were echoed in highly skilled novels such as
17482:
16725:
16412:
16298:
15084:
14628:
14091:
10956:
8012:
6911:
6357:(1789–1855), a Morrison-trained Chinese convert, branched out the evangelization mission in inner China. The two
6215:
5390:
5058:" because among the thirteen cabinet members, five were members of the imperial family or Aisin-Gioro relatives.
4795:. Tensions between China and Japan rose after China intervened to suppress the uprising. Japanese Prime Minister
4099:
3964:
3789:
Meanwhile, Ming government officials fought against each other, against fiscal collapse, and against a series of
3717:
3145:
2105:
857:
581:
104:
13253:
11684:
10659:"Living in the Chinese Cosmos: Understanding Religion in Late Imperial China (1644–1911)" (Columbia University)
9939:
8550:
6353:(LMS), who arrived at Canton on September 6, 1807. He completed a translation of the entire Bible in 1819.
3552:
19512:
19507:
19502:
19497:
17066:
16932:
16700:
16447:
16386:
16356:
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12597:
12441:
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9086:
7296:
7254:
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6239:
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5588:
5505:, with provinces in yellow, military governorates and protectorates in light yellow, tributary states in orange
5161:
5133:
4599:
4415:, a loose set of institutions and customs taken over from the Ming, in theory governed relations with East and
3338:
on 12 February 1912 brought the dynasty to an end. In 1917, it was briefly restored in an episode known as the
2926:
2543:
2495:
1404:
1197:
358:
10379:
5991:), like their British counterparts, enjoyed imperial privileges and managed local affairs. The status of this
5097:. However, Yuan Shikai decided to cooperate with Sun Yat-sen's revolutionaries to overthrow the Qing dynasty.
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17500:
17275:
17131:
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as its provisional head. Seeing a desperate situation, the Qing court brought Yuan Shikai back to power. His
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4784:
4615:
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3251:(1862–1877) in western China led to the deaths of over 20 million people, from famine, disease, and war. The
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promote the Chinese Neo-Confucian ideology of organizing society along patrimonial clans among the Mongols.
1031:
17259:
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9003:
with original text in Latin, first published in Rome 1654. First English edition, London: John Crook, 1654.
8870:
8854:
8822:
8778:
7982:
7258:, written in the early 19th century but published only in 1877. The art of the novel reached a pinnacle in
7144:
and the Lingnan School, which used the technical skills of tradition to set the stage for modern painting.
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6207:
5385:
like previous dynasties in China, by the early 20th century however the Qing court began to move towards a
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Yongzheng also inherited diplomatic and strategic problems. A team made up entirely of Manchus drew up the
4223:
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3532:
3428:
3149:
3117:
2877:
2453:
623:
12589:
Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928
8258:
The Cambridge History of China: Volume 9, The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part 1, by Willard J. Peterson, p. 29
5335:
3723:
19517:
17176:
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ancestor". Such worship was intended to ensure that the ancestors remain content and benevolent spirits (
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came to the throne at the age of five in 1861, these officials rallied around him in what was called the
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3398:
3256:
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12822:
The Ch'ing Imperial Household Department: A Study of Its Organization and Principal Functions, 1662–1796
4510:
revealed the outdated state of the Chinese military. The Qing navy, composed entirely of wooden sailing
4149:
colonists as a base against the Qing. Winning Taiwan freed Kangxi's forces for a series of battles over
4002:
19527:
17559:
17005:
16164:
16079:
15668:
15566:
12652:
12381:
12281:
11707:
9075:"Conquest dynasties of China or foreign empires? The problem of relations between China, Yuan and Qing"
7910:
7902:
7842:
7834:
7788:
7780:
7736:
7728:
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5128:. Puyi was allowed to live in the Forbidden City after his abdication until 1924, when he moved to the
4678:
4590:
succeeded in crushing the revolt. After the outbreak of this rebellion, there were also revolts by the
4456:
4375:
continued for eight years, until 1804, when badly run, corrupt, and brutal campaigns finally ended it.
3920:
3894:") forced adult Han Chinese men to shave the front of their heads and comb the remaining hair into the
3859:, but was turned over to a Qing expeditionary army commanded by Wu Sangui, who had him brought back to
3848:
3185:
3071:
2510:
1598:
1588:
1544:
17:
15856:
12692:
The Headless State: Aristocratic Orders, Kinship Society, and Misrepresentations of Nomadic Inner Asia
11258:
4554:
to Britain. It revealed weaknesses in the Qing government and provoked rebellions against the regime.
17569:
17288:
17217:
17010:
16542:
16467:
16336:
16254:
16134:
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6271:
5684:
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3716:, suggesting imperial ambitions beyond unifying the Manchu territories. Hong Taiji then proceeded to
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and, in an act of revenge for the arrest, torture, and execution of the English diplomatic mission.
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of 1670 effectively extolled Confucian family values. His attempts to discourage Chinese women from
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legally inferior to commoners and suffered unequal treatments, such as being forbidden to take the
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to Japan, but Russia, with its own designs on the territory, along with Germany and France, in the
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provided the remedy. The British East India Company greatly expanded its production in Bengal. The
4460:
4251:
3617:. By 1616, however, he had sufficiently consolidated Jianzhou so as to be able to proclaim himself
3322:
over how to transform the Manchu-ruled empire into a modernised Han state. After the deaths of the
3201:
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2759:
2207:
1856:
111:
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6016:, porcelain or pieces of art for their beauty, which set them off from less cultivated commoners.
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15146:
15129:
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13939:
13892:
13835:
13534:
13478:
13226:
11974:
The Diary of a Manchu Soldier in Seventeenth Century China: "My Service in the Army," by Dzengseo
9580:
7588:
6910:
Chinese scholars, court academies, and local officials carried on late Ming dynasty strengths in
6203:
6083:
Manchu rulers presided over a multi-ethnic empire and the emperor, who was held responsible for "
6061:
5577:
5550:
5386:
5370:
5047:
4954:
4930:
4847:: Tz'u-Hsi) in state affairs. She entered the imperial palace in the 1850s as a concubine to the
4804:
4670:
4435:
and state-to-state relations. European trading posts expanded into territorial control in nearby
4432:
3276:
3260:
3255:
in the 1860s brought vigorous reforms and the introduction of foreign military technology in the
2433:
735:
722:
12179:
Sealords Live in Vain: Fujian and the Making of a Maritime Frontier in Seventeenth-Century China
8346:
3973:
17467:
17355:
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16174:
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6202:, and was centered around the patriarchal family, the maintenance of the male family line, and
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in the hope to appease the Mongols and Tibetans. The Kangxi Emperor also welcomed to his court
3829:
3805:, committed suicide when the city fell to the rebels, marking the official end of the dynasty.
3701:
3129:
3059:
2916:
2741:
2485:
2463:
2448:
1934:
1653:
12944:
12906:
The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China
11455:
10930:
10926:
10910:
10894:
10878:
10862:
10846:
10782:
10766:
10470:
10454:
10389:
10216:
10120:
9949:
8848:
8678:
6436:
4621:
3597:, the chieftain of a minor Jurchen tribe – the Aisin-Gioro – in
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17400:
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639:
597:
347:
31:
15310:
14358:
12564:
12475:
Autumn in the Heavenly Kingdom: China, the West, and the Epic Story of the Taiping Civil War
11494:
11411:
David Pong (1973). "Confucian patriotism and the destruction of the Woosung railway, 1877".
9677:
Chien-nung Li, Jiannong Li, Ssŭ-yü Têng, "The political history of China, 1840–1928", p. 234
8896:
8864:
8832:
8788:
6100:
4760:
and the Chinese recognition of the French protectorate in Vietnam. Some Russian and Chinese
4705:. Their aim was to adopt Western military technology in order to preserve Confucian values.
4466:
In 1793, the British East India Company, with the support of the British government, sent a
17472:
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17405:
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17212:
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7274:
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revenue though only 20% of the likin revenue was actually given by the provinces to Hu Pu (
5966:
5778:. However, Qing policy changed with the establishment of Xinjiang province in 1884. During
5763:
in the mid-19th century. Manchuria was originally separated from China proper by the Inner
5462:
5313:
5205:
5141:
5043:
5032:
5013:
4855:(who had been Xianfeng's empress), and Prince Gong (a son of the Daoguang Emperor), staged
4840:
4741:
4654:, which the British claimed had been flying the British flag, an incident which led to the
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4130:
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847:
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8:
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16249:
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15916:
15881:
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15008:
15003:
14770:
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14684:
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14135:
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14003:
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13630:
13349:
13285:
13160:
13145:
12642:
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10660:
10496:"Living in the Chinese Cosmos: Understanding Religion in Late Imperial China (1644–1911)"
8160:
7362:
7304:
7228:
7109:
6915:
6512:
6467:
6410:
6301:
5280:
4821:
4702:
4420:
4280:
4158:
3952:
3817:
3614:
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3478:) referred to all the Han, Manchu, and Mongol subjects of the Qing Empire. When the Qing
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as "Son of Heaven" was both the head of the political system and the head priest of the
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11364:
The ideological foundations of Qing taxation:Belief systems, Politics, and institutions
11329:
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10636:
10495:
10089:
10077:
9248:
9231:
Farquhar, David (1978). "Emperor As Bodhisattva in the Governance of the Qing Empire".
8757:
is disputed. Some primary sources, such as the official Qing and Ming court histories (
8089:
8037:
7308:
7202:
continued as a mark of the cultivated gentleman, but women wrote in larger numbers and
7195:
6868:
with the salt, customs and poll taxes being important secondary sources. Following the
6691:
6055:
5656:
5324:. The institutions which had been inherited from the Ming formed the core of the Qing "
5121:
5086:
4884:
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4663:
4483:
4305:), the largest collection of books in Chinese history. Nevertheless, Qianlong used the
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1233:
1225:
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Yet the most impressive aesthetic works were done among the scholars and urban elite.
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meaning the mean (or ignoble) people. Qing law explicitly stated that the traditional
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10961:(2nd enlarged ed.), Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, pp. 221–222,
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5707:, is usually considered as the most honorable and powerful viceroy among the eight.
3314:
and revolutionaries debated reform officials and constitutional monarchists such as
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and the Eight Trigram, presented themselves as Christian to share this protection.
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between Manchu noblemen and Han officials who had passed the highest levels of the
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13031:
12161:. Durham & Hong Kong: Duke University Press & Hong Kong University Press.
7164:
made innovations in skeptical textual scholarship. Scholar-bureaucrats, including
5215:, by the 19th century Qing China had become part of a European-style community of
4320:
4262:
19186:
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17644:
17589:
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16649:
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14385:
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14046:
14041:
13882:
13763:
13657:
13652:
13620:
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13258:
13140:
13126:
13047:
12871:
12690:
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12587:
12400:
12375:
12300:
12275:
12238:
12125:
12073:
12045:
11972:
11880:
11859:
11045:
Kaiyi Chen (1996). "Missionaries and the early development of nursing in China".
10695:
10667:
10643:
10255:
9920:
9267:
9153:
9126:
8465:
7890:
7818:
7766:
7714:
7666:
7551:
7515:
7367:
7303:, applied aesthetic standards to the art of cooking, eating, and appreciation of
7141:
6786:
6720:
6603:
6592:
6402:
6339:
6326:
6235:
6159:, the most common religion among Manchus, was a spiritual inheritance from their
6035:
5904:
5889:
5885:
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province, became a province of its own in the 19th century, but was ceded to the
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5409:
5236:
5216:
4966:
4861:
4745:
4698:
4507:
4452:
4361:
4314:
4239:
4037:
3836:
3828:. Together, the two former enemies met and defeated Li Zicheng's rebel forces in
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3299:
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3133:
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451:
439:
240:
83:
13966:
12370:
Myers, H. Ramon; Wang, Yeh-Chien (2002). "Economic developments, 1644–1800". In
11807:
The Way of the Eating, Sean JS Chen, translator (Translating the Suiyuan Shidan)
8491:
5692:
5668:
5648:
5636:
4796:
4709:, in alliance with Prince Gong, sponsored the rise of younger officials such as
3997:
culture that they adopted from earlier dynasties. Manchu rulers and Han Chinese
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17452:
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16492:
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16129:
15911:
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13307:
13189:
8464:
Dunnell, Ruth W.; Elliott, Mark C.; Foret, Philippe; Millward, James A (2004).
8435:
8000:
7353:
7313:
7188:
7063:, completed in 1782. Court painters made new versions of the Song masterpiece,
6731:
6702:
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6398:
6283:
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5881:
5779:
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4118:
4067:
3986:
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3747:
3637:
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3514:
3365:
3294:" killed many Chinese Christians and foreign missionaries; in retaliation, the
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3153:
3116:
was declared Emperor of the Great Qing in 1636. As Ming control disintegrated,
2886:
1977:
1894:
1352:
1122:
403:
381:
11424:
11325:
11058:
8281:
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The Guangxu Emperor died on 14 November 1908 and Cixi died the following day.
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15776:
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13887:
13731:
13684:
13672:
13598:
13490:
13364:
13359:
13334:
13216:
12986:
12926:
The Last Stand of Chinese Conservatism: The T'ung-Chih Restoration, 1862–1874
12648:
The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part One
12520:
12512:
12377:
The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part One
12277:
The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part One
11310:"The last guardian of the throne: the regional army in the late Qing dynasty"
11032:'Heal the Sick' was Their Motto: The Protestant Medical Missionaries in China
10085:
8283:
China's Population Expansion and Its Causes during the Qing Period, 1644–1911
8033:
7317:
expounded culinary aesthetics and theory, along with a range of recipes. The
7211:
6847:
6625:
6480:
6146:
6130:
5978:
5828:
5795:
5775:
5710:
By the mid-18th century, the Qing had successfully put outer regions such as
5490:
Administration of territory in dynastic China § Qing dynasty (1644–1912)
5454:. By the 19th century, it managed the activities of at least 56 subagencies.
5451:
5365:
5359:
5328:", which handled routine matters and was located in the southern part of the
5300:
5256:
4914:
4876:
4868:
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4190:
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3994:
3990:
3968:
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3137:
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2906:
2819:
2736:
2726:
2666:
2641:
2631:
1767:
1734:
15305:
13996:
13976:
12075:
The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China
11913:
11569:
10257:
Russia and Its Northeast Asian Neighbors: China, Japan, and Korea, 1858–1945
9180:
Translating through the Cultural Barriers: the Qing Imperial Multilingualism
8312:. Translated by J. A. Fogel. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 246.
8025:
7176:
which rooted bureaucratic reform and restructuring in classical philosophy.
7016:
read widely and broke aesthetic and critical ground later cultivated in the
6361:(1839–1860) marked the watershed of Protestant Christian missions. The 1842
4906:
4871:. In 1897, two German Roman Catholic missionaries were murdered in southern
4729:, as well as a navy; and the purchase from Europeans of armament factories.
4721:; allowing foreign diplomats to reside in the capital; establishment of the
4170:, the capital of Tibet, and installed a Dalai Lama sympathetic to the Qing.
3181:
17584:
17281:
17223:
16912:
16894:
16750:
15866:
15388:
15350:
15250:
14833:
14460:
14201:
14191:
14157:
14081:
14008:
13798:
13780:
13741:
13736:
13716:
13711:
13583:
13576:
13566:
13561:
13556:
13450:
13388:
13369:
13354:
13290:
13062:
12859:
12183:
10649:
Living in the Chinese Cosmos: Understanding Religion in Late-Imperial China
10637:
Settling the Dead: Funerals, Memorials and Beliefs Concerning the Afterlife
9924:
9559:"California on the Amur, or the 'Zheltuga Republic' in Manchuria (1883–86)"
9155:
New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde
8754:
8467:
New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde
7339:
7238:. Although fiction did not have the prestige of poetry, novels flourished.
7173:
7133:
7082:
7064:
7047:
7037:
7009:
6658:
6488:
6449:
6373:
6223:
6211:
6108:
5999:
5984:
5899:
5687:. The eighteen provinces are also known as "China proper". The position of
5467:
5189:
5185:
5149:
5078:
4989:
4880:
4726:
4718:
4710:
4694:
4566:
4527:
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4463:
had long before been granted similar monopoly rights by their governments.
4357:
4146:
4075:
4014:
4010:
3884:
3824:
for himself. Wu and Dorgon allied in the name of avenging the death of the
3813:
3798:
3705:
3618:
3609:
3578:
3435:
3374:
dynasty in 1636. There are competing explanations as to the meaning of the
3319:
3240:
3177:
3125:
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2843:
2799:
2789:
2764:
2716:
2342:
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2195:
2133:
1847:
1837:
1814:
1449:
1324:
1242:
1094:
963:
908:
313:
270:
257:
11066:
8665:
Bernard Hung-Kay Luk, Amir Harrak-Contacts between cultures, Vol. 4, p. 25
8403:
8005:"Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia"
6198:
The belief system most widely practiced among Han Chinese is often called
4650:
In 1856, Qing authorities, in searching for a pirate, boarded a ship, the
3561:
people, who constitute the majority of the Chinese population, but by the
17520:
17241:
16962:
16957:
16098:
15607:
15403:
15295:
15290:
15210:
14801:
14785:
14179:
14164:
14013:
13726:
13635:
13625:
13551:
13199:
13194:
11855:
10122:
The Unending Frontier: An Environmental History of the Early Modern World
9827:
Sources in Chinese History: Diverse Perspectives from 1644 to the Present
8724:
7239:
7207:
7199:
7152:
Traditional learning flourished, especially among Ming loyalists such as
7124:
part of their cultural identity and social standing. The painting of the
7094:
7086:
7040:
vase. Colored in "Imperial Yellow", due to its association with the Qing.
7013:
6987:
6504:
6432:
Xián Fēng Tōng Bǎo (咸豐通寶) 1850–1861 Qing dynasty copper (brass) cash coin
6366:
6247:
6243:
6222:. Since they did not require exclusive allegiance, forms and branches of
5857:
5747:
5193:
5074:
4993:
4934:
4929:
In the wake of these external defeats, the Guangxu Emperor initiated the
4856:
4792:
4765:
4761:
4706:
4697:
led the suppression of rebellions and stood behind the Manchus. When the
4644:
4595:
4587:
4511:
4388:
4368:
4256:
4005:
offered a path for ethnic Han to become officials. Imperial patronage of
3989:
was the longest of any emperor of China and marked the beginning of the "
3891:
3856:
3558:
3315:
3311:
2731:
2656:
2646:
2249:
2120:
1954:
1922:
1909:
1743:
554:
265:
38:
12994:
12159:
English Lessons: The Pedagogy of Imperialism in Nineteenth-Century China
11838:
Monarchs and Ministers: The Grand Council in Mid-Ch'ing China, 1723–1820
9444:
Revolution and its Past: Identities and Change in Modern Chinese History
8347:"The Tartars in European Missionary Writings of the Seventeenth Century"
6992:
6466:
system with a head tax used to hire laborers. The administration of the
5176:
4827:
4234:
17188:
17032:
16982:
16952:
16795:
15653:
15591:
15510:
14750:
14715:
14206:
14023:
13897:
13857:
13790:
11714:(Summer 2019 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
10093:
10061:
10007:
9252:
8041:
7259:
7129:
6946:
6896:
ability to levy surcharges belonging solely to the central government.
6869:
6831:
6358:
6330:
6137:
The Manchu imperial family were especially attracted by Yellow Sect or
5731:
5591: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
5264:
4832:
4812:
4773:
4591:
4515:
4478:
4408:
4404:
4163:
4063:
4021:
3794:
3782:. A compromise installed Hong Taiji's five-year-old son, Fulin, as the
3731:
3685:
3424:
3224:
3189:
3113:
2706:
2701:
2001:
1790:
1176:
1169:
179:
16189:
12674:. History of Imperial China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
11432:
11345:
11343:
11156:
6401:. The imperialist powers once again invaded and imposed a substantial
5660:
5109:
5104:
A pitched battle between the imperial and revolutionary armies in 1911
4824:, successfully put pressure on the Japanese to abandon the peninsula.
4713:, who put the dynasty back on its feet financially and instituted the
1299:
1296:
16977:
16967:
16012:
16002:
15571:
14878:
14765:
14096:
13867:
13751:
13721:
13502:
13376:
13167:
11692:
10565:. London: Arnold; New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 36–42.
7279:
7269:
7121:
6959:
6843:
6797:
6548:
6519:
6156:
5983:
Although there had been no powerful hereditary aristocracy since the
5928:
5756:
5743:
5739:
5628:
5232:
5220:
5137:
4939:
4514:, was severely outclassed by the modern tactics and firepower of the
4448:
4440:
4400:
4349:
3844:
3809:
3689:
3420:
3284:
3157:
3132:, seized the capital, and took over the government in 1644 under the
3121:
2946:
2931:
2711:
1397:
1190:
352:
11779:
Food in Chinese Culture: Anthropological and Historical Perspectives
9244:
9074:
8243:
The Chinese Empire: A General and Missionary Survey, Volumes 678–679
6463:
5566:
5494:
4688:
3906:
3808:
Li Zicheng then led rebel forces numbering some 200,000 to confront
3573:
who lived around the region now comprising the Chinese provinces of
17462:
17207:
17154:
17096:
16972:
16947:
16149:
16032:
16022:
15841:
15340:
14612:
13497:
13280:
13238:
13177:
12951:. Translated by Huang Yuanmei. Berkeley: University of California.
12567:
The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom: Rebellion and the Blasphemy of Empire
11340:
11289:
10592:
7169:
7165:
7161:
7157:
7153:
6508:
6354:
6317:
were practiced in well-established but self-contained communities.
6227:
6125:
6088:
5852:
5723:
5530:
5446:
5437:
5228:
5116:
and royalist reformers. This brought an end to over 2,000 years of
5050:
on 8 May 1911, when Zaifeng created a "responsible cabinet" led by
4974:
4879:). Germany used the murders as a pretext for a naval occupation of
4872:
4547:
4503:
4447:
in 1756, which restricted maritime trade to that city (present-day
4288:
4284:
3940:
3900:
3874:
3661:
3657:
3653:
3412:
3161:
3047:
2804:
2686:
2621:
1418:
1338:
1211:
1108:
318:
285:
206:
6562:
trade guilds, guild halls dedicated to more specific professions,
5751:
the Tarim Basin but were the ban was lifted after the invasion by
4403:. Although there was no formal ministry of foreign relations, the
3786:, with Dorgon as regent and de facto leader of the Manchu nation.
17447:
16042:
15997:
15972:
15526:
15235:
14853:
14806:
14745:
14669:
14623:
13410:
13339:
13295:
13150:
12545:
The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions
11263:. New York : Barnes & Noble Books. pp. Map 67, 71.
10999:
10987:
10936:
7542:; capital after 1625 for Later Jin, secondary capital after 1644.
7249:
6583:
6487:
developing naturally from the first commercial revolution of the
6084:
6013:
5876:
Manchuria, however, was formally closed to Han settlement by the
5791:
5735:
5704:
5433:
5240:
5201:
5197:
5070:
5051:
5028:
4673:. Once in Beijing, the Anglo-French forces looted and burned the
4603:
4582:
4581:
with Hong himself as king. Hong announced that he had visions of
4574:
4475:
precious things", and "consequently there is nothing we lack..."
4443:. The Qing response, successful for a time, was to establish the
4292:
4186:
4150:
4142:
4134:
4110:
3594:
3438:, the Manchus identified their state as "China", equivalently as
3416:
3169:
3093:
3051:
2794:
2721:
2676:
2651:
2144:
1995:
1989:
1456:
1249:
540:
507:
398:
290:
280:
275:
214:
13211:
11277:
9704:
5204:. Like previous dynasties, the Qing recruited officials via the
4999:
4693:
Yet the dynasty rallied. Chinese generals and officials such as
4173:
3667:
16124:
16037:
15300:
15200:
14843:
14699:
13243:
13118:
12876:. Transformation of modern China series. New York: Free Press.
9449:
7137:
7093:
due to the rise in trade with China and the broader current of
7090:
6855:
6851:
6835:
6742:
6647:
6441:
6231:
6129:
Placard (right to left) in Manchu, Chinese, Tibetan, Mongolian
5865:
5542:
5538:
5424:), but it also played an important role in Qing relations with
5272:
4611:
4543:
4539:
4535:
4407:
was responsible for relations with the Mongols and Tibetans in
4344:
4340:
4310:
4226:
of personal advisors, which eventually grew into the emperor's
4126:
4050:), and among Tibetans the Qing emperor was referred to as the "
3943:. He was succeeded by his third son Xuanye, who reigned as the
3930:
3860:
3779:
3709:
3656:
to successively bigger captured Ming cities in Liaodong: first
3101:
2774:
2661:
2636:
2626:
493:
474:
342:
11366:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 46, 69, 99.
11238:
11168:
11132:
11081:
8442:
5120:
and began a period of instability. In July 1917, there was an
3797:, a former minor Ming official, who established a short-lived
3306:, including elections, a new legal code, and the abolition of
17171:
16730:
14581:
13877:
12801:
China's Response to the West: A Documentary Survey, 1839–1923
12182:(Thesis). University of California, San Diego. Archived from
10476:
9680:
6306:
6138:
5807:
5727:
5719:
5534:
4788:
4780:
4436:
4353:
3852:
3582:
3574:
3011:
2696:
2681:
1478:
1464:
1271:
1257:
12270:
Li, Gertraude Roth (2002). "State building before 1644". In
12220:
Ladder to the Clouds: Intrigue and Tradition in Chinese Rank
10580:
10298:
8929:
8538:
7960:
6342:(1760–1820). The imperial ban was lifted by Treaty in 1846.
4317:(r. 1796–1820), eventually forced Heshen to commit suicide.
4054:" (or "Chinese Emperor") and "the Great Emperor" (or "Great
3903:. In the ensuing unrest, some 100,000 Han were slaughtered.
17341:
Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet
16830:
16007:
14848:
14838:
14828:
14811:
11570:"Chinese Porcelain Glossary: Glass, Chinese (Peking Glass)"
10616:
10001:
Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet
8794:
8649:
8647:
8463:
8326:
6150:
5703:, who was responsible for the area surrounding the capital
5276:
5039:
4378:
4279:) became the Qianlong Emperor. Qianlong personally led the
4091:
4046:
3958:
3684:
Nurhaci died in 1626, and was succeeded by his eighth son,
3397:; 'bright') is associated with fire within the
3335:
3017:
852:
13087:
11625:"Ch'ing Dynasty – The Art of Asia – Chinese Dynasty Guide"
11392:
11380:
11110:
11108:
10395:
9873:
9461:
8941:
8917:
5442:
Relations with the Salt Superintendents and salt merchants
4803:, an agreement to withdraw troops simultaneously, but the
4776:
basin, which was however soon crushed by the Qing forces.
4685:. The humiliated emperor died the following year at Rehe.
4178:
4086:
missionaries, who had first come to China under the Ming.
4062:, while among Mongols the Qing monarch was referred to as
17630:
12621:
China, 1898–1912 : The Xinzheng Revolution and Japan
11226:
11144:
11120:
11093:
10824:
10535:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 27.
9863:
9861:
9802:
The Changing Legal Orders in Hong Kong and Mainland China
9659:
9623:
9611:
9527:
9322:
8753:
The exact figure of Li Zicheng's forces at the battle of
6309:
predominated in Central Asian areas of the empire, while
5211:
While the Qing dynasty tried to maintain the traditional
5054:, Prince Qing. However, the cabinet became known as the "
4526:", demanded war reparations, forced China to open up the
4367:
In 1796, open rebellion broke out among followers of the
3565:, descendants of a sedentary farming people known as the
3156:(1661–1722) consolidated control, relished the role of a
3014:
1437:
1423:
1409:
1230:
1216:
1202:
12454:
China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia
11864:. Chichester, West Sussex; Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
11529:. The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Columbia University.
11213:(in Chinese), Inner Mongolian People's publishing corp,
11011:
10672:
10407:
10367:
10343:
10331:
9635:
9394:
8644:
6292:
Catholic Church in China § Qing dynasty (1644–1911)
5227:
before its downfall, and since the 1870s it established
4811:
recognized Korean independence and ceded Taiwan and the
4561:
in the mid-19th century was the first major instance of
4273:
When Yongzheng Emperor died in 1735 his son Prince Bao (
3929:), the only instance in Qing history in which a Manchu "
3835:
The newly allied armies captured Beijing on 6 June. The
1181:
11556:
Study of glass wares from the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911).
11105:
10788:
10218:
Constructing Empire: The Japanese in Changchun, 1905–45
9738:
Chinese Spatial Strategies: Imperial Beijing, 1420–1911
9599:
9382:
9310:
9286:
8907:
8905:
7299:
aroused cultural pride. The gentleman gourmet, such as
7116:
remained a central interest to both court painters and
6984:
Classical Chinese poetry § History and development
6141:
Buddhism that had spread from Tibet into Mongolia. The
5802:
up until 1930. In the early 20th century, Britain sent
5631:, or surveillance. Each province was administered by a
4598:
of China against the Qing dynasty, most notably in the
4009:
demonstrated respect for Confucian learning, while the
3505:
In English, the Qing dynasty is sometimes known as the
1549:
12840:
Twitchett, Denis Crispin; Fairbank, John King (1978).
12334:
Making China Modern: From the Great Qing to Xi Jinping
12107:
Emperor and Ancestor: State and Lineage in South China
11603:. Brighton: Royal Pavilion & Museums. p. 19.
10758:
10756:
10754:
10739:
10727:
10604:
10043:
10041:
10026:
9897:
9885:
9858:
9647:
9539:
8612:
Mair, Victor H.; Chen, Sanping; Wood, Frances (2013).
8576:
The Military Collapse of China's Ming Dynasty, 1618–44
7147:
5436:, salt, furs, etc.), managed textile factories in the
5381:
rule. While the Qing government was established as an
4752:
and the French were defeated on land in Tonkin at the
3302:. In response, the government initiated unprecedented
12722:
Söderblom Saarela, Mårten (2021). "Manchu Language".
11781:. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 260–294.
10812:
10125:. University of California Press. pp. 141, 144.
9755:
9692:
9503:
9054:
8977:
8526:
8261:
7938:
7936:
7140:. The nineteenth century saw such innovations as the
6980:
Chinese literature § Classical fiction and drama
6518:
Silver entered in large quantities from mines in the
6254:(1796–1804) confirmed official suspicions as did the
5404:
There was also another government institution called
4839:
These years saw an evolution in the participation of
4433:
newly developing concepts of the international system
3026:
1385:
1371:
1357:
1343:
1329:
1157:
1143:
1127:
1113:
1099:
12047:
East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History
10355:
10286:
10164:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 103.
9716:
9370:
9334:
9109:"Treaty between Tibet and Nepal, 1856 (translation)"
8953:
8902:
8766:
8514:
7619:
7613:
7329:
5873:, to pursue trade and other economic opportunities.
4212:
in the winter of 1722, his fourth son, Prince Yong (
4001:
elites gradually came to terms with each other. The
3473:
3449:
2361:
2283:
2163:
2096:
2026:
1900:
17346:
Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory
12695:(illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press.
12436:. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.
12203:(4th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
11601:
Chinese Whispers: Chinoiserie in Britain, 1650–1930
10800:
10038:
10014:
9804:. City University of Hong Kong Press. p. 372.
8693:
7995:
7993:
7991:
6261:
5892:. In response, the Qing officials such as Tepuqin (
3112:in 1616, renouncing the Ming overlordship. His son
9481:"Taiping Rebellion | Causes, Effects, & Facts"
9358:
9298:
9193:"The Qing Dynasty and Its Central Asian Neighbors"
7933:
6976:Chinese art § Late imperial China (1368–1911)
6549:Urbanization and the proliferation of market-towns
5956:, a legal term meaning good people, as opposed to
5513:Official map of the Qing Empire published in 1905.
4725:; the formation of modernized armies, such as the
3593:The early form of the Manchu state was founded by
12839:
12721:
12641:(2002). "Social stability and social change". In
11954:Robert Morrison and the Protestant Plan for China
11788:Chinese Roundabout: Essays in History and Culture
11349:
11295:
11283:
10066:Annals of the Association of American Geographers
9799:
9515:
9346:
9042:
9030:
9018:
9006:
8615:Chinese Lives: The People Who Made a Civilization
7966:
7252:demonstrated the charm of the informal memoir in
5841:
5353:. It emerged in the 1720s under the reign of the
5340:The emperor of China from The Universal Traveller
4897:British lease of the New Territories of Hong Kong
4689:Self-strengthening and the frustration of reforms
4133:. In 1683, Qing forces received the surrender of
3754:
19479:
12949:Printing and Book Culture in Late Imperial China
12947:. In Brokaw, Cynthia J.; Chow, Kai-wing (eds.).
8705:
7988:
7051:, a rhyme dictionary published in 1711, and the
6250:society, which drew on millennial Buddhism. The
6234:were intertwined, for instance in the syncretic
6003:Brush container symbol of elegant gentry culture
12909:. Vol. I. University of California Press.
12399:Naquin, Susan; Rawski, Evelyn Sakakida (1987).
12123:
11497:On Their Own Terms: Science in China, 1550–1900
11460:. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 223.
11005:
10993:
10942:
10482:
8579:(illustrated ed.). Routledge. p. 16.
7399:List of diplomatic missions of the Qing dynasty
6114:
6046:By the Qing, the building block of society was
5188:structures and institutions from the preceding
5172:List of diplomatic missions of the Qing dynasty
4984:
4550:to Western trade and missionaries, and to cede
3448:; 'middle kingdom') in Chinese and
3072:assembled the territorial base for modern China
1501:
16746:Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations
12010:(2nd ed.). New York: Simon and Schuster.
11492:
11029:
9079:International Journal of Central Asian Studies
9072:
8459:
8457:
8390:, National Library of Australia, p. 107,
7242:brought the short story to a new level in his
6163:ancestors that set them off from Han Chinese.
5306:
4933:of 1898. Newer, more radical advisers such as
4565:. The rebellion began under the leadership of
1515:
836:11,350,000 km (4,380,000 sq mi)
828:13,400,000 km (5,200,000 sq mi)
820:14,700,000 km (5,700,000 sq mi)
19548:States and territories disestablished in 1912
17616:
17166:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China
17137:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties
16205:
14597:
13103:
12724:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History
12336:. Harvard University Press. pp. 21–227.
12124:Goossaert, Vincent; Palmer, David A. (2011).
12043:
9073:Kuzmin, Sergius L.; Dmitriev, Sergey (2015).
8758:
8618:(illustrated ed.). Thames & Hudson.
8544:
8069:
6345:The first Protestant missionary to China was
5893:
5556:
4274:
4213:
4174:Reigns of the Yongzheng and Qianlong emperors
4020:The second major source of stability was the
3934:
3924:
3636:Italian 1682 map showing the "Kingdom of the
3279:in 1898 proposed fundamental change, but the
3074:. It was the largest imperial dynasty in the
2982:
2544:
1294:
1069:
812:8,800,000 km (3,400,000 sq mi)
172:
127:
56:
14560:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy
12794:
12398:
12217:
10500:Religion, the State, and Imperial Legitimacy
10304:
10260:. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 27–28.
9824:
9710:
9467:
8800:
8611:
8094:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
7894:
7822:
7770:
7718:
7670:
7555:
7519:
7070:Along the River During the Qingming Festival
5679:under a subprefect. The lowest unit was the
5484:Administrative divisions of the Qing dynasty
5081:crushed the revolutionaries in Wuhan at the
4779:In 1884, Qing China obtained concessions in
4423:, signed in 1689, stabilized relations with
4283:to expand military control into present-day
3553:Timeline of the Jurchens § 17th century
71:
13024:Section on the Ming and Qing dynasties of "
12928:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
12804:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
12592:. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
12571:. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
11885:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
11878:
10700:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
10661:Institutional Religion: The Three Teachings
9686:
8454:
7953:
7951:
5457:
5225:more than twenty countries around the world
4573:candidate, in 1851 launched an uprising in
3696:of Inner Mongolia, Manchu nobility and the
3581:. The Manchus are sometimes mistaken for a
30:"Qing" redirects here. For other uses, see
19558:States and territories established in 1644
19553:States and territories established in 1636
17623:
17609:
16212:
16198:
14604:
14590:
13110:
13096:
12942:
12844:. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
12525:Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society
12302:Eurasian crossroads: a history of Xinjiang
12027:The Cambridge Illustrated History of China
11453:
11410:
11044:
10401:
8139:Smithsonian's National Museum of Asian Art
6906:History of science and technology in China
5923:) literally "Crashing into Guandong" with
5450:, or "bondservants", from the Upper Three
4625:Government forces defeating Taiping armies
3080:the fourth-largest empire in world history
2989:
2975:
2551:
2537:
435:• 1636–1643 (proclaimed in Shenyang)
187:
16826:Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty
12402:Chinese Society in the Eighteenth Century
12369:
12243:. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
11956:. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
11244:
11232:
11174:
11162:
11150:
11138:
11126:
11099:
11087:
10253:
10161:The Manchurian frontier in Chʼing history
9208:
8388:Celestial Empire: Life in China 1644–1911
8240:
7999:
7461:Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty
7248:, published in the mid-18th century, and
6899:
6258:, which drew on millennial Christianity.
6026:Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty
5607:Learn how and when to remove this message
4387:British Steamship destroying Chinese war
3342:, but this was neither recognized by the
3211:reached its apex during the reign of the
3108:(known later as Manchus) and founded the
16675:Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi
12618:
12331:
12298:
12236:
11970:
11932:
11911:
11835:
11800:
11773:Spence, Jonathan (1977). ""Ch'ing"". In
11457:World Railways of the Nineteenth Century
11017:
10954:
10678:
10560:
10118:
9945:
9777:. University of Maryland. Archived from
9761:
9641:
9617:
9605:
9265:
9230:
8860:
8828:
8812:
8784:
8532:
8332:
8307:
8161:"The Qing Dynasty (1644–1911): Painting"
7948:
7414:List of recipients of tribute from China
7198:grew to new heights in the Qing period.
7178:
7099:
7027:
6991:
6854:system. Firmly established by 1757, the
6826:
6499:
6435:
6427:
6206:, or spirits. Common practices included
6189:
6124:
6034:
5998:
5817:Viceroy of the Three Northeast Provinces
5508:
5493:
5473:
5461:
5364:
5334:
5175:
5099:
5027:
4998:
4988:
4944:
4905:
4826:
4807:of 1895 was a military humiliation. The
4658:. In 1858, facing no other options, the
4639:
4620:
4477:
4382:
4379:Rebellion, unrest, and external pressure
4339:new crops from the Americas such as the
4319:
4291:, putting down revolts and uprisings in
4261:
4233:
4189:, Qianlong reign; built on the model of
4177:
4104:
3972:
3959:Kangxi Emperor's reign and consolidation
3905:
3873:
3764:
3722:
3666:
3648:Two years later, Nurhaci announced the "
3631:
3557:The Qing dynasty was founded not by the
3082:in terms of territorial size. With over
2922:Korean People's Association in Manchuria
17282:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries
16219:
14384:
12902:
12866:
12818:
12350:
12218:Jackson, Beverly; Hugus, David (1999).
12071:
12044:——; Walthall, Anne (2013).
11712:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
11598:
11256:
11208:
11114:
10794:
10622:
10586:
10059:
9903:
9891:
9151:
8983:
8947:
8935:
8923:
8892:
8556:
8385:
8254:
8252:
8188:Emperors of the Qing Dynasty, 1644–1912
7218:, the transition to a greater role for
7128:included such painters as the orthodox
7060:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries
5432:, engaged in trading activities (jade,
5399:prepare for a constitutional government
5108:On 12 February 1912, Longyu issued the
4494:governments of Britain and France. The
4399:continued to be the hegemonic power in
4298:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries
3219:of conquest, and personally supervised
3120:captured the Ming capital Beijing, but
3062:, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the
1036:question marks, boxes, or other symbols
27:Manchu-led dynasty of China (1644–1912)
14:
19480:
14639:List of current non-sovereign monarchs
12923:
12775:
12748:
12732:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.447
12688:
12585:
12562:
12541:
12519:
12492:
12450:
12431:
12127:The Religious Question in Modern China
11861:A New History of Christianity in China
11785:
11772:
11665:from the original on 20 September 2012
11398:
11386:
10922:
10906:
10890:
10874:
10858:
10842:
10778:
10762:
10610:
10598:
10523:
10466:
10450:
10438:
10385:
10214:
9879:
9867:
9698:
9665:
9629:
9533:
9455:
9400:
9388:
9340:
9328:
9316:
9304:
9292:
8911:
8876:
8844:
8772:
8674:
8412:, pp. 4, 7–10, 12–14 and 24 n. 4.
7978:
6773:
6762:
6751:
6645:
6634:
6623:
6569:
5942:
4831:Empress Dowager Cixi (Oil painting by
4482:View of the Canton River, showing the
4451:) and gave monopoly trading rights to
3671:Manchu cavalry charging Ming infantry
1439:
1387:
1232:
1159:
41:, the first dynasty of imperial China.
17604:
17580:Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions
16821:Principles of the Constitution (1908)
16193:
14869:
14585:
13091:
13026:China's Population: Readings and Maps
12798:; Fairbank, John King, eds. (1954) .
12606:from the original on 14 February 2022
12471:
12319:from the original on 26 November 2015
12156:
12130:. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
12104:
12024:
12003:
11951:
11580:from the original on 14 February 2022
11533:from the original on 20 December 2012
11501:. Harvard University Press. pp.
11361:
10975:from the original on 14 February 2022
10830:
10818:
10806:
9829:. Taylor & Francis. p. 272.
9585:. V&R unipress GmbH. p. 97.
9578:
9521:
9509:
9190:
9158:. Taylor & Francis. p. 124.
8971:
8959:
8653:
8572:
8520:
8421:
8158:
8108:
7481:Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions
7429:Military history of China before 1912
7374:Foreign relations of the Qing dynasty
6795:
6784:
6740:
6689:
6612:
6601:
6590:
6581:
6079:Religion in China § Qing dynasty
6030:
3863:province and executed in early 1662.
3847:and rebels. The last Ming pretender,
3152:until 1683. As a Manchu emperor, the
16801:Ministry of Posts and Communications
13036:University of Michigan Museum of Art
12965:
12709:from the original on 12 January 2021
12669:
12637:
12619:Reynolds, Douglas Robertson (1993).
12497:. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.
11991:from the original on 12 January 2021
11935:The Wobbling Pivot: China since 1800
11899:from the original on 12 January 2021
11854:
11527:"Recording the Grandeur of the Qing"
11307:
10745:
10733:
10690:
10413:
10373:
10361:
10349:
10337:
10325:
10292:
10235:from the original on 8 November 2021
10196:from the original on 8 November 2021
10186:"China's narrative of Han expansion"
10100:from the original on 8 November 2021
10047:
10032:
10020:
9722:
9364:
9272:. Wisdom Publications. p. 185.
9197:Saksaha: A Journal of Manchu Studies
9131:. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 278.
9124:
9089:from the original on 4 November 2021
9060:
8448:
8409:
8344:
8279:
8267:
8249:
7942:
7404:List of emperors of the Qing dynasty
6729:
6718:
6709:
6700:
6678:
6667:
6656:
6220:mourning, funeral, burial, practices
5589:adding citations to reliable sources
5560:
5420:(in which tasks it largely replaced
5200:, with some positions also given to
5184:The early Qing emperors adopted the
4750:French invasion of Taiwan was halted
4145:, who had conquered Taiwan from the
4074:portrayed the image of himself as a
3235:, granting them trading privileges,
447:• 1644–1661 (first in Beijing)
19523:Former countries in Chinese history
17549:History of Qing (People's Republic)
12890:from the original on 19 August 2020
12672:China's Last Empire: The Great Qing
12419:from the original on 31 August 2020
12198:
11567:
10542:from the original on 24 August 2015
10274:from the original on 2 October 2022
10157:
9849:
9734:
9653:
9545:
9376:
9352:
8995:This event was recorded by Italian
8310:Manchuria Under Japanese Domination
7384:International relations (1814–1919)
7245:Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio
7148:Traditional learning and literature
6969:
6834:, Chinese merchant and member of a
6179:
5124:to restore the Qing dynasty led by
3231:forced the Qing government to sign
24:
17266:Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor
16635:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)
16628:1909 Provincial Assembly elections
16508:Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)
16332:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)
14634:List of current sovereign monarchs
13032:Collection: "Manchu, Qing Dynasty"
12825:. Harvard University Asia Center.
12780:(3rd ed.). New York: Norton.
12758:(1st ed.). New York: Norton.
12548:. University of California Press.
12527:. University of California Press.
12269:
12257:from the original on 15 April 2021
12175:
12092:from the original on 1 August 2020
12050:(3rd ed.). Cengage Learning.
12007:Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook
11840:. University of California Press.
11803:"Things to Avoid 12: Cliché (戒落套)"
11705:
11314:Journal of Institutional Economics
11186:
10506:from the original on 12 April 2021
10078:10.1111/j.1467-8306.1979.tb01285.x
9979:from the original on 26 March 2020
9919:. London and New York: Macmillan.
9233:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
9048:
9036:
9024:
9012:
8711:
8699:
8632:from the original on 11 March 2021
8593:from the original on 11 March 2021
8184:
8159:Hearn, Maxwell K. (October 2003).
6814:Main polities in continental Asia
5440:region, and even published books.
5412:and the accession of his son, the
5389:, with government bodies like the
4787:, but the pro-Japanese Koreans in
4166:. Kangxi dispatched two armies to
3627:previous Jurchen-ruled Jin dynasty
3427:, as ruled by the Qing before the
3088:most populous country in the world
25:
19569:
17555:Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty
17396:Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)
17271:Shamanism during the Qing dynasty
16423:Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war)
13018:
12355:(4th ed.). Pearson Longman.
12144:from the original on 29 July 2020
11813:from the original on 2 April 2015
11718:from the original on 16 June 2020
11474:from the original on 30 June 2020
10714:from the original on 6 April 2017
10531:. In Lopez, Donald S. Jr. (ed.).
9582:A New Modern History of East Asia
9210:10.3998/saksaha.13401746.0012.004
8735:from the original on 27 July 2019
8502:from the original on 9 March 2018
8353:. Leiden: Brill. pp. 82–83.
7455:The Rise and Fall of Qing Dynasty
6533:barter. Unlike the copper coins,
6121:Shamanism during the Qing dynasty
5833:Shamanism during the Qing dynasty
4953:celebrating their victory in the
4723:Imperial Maritime Customs Service
4395:At the start of the dynasty, the
4153:, the far eastern outpost of the
3851:, sought refuge with the King of
3350:nor the international community.
3304:fiscal and administrative reforms
3042:and the last imperial dynasty in
17366:Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking
16682:Articles of Favourable Treatment
16438:Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)
15152:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
11794:
11766:
11730:
11699:
11677:
11647:
11617:
11592:
11561:
11548:
11519:
11486:
11447:
11404:
11355:
11301:
11250:
11202:
11180:
11038:
11023:
10948:
10684:
10653:
10628:
10554:
10517:
10488:
10247:
10208:
10178:
10151:
10139:from the original on 10 May 2016
10112:
10053:
9991:
9955:
9930:
9909:
9843:
9818:
9793:
9767:
9728:
9671:
9446:. Pearson Hall, 2010, pp. 42–43.
9269:Buddhism Between Tibet and China
8999:Martin Martinius in his account
8245:. Morgan at Scott. pp. 2–3.
8051:from the original on 7 July 2020
7873:
7851:
7797:
7745:
7697:
7645:
7627:
7346:
7332:
7160:, but scholars in the school of
7089:also gained great popularity in
6576:
6262:Christianity, Judaism, and Islam
6246:, which drew on Daoism, and the
6200:local, popular, or folk religion
6019:
5565:
5140:there in 1932, with Puyi as its
4496:growing Chinese demand for opium
4439:and on the islands that are now
4201:(r. 1723–1735) and his son, the
3985:The sixty-one year reign of the
3419:" for the lands they ruled—i.e.
3070:. The multi-ethnic Qing dynasty
3007:
2587:
1632:
1016:
996:
982:
968:
954:
929:
915:
901:
887:
178:
139:
103:
19493:1912 disestablishments in China
16413:Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813
16299:Revolt of the Three Feudatories
14629:Imperial, royal and noble ranks
11937:. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
11350:Twitchett & Fairbank (1978)
11296:Twitchett & Fairbank (1978)
11284:Twitchett & Fairbank (1978)
10533:The Spirits of Chinese Religion
9572:
9551:
9491:from the original on 3 May 2015
9473:
9436:
9406:
9259:
9224:
9184:
9172:
9145:
9118:
9101:
9066:
8989:
8747:
8717:
8684:
8659:
8605:
8566:
8484:
8415:
8379:
8367:from the original on 8 May 2021
8338:
8301:
8273:
8234:
8212:
8178:
8152:
8127:
8102:
8013:International Studies Quarterly
7607:
7594:
7255:Six Chapters of a Floating Life
6172:at a shamanic shrine (tangse).
5815:", and established the post of
5742:mountains, also known today as
5576:needs additional citations for
5085:. After taking the position of
4764:also established a short-lived
4100:Revolt of the Three Feudatories
3965:Revolt of the Three Feudatories
3531:For a chronological guide, see
3146:Revolt of the Three Feudatories
2754:Medieval to Early Modern period
1479:
1465:
1438:
1424:
1410:
1272:
1258:
1231:
1217:
1203:
1182:
17067:Guest House of Imperial Envoys
16357:Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas
14611:
12924:Wright, Mary Clabaugh (1957).
12842:The Cambridge history of China
12029:. Cambridge University Press.
11971:Di Cosmo, Nicola, ed. (2007).
11952:Daily, Christopher A. (2013).
11912:Crossley, Pamela Kyle (1997).
11836:Bartlett, Beatrice S. (1991).
11689:The Lingnan School of Painting
11661:. Metropolitan Museum of Art.
9735:Zhu, Jianfei (2 August 2004).
8759:
8349:. In Weststeijn, Thijs (ed.).
8191:. Cambridge University Press.
8165:The Metropolitan Museum of Art
8063:
7885:
7867:
7862:
7858:
7813:
7808:
7804:
7761:
7756:
7752:
7709:
7661:
7656:
7652:
7639:
7581:
7545:
7510:
7498:
7311:entered everyday life. Yuan's
5972:
5920:
5912:
5894:
5842:Population growth and mobility
5162:Government of the Qing dynasty
5130:Japanese concession in Tianjin
4887:" in 1898, which included the
4671:imperial hunting lodge at Rehe
4577:province, and established the
4275:
4214:
4125:. The Kangxi Emperor expelled
4017:, however, were unsuccessful.
3935:
3925:
3778:and Hong Taiji's half brother
3755:Claiming the Mandate of Heaven
3494:
3484:
3461:
3456:
3445:
3440:
3403:
3389:
3379:
3330:on 10 October 1911 led to the
3283:(1835–1908) turned it back in
2491:Science and technology history
1550:
1386:
1372:
1358:
1344:
1330:
1295:
1158:
1144:
1128:
1114:
1100:
1070:
173:
128:
13:
1:
17501:Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank
17276:Islam during the Qing dynasty
17132:Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)
16816:Provincial military commander
16806:Nine Gates Infantry Commander
16791:Imperial Household Department
16618:Preparative Constitutionalism
16322:Sino-Russian border conflicts
12305:. Columbia University Press.
12109:. Stanford University Press.
12078:. Stanford University Press.
11801:Yuan Mei (5 September 2014).
11710:. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).
11211:5000 years of Chinese history
11006:Goossaert & Palmer (2011)
10994:Goossaert & Palmer (2011)
10943:Goossaert & Palmer (2011)
10483:Goossaert & Palmer (2011)
8111:Manchuria – A Concise History
7922:
7618:means 'central' or 'middle',
7389:Islam during the Qing dynasty
7379:Imperial Chinese harem system
6922:, as well as technologies in
6815:
6483:overtook China economically.
5837:Islam during the Qing dynasty
5782:era, taking advantage of the
5667:) operating under a prefect (
5645:provincial military commander
5499:
5406:Imperial Household Department
5155:
4883:. The occupation prompted a "
4785:Chinese concession of Incheon
3708:after the defeat of the last
3679:
3604:Romance of the Three Kingdoms
3585:people, which they were not.
3046:. The dynasty, proclaimed in
2840:Sino-Russian border conflicts
1861:
1820:
1796:
1773:
1749:
1690:
19488:1644 establishments in China
17260:Researches on Manchu Origins
16665:Mongolian Revolution of 1911
16275:Transition from Ming to Qing
16265:Later Jin invasion of Joseon
14644:List of monarchy referendums
13070:Dynasties in Chinese history
13052:Virginia Museum of Fine Arts
12819:Torbert, Preston M. (1977).
12586:Rhoads, Edward J.M. (2000).
12457:. Harvard University Press.
12199:Hsü, Immanuel C. Y. (1990).
11165:, pp. 572–573, 599–600.
10955:Fairbank, John King (2006),
10601:, pp. 231–236, 242–243.
10561:Harrison, Henrietta (2001).
10254:Matsuzato, Kimitaka (2016).
10060:Edmonds, Richard L. (1979).
9420:(in Chinese). Archived from
8308:Yamamuro, Shin'ichi (2006).
8241:Broomhall, Marshall (1907).
7927:
7620:
7614:
7578:; primary capital afterwards
7309:New World crops and products
7023:
6523:creating a large, favorable
6444:(Chefoo) in the Qing dynasty
6280:Protestant missions in China
6174:Practices in Manchu families
6115:Manchu and imperial religion
5898:), the Military Governor of
5819:to oversee these provinces.
5168:Military of the Qing dynasty
5018:a constitution to be drafted
5016:in 1905. The court directed
4985:Reform, revolution, collapse
4901:French lease of Guangzhouwan
4889:German lease of Jiaozhou Bay
4799:and Li Hongzhang signed the
4486:in the background, 1850–1855
4266:Lord Macartney saluting the
4109:Emperor with Manchu army in
4040:(along with titles like the
3761:Transition from Ming to Qing
3538:
3533:Timeline of the Qing dynasty
3474:
3450:
3298:invaded China and imposed a
3084:426 million citizens in 1907
37:Not to be confused with the
7:
17160:Changzhou School of Thought
16670:1911 Revolution in Xinjiang
16645:Railway Protection Movement
16623:1909 Parliamentary election
16608:British expedition to Tibet
16518:Qing reconquest of Xinjiang
16478:Self-Strengthening Movement
16453:Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)
13117:
12778:The Search for Modern China
12755:The Search for Modern China
12726:. Oxford University Press.
12299:Millward, James A. (2007).
11882:Bandits in Republican China
11209:Li, Bo; Zheng, Yin (2001),
11034:. Chinese University Press.
10524:Teiser, Stephen F. (1996).
9915:Davidson, James W. (1903).
8545:Ebrey & Walthall (2013)
8113:. Bloomsbury. p. 155.
7476:Timeline of Chinese history
7409:List of rebellions in China
7325:
7210:) for its association with
7104:Landscape by Wang Gai, 1694
6951:Self-Strengthening Movement
6424:Economy of the Qing dynasty
6149:at their summer retreat in
6072:
5655:). Below the province were
5307:Central government agencies
5206:imperial examination system
5146:invasion of Northeast China
4940:stepped in to call them off
4715:Self-Strengthening Movement
3914:and expansion of the empire
3801:. The last Ming ruler, the
3527:History of the Qing dynasty
3509:, or transliterated as the
3480:conquered Dzungaria in 1759
3257:Self-Strengthening Movement
3221:Confucian cultural projects
3050:in 1636, seized control of
2616:Ancient to Classical period
10:
19574:
17560:Legacy of the Qing dynasty
16448:Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)
16387:Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)
16377:Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa
16347:Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)
12873:The Fall of Imperial China
12771:Online at Internet Archive
12653:Cambridge University Press
12563:Reilly, Thomas H. (2004).
12472:Platt, Stephen R. (2012).
12382:Cambridge University Press
12282:Cambridge University Press
11879:Billingsley, Phil (1988).
11828:
10305:Naquin & Rawski (1987)
10221:. UBC Press. p. 109.
10158:Lee, Robert H. G. (1970).
10119:Richards, John F. (2003).
9800:Albert H. Y. Chen (2021).
9741:. Routledge. p. 133.
9711:Jackson & Hugus (1999)
9468:Têng & Fairbank (1954)
9266:Kapstein, Matthew (2014).
8801:Naquin & Rawski (1987)
8573:Swope, Kenneth M. (2014).
8451:, pp. 4, 7–10, 12–14.
8436:10.1163/146481707793646629
8220:"Qing Dynasty (1644–1911)"
8135:"Qing dynasty (1644–1911)"
7896:
7895:
7861:; simplified Chinese:
7824:
7823:
7807:; simplified Chinese:
7772:
7771:
7755:; simplified Chinese:
7720:
7719:
7672:
7671:
7655:; simplified Chinese:
7557:
7556:
7521:
7520:
7444:Qing dynasty in Inner Asia
7439:Qing emperors' family tree
7394:Legacy of the Qing dynasty
7370:Costumes of Qing officials
7291:
7214:, developmental trends of
7208:poetry of the Ming dynasty
7126:early years of the dynasty
6973:
6903:
6862:
6473:critiqued by some scholars
6421:
6417:
6265:
6183:
6118:
6076:
6023:
5976:
5826:
5822:
5557:Territorial administration
5487:
5481:
5466:The Eighteen Provinces of
5165:
5159:
5152:, Manchukuo fell in 1945.
4957:, within the walls of the
4949:The foreign armies of the
4925:, and Japan dividing China
4600:Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)
4457:British East India Company
3962:
3921:Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang
3758:
3588:
3542:
3530:
3524:
3520:
3466:
3423:and the adjacent parts of
3370:Hong Taiji proclaimed the
3363:
3357:
1572:
73:
72:
36:
29:
19533:Former monarchies of Asia
19394:
19185:
19084:
18987:
18788:
18599:
18244:
18143:
17786:
17643:
17570:Names of the Qing dynasty
17513:
17481:
17438:
17431:
17300:
17218:Manchu Han Imperial Feast
17145:
17077:
16998:
16903:
16699:
16590:
16548:Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)
16543:Gongche Shangshu movement
16488:Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)
16400:
16337:Chinese Rites controversy
16307:
16237:
16228:
16056:
15965:
15679:
15442:
15376:
15188:
15179:
15075:
15057:
14989:
14904:
14862:
14794:
14708:
14652:
14619:
14553:
14505:
14022:
13426:
13125:
13076:
13067:
13059:
12495:Imperial China, 1350–1900
12493:Porter, Jonathan (2016).
12451:Perdue, Peter C. (2005).
12405:. Yale University Press.
12176:Ho, David Dahpon (2011).
12072:Elliott, Mark C. (2001).
11790:. New York: W. W. Norton.
11786:Spence, Jonathan (1992).
11425:10.1017/S0026749X00005333
11326:10.1017/S1744137420000430
11059:10.1891/1062-8061.4.1.129
10642:27 September 2011 at the
10634:Richard J. Smith (2007).
9854:. 社会科学文献出版社. p. 530.
9775:"The Rise of the Manchus"
9458:, pp. 112, 114, 116.
7880:
7857:traditional Chinese:
7803:traditional Chinese:
7751:traditional Chinese:
7704:
7651:traditional Chinese:
7634:
7624:means 'nation' or 'state'
7602:Names of the Qing dynasty
7505:
7424:Manchuria under Qing rule
7319:Manchu–Han Imperial Feast
7187:period on display at the
6495:
6351:London Missionary Society
6296:Medical missions in China
6272:Chinese Rites controversy
5813:Three Northeast Provinces
5619:The Qing organization of
5219:and established official
5213:tributary system of China
4893:Russian lease of Liaodong
4758:Treaty of Tientsin (1885)
4616:Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)
4453:private Chinese merchants
4352:, where the provinces of
4244:Qing conquest of Xinjiang
3912:Qing conquest of the Ming
3545:Manchuria under Ming rule
3499:
3489:
3408:
3394:
3384:
3360:Names of the Qing dynasty
3243:under their control. The
3040:imperial dynasty of China
2912:Kwantung Leased Territory
2365:
2287:
2167:
2100:
2030:
1904:
1607:
1597:
1587:
1566:
1561:
1543:
1538:
1534:
1509:
1502:
1495:
1490:
1472:
1455:
1448:
1431:
1417:
1403:
1396:
1379:
1365:
1351:
1337:
1323:
1316:
1311:
1307:
1288:
1283:
1265:
1248:
1241:
1224:
1210:
1196:
1189:
1175:
1168:
1151:
1137:
1121:
1107:
1093:
1086:
1081:
1077:
1063:
1058:
1054:
1049:
866:
840:
832:
824:
816:
808:
803:
799:
784:
771:
758:
745:
732:
719:
704:
691:
678:
665:
652:
635:
620:
607:
603:
593:
564:
560:
548:
533:
529:
519:
515:
500:
487:
483:
473:
469:
457:
445:
433:
429:
419:
409:
397:
306:
256:
233:
225:
198:
186:
167:
119:
100:
95:
57:
48:
17491:Great Qing Treasure Note
17311:Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)
17021:Administrative divisions
16838:Administrative divisions
16766:Flag of the Qing dynasty
14781:Self-proclaimed monarchy
13046:24 November 2020 at the
12987:10.1177/0097700405282349
12353:East Asia: A New History
12351:Murphey, Rhoads (2007).
12332:Mühlhahn, Klaus (2019).
12240:China: A Religious State
12201:The rise of modern China
12157:Hevia, James L. (2003).
12004:Ebrey, Patricia (1993).
11655:"Qing Dynasty, Painting"
10697:Imperial China, 900–1800
10190:South China Morning Post
9579:Fuchs, Eckhardt (2017).
9191:Onuma, Takahiro (2014).
8386:Woolley, Nathan (2016),
7967:Söderblom Saarela (2021)
7492:
7486:Xinjiang under Qing rule
7434:Mongolia under Qing rule
7419:List of Chinese monarchs
7265:Dream of the Red Chamber
7235:Three Hundred Tang Poems
7216:Classical Chinese poetry
7172:, developed a school of
7079:Chinese export porcelain
6958:farmlands, and obstruct
6040:Chen Clan Ancestral Hall
5962:four occupational groups
5927:being an older name for
5755:in the 1820s. Likewise,
5458:Administrative divisions
5374:Great Qing Treasure Note
5073:on 1 January 1912, with
4885:scramble for concessions
4579:Taiping Heavenly Kingdom
4461:Dutch East India Company
4252:Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)
4058:"), such as in the 1856
3475:Dulimbai gurun-i niyalma
3353:
3334:. The abdication of the
3128:to the Qing army, which
2760:Eastern Turkic Khaganate
1516:
459:• 1908–1912 (last)
17087:Chengde Mountain Resort
16888:Three Eastern Provinces
16538:First Sino-Japanese War
16513:Northern Chinese Famine
16372:Lin Shuangwen rebellion
16270:Qing invasion of Joseon
15049:Vatican City (Holy See)
12903:—— (1985).
12776:—— (2012).
12670:—— (2009).
12542:—— (1998).
12237:Lagerwey, John (2010).
12025:—— (2010).
11933:—— (2010).
11599:Beevers, David (2009).
11493:Benjamin Elman (2005).
11245:Myers & Wang (2002)
11233:Myers & Wang (2002)
11175:Myers & Wang (2002)
11163:Myers & Wang (2002)
11151:Myers & Wang (2002)
11139:Myers & Wang (2002)
11127:Myers & Wang (2002)
11100:Myers & Wang (2002)
11088:Myers & Wang (2002)
11030:Gerald H. Choa (1990).
10502:, Columbia University,
9485:Encyclopedia Britannica
8729:Encyclopedia Britannica
8496:Encyclopedia Britannica
8026:10.1111/0020-8833.00053
7589:constitutional monarchy
7132:and the individualists
5551:First Sino-Japanese War
5387:constitutional monarchy
5192:but split rule between
5180:A Qing dynasty mandarin
5134:invaded Northeast China
5048:constitutional monarchy
4805:First Sino-Japanese War
4324:Commerce on the water,
4208:After the death of the
3615:unify the nearby tribes
3399:Chinese zodiacal system
3263:in 1895 led to loss of
3261:First Sino-Japanese War
3229:Western colonial powers
709:Westernization Movement
234:Official languages
17468:Great Qing Copper Coin
17356:Convention of Tientsin
17289:Annotated Bibliography
17237:Qing official headwear
16280:Battle of Shanhai Pass
15331:Islands of Refreshment
14761:Legitimacy (political)
12689:Sneath, David (2007).
12432:Norman, Jerry (1988).
11745:Berkshire Encyclopedia
11738:"Ming and Qing Novels"
11260:Atlas of world history
11257:Haywood, John (1997).
11193:Tianjin Social Science
11047:Nursing History Review
9152:Dunnell, Ruth (2004).
9128:Tibet Past and Present
9125:Bell, Charles (1992).
8938:, p. 648, n. 183.
8345:Dong, Shaoxin (2020).
8185:Po, Ronald C. (2018).
8070:王堅強, 陳家華, 王永中 (2018).
7466:Taiwan under Qing rule
7449:Qing official headwear
7191:
7105:
7041:
7000:
6900:Science and technology
6839:
6515:
6445:
6433:
6216:local gods and spirits
6195:
6134:
6043:
6004:
5728:Imperial commissioners
5514:
5506:
5479:
5471:
5395:parliamentary election
5377:
5342:
5181:
5148:to fight Japan by the
5132:. The Empire of Japan
5105:
5095:Empress Dowager Longyu
5093:, with the support of
5035:
5004:
4996:
4962:
4926:
4836:
4801:Convention of Tientsin
4647:
4626:
4487:
4392:
4335:
4270:
4247:
4194:
4183:Putuo Zongcheng Temple
4114:
3982:
3915:
3887:in the Chinese style.
3879:
3830:battle on May 27, 1644
3770:
3738:
3676:
3645:
3308:the examination system
3290:In 1900 anti-foreign "
3060:Chinese historiography
2917:Nationalist government
1024:This article contains
19513:20th century in China
19508:19th century in China
19503:18th century in China
19498:17th century in China
17542:Draft History of Qing
17401:Treaty of Shimonoseki
17182:performance criticism
16786:Imperial Commissioner
16776:Great Qing Legal Code
16575:Eight-Nation Alliance
16558:Third plague pandemic
16468:Punti–Hakka Clan Wars
16392:White Lotus Rebellion
15142:Saint Kitts and Nevis
14731:Criticism of monarchy
14721:Abolition of monarchy
14530:Medieval great powers
13041:Qing Dynasty resource
12868:Wakeman, Frederic Jr.
12105:Faure, David (2007).
11362:Taizu, Zhang (2023).
10215:Sewell, Bill (2019).
10062:"The Willow Palisade"
9825:David Atwill (2021).
9097:– via Academia.
7600:For other names, see
7471:Tibet under Qing rule
7285:Flowers in the Mirror
7182:
7103:
7031:
6997:Pine, Plum and Cranes
6995:
6830:
6713:TSARDOM OF RUSSIA
6503:
6440:A postage stamp from
6439:
6431:
6276:Christianity in China
6268:Jesuit China missions
6266:Further information:
6252:White Lotus Rebellion
6193:
6186:Chinese folk religion
6184:Further information:
6128:
6119:Further information:
6077:Further information:
6038:
6002:
5935:(Chinese) instead of
5691:or governor-general (
5541:, originally part of
5512:
5497:
5488:Further information:
5477:
5465:
5368:
5338:
5179:
5103:
5031:
5014:imperial examinations
5002:
4992:
4971:Eight-Nation Alliance
4951:Eight-Nation Alliance
4948:
4909:
4853:Empress Dowager Ci'an
4830:
4809:Treaty of Shimonoseki
4683:Convention of Beijing
4643:
4624:
4563:anti-Manchu sentiment
4481:
4472:Lord George Macartney
4386:
4373:White Lotus Rebellion
4323:
4265:
4238:Campaign against the
4237:
4181:
4108:
3976:
3909:
3877:
3839:was invested as the "
3768:
3726:
3670:
3635:
3543:Further information:
3215:(1735–1796), who led
3186:extending its control
3106:unified Jurchen clans
3104:of the Ming dynasty,
3066:and succeeded by the
2356:(mainland, 1912–1949)
723:1st Sino-Japanese War
348:Chinese folk religion
32:Qing (disambiguation)
19538:History of Manchuria
17473:Great Qing Gold Coin
17406:Treaty of Tarbagatai
17351:Convention of Peking
17231:Pentaglot Dictionary
17213:Literary inquisition
16923:Ever Victorious Army
16756:Deliberative Council
16660:Xinhai Lhasa turmoil
16613:1905 Batang uprising
16553:Hundred Days' Reform
16443:Small Swords Society
14974:United Arab Emirates
14540:European colonialism
14525:Ancient great powers
12655:. pp. 473–562.
12643:Peterson, Willard J.
12384:. pp. 563–647.
12372:Peterson, Willard J.
12272:Peterson, Willard J.
11635:on 27 September 2012
11413:Modern Asian Studies
11308:Peng, Linan (2021).
11247:, pp. 587, 590.
11177:, pp. 606, 609.
11141:, pp. 593, 595.
11090:, pp. 564, 566.
10958:China: A New History
10589:, pp. 235, 241.
8109:Gamsa, Mark (2020).
8074:. 寧波出版社. p. 8.
7222:, and for poetry by
7174:practical statecraft
7018:New Culture Movement
6999:, 1759, by Shen Quan
6955:railroads into China
6810:class=notpageimage|
6244:Way of Former Heaven
5967:imperial examination
5786:in northwest China,
5585:improve this article
5498:The Qing dynasty in
5221:diplomatic relations
5044:Zaifeng, Prince Chun
5042:, the oldest son of
5033:Zaifeng, Prince Chun
5022:provincial elections
4931:Hundred Days' Reform
4841:Empress Dowager Cixi
4742:Cochinchina Campaign
4522:, the first of the "
4307:literary inquisition
4060:Treaty of Thapathali
3816:, a key pass of the
3625:in reference to the
3429:Ming–Qing transition
3281:Empress Dowager Cixi
3277:Hundred Days' Reform
3247:(1850–1864) and the
3098:House of Aisin-Gioro
2902:Far Eastern Republic
2672:Yan (Three Kingdoms)
2647:Yan (Warring States)
573:Deliberative Council
19460: /
17526:Anti-Qing sentiment
17376:Treaty of the Bogue
17316:Treaty of Nerchinsk
17248:Complete Tang Poems
16928:Green Standard Army
16811:Provincial governor
16781:Imperial Clan Court
16761:Diplomatic missions
16736:Consultative Bureau
16483:Tongzhi Restoration
16362:Afaqi Khoja revolts
16342:Ten Great Campaigns
16250:Jurchen unification
16170:Trinidad and Tobago
16057:Commonwealth realms
15942:United Baltic Duchy
15085:Antigua and Barbuda
15077:Commonwealth realms
14771:Order of succession
14535:Modern great powers
12966:Zhao, Gang (2006).
12943:Xu Xiaoman (2005).
12750:Spence, Jonathan D.
12478:. Alfred A. Knopf.
12222:. Ten Speed Press.
11706:Ng, On-cho (2019).
11568:Nilsson, Jan-Erik.
11454:Jim Harter (2005).
11401:, pp. 237–238.
11389:, pp. 229–238.
11187:Xu, Suming (2005),
10833:, pp. 188–189.
10625:, pp. 237–238.
10416:, pp. 116–117.
10376:, pp. 114–116.
10352:, pp. 112–113.
10340:, pp. 109–110.
10006:. 1906 – via
9972:. 19 January 1906.
9882:, pp. 179–180.
9781:on 18 December 2008
9713:, pp. 134–135.
9656:, pp. 412–416.
9632:, pp. 223–225.
9548:, pp. 328–330.
9536:, pp. 196–221.
9442:Schoppa, R. Keith.
9331:, pp. 97, 101.
9178:Alexander Golikov,
8950:, pp. 651–680.
8926:, pp. 646–650.
8656:, pp. 220–224.
8335:, pp. 212–213.
8280:Deng, Kent (2015).
7363:Anti-Qing sentiment
7229:Complete Tang Poems
7220:vernacular language
7162:evidential learning
7120:who considered the
6940:Jesuit missionaries
6570:Trade with the West
6458:production boomed.
6349:(1782–1834) of the
6302:Abrahamic religions
6208:ancestor veneration
6048:patrilineal kinship
6042:(陈家祠) built in 1894
5943:Statuses in society
5917:traditional Chinese
5804:an expedition force
5726:under its control.
4961:on 28 November 1900
4822:Triple Intervention
4772:(1883–1886) in the
4703:Tongzhi Restoration
4421:Treaty of Nerchinsk
4369:White Lotus Society
4281:Ten Great Campaigns
4159:Treaty of Nerchinsk
4076:Buddhist sage ruler
3953:Green Standard Army
3931:prince of the blood
3878:Qing Empire in 1636
3549:Jurchen unification
3346:(1912–1928) of the
3253:Tongzhi Restoration
3237:extraterritoriality
3217:Ten Great Campaigns
3130:defeated the rebels
2810:Jurchen Jin dynasty
2769:Andong Protectorate
937:Kingdom of Tungning
656:Ten Great Campaigns
19518:Dynasties of China
17411:Treaty of Tientsin
17122:Western Qing tombs
17117:Eastern Qing tombs
16943:Peking Field Force
16687:Manchu Restoration
16580:Declaration of war
16533:Jindandao incident
16352:Lhasa riot of 1750
11336:– via JSTOR.
10692:Mote, Frederick W.
10666:8 May 2017 at the
9970:The New York Times
9963:"<untitled>"
9687:Billingsley (1988)
9403:, pp. 83, 86.
8003:(September 1997).
7847:qouhai nashvn-i ba
7839:coohai nashūn i ba
7192:
7106:
7042:
7001:
6840:
6516:
6475:as a cause of the
6446:
6434:
6372:In the late 1840s
6196:
6194:Patriarchal family
6135:
6044:
6031:Family and kinship
6005:
5909:simplified Chinese
5515:
5507:
5480:
5478:Qing China in 1832
5472:
5393:established and a
5378:
5376:banknote from 1859
5343:
5314:state examinations
5182:
5106:
5036:
5005:
5003:Qing China in 1911
4997:
4963:
4927:
4837:
4818:Liaodong Peninsula
4664:Treaty of Tientsin
4648:
4645:Yixin, Prince Gong
4627:
4618:in the northwest.
4516:British Royal Navy
4488:
4484:Thirteen Factories
4468:diplomatic mission
4393:
4391:(E. Duncan) (1843)
4336:
4271:
4248:
4197:The reigns of the
4195:
4115:
4003:examination system
3983:
3916:
3880:
3791:peasant rebellions
3771:
3769:Dorgon (1612–1650)
3739:
3690:Portuguese cannons
3677:
3646:
3344:Beiyang government
3340:Manchu Restoration
3300:punitive indemnity
3184:in Vietnam, while
3160:ruler, patronised
3140:. Resistance from
3030:), officially the
2892:Beiyang government
2598:Prehistoric period
2371:
2181:Five Dynasties and
2173:
2108:Southern dynasties
2036:
1935:Chu–Han Contention
1927:(206 BCE – 220 CE)
1497:Mongolian Cyrillic
978:Uryankhay Republic
642:Mongolia, Xinjiang
640:Conquest of Tibet,
258:Ethnic groups
19528:Former monarchies
19443:
19442:
18145:Yongzheng Emperor
17598:
17597:
17509:
17508:
17421:Treaty of Whampoa
17416:Treaty of Wanghia
17391:Treaty of Nanking
17361:Li–Lobanov Treaty
17336:Chefoo Convention
17331:Burlingame Treaty
17202:Kangxi Dictionary
17107:Old Summer Palace
16938:Firearm Battalion
16741:Cup of Solid Gold
16695:
16694:
16640:Manchurian plague
16603:Late Qing reforms
16594:(1901–1912)
16528:Sikkim expedition
16458:Panthay Rebellion
16428:Taiping Rebellion
16404:(1801–1900)
16382:Sino-Nepalese War
16327:Dzungar–Qing Wars
16313:(1683–1799)
16241:(1616–1683)
16187:
16186:
16183:
16182:
15872:Piedmont-Sardinia
15624:Sip Song Chau Tai
15434:Thirteen Colonies
15175:
15174:
14579:
14578:
14501:
14500:
14466:Polish–Lithuanian
13641:Gurjara-Pratihara
13086:
13085:
13080:Republic of China
13077:Succeeded by
13012:on 25 March 2014.
12935:978-0-804-70475-5
12916:978-0-520-04804-1
12883:978-0-02-933680-9
12851:978-0-521-24327-8
12832:978-0-674-12761-6
12811:978-0-674-12025-9
12787:978-0-393-93451-9
12765:978-0-393-30780-1
12741:978-0-19-027772-7
12702:978-0-231-51167-4
12681:978-0-674-03612-3
12662:978-0-521-24334-6
12630:978-0-674-11660-3
12555:978-0-520-21289-3
12534:978-0-520-06930-5
12521:Rawski, Evelyn S.
12504:978-1-442-22293-9
12485:978-0-307-27173-0
12464:978-0-674-01684-2
12412:978-0-300-04602-1
12391:978-0-521-24334-6
12362:978-0-321-42141-8
12343:978-0-674-73735-8
12312:978-0-231-13924-3
12291:978-0-521-24334-6
12284:. pp. 9–72.
12229:978-1-580-08020-0
12210:978-0-19-505867-3
12116:978-0-8047-5318-0
12085:978-0-8047-4684-7
12057:978-1-285-52867-0
12036:978-0-521-12433-1
12017:978-0-02-908752-7
11984:978-1-135-78955-8
11944:978-1-4051-6079-7
11925:978-1-55786-560-1
11892:978-0-804-71406-8
11847:978-0-520-06591-8
11708:"Qing Philosophy"
11610:978-0-948723-71-1
11352:, pp. 63–66.
11298:, pp. 61–62.
11270:978-0-7607-0687-9
11220:978-7-204-04420-7
11008:, pp. 40–41.
10996:, pp. 38–40.
10945:, pp. 38–39.
10748:, pp. 25–26.
10736:, pp. 21–23.
10402:Xu Xiaoman (2005)
10267:978-1-4985-3705-6
10228:978-0-7748-3655-5
10171:978-0-674-54775-9
10132:978-0-520-23075-0
10035:, pp. 91–92.
9748:978-1-134-36620-0
9689:, pp. 56–59.
9668:, p. 121 ff.
9620:, pp. 35–36.
9424:on 5 January 2009
9391:, pp. 80–83.
9379:, pp. 35–37.
9319:, pp. 62–66.
9295:, pp. 48–51.
9063:, pp. 32–33.
9001:Bellum Tartaricum
8702:, pp. 60–62.
8270:, pp. 14–15.
7183:Jade book of the
7054:Kangxi Dictionary
6363:Treaty of Nanjing
6336:Yongzheng Emperor
6256:Taiping Rebellion
6218:. Rites included
6105:county magistrate
6093:Mandate of Heaven
6056:Chinese character
5871:Southeastern Asia
5849:Taiping Rebellion
5800:Xinhai Revolution
5774:and protector of
5685:county magistrate
5617:
5616:
5609:
5383:absolute monarchy
5355:Yongzheng Emperor
5318:Grand Secretariat
5083:Battle of Yangxia
5067:Republic of China
5010:Late Qing reforms
4873:Shandong province
4770:Zheltuga Republic
4754:Battle of Bang Bo
4738:Tientsin Massacre
4675:Old Summer Palace
4608:Panthay Rebellion
4559:Taiping Rebellion
4520:Treaty of Nanjing
4327:Prosperous Suzhou
4199:Yongzheng Emperor
4155:Tsardom of Russia
4056:Emperor Manjushri
4007:Kangxi Dictionary
3892:haircutting order
3826:Chongzhen Emperor
3803:Chongzhen Emperor
3728:Sura han ni chiha
3623:Later Jin dynasty
3434:After conquering
3376:Chinese character
3348:Republic of China
3332:Xinhai Revolution
3269:cession of Taiwan
3245:Taiping Rebellion
3150:complete conquest
3142:Ming rump regimes
3110:Later Jin dynasty
3068:Republic of China
3056:Xinhai Revolution
2999:
2998:
2941:Chinese Civil War
2937:Liaoshen Campaign
2927:Japanese invasion
2882:Russian invasions
2742:Göktürk Khaganate
2604:Liao civilization
2561:
2560:
2518:Transport history
2444:Education history
2416:
2415:
2411:
2410:
2397:Republic of China
2379:People's Republic
2352:Republic of China
2331:
2330:
2280:
2279:
2275:
2274:
2160:
2159:
2093:
2092:
2088:
2087:
2024:
2023:
1857:Spring and Autumn
1720:Liao civilization
1611:
1610:
1557:
1556:
1486:
1485:
1405:Yale Romanization
1318:Standard Mandarin
1279:
1278:
1198:Yale Romanization
1088:Standard Mandarin
1032:rendering support
1012:
1011:
1008:
1007:
1004:
1003:
950:Republic of China
942:
941:
775:Xinhai Revolution
762:Late Qing reforms
682:Taiping Rebellion
550:• 1911–1912
502:• 1908–1911
489:• 1643–1650
414:Absolute monarchy
157:
135:Cup of Solid Gold
16:(Redirected from
19565:
19475:
19474:
19472:
19471:
19470:
19465:
19464:39.92°N 116.39°E
19461:
19458:
19457:
19456:
19453:
19396:Xuantong Emperor
18989:Xianfeng Emperor
18790:Daoguang Emperor
18246:Qianlong Emperor
17625:
17618:
17611:
17602:
17601:
17575:New Qing History
17458:Qianlong Tongbao
17436:
17435:
17381:Treaty of Canton
17321:Unequal treaties
17127:Fuling Mausoleum
16726:Advisory Council
16655:Wuchang Uprising
16595:
16498:Tianjin Massacre
16463:Second Opium War
16405:
16367:Sino-Burmese War
16314:
16292:Battle of Penghu
16260:Seven Grievances
16242:
16235:
16234:
16214:
16207:
16200:
16191:
16190:
16111:Irish Free State
15877:Poland–Lithuania
15186:
15185:
15137:Papua New Guinea
14867:
14866:
14606:
14599:
14592:
14583:
14582:
14382:
14381:
14047:Austro-Hungarian
13747:Chagatai Khanate
13112:
13105:
13098:
13089:
13088:
13060:Preceded by
13057:
13056:
13013:
13011:
13005:. Archived from
12972:
12962:
12939:
12920:
12899:
12897:
12895:
12863:
12836:
12815:
12791:
12769:
12745:
12718:
12716:
12714:
12685:
12666:
12639:Rowe, William T.
12634:
12615:
12613:
12611:
12582:
12570:
12559:
12538:
12516:
12489:
12468:
12447:
12428:
12426:
12424:
12395:
12366:
12347:
12328:
12326:
12324:
12295:
12266:
12264:
12262:
12233:
12214:
12195:
12193:
12191:
12172:
12153:
12151:
12149:
12120:
12101:
12099:
12097:
12068:
12066:
12064:
12040:
12021:
12000:
11998:
11996:
11967:
11948:
11929:
11908:
11906:
11904:
11875:
11851:
11823:
11822:
11820:
11818:
11798:
11792:
11791:
11782:
11775:Kwang-chih Chang
11770:
11764:
11763:
11761:
11759:
11753:
11747:. Archived from
11742:
11734:
11728:
11727:
11725:
11723:
11703:
11697:
11696:
11691:. Archived from
11681:
11675:
11674:
11672:
11670:
11651:
11645:
11644:
11642:
11640:
11631:. Archived from
11621:
11615:
11614:
11596:
11590:
11589:
11587:
11585:
11565:
11559:
11552:
11546:
11544:Chinese painting
11542:
11540:
11538:
11523:
11517:
11516:
11500:
11490:
11484:
11483:
11481:
11479:
11451:
11445:
11444:
11408:
11402:
11396:
11390:
11384:
11378:
11377:
11359:
11353:
11347:
11338:
11337:
11305:
11299:
11293:
11287:
11281:
11275:
11274:
11254:
11248:
11242:
11236:
11230:
11224:
11223:
11206:
11200:
11199:
11184:
11178:
11172:
11166:
11160:
11154:
11148:
11142:
11136:
11130:
11124:
11118:
11112:
11103:
11097:
11091:
11085:
11079:
11078:
11042:
11036:
11035:
11027:
11021:
11015:
11009:
11003:
10997:
10991:
10985:
10983:
10982:
10980:
10952:
10946:
10940:
10934:
10920:
10914:
10904:
10898:
10888:
10882:
10872:
10866:
10856:
10850:
10840:
10834:
10828:
10822:
10816:
10810:
10804:
10798:
10792:
10786:
10776:
10770:
10760:
10749:
10743:
10737:
10731:
10725:
10723:
10721:
10719:
10688:
10682:
10676:
10670:
10657:
10651:
10632:
10626:
10620:
10614:
10608:
10602:
10596:
10590:
10584:
10578:
10576:
10558:
10552:
10551:
10549:
10547:
10541:
10530:
10521:
10515:
10514:
10513:
10511:
10492:
10486:
10480:
10474:
10464:
10458:
10448:
10442:
10436:
10417:
10411:
10405:
10399:
10393:
10383:
10377:
10371:
10365:
10359:
10353:
10347:
10341:
10335:
10329:
10323:
10308:
10302:
10296:
10290:
10284:
10283:
10281:
10279:
10251:
10245:
10244:
10242:
10240:
10212:
10206:
10205:
10203:
10201:
10182:
10176:
10175:
10155:
10149:
10148:
10146:
10144:
10116:
10110:
10109:
10107:
10105:
10057:
10051:
10045:
10036:
10030:
10024:
10018:
10012:
10011:
10005:
9995:
9989:
9988:
9986:
9984:
9978:
9967:
9959:
9953:
9943:
9937:
9934:
9928:
9913:
9907:
9901:
9895:
9889:
9883:
9877:
9871:
9865:
9856:
9855:
9847:
9841:
9840:
9822:
9816:
9815:
9797:
9791:
9790:
9788:
9786:
9771:
9765:
9759:
9753:
9752:
9732:
9726:
9720:
9714:
9708:
9702:
9696:
9690:
9684:
9678:
9675:
9669:
9663:
9657:
9651:
9645:
9644:, pp. 5–11.
9639:
9633:
9627:
9621:
9615:
9609:
9603:
9597:
9596:
9576:
9570:
9569:
9567:
9565:
9555:
9549:
9543:
9537:
9531:
9525:
9519:
9513:
9507:
9501:
9500:
9498:
9496:
9477:
9471:
9465:
9459:
9453:
9447:
9440:
9434:
9433:
9431:
9429:
9414:"康乾盛世"的文化專制與文字獄"
9410:
9404:
9398:
9392:
9386:
9380:
9374:
9368:
9362:
9356:
9350:
9344:
9338:
9332:
9326:
9320:
9314:
9308:
9302:
9296:
9290:
9284:
9283:
9263:
9257:
9256:
9228:
9222:
9221:
9219:
9217:
9212:
9188:
9182:
9176:
9170:
9169:
9149:
9143:
9142:
9122:
9116:
9115:
9113:
9105:
9099:
9098:
9096:
9094:
9070:
9064:
9058:
9052:
9046:
9040:
9034:
9028:
9022:
9016:
9010:
9004:
8993:
8987:
8981:
8975:
8969:
8963:
8957:
8951:
8945:
8939:
8933:
8927:
8921:
8915:
8909:
8900:
8890:
8884:
8874:
8868:
8858:
8852:
8842:
8836:
8826:
8820:
8810:
8804:
8798:
8792:
8782:
8776:
8770:
8764:
8763:), cite 200,000.
8762:
8761:
8751:
8745:
8744:
8742:
8740:
8721:
8715:
8709:
8703:
8697:
8691:
8688:
8682:
8672:
8666:
8663:
8657:
8651:
8642:
8641:
8639:
8637:
8609:
8603:
8602:
8600:
8598:
8570:
8564:
8554:
8548:
8542:
8536:
8530:
8524:
8518:
8512:
8511:
8509:
8507:
8488:
8482:
8481:
8461:
8452:
8446:
8440:
8439:
8419:
8413:
8407:
8401:
8400:
8383:
8377:
8376:
8374:
8372:
8342:
8336:
8330:
8324:
8323:
8305:
8299:
8298:
8296:
8294:
8288:
8277:
8271:
8265:
8259:
8256:
8247:
8246:
8238:
8232:
8231:
8229:
8227:
8216:
8210:
8209:
8207:
8205:
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8176:
8175:
8173:
8171:
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8125:
8124:
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8100:
8099:
8093:
8085:
8067:
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8060:
8058:
8056:
8050:
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7986:
7976:
7970:
7964:
7958:
7955:
7946:
7940:
7917:
7900:
7899:
7898:
7887:
7882:
7877:
7871:
7869:
7864:
7860:
7855:
7849:
7832:
7831:
7830:
7815:
7810:
7806:
7801:
7795:
7778:
7777:
7776:
7763:
7758:
7754:
7749:
7743:
7726:
7725:
7724:
7711:
7706:
7701:
7695:
7678:
7677:
7676:
7663:
7658:
7654:
7649:
7643:
7641:
7636:
7631:
7625:
7623:
7617:
7611:
7605:
7598:
7592:
7585:
7579:
7561:
7560:
7559:
7549:
7543:
7525:
7524:
7523:
7512:
7507:
7502:
7356:
7351:
7350:
7349:
7342:
7337:
7336:
7335:
7083:Peking glassware
6970:Arts and culture
6878:board of revenue
6820:
6817:
6804:
6802:
6793:
6791:
6782:
6780:
6771:
6769:
6760:
6758:
6749:
6747:
6738:
6736:
6727:
6725:
6716:
6714:
6707:
6705:
6698:
6696:
6687:
6685:
6676:
6674:
6665:
6663:
6654:
6652:
6643:
6641:
6632:
6630:
6621:
6619:
6610:
6608:
6599:
6597:
6588:
6586:
6580:
6511:3rd year – 1911
6507:: 1 yuan/dollar
6477:Great Divergence
6390:John K. Fairbank
6384:
6379:Taiping Movement
6288:Judaism in China
6180:Popular religion
6170:Chinese New Year
6143:Fifth Dalai Lama
6085:All Under Heaven
6014:scholars' stones
5993:scholar-official
5922:
5914:
5897:
5896:
5772:Tibetan Buddhism
5701:Viceroy of Zhili
5683:, overseen by a
5612:
5605:
5601:
5598:
5592:
5569:
5561:
5504:
5501:
5391:Advisory Council
5362:to the emperor.
5217:sovereign states
5122:abortive attempt
5063:Wuchang Uprising
4955:Battle of Peking
4938:Empress Dowager
4849:Xianfeng Emperor
4660:Xianfeng Emperor
4656:Second Opium War
4552:Hong Kong Island
4524:unequal treaties
4500:Daoguang Emperor
4470:to China led by
4413:tributary system
4278:
4277:
4268:Qianlong Emperor
4220:Palace Memorials
4217:
4216:
4203:Qianlong Emperor
4131:Dzungar–Qing War
4080:Tibetan Buddhism
4072:Qianlong Emperor
4052:Emperor of China
3999:scholar-official
3938:
3937:
3928:
3927:
3650:Seven Grievances
3501:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3477:
3472:
3463:
3458:
3453:
3447:
3442:
3410:
3405:
3396:
3391:
3386:
3381:
3336:Xuantong Emperor
3328:Wuchang Uprising
3275:. The ambitious
3259:. Defeat in the
3233:unequal treaties
3213:Qianlong Emperor
3174:tributary system
3166:Tibetan Buddhism
3096:, leader of the
3076:history of China
3024:
3023:
3020:
3019:
3016:
3013:
2991:
2984:
2977:
2960:Russian Far East
2692:Sima Jin dynasty
2591:
2581:
2563:
2562:
2553:
2546:
2539:
2481:Military history
2439:Economic history
2427:Related articles
2404:
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2188:
2170:
2169:
2165:
2164:
2149:
2139:
2126:
2113:
2098:
2097:
2081:
2076:Sixteen Kingdoms
2059:
2049:
2033:
2032:
2028:
2027:
2017:
1983:
1970:
1960:
1950:
1949:(202 BCE – 9 CE)
1940:
1928:
1915:
1902:
1901:
1880:
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1870:
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1636:
1626:History of China
1613:
1612:
1583:
1553:
1552:
1536:
1535:
1528:
1511:Mongolian script
1505:
1504:
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1133:
1132:
1131:
1117:
1116:
1103:
1102:
1079:
1078:
1073:
1072:
1047:
1046:
1038: instead of
1020:
1019:
1000:
999:
986:
985:
972:
971:
958:
957:
946:
945:
933:
932:
919:
918:
905:
904:
891:
890:
884:
883:
868:
867:
795:
794:12 February 1912
711:
644:
586:
582:Advisory Council
577:
544:
511:
464:Xuantong Emperor
249:
247:Mandarin Chinese
218:
210:
191:
182:
176:
175:
159:
158:
131:
130:
107:
87:
79:
78:
77:
68:
60:
59:
46:
45:
21:
19573:
19572:
19568:
19567:
19566:
19564:
19563:
19562:
19478:
19477:
19468:
19466:
19462:
19459:
19454:
19451:
19449:
19447:
19446:
19444:
19439:
19390:
19187:Guangxu Emperor
19181:
19086:Tongzhi Emperor
19080:
18983:
18784:
18601:Jiaqing Emperor
18595:
18240:
18139:
17782:
17645:Shunzhi Emperor
17639:
17629:
17599:
17594:
17590:Willow Palisade
17536:Chuang Guandong
17505:
17477:
17427:
17386:Treaty of Kulja
17371:Treaty of Aigun
17304:
17296:
17195:History of Ming
17147:
17141:
17079:
17073:
16999:Special regions
16994:
16933:Imperial Guards
16899:
16691:
16650:1911 Revolution
16596:
16593:
16586:
16563:Boxer Rebellion
16523:Sino-French War
16473:Amur Annexation
16418:First Opium War
16406:
16403:
16396:
16315:
16312:
16303:
16287:Great Clearance
16243:
16240:
16224:
16218:
16188:
16179:
16104:princely states
16052:
15988:Kingdom of Fiji
15961:
15707:Austria-Hungary
15675:
15438:
15372:
15171:
15157:Solomon Islands
15071:
15053:
14985:
14900:
14858:
14790:
14736:Democratization
14704:
14648:
14615:
14610:
14580:
14575:
14564:American Empire
14549:
14545:African empires
14497:
14380:
14072:Central African
14018:
13836:Romano-Germanic
13422:
13156:Middle Assyrian
13129:
13121:
13116:
13082:
13073:
13065:
13048:Wayback Machine
13021:
13016:
13009:
12970:
12959:
12936:
12917:
12893:
12891:
12884:
12852:
12833:
12812:
12788:
12766:
12742:
12712:
12710:
12703:
12682:
12663:
12631:
12609:
12607:
12600:
12579:
12556:
12535:
12505:
12486:
12465:
12444:
12422:
12420:
12413:
12392:
12363:
12344:
12322:
12320:
12313:
12292:
12260:
12258:
12251:
12230:
12211:
12189:
12187:
12186:on 29 June 2016
12169:
12147:
12145:
12138:
12117:
12095:
12093:
12086:
12062:
12060:
12058:
12037:
12018:
11994:
11992:
11985:
11964:
11945:
11926:
11902:
11900:
11893:
11872:
11856:Bays, Daniel H.
11848:
11831:
11826:
11816:
11814:
11799:
11795:
11783:
11771:
11767:
11757:
11755:
11754:on 17 June 2013
11751:
11740:
11736:
11735:
11731:
11721:
11719:
11704:
11700:
11695:on 8 July 2012.
11683:
11682:
11678:
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11666:
11653:
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11648:
11638:
11636:
11629:www.artsmia.org
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11113:
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11098:
11094:
11086:
11082:
11043:
11039:
11028:
11024:
11018:Mühlhahn (2019)
11016:
11012:
11004:
11000:
10992:
10988:
10978:
10976:
10969:
10953:
10949:
10941:
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10889:
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10869:
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10837:
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10813:
10805:
10801:
10793:
10789:
10777:
10773:
10761:
10752:
10744:
10740:
10732:
10728:
10717:
10715:
10708:
10689:
10685:
10681:, pp. 6–7.
10679:Lagerwey (2010)
10677:
10673:
10668:Wayback Machine
10658:
10654:
10644:Wayback Machine
10633:
10629:
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10408:
10400:
10396:
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10372:
10368:
10360:
10356:
10348:
10344:
10336:
10332:
10324:
10311:
10303:
10299:
10291:
10287:
10277:
10275:
10268:
10252:
10248:
10238:
10236:
10229:
10213:
10209:
10199:
10197:
10184:
10183:
10179:
10172:
10156:
10152:
10142:
10140:
10133:
10117:
10113:
10103:
10101:
10058:
10054:
10046:
10039:
10031:
10027:
10019:
10015:
9997:
9996:
9992:
9982:
9980:
9976:
9965:
9961:
9960:
9956:
9946:Millward (2007)
9944:
9940:
9935:
9931:
9927:. pp. 247, 620.
9914:
9910:
9902:
9898:
9890:
9886:
9878:
9874:
9866:
9859:
9848:
9844:
9837:
9823:
9819:
9812:
9798:
9794:
9784:
9782:
9773:
9772:
9768:
9762:Bartlett (1991)
9760:
9756:
9749:
9733:
9729:
9725:, pp. 211.
9721:
9717:
9709:
9705:
9697:
9693:
9685:
9681:
9676:
9672:
9664:
9660:
9652:
9648:
9642:Reynolds (1993)
9640:
9636:
9628:
9624:
9618:Reynolds (1993)
9616:
9612:
9606:Crossley (2010)
9604:
9600:
9593:
9577:
9573:
9563:
9561:
9557:
9556:
9552:
9544:
9540:
9532:
9528:
9520:
9516:
9512:, p. xxii.
9508:
9504:
9494:
9492:
9479:
9478:
9474:
9466:
9462:
9454:
9450:
9441:
9437:
9427:
9425:
9412:
9411:
9407:
9399:
9395:
9387:
9383:
9375:
9371:
9363:
9359:
9351:
9347:
9339:
9335:
9327:
9323:
9315:
9311:
9303:
9299:
9291:
9287:
9280:
9264:
9260:
9245:10.2307/2718931
9229:
9225:
9215:
9213:
9189:
9185:
9177:
9173:
9166:
9150:
9146:
9139:
9123:
9119:
9111:
9107:
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9092:
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9071:
9067:
9059:
9055:
9047:
9043:
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9023:
9019:
9011:
9007:
8994:
8990:
8982:
8978:
8970:
8966:
8958:
8954:
8946:
8942:
8934:
8930:
8922:
8918:
8910:
8903:
8891:
8887:
8875:
8871:
8861:Di Cosmo (2007)
8859:
8855:
8843:
8839:
8829:Di Cosmo (2007)
8827:
8823:
8813:Di Cosmo (2007)
8811:
8807:
8799:
8795:
8785:Di Cosmo (2007)
8783:
8779:
8771:
8767:
8752:
8748:
8738:
8736:
8723:
8722:
8718:
8710:
8706:
8698:
8694:
8689:
8685:
8673:
8669:
8664:
8660:
8652:
8645:
8635:
8633:
8626:
8610:
8606:
8596:
8594:
8587:
8571:
8567:
8555:
8551:
8543:
8539:
8533:Crossley (1997)
8531:
8527:
8519:
8515:
8505:
8503:
8490:
8489:
8485:
8478:
8462:
8455:
8447:
8443:
8420:
8416:
8408:
8404:
8398:
8384:
8380:
8370:
8368:
8361:
8343:
8339:
8333:Crossley (1997)
8331:
8327:
8320:
8306:
8302:
8292:
8290:
8286:
8278:
8274:
8266:
8262:
8257:
8250:
8239:
8235:
8225:
8223:
8218:
8217:
8213:
8203:
8201:
8199:
8183:
8179:
8169:
8167:
8157:
8153:
8143:
8141:
8133:
8132:
8128:
8121:
8107:
8103:
8087:
8086:
8082:
8068:
8064:
8054:
8052:
8048:
8007:
8001:Taagepera, Rein
7998:
7989:
7977:
7973:
7965:
7961:
7956:
7949:
7941:
7934:
7930:
7925:
7920:
7878:
7874:
7856:
7852:
7828:
7826:
7802:
7798:
7774:
7750:
7746:
7722:
7702:
7698:
7674:
7650:
7646:
7632:
7628:
7612:
7608:
7599:
7595:
7586:
7582:
7550:
7546:
7503:
7499:
7495:
7490:
7368:Mandarin square
7352:
7347:
7345:
7338:
7333:
7331:
7328:
7307:at a time when
7294:
7194:Philosophy and
7150:
7142:Shanghai School
7026:
6990:
6972:
6932:water transport
6908:
6902:
6884:extremely low.
6865:
6825:
6824:
6823:
6822:
6818:
6812:
6806:
6805:
6798:
6796:
6794:
6787:
6785:
6783:
6778:
6776:
6774:
6772:
6767:
6765:
6763:
6761:
6756:
6754:
6752:
6750:
6745:
6743:
6741:
6739:
6734:
6732:
6730:
6728:
6723:
6721:
6719:
6717:
6712:
6710:
6708:
6703:
6701:
6699:
6694:
6692:
6690:
6688:
6683:
6681:
6679:
6677:
6672:
6670:
6668:
6666:
6661:
6659:
6657:
6655:
6650:
6648:
6646:
6644:
6639:
6637:
6635:
6633:
6628:
6626:
6624:
6622:
6617:
6615:
6613:
6611:
6606:
6604:
6602:
6600:
6595:
6593:
6591:
6589:
6584:
6582:
6572:
6551:
6498:
6479:, by which the
6426:
6420:
6382:
6347:Robert Morrison
6340:Jiaqing Emperor
6298:
6264:
6240:heterodox sects
6236:Three teachings
6188:
6182:
6165:State shamanism
6131:Yonghe Lamasery
6123:
6117:
6081:
6075:
6033:
6028:
6022:
5981:
5975:
5945:
5905:Chuang Guandong
5890:Outer Manchuria
5886:Amur Annexation
5878:Willow Palisade
5844:
5839:
5825:
5765:Willow Palisade
5675:), followed by
5613:
5602:
5596:
5593:
5582:
5570:
5559:
5547:Empire of Japan
5519:Northeast China
5502:
5492:
5486:
5460:
5410:Shunzhi Emperor
5309:
5237:Austria-Hungary
5174:
5164:
5158:
5091:his own cabinet
4987:
4862:Guangxu Emperor
4746:Sino-French War
4699:Tongzhi Emperor
4691:
4635:Nian Rebellions
4610:(1856–1873) in
4508:First Opium War
4419:countries. The
4417:Southeast Asian
4381:
4362:Willow Palisade
4315:Jiaqing Emperor
4176:
3971:
3961:
3885:bind their feet
3837:Shunzhi Emperor
3784:Shunzhi Emperor
3763:
3757:
3736:Manchu alphabet
3720:again in 1636.
3694:Mongol nobility
3682:
3673:battle of Sarhu
3591:
3571:Tungusic people
3555:
3541:
3536:
3529:
3523:
3470:
3468:
3368:
3362:
3356:
3324:Guangxu Emperor
3267:over Korea and
3134:Shunzhi Emperor
3044:Chinese history
3010:
3006:
2995:
2966:
2965:
2956:Outer Manchuria
2951:Northeast China
2896:Fengtian Clique
2873:Chuang Guandong
2868:Amur Annexation
2863:
2855:
2854:
2785:Dongdan Kingdom
2780:Little Goguryeo
2755:
2747:
2746:
2617:
2609:
2608:
2599:
2579:
2572:
2557:
2528:
2527:
2523:Women's history
2429:
2428:
2419:
2418:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2400:
2389:
2384:
2380:
2360:
2355:
2346:
2345:
2334:
2333:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2314:
2309:
2301:
2296:
2282:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2258:
2253:
2245:
2240:
2232:
2226:
2221:
2211:
2199:
2191:
2186:
2182:
2162:
2161:
2156:
2147:
2137:
2129:
2124:
2116:
2111:
2107:
2095:
2094:
2089:
2084:
2079:
2071:
2068:
2062:
2057:
2047:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2007:
1981:
1973:
1968:
1958:
1948:
1938:
1926:
1918:
1913:
1898:
1897:
1886:
1885:
1878:
1868:
1864:
1859:
1851:
1841:
1827:
1823:
1818:
1810:
1803:
1799:
1794:
1781: 1046 BCE
1780:
1776:
1771:
1763:
1757: 1600 BCE
1756:
1752:
1747:
1738:
1737:
1726:
1725:
1698: 2000 BCE
1697:
1693:
1688:
1680:
1669:
1668:
1582:
1530:
1529:
1527:
1517:
1367:Tongyong Pinyin
1139:Tongyong Pinyin
1129:
1045:
1044:
1043:
1040:Manchu alphabet
1030:Without proper
1021:
1017:
997:
983:
969:
955:
930:
923:Dzungar Khanate
916:
902:
888:
862:
793:
790:
788:End of monarchy
777:
764:
751:
749:Boxer Rebellion
738:
736:100 Days Reform
725:
712:
707:
697:
684:
671:
658:
645:
641:
638:
628:
625:
624:Transition from
613:
589:
584:
580:
575:
571:
551:
539:
536:
506:
503:
490:
460:
452:Shunzhi Emperor
448:
440:Chongde Emperor
436:
393:
373:
339:
302:
252:
245:
221:
213:
205:
194:
177:
171:
163:
160:
140:
132:
115:
109:
108:
91:
90:
81:
75:
62:
51:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
19571:
19561:
19560:
19555:
19550:
19545:
19540:
19535:
19530:
19525:
19520:
19515:
19510:
19505:
19500:
19495:
19490:
19441:
19440:
19438:
19437:
19434:
19431:
19428:
19425:
19422:
19419:
19416:
19411:
19406:
19400:
19398:
19392:
19391:
19389:
19388:
19383:
19378:
19373:
19368:
19363:
19358:
19353:
19348:
19343:
19337:
19336:
19331:
19326:
19321:
19316:
19311:
19306:
19301:
19296:
19291:
19285:
19284:
19279:
19274:
19269:
19264:
19259:
19254:
19249:
19244:
19239:
19233:
19232:
19227:
19222:
19217:
19212:
19207:
19204:
19201:
19198:
19195:
19191:
19189:
19183:
19182:
19180:
19179:
19176:
19173:
19170:
19167:
19164:
19159:
19154:
19149:
19144:
19138:
19137:
19132:
19127:
19122:
19117:
19112:
19107:
19102:
19097:
19094:
19090:
19088:
19082:
19081:
19079:
19078:
19075:
19072:
19069:
19066:
19063:
19060:
19057:
19054:
19049:
19043:
19042:
19037:
19032:
19027:
19022:
19017:
19012:
19007:
19002:
18997:
18993:
18991:
18985:
18984:
18982:
18981:
18978:
18975:
18972:
18969:
18966:
18963:
18960:
18957:
18954:
18948:
18947:
18942:
18937:
18932:
18927:
18922:
18917:
18912:
18907:
18902:
18896:
18895:
18890:
18885:
18880:
18875:
18870:
18865:
18860:
18855:
18850:
18844:
18843:
18838:
18833:
18828:
18823:
18818:
18813:
18808:
18803:
18798:
18794:
18792:
18786:
18785:
18783:
18782:
18779:
18776:
18773:
18770:
18767:
18764:
18761:
18758:
18755:
18749:
18748:
18743:
18738:
18733:
18728:
18723:
18718:
18713:
18708:
18703:
18697:
18696:
18691:
18686:
18681:
18676:
18671:
18666:
18661:
18656:
18651:
18645:
18644:
18639:
18634:
18629:
18624:
18621:
18618:
18615:
18612:
18609:
18605:
18603:
18597:
18596:
18594:
18593:
18590:
18587:
18584:
18581:
18576:
18571:
18566:
18561:
18556:
18550:
18549:
18544:
18539:
18534:
18529:
18524:
18519:
18514:
18509:
18504:
18498:
18497:
18492:
18487:
18482:
18477:
18472:
18467:
18462:
18457:
18452:
18446:
18445:
18440:
18435:
18430:
18425:
18420:
18415:
18410:
18405:
18400:
18394:
18393:
18388:
18383:
18378:
18373:
18368:
18363:
18358:
18353:
18348:
18342:
18341:
18336:
18331:
18326:
18321:
18316:
18311:
18306:
18301:
18296:
18290:
18289:
18284:
18279:
18274:
18269:
18266:
18263:
18260:
18257:
18254:
18250:
18248:
18242:
18241:
18239:
18238:
18235:
18232:
18229:
18226:
18223:
18218:
18213:
18208:
18203:
18197:
18196:
18191:
18186:
18181:
18176:
18171:
18166:
18161:
18156:
18153:
18149:
18147:
18141:
18140:
18138:
18137:
18134:
18131:
18128:
18125:
18122:
18119:
18116:
18111:
18106:
18100:
18099:
18094:
18089:
18084:
18079:
18074:
18069:
18064:
18059:
18054:
18048:
18047:
18042:
18037:
18032:
18027:
18022:
18017:
18012:
18007:
18002:
17996:
17995:
17990:
17985:
17980:
17975:
17970:
17965:
17960:
17955:
17950:
17944:
17943:
17938:
17933:
17928:
17923:
17918:
17913:
17908:
17903:
17898:
17892:
17891:
17886:
17881:
17876:
17871:
17866:
17861:
17856:
17851:
17846:
17840:
17839:
17834:
17829:
17824:
17819:
17814:
17809:
17804:
17799:
17796:
17792:
17790:
17788:Kangxi Emperor
17784:
17783:
17781:
17780:
17777:
17774:
17771:
17768:
17765:
17762:
17759:
17756:
17751:
17745:
17744:
17739:
17734:
17729:
17724:
17719:
17714:
17709:
17704:
17699:
17693:
17692:
17687:
17682:
17677:
17672:
17667:
17662:
17659:
17656:
17653:
17649:
17647:
17641:
17640:
17628:
17627:
17620:
17613:
17605:
17596:
17595:
17593:
17592:
17587:
17582:
17577:
17572:
17567:
17562:
17557:
17552:
17545:
17538:
17533:
17528:
17523:
17517:
17515:
17511:
17510:
17507:
17506:
17504:
17503:
17498:
17493:
17487:
17485:
17479:
17478:
17476:
17475:
17470:
17465:
17460:
17455:
17453:Kangxi Tongbao
17450:
17444:
17442:
17433:
17429:
17428:
17426:
17425:
17424:
17423:
17418:
17413:
17408:
17403:
17398:
17393:
17388:
17383:
17378:
17373:
17368:
17363:
17358:
17353:
17348:
17343:
17338:
17333:
17328:
17326:Boxer Protocol
17318:
17313:
17307:
17305:
17298:
17297:
17295:
17294:
17293:
17292:
17278:
17273:
17268:
17263:
17256:
17251:
17244:
17239:
17234:
17227:
17220:
17215:
17210:
17205:
17198:
17191:
17186:
17185:
17184:
17174:
17169:
17162:
17157:
17151:
17149:
17143:
17142:
17140:
17139:
17134:
17129:
17124:
17119:
17114:
17109:
17104:
17099:
17094:
17092:Forbidden City
17089:
17083:
17081:
17075:
17074:
17072:
17071:
17070:
17069:
17059:
17058:
17057:
17055:General of Ili
17052:
17042:
17041:
17040:
17038:List of ambans
17035:
17025:
17024:
17023:
17013:
17008:
17002:
17000:
16996:
16995:
16993:
16992:
16987:
16986:
16985:
16980:
16975:
16965:
16960:
16955:
16950:
16945:
16940:
16935:
16930:
16925:
16920:
16915:
16909:
16907:
16901:
16900:
16898:
16897:
16892:
16891:
16890:
16885:
16880:
16875:
16870:
16865:
16860:
16855:
16850:
16840:
16835:
16834:
16833:
16823:
16818:
16813:
16808:
16803:
16798:
16793:
16788:
16783:
16778:
16773:
16768:
16763:
16758:
16753:
16748:
16743:
16738:
16733:
16728:
16723:
16722:
16721:
16716:
16705:
16703:
16697:
16696:
16693:
16692:
16690:
16689:
16684:
16679:
16678:
16677:
16672:
16667:
16662:
16657:
16647:
16642:
16637:
16632:
16631:
16630:
16625:
16615:
16610:
16605:
16599:
16597:
16592:
16588:
16587:
16585:
16584:
16583:
16582:
16572:
16571:
16570:
16560:
16555:
16550:
16545:
16540:
16535:
16530:
16525:
16520:
16515:
16510:
16505:
16503:Margary Affair
16500:
16495:
16493:Mudan incident
16490:
16485:
16480:
16475:
16470:
16465:
16460:
16455:
16450:
16445:
16440:
16435:
16433:Nian Rebellion
16430:
16425:
16420:
16415:
16409:
16407:
16402:
16398:
16397:
16395:
16394:
16389:
16384:
16379:
16374:
16369:
16364:
16359:
16354:
16349:
16344:
16339:
16334:
16329:
16324:
16318:
16316:
16311:
16305:
16304:
16302:
16301:
16296:
16295:
16294:
16284:
16283:
16282:
16272:
16267:
16262:
16257:
16252:
16246:
16244:
16239:
16232:
16226:
16225:
16217:
16216:
16209:
16202:
16194:
16185:
16184:
16181:
16180:
16178:
16177:
16172:
16167:
16162:
16157:
16152:
16147:
16142:
16137:
16132:
16127:
16122:
16117:
16108:
16092:
16087:
16082:
16077:
16072:
16066:
16060:
16058:
16054:
16053:
16051:
16050:
16045:
16040:
16035:
16030:
16025:
16020:
16015:
16010:
16005:
16000:
15995:
15990:
15985:
15980:
15975:
15969:
15967:
15963:
15962:
15960:
15959:
15954:
15949:
15944:
15939:
15934:
15929:
15924:
15919:
15914:
15909:
15904:
15899:
15894:
15889:
15884:
15879:
15874:
15869:
15864:
15862:Ottoman Empire
15859:
15854:
15849:
15844:
15839:
15834:
15829:
15824:
15822:Kartli-Kakheti
15819:
15814:
15809:
15804:
15799:
15794:
15789:
15784:
15779:
15774:
15769:
15764:
15759:
15754:
15749:
15744:
15739:
15734:
15729:
15724:
15719:
15714:
15709:
15704:
15699:
15694:
15689:
15683:
15681:
15677:
15676:
15674:
15673:
15661:
15656:
15651:
15646:
15641:
15636:
15631:
15626:
15621:
15616:
15611:
15604:
15599:
15594:
15589:
15584:
15579:
15574:
15569:
15564:
15559:
15554:
15549:
15544:
15539:
15534:
15529:
15524:
15519:
15514:
15504:
15497:
15492:
15487:
15482:
15477:
15472:
15467:
15462:
15457:
15452:
15446:
15444:
15440:
15439:
15437:
15436:
15431:
15426:
15421:
15416:
15411:
15406:
15401:
15396:
15391:
15386:
15380:
15378:
15374:
15373:
15371:
15370:
15363:
15358:
15353:
15348:
15343:
15338:
15333:
15328:
15323:
15318:
15313:
15308:
15303:
15298:
15293:
15288:
15283:
15278:
15273:
15268:
15263:
15258:
15253:
15248:
15243:
15238:
15233:
15231:Central Africa
15228:
15223:
15218:
15213:
15208:
15203:
15198:
15192:
15190:
15183:
15177:
15176:
15173:
15172:
15170:
15169:
15167:United Kingdom
15164:
15159:
15154:
15149:
15144:
15139:
15134:
15133:
15132:
15127:
15117:
15112:
15107:
15102:
15097:
15092:
15087:
15081:
15079:
15073:
15072:
15070:
15069:
15063:
15061:
15055:
15054:
15052:
15051:
15046:
15041:
15036:
15031:
15026:
15021:
15016:
15011:
15006:
15001:
14995:
14993:
14987:
14986:
14984:
14983:
14976:
14971:
14966:
14961:
14956:
14951:
14946:
14941:
14936:
14931:
14926:
14921:
14916:
14910:
14908:
14902:
14901:
14899:
14898:
14891:
14886:
14881:
14875:
14873:
14864:
14860:
14859:
14857:
14856:
14851:
14846:
14841:
14836:
14831:
14826:
14824:Prince regnant
14821:
14820:
14819:
14809:
14804:
14798:
14796:
14792:
14791:
14789:
14788:
14783:
14778:
14773:
14768:
14763:
14758:
14753:
14748:
14743:
14741:Decolonization
14738:
14733:
14728:
14723:
14718:
14712:
14710:
14706:
14705:
14703:
14702:
14697:
14695:Personal union
14692:
14687:
14682:
14677:
14672:
14667:
14665:Constitutional
14662:
14656:
14654:
14650:
14649:
14647:
14646:
14641:
14636:
14631:
14626:
14620:
14617:
14616:
14609:
14608:
14601:
14594:
14586:
14577:
14576:
14574:
14573:
14572:
14571:
14566:
14557:
14555:
14551:
14550:
14548:
14547:
14542:
14537:
14532:
14527:
14522:
14521:
14520:
14509:
14507:
14503:
14502:
14499:
14498:
14496:
14495:
14490:
14485:
14480:
14475:
14474:
14473:
14463:
14458:
14453:
14448:
14443:
14438:
14433:
14428:
14423:
14418:
14417:
14416:
14411:
14401:
14396:
14390:
14388:
14379:
14378:
14377:
14376:
14371:
14366:
14361:
14356:
14346:
14341:
14340:
14339:
14329:
14324:
14323:
14322:
14317:
14312:
14302:
14297:
14296:
14295:
14290:
14280:
14279:
14278:
14273:
14268:
14263:
14258:
14248:
14247:
14246:
14241:
14231:
14226:
14221:
14216:
14215:
14214:
14209:
14204:
14199:
14194:
14184:
14183:
14182:
14177:
14167:
14162:
14161:
14160:
14155:
14145:
14144:
14143:
14138:
14128:
14127:
14126:
14121:
14111:
14106:
14105:
14104:
14099:
14094:
14089:
14084:
14074:
14069:
14068:
14067:
14062:
14054:
14049:
14044:
14039:
14034:
14028:
14026:
14020:
14019:
14017:
14016:
14011:
14006:
14001:
14000:
13999:
13994:
13989:
13984:
13979:
13974:
13969:
13959:
13954:
13953:
13952:
13947:
13942:
13937:
13932:
13927:
13917:
13916:
13915:
13910:
13905:
13900:
13890:
13885:
13880:
13875:
13870:
13865:
13860:
13855:
13850:
13849:
13848:
13843:
13833:
13832:
13831:
13826:
13821:
13816:
13811:
13806:
13793:
13788:
13783:
13778:
13777:
13776:
13771:
13766:
13756:
13755:
13754:
13749:
13744:
13739:
13729:
13724:
13719:
13714:
13709:
13704:
13703:
13702:
13697:
13692:
13687:
13677:
13676:
13675:
13670:
13665:
13660:
13650:
13649:
13648:
13643:
13638:
13628:
13623:
13618:
13613:
13608:
13607:
13606:
13601:
13596:
13586:
13581:
13580:
13579:
13574:
13569:
13564:
13559:
13554:
13544:
13543:
13542:
13537:
13527:
13526:
13525:
13520:
13515:
13510:
13500:
13495:
13494:
13493:
13483:
13482:
13481:
13476:
13468:
13463:
13458:
13453:
13448:
13443:
13438:
13432:
13430:
13428:Post-classical
13424:
13423:
13421:
13420:
13419:
13418:
13408:
13403:
13402:
13401:
13396:
13386:
13385:
13384:
13374:
13373:
13372:
13367:
13362:
13357:
13352:
13347:
13337:
13332:
13327:
13326:
13325:
13320:
13315:
13310:
13300:
13299:
13298:
13293:
13283:
13278:
13277:
13276:
13271:
13266:
13261:
13256:
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13227:Middle Kingdom
13224:
13214:
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13208:
13207:
13202:
13197:
13187:
13186:
13185:
13183:Neo-Babylonian
13180:
13175:
13173:Old Babylonian
13165:
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13020:
13019:External links
13017:
13015:
13014:
12963:
12958:978-0520231269
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12250:978-9888028047
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12173:
12168:978-0822331889
12167:
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12137:978-0226304168
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11963:978-9888208036
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11512:978-0674016859
11511:
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11467:978-0801880896
11466:
11446:
11419:(3): 647–676.
11403:
11391:
11379:
11373:978-1108995955
11372:
11354:
11339:
11320:(2): 328–329.
11300:
11288:
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11225:
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11195:(in Chinese),
11179:
11167:
11155:
11153:, p. 598.
11143:
11131:
11129:, p. 593.
11119:
11117:, p. 151.
11115:Murphey (2007)
11104:
11102:, p. 564.
11092:
11080:
11037:
11022:
11020:, p. 170.
11010:
10998:
10986:
10968:978-0674018280
10967:
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10899:
10883:
10867:
10851:
10835:
10823:
10821:, p. 145.
10811:
10799:
10797:, p. 241.
10795:Elliott (2001)
10787:
10771:
10750:
10738:
10726:
10724:, pp. 958–961.
10706:
10683:
10671:
10652:
10627:
10623:Elliott (2001)
10615:
10613:, p. 236.
10603:
10591:
10587:Elliott (2001)
10579:
10571:
10553:
10526:"Introduction"
10516:
10487:
10475:
10459:
10443:
10418:
10406:
10404:, p. 335.
10394:
10378:
10366:
10364:, p. 111.
10354:
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10309:
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10297:
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10072:(4): 599–621.
10052:
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9908:
9904:Torbert (1977)
9896:
9892:Torbert (1977)
9884:
9872:
9870:, p. 179.
9857:
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9608:, p. 117.
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9041:
9039:, p. 206.
9029:
9027:, p. 198.
9017:
9015:, p. 135.
9005:
8988:
8984:Wakeman (1977)
8976:
8964:
8962:, p. 164.
8952:
8948:Wakeman (1985)
8940:
8936:Wakeman (1985)
8928:
8924:Wakeman (1985)
8916:
8901:
8893:Wakeman (1985)
8885:
8869:
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8837:
8821:
8805:
8803:, p. 141.
8793:
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8658:
8643:
8625:978-0500771471
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8604:
8586:978-1134462094
8585:
8565:
8557:Wakeman (1985)
8549:
8547:, p. 271.
8537:
8525:
8523:, p. 220.
8513:
8492:"Qing dynasty"
8483:
8477:978-1134362226
8476:
8453:
8441:
8414:
8402:
8396:
8378:
8360:978-9004418929
8359:
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8120:978-1788317894
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8080:
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7959:
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7883:; pinyin:
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7293:
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7189:British Museum
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5716:Outer Mongolia
5677:subprefectures
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5549:following the
5527:Outer Mongolia
5523:Inner Mongolia
5482:Main article:
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5330:Forbidden City
5308:
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5297:British Empire
5293:United Kingdom
5160:Main article:
5157:
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5118:Imperial China
5087:Prime Minister
4986:
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4979:Boxer Protocol
4959:Forbidden City
4783:, such as the
4734:Russian Empire
4690:
4687:
4662:agreed to the
4425:Tsarist Russia
4397:Chinese empire
4380:
4377:
4210:Kangxi Emperor
4175:
4172:
4141:, grandson of
4139:Zheng Keshuang
4137:(Taiwan) from
4123:Outer Mongolia
4078:, a patron of
4068:Chinese khagan
3987:Kangxi Emperor
3981:(r. 1661–1722)
3979:Kangxi Emperor
3960:
3957:
3945:Kangxi Emperor
3756:
3753:
3748:Hong Chengchou
3681:
3678:
3660:in 1621, then
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3511:Ch'ing dynasty
3507:Manchu dynasty
3485:Zhōngwài yījiā
3469:ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ ᡳ
3451:Dulimbai Gurun
3366:Names of China
3358:Main article:
3355:
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3296:foreign powers
3168:), encouraged
3154:Kangxi Emperor
3122:a Ming general
3118:peasant rebels
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2019:
2018:
2006:
2005:
1985:
1984:
1978:Three Kingdoms
1972:
1971:
1961:
1951:
1941:
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1929:
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1905:
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1893:
1892:
1891:
1888:
1887:
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1883:
1882:
1881:
1876:Warring States
1873:
1869: 476 BCE
1844:
1842:(1046–771 BCE)
1833:
1832:
1828: 256 BCE
1809:
1808:
1786:
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1491:Mongolian name
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1312:Transcriptions
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1191:Yue: Cantonese
1187:
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1155:
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1135:
1134:
1125:
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1083:
1082:Transcriptions
1075:
1074:
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1056:
1055:
1052:
1051:
1034:, you may see
1022:
1015:
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594:Historical era
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19011:
19008:
19006:
19003:
19001:
18998:
18995:
18994:
18992:
18990:
18986:
18979:
18976:
18973:
18970:
18967:
18964:
18961:
18958:
18955:
18953:
18950:
18949:
18946:
18943:
18941:
18938:
18936:
18933:
18931:
18928:
18926:
18923:
18921:
18918:
18916:
18913:
18911:
18908:
18906:
18903:
18901:
18898:
18897:
18894:
18891:
18889:
18886:
18884:
18881:
18879:
18876:
18874:
18871:
18869:
18866:
18864:
18861:
18859:
18856:
18854:
18851:
18849:
18846:
18845:
18842:
18839:
18837:
18834:
18832:
18829:
18827:
18824:
18822:
18819:
18817:
18814:
18812:
18809:
18807:
18804:
18802:
18799:
18796:
18795:
18793:
18791:
18787:
18780:
18777:
18774:
18771:
18768:
18765:
18762:
18759:
18756:
18754:
18751:
18750:
18747:
18744:
18742:
18739:
18737:
18734:
18732:
18729:
18727:
18724:
18722:
18719:
18717:
18714:
18712:
18709:
18707:
18704:
18702:
18699:
18698:
18695:
18692:
18690:
18687:
18685:
18682:
18680:
18677:
18675:
18672:
18670:
18667:
18665:
18662:
18660:
18657:
18655:
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18650:
18647:
18646:
18643:
18640:
18638:
18635:
18633:
18630:
18628:
18625:
18622:
18619:
18616:
18613:
18610:
18607:
18606:
18604:
18602:
18598:
18591:
18588:
18585:
18582:
18580:
18577:
18575:
18572:
18570:
18567:
18565:
18562:
18560:
18557:
18555:
18552:
18551:
18548:
18545:
18543:
18540:
18538:
18535:
18533:
18530:
18528:
18525:
18523:
18520:
18518:
18515:
18513:
18510:
18508:
18505:
18503:
18500:
18499:
18496:
18493:
18491:
18488:
18486:
18483:
18481:
18478:
18476:
18473:
18471:
18468:
18466:
18463:
18461:
18458:
18456:
18453:
18451:
18448:
18447:
18444:
18441:
18439:
18436:
18434:
18431:
18429:
18426:
18424:
18421:
18419:
18416:
18414:
18411:
18409:
18406:
18404:
18401:
18399:
18396:
18395:
18392:
18389:
18387:
18384:
18382:
18379:
18377:
18374:
18372:
18369:
18367:
18364:
18362:
18359:
18357:
18354:
18352:
18349:
18347:
18344:
18343:
18340:
18337:
18335:
18332:
18330:
18327:
18325:
18322:
18320:
18317:
18315:
18312:
18310:
18307:
18305:
18302:
18300:
18297:
18295:
18292:
18291:
18288:
18285:
18283:
18280:
18278:
18275:
18273:
18270:
18267:
18264:
18261:
18258:
18255:
18252:
18251:
18249:
18247:
18243:
18236:
18233:
18230:
18227:
18224:
18222:
18219:
18217:
18214:
18212:
18209:
18207:
18204:
18202:
18199:
18198:
18195:
18192:
18190:
18187:
18185:
18182:
18180:
18177:
18175:
18172:
18170:
18167:
18165:
18162:
18160:
18157:
18154:
18151:
18150:
18148:
18146:
18142:
18135:
18132:
18129:
18126:
18123:
18120:
18117:
18115:
18112:
18110:
18107:
18105:
18102:
18101:
18098:
18095:
18093:
18090:
18088:
18085:
18083:
18080:
18078:
18075:
18073:
18070:
18068:
18065:
18063:
18060:
18058:
18055:
18053:
18050:
18049:
18046:
18043:
18041:
18038:
18036:
18033:
18031:
18028:
18026:
18023:
18021:
18018:
18016:
18013:
18011:
18008:
18006:
18003:
18001:
17998:
17997:
17994:
17991:
17989:
17986:
17984:
17981:
17979:
17976:
17974:
17971:
17969:
17966:
17964:
17961:
17959:
17956:
17954:
17951:
17949:
17946:
17945:
17942:
17939:
17937:
17934:
17932:
17929:
17927:
17924:
17922:
17919:
17917:
17914:
17912:
17909:
17907:
17904:
17902:
17899:
17897:
17894:
17893:
17890:
17887:
17885:
17882:
17880:
17877:
17875:
17872:
17870:
17867:
17865:
17862:
17860:
17857:
17855:
17852:
17850:
17847:
17845:
17842:
17841:
17838:
17835:
17833:
17830:
17828:
17825:
17823:
17820:
17818:
17815:
17813:
17810:
17808:
17805:
17803:
17800:
17797:
17794:
17793:
17791:
17789:
17785:
17778:
17775:
17772:
17769:
17766:
17763:
17760:
17757:
17755:
17752:
17750:
17747:
17746:
17743:
17740:
17738:
17735:
17733:
17730:
17728:
17725:
17723:
17720:
17718:
17715:
17713:
17710:
17708:
17705:
17703:
17700:
17698:
17695:
17694:
17691:
17688:
17686:
17683:
17681:
17678:
17676:
17673:
17671:
17668:
17666:
17663:
17660:
17657:
17654:
17651:
17650:
17648:
17646:
17642:
17637:
17633:
17626:
17621:
17619:
17614:
17612:
17607:
17606:
17603:
17591:
17588:
17586:
17583:
17581:
17578:
17576:
17573:
17571:
17568:
17566:
17565:Manchu people
17563:
17561:
17558:
17556:
17553:
17551:
17550:
17546:
17544:
17543:
17539:
17537:
17534:
17532:
17531:Canton System
17529:
17527:
17524:
17522:
17519:
17518:
17516:
17512:
17502:
17499:
17497:
17496:Hubu Guanpiao
17494:
17492:
17489:
17488:
17486:
17484:
17480:
17474:
17471:
17469:
17466:
17464:
17461:
17459:
17456:
17454:
17451:
17449:
17446:
17445:
17443:
17441:
17437:
17434:
17430:
17422:
17419:
17417:
17414:
17412:
17409:
17407:
17404:
17402:
17399:
17397:
17394:
17392:
17389:
17387:
17384:
17382:
17379:
17377:
17374:
17372:
17369:
17367:
17364:
17362:
17359:
17357:
17354:
17352:
17349:
17347:
17344:
17342:
17339:
17337:
17334:
17332:
17329:
17327:
17324:
17323:
17322:
17319:
17317:
17314:
17312:
17309:
17308:
17306:
17303:
17299:
17291:
17290:
17286:
17285:
17284:
17283:
17279:
17277:
17274:
17272:
17269:
17267:
17264:
17262:
17261:
17257:
17255:
17252:
17250:
17249:
17245:
17243:
17240:
17238:
17235:
17233:
17232:
17228:
17226:
17225:
17221:
17219:
17216:
17214:
17211:
17209:
17206:
17204:
17203:
17199:
17197:
17196:
17192:
17190:
17187:
17183:
17180:
17179:
17178:
17175:
17173:
17170:
17168:
17167:
17163:
17161:
17158:
17156:
17153:
17152:
17150:
17146:Society &
17144:
17138:
17135:
17133:
17130:
17128:
17125:
17123:
17120:
17118:
17115:
17113:
17112:Summer Palace
17110:
17108:
17105:
17103:
17102:Mukden Palace
17100:
17098:
17095:
17093:
17090:
17088:
17085:
17084:
17082:
17078:Palaces &
17076:
17068:
17065:
17064:
17063:
17060:
17056:
17053:
17051:
17048:
17047:
17046:
17043:
17039:
17036:
17034:
17031:
17030:
17029:
17026:
17022:
17019:
17018:
17017:
17014:
17012:
17009:
17007:
17004:
17003:
17001:
16997:
16991:
16988:
16984:
16981:
16979:
16976:
16974:
16971:
16970:
16969:
16966:
16964:
16961:
16959:
16956:
16954:
16951:
16949:
16946:
16944:
16941:
16939:
16936:
16934:
16931:
16929:
16926:
16924:
16921:
16919:
16918:Eight Banners
16916:
16914:
16911:
16910:
16908:
16906:
16902:
16896:
16893:
16889:
16886:
16884:
16881:
16879:
16876:
16874:
16871:
16869:
16866:
16864:
16861:
16859:
16856:
16854:
16851:
16849:
16846:
16845:
16844:
16841:
16839:
16836:
16832:
16829:
16828:
16827:
16824:
16822:
16819:
16817:
16814:
16812:
16809:
16807:
16804:
16802:
16799:
16797:
16794:
16792:
16789:
16787:
16784:
16782:
16779:
16777:
16774:
16772:
16771:Grand Council
16769:
16767:
16764:
16762:
16759:
16757:
16754:
16752:
16749:
16747:
16744:
16742:
16739:
16737:
16734:
16732:
16729:
16727:
16724:
16720:
16717:
16715:
16712:
16711:
16710:
16707:
16706:
16704:
16702:
16698:
16688:
16685:
16683:
16680:
16676:
16673:
16671:
16668:
16666:
16663:
16661:
16658:
16656:
16653:
16652:
16651:
16648:
16646:
16643:
16641:
16638:
16636:
16633:
16629:
16626:
16624:
16621:
16620:
16619:
16616:
16614:
16611:
16609:
16606:
16604:
16601:
16600:
16598:
16591:20th century
16589:
16581:
16578:
16577:
16576:
16573:
16569:
16566:
16565:
16564:
16561:
16559:
16556:
16554:
16551:
16549:
16546:
16544:
16541:
16539:
16536:
16534:
16531:
16529:
16526:
16524:
16521:
16519:
16516:
16514:
16511:
16509:
16506:
16504:
16501:
16499:
16496:
16494:
16491:
16489:
16486:
16484:
16481:
16479:
16476:
16474:
16471:
16469:
16466:
16464:
16461:
16459:
16456:
16454:
16451:
16449:
16446:
16444:
16441:
16439:
16436:
16434:
16431:
16429:
16426:
16424:
16421:
16419:
16416:
16414:
16411:
16410:
16408:
16401:19th century
16399:
16393:
16390:
16388:
16385:
16383:
16380:
16378:
16375:
16373:
16370:
16368:
16365:
16363:
16360:
16358:
16355:
16353:
16350:
16348:
16345:
16343:
16340:
16338:
16335:
16333:
16330:
16328:
16325:
16323:
16320:
16319:
16317:
16310:
16306:
16300:
16297:
16293:
16290:
16289:
16288:
16285:
16281:
16278:
16277:
16276:
16273:
16271:
16268:
16266:
16263:
16261:
16258:
16256:
16253:
16251:
16248:
16247:
16245:
16236:
16233:
16231:
16227:
16222:
16215:
16210:
16208:
16203:
16201:
16196:
16195:
16192:
16176:
16173:
16171:
16168:
16166:
16163:
16161:
16158:
16156:
16153:
16151:
16148:
16146:
16143:
16141:
16138:
16136:
16133:
16131:
16128:
16126:
16123:
16121:
16118:
16116:
16112:
16109:
16106:
16105:
16100:
16096:
16093:
16091:
16088:
16086:
16083:
16081:
16078:
16076:
16073:
16070:
16067:
16065:
16062:
16061:
16059:
16055:
16049:
16046:
16044:
16041:
16039:
16036:
16034:
16031:
16029:
16026:
16024:
16021:
16019:
16016:
16014:
16011:
16009:
16006:
16004:
16001:
15999:
15996:
15994:
15991:
15989:
15986:
15984:
15983:Easter Island
15981:
15979:
15976:
15974:
15971:
15970:
15968:
15964:
15958:
15955:
15953:
15950:
15948:
15945:
15943:
15940:
15938:
15935:
15933:
15930:
15928:
15925:
15923:
15920:
15918:
15915:
15913:
15910:
15908:
15905:
15903:
15900:
15898:
15895:
15893:
15890:
15888:
15885:
15883:
15880:
15878:
15875:
15873:
15870:
15868:
15865:
15863:
15860:
15858:
15855:
15853:
15850:
15848:
15845:
15843:
15840:
15838:
15835:
15833:
15830:
15828:
15825:
15823:
15820:
15818:
15815:
15813:
15810:
15808:
15805:
15803:
15800:
15798:
15795:
15793:
15790:
15788:
15785:
15783:
15780:
15778:
15775:
15773:
15770:
15768:
15765:
15763:
15760:
15758:
15755:
15753:
15750:
15748:
15745:
15743:
15740:
15738:
15735:
15733:
15730:
15728:
15725:
15723:
15720:
15718:
15715:
15713:
15710:
15708:
15705:
15703:
15700:
15698:
15695:
15693:
15690:
15688:
15685:
15684:
15682:
15678:
15671:
15670:
15665:
15662:
15660:
15657:
15655:
15652:
15650:
15647:
15645:
15642:
15640:
15637:
15635:
15632:
15630:
15627:
15625:
15622:
15620:
15617:
15615:
15612:
15610:
15609:
15605:
15603:
15600:
15598:
15595:
15593:
15590:
15588:
15585:
15583:
15580:
15578:
15575:
15573:
15570:
15568:
15565:
15563:
15560:
15558:
15555:
15553:
15550:
15548:
15545:
15543:
15540:
15538:
15535:
15533:
15530:
15528:
15525:
15523:
15522:Jabal Shammar
15520:
15518:
15515:
15512:
15508:
15505:
15503:
15502:
15498:
15496:
15493:
15491:
15488:
15486:
15483:
15481:
15478:
15476:
15473:
15471:
15468:
15466:
15463:
15461:
15458:
15456:
15453:
15451:
15448:
15447:
15445:
15441:
15435:
15432:
15430:
15427:
15425:
15422:
15420:
15417:
15415:
15412:
15410:
15407:
15405:
15402:
15400:
15397:
15395:
15392:
15390:
15387:
15385:
15382:
15381:
15379:
15375:
15369:
15368:
15364:
15362:
15359:
15357:
15354:
15352:
15349:
15347:
15344:
15342:
15339:
15337:
15334:
15332:
15329:
15327:
15324:
15322:
15319:
15317:
15314:
15312:
15309:
15307:
15304:
15302:
15299:
15297:
15294:
15292:
15289:
15287:
15284:
15282:
15279:
15277:
15274:
15272:
15269:
15267:
15264:
15262:
15259:
15257:
15254:
15252:
15249:
15247:
15244:
15242:
15239:
15237:
15234:
15232:
15229:
15227:
15224:
15222:
15219:
15217:
15214:
15212:
15209:
15207:
15204:
15202:
15199:
15197:
15194:
15193:
15191:
15187:
15184:
15182:
15178:
15168:
15165:
15163:
15160:
15158:
15155:
15153:
15150:
15148:
15145:
15143:
15140:
15138:
15135:
15131:
15128:
15126:
15123:
15122:
15121:
15118:
15116:
15113:
15111:
15108:
15106:
15103:
15101:
15098:
15096:
15093:
15091:
15088:
15086:
15083:
15082:
15080:
15078:
15074:
15068:
15065:
15064:
15062:
15060:
15056:
15050:
15047:
15045:
15042:
15040:
15037:
15035:
15032:
15030:
15027:
15025:
15022:
15020:
15017:
15015:
15014:Liechtenstein
15012:
15010:
15007:
15005:
15002:
15000:
14997:
14996:
14994:
14992:
14988:
14982:
14981:
14977:
14975:
14972:
14970:
14967:
14965:
14962:
14960:
14957:
14955:
14952:
14950:
14947:
14945:
14942:
14940:
14937:
14935:
14932:
14930:
14927:
14925:
14922:
14920:
14917:
14915:
14912:
14911:
14909:
14907:
14903:
14897:
14896:
14892:
14890:
14887:
14885:
14882:
14880:
14877:
14876:
14874:
14872:
14868:
14865:
14861:
14855:
14852:
14850:
14847:
14845:
14842:
14840:
14837:
14835:
14832:
14830:
14827:
14825:
14822:
14818:
14817:Queen regnant
14815:
14814:
14813:
14810:
14808:
14805:
14803:
14800:
14799:
14797:
14793:
14787:
14784:
14782:
14779:
14777:
14776:Republicanism
14774:
14772:
14769:
14767:
14764:
14762:
14759:
14757:
14756:Head of state
14754:
14752:
14749:
14747:
14744:
14742:
14739:
14737:
14734:
14732:
14729:
14727:
14724:
14722:
14719:
14717:
14714:
14713:
14711:
14707:
14701:
14698:
14696:
14693:
14691:
14690:Non-sovereign
14688:
14686:
14683:
14681:
14678:
14676:
14673:
14671:
14668:
14666:
14663:
14661:
14658:
14657:
14655:
14651:
14645:
14642:
14640:
14637:
14635:
14632:
14630:
14627:
14625:
14622:
14621:
14618:
14614:
14607:
14602:
14600:
14595:
14593:
14588:
14587:
14584:
14570:
14569:Soviet empire
14567:
14565:
14562:
14561:
14559:
14558:
14556:
14554:Miscellaneous
14552:
14546:
14543:
14541:
14538:
14536:
14533:
14531:
14528:
14526:
14523:
14519:
14516:
14515:
14514:
14511:
14510:
14508:
14504:
14494:
14491:
14489:
14486:
14484:
14481:
14479:
14476:
14472:
14469:
14468:
14467:
14464:
14462:
14459:
14457:
14454:
14452:
14449:
14447:
14444:
14442:
14439:
14437:
14434:
14432:
14429:
14427:
14424:
14422:
14419:
14415:
14412:
14410:
14407:
14406:
14405:
14402:
14400:
14397:
14395:
14392:
14391:
14389:
14387:
14383:
14375:
14372:
14370:
14367:
14365:
14362:
14360:
14357:
14355:
14352:
14351:
14350:
14347:
14345:
14342:
14338:
14335:
14334:
14333:
14330:
14328:
14325:
14321:
14318:
14316:
14313:
14311:
14308:
14307:
14306:
14303:
14301:
14298:
14294:
14291:
14289:
14286:
14285:
14284:
14281:
14277:
14274:
14272:
14269:
14267:
14264:
14262:
14259:
14257:
14254:
14253:
14252:
14249:
14245:
14242:
14240:
14237:
14236:
14235:
14232:
14230:
14227:
14225:
14222:
14220:
14217:
14213:
14210:
14208:
14205:
14203:
14200:
14198:
14195:
14193:
14190:
14189:
14188:
14185:
14181:
14178:
14176:
14173:
14172:
14171:
14168:
14166:
14163:
14159:
14156:
14154:
14153:German Empire
14151:
14150:
14149:
14146:
14142:
14139:
14137:
14134:
14133:
14132:
14129:
14125:
14122:
14120:
14117:
14116:
14115:
14112:
14110:
14107:
14103:
14100:
14098:
14095:
14093:
14090:
14088:
14085:
14083:
14080:
14079:
14078:
14075:
14073:
14070:
14066:
14063:
14061:
14058:
14057:
14055:
14053:
14050:
14048:
14045:
14043:
14040:
14038:
14035:
14033:
14030:
14029:
14027:
14025:
14021:
14015:
14012:
14010:
14007:
14005:
14002:
13998:
13995:
13993:
13990:
13988:
13985:
13983:
13980:
13978:
13975:
13973:
13970:
13968:
13965:
13964:
13963:
13960:
13958:
13955:
13951:
13948:
13946:
13943:
13941:
13938:
13936:
13933:
13931:
13928:
13926:
13923:
13922:
13921:
13918:
13914:
13911:
13909:
13906:
13904:
13901:
13899:
13896:
13895:
13894:
13893:Turco-Persian
13891:
13889:
13886:
13884:
13881:
13879:
13876:
13874:
13871:
13869:
13866:
13864:
13861:
13859:
13856:
13854:
13851:
13847:
13844:
13842:
13839:
13838:
13837:
13834:
13830:
13827:
13825:
13822:
13820:
13817:
13815:
13812:
13810:
13807:
13805:
13802:
13801:
13800:
13797:
13794:
13792:
13789:
13787:
13784:
13782:
13779:
13775:
13772:
13770:
13767:
13765:
13762:
13761:
13760:
13757:
13753:
13750:
13748:
13745:
13743:
13740:
13738:
13735:
13734:
13733:
13730:
13728:
13725:
13723:
13720:
13718:
13715:
13713:
13710:
13708:
13705:
13701:
13698:
13696:
13693:
13691:
13688:
13686:
13683:
13682:
13681:
13678:
13674:
13671:
13669:
13666:
13664:
13661:
13659:
13656:
13655:
13654:
13651:
13647:
13644:
13642:
13639:
13637:
13634:
13633:
13632:
13629:
13627:
13624:
13622:
13619:
13617:
13614:
13612:
13609:
13605:
13602:
13600:
13597:
13595:
13592:
13591:
13590:
13587:
13585:
13582:
13578:
13575:
13573:
13570:
13568:
13565:
13563:
13560:
13558:
13555:
13553:
13550:
13549:
13548:
13545:
13541:
13538:
13536:
13533:
13532:
13531:
13528:
13524:
13521:
13519:
13516:
13514:
13511:
13509:
13506:
13505:
13504:
13501:
13499:
13496:
13492:
13489:
13488:
13487:
13484:
13480:
13477:
13475:
13472:
13471:
13469:
13467:
13464:
13462:
13459:
13457:
13454:
13452:
13449:
13447:
13444:
13442:
13439:
13437:
13434:
13433:
13431:
13429:
13425:
13417:
13414:
13413:
13412:
13409:
13407:
13404:
13400:
13397:
13395:
13392:
13391:
13390:
13387:
13383:
13380:
13379:
13378:
13375:
13371:
13368:
13366:
13363:
13361:
13358:
13356:
13353:
13351:
13348:
13346:
13343:
13342:
13341:
13338:
13336:
13333:
13331:
13328:
13324:
13321:
13319:
13316:
13314:
13311:
13309:
13306:
13305:
13304:
13301:
13297:
13294:
13292:
13289:
13288:
13287:
13284:
13282:
13279:
13275:
13272:
13270:
13267:
13265:
13262:
13260:
13257:
13255:
13252:
13251:
13250:
13247:
13245:
13242:
13240:
13237:
13233:
13230:
13228:
13225:
13223:
13220:
13219:
13218:
13215:
13213:
13210:
13206:
13203:
13201:
13198:
13196:
13193:
13192:
13191:
13188:
13184:
13181:
13179:
13176:
13174:
13171:
13170:
13169:
13166:
13162:
13159:
13157:
13154:
13153:
13152:
13149:
13147:
13144:
13142:
13139:
13138:
13136:
13133:
13128:
13124:
13120:
13113:
13108:
13106:
13101:
13099:
13094:
13093:
13090:
13081:
13072:
13071:
13064:
13058:
13053:
13049:
13045:
13042:
13039:
13037:
13033:
13030:
13027:
13023:
13022:
13008:
13004:
13000:
12996:
12992:
12988:
12984:
12980:
12976:
12969:
12964:
12960:
12954:
12950:
12946:
12941:
12937:
12931:
12927:
12922:
12918:
12912:
12908:
12907:
12901:
12889:
12885:
12879:
12875:
12874:
12869:
12865:
12861:
12857:
12853:
12847:
12843:
12838:
12834:
12828:
12824:
12823:
12817:
12813:
12807:
12803:
12802:
12797:
12793:
12789:
12783:
12779:
12774:
12772:
12767:
12761:
12757:
12756:
12751:
12747:
12743:
12737:
12733:
12729:
12725:
12720:
12708:
12704:
12698:
12694:
12693:
12687:
12683:
12677:
12673:
12668:
12664:
12658:
12654:
12651:. Cambridge:
12650:
12649:
12644:
12640:
12636:
12632:
12626:
12622:
12617:
12605:
12601:
12595:
12591:
12590:
12584:
12580:
12574:
12569:
12568:
12561:
12557:
12551:
12547:
12546:
12540:
12536:
12530:
12526:
12522:
12518:
12514:
12510:
12506:
12500:
12496:
12491:
12487:
12481:
12477:
12476:
12470:
12466:
12460:
12456:
12455:
12449:
12445:
12439:
12435:
12430:
12418:
12414:
12408:
12404:
12403:
12397:
12393:
12387:
12383:
12380:. Cambridge:
12379:
12378:
12373:
12368:
12364:
12358:
12354:
12349:
12345:
12339:
12335:
12330:
12318:
12314:
12308:
12304:
12303:
12297:
12293:
12287:
12283:
12280:. Cambridge:
12279:
12278:
12273:
12268:
12256:
12252:
12246:
12242:
12241:
12235:
12231:
12225:
12221:
12216:
12212:
12206:
12202:
12197:
12185:
12181:
12180:
12174:
12170:
12164:
12160:
12155:
12143:
12139:
12133:
12129:
12128:
12122:
12118:
12112:
12108:
12103:
12091:
12087:
12081:
12077:
12076:
12070:
12059:
12053:
12049:
12048:
12042:
12038:
12032:
12028:
12023:
12019:
12013:
12009:
12008:
12002:
11990:
11986:
11980:
11977:. Routledge.
11976:
11975:
11969:
11965:
11959:
11955:
11950:
11946:
11940:
11936:
11931:
11927:
11921:
11917:
11916:
11910:
11898:
11894:
11888:
11884:
11883:
11877:
11873:
11867:
11863:
11862:
11857:
11853:
11849:
11843:
11839:
11834:
11833:
11812:
11808:
11804:
11797:
11789:
11784:Reprinted in
11780:
11776:
11769:
11750:
11746:
11739:
11733:
11717:
11713:
11709:
11702:
11694:
11690:
11686:
11680:
11664:
11660:
11656:
11650:
11634:
11630:
11626:
11620:
11612:
11606:
11602:
11595:
11579:
11575:
11574:gotheborg.com
11571:
11564:
11557:
11551:
11545:
11532:
11528:
11522:
11514:
11508:
11504:
11499:
11498:
11489:
11473:
11469:
11463:
11459:
11458:
11450:
11442:
11438:
11434:
11430:
11426:
11422:
11418:
11414:
11407:
11400:
11399:Porter (2016)
11395:
11388:
11387:Porter (2016)
11383:
11375:
11369:
11365:
11358:
11351:
11346:
11344:
11335:
11331:
11327:
11323:
11319:
11315:
11311:
11304:
11297:
11292:
11286:, p. 61.
11285:
11280:
11272:
11266:
11262:
11261:
11253:
11246:
11241:
11234:
11229:
11222:
11216:
11212:
11205:
11198:
11194:
11190:
11183:
11176:
11171:
11164:
11159:
11152:
11147:
11140:
11135:
11128:
11123:
11116:
11111:
11109:
11101:
11096:
11089:
11084:
11076:
11072:
11068:
11064:
11060:
11056:
11052:
11048:
11041:
11033:
11026:
11019:
11014:
11007:
11002:
10995:
10990:
10974:
10970:
10964:
10960:
10959:
10951:
10944:
10939:
10932:
10928:
10924:
10923:Reilly (2004)
10919:
10912:
10908:
10907:Reilly (2004)
10903:
10896:
10892:
10891:Reilly (2004)
10887:
10880:
10876:
10875:Reilly (2004)
10871:
10864:
10860:
10859:Reilly (2004)
10855:
10848:
10844:
10843:Reilly (2004)
10839:
10832:
10827:
10820:
10815:
10808:
10803:
10796:
10791:
10784:
10780:
10779:Reilly (2004)
10775:
10768:
10764:
10763:Reilly (2004)
10759:
10757:
10755:
10747:
10742:
10735:
10730:
10713:
10709:
10703:
10699:
10698:
10693:
10687:
10680:
10675:
10669:
10665:
10662:
10656:
10650:
10646:
10645:
10641:
10638:
10631:
10624:
10619:
10612:
10611:Rawski (1998)
10607:
10600:
10599:Rawski (1998)
10595:
10588:
10583:
10574:
10568:
10564:
10557:
10538:
10534:
10527:
10520:
10505:
10501:
10497:
10491:
10484:
10479:
10472:
10468:
10467:Sneath (2007)
10463:
10456:
10452:
10451:Sneath (2007)
10447:
10440:
10439:Porter (2016)
10435:
10433:
10431:
10429:
10427:
10425:
10423:
10415:
10410:
10403:
10398:
10391:
10387:
10386:Sneath (2007)
10382:
10375:
10370:
10363:
10358:
10351:
10346:
10339:
10334:
10327:
10322:
10320:
10318:
10316:
10314:
10306:
10301:
10294:
10289:
10273:
10269:
10263:
10259:
10258:
10250:
10234:
10230:
10224:
10220:
10219:
10211:
10195:
10191:
10187:
10181:
10173:
10167:
10163:
10162:
10154:
10138:
10134:
10128:
10124:
10123:
10115:
10099:
10095:
10091:
10087:
10083:
10079:
10075:
10071:
10067:
10063:
10056:
10050:, p. 92.
10049:
10044:
10042:
10034:
10029:
10023:, p. 91.
10022:
10017:
10009:
10004:
10002:
9994:
9975:
9971:
9964:
9958:
9951:
9947:
9942:
9933:
9926:
9922:
9918:
9912:
9906:, p. 28.
9905:
9900:
9894:, p. 27.
9893:
9888:
9881:
9880:Rawski (1998)
9876:
9869:
9868:Rawski (1998)
9864:
9862:
9853:
9852:两岸新编中国近代史.晚清卷
9846:
9838:
9836:9780429560347
9832:
9828:
9821:
9813:
9811:9789629374501
9807:
9803:
9796:
9780:
9776:
9770:
9763:
9758:
9750:
9744:
9740:
9739:
9731:
9724:
9719:
9712:
9707:
9701:, p. 39.
9700:
9699:Spence (2012)
9695:
9688:
9683:
9674:
9667:
9666:Rhoads (2000)
9662:
9655:
9650:
9643:
9638:
9631:
9630:Spence (2012)
9626:
9619:
9614:
9607:
9602:
9594:
9592:9783737007085
9588:
9584:
9583:
9575:
9560:
9554:
9547:
9542:
9535:
9534:Wright (1957)
9530:
9523:
9518:
9511:
9506:
9490:
9486:
9482:
9476:
9470:, p. 19.
9469:
9464:
9457:
9456:Spence (1990)
9452:
9445:
9439:
9423:
9419:
9415:
9409:
9402:
9401:Spence (2012)
9397:
9390:
9389:Spence (2012)
9385:
9378:
9373:
9367:, p. 68.
9366:
9361:
9355:, p. 35.
9354:
9349:
9343:, p. 72.
9342:
9341:Spence (2012)
9337:
9330:
9329:Spence (2012)
9325:
9318:
9317:Spence (2012)
9313:
9306:
9305:Perdue (2005)
9301:
9294:
9293:Spence (2012)
9289:
9281:
9279:9780861718061
9275:
9271:
9270:
9262:
9254:
9250:
9246:
9242:
9238:
9234:
9227:
9211:
9206:
9202:
9198:
9194:
9187:
9181:
9175:
9167:
9165:9781134362226
9161:
9157:
9156:
9148:
9140:
9138:9788120810679
9134:
9130:
9129:
9121:
9110:
9104:
9088:
9084:
9080:
9076:
9069:
9062:
9057:
9050:
9045:
9038:
9033:
9026:
9021:
9014:
9009:
9002:
8998:
8992:
8986:, p. 83.
8985:
8980:
8973:
8968:
8961:
8956:
8949:
8944:
8937:
8932:
8925:
8920:
8914:, p. 38.
8913:
8912:Spence (2012)
8908:
8906:
8898:
8894:
8889:
8882:
8878:
8877:Spence (1990)
8873:
8866:
8862:
8857:
8850:
8846:
8845:Rawski (1991)
8841:
8834:
8830:
8825:
8818:
8814:
8809:
8802:
8797:
8790:
8786:
8781:
8775:, p. 32.
8774:
8773:Spence (2012)
8769:
8756:
8750:
8734:
8730:
8726:
8720:
8714:, p. 65.
8713:
8708:
8701:
8696:
8687:
8680:
8676:
8675:Rawski (1991)
8671:
8662:
8655:
8650:
8648:
8631:
8627:
8621:
8617:
8616:
8608:
8592:
8588:
8582:
8578:
8577:
8569:
8562:
8558:
8553:
8546:
8541:
8534:
8529:
8522:
8517:
8501:
8497:
8493:
8487:
8479:
8473:
8470:. Routledge.
8469:
8468:
8460:
8458:
8450:
8445:
8437:
8433:
8430:(1): 23–39 .
8429:
8425:
8418:
8411:
8406:
8399:
8397:9780642278760
8393:
8389:
8382:
8366:
8362:
8356:
8352:
8348:
8341:
8334:
8329:
8321:
8315:
8311:
8304:
8285:
8284:
8276:
8269:
8264:
8255:
8253:
8244:
8237:
8222:. 16 May 2011
8221:
8215:
8200:
8198:9781108424615
8194:
8190:
8189:
8181:
8166:
8162:
8155:
8140:
8136:
8130:
8122:
8116:
8112:
8105:
8097:
8091:
8083:
8081:9787552632859
8077:
8073:
8066:
8047:
8043:
8039:
8035:
8031:
8027:
8023:
8019:
8015:
8014:
8006:
8002:
7996:
7994:
7992:
7984:
7980:
7979:Norman (1988)
7975:
7968:
7963:
7954:
7952:
7944:
7939:
7937:
7932:
7916:
7912:
7908:
7904:
7892:
7888:
7879:Chinese:
7876:
7870:
7854:
7848:
7844:
7840:
7836:
7820:
7816:
7800:
7794:
7790:
7786:
7782:
7768:
7764:
7748:
7742:
7741:ashan-i amban
7738:
7734:
7733:ashan i amban
7730:
7716:
7712:
7703:Chinese:
7700:
7694:
7690:
7686:
7682:
7668:
7664:
7648:
7642:
7633:Chinese:
7630:
7622:
7616:
7610:
7603:
7597:
7591:in 1911–1912.
7590:
7584:
7577:
7573:
7569:
7565:
7553:
7548:
7541:
7537:
7533:
7529:
7517:
7513:
7504:Chinese:
7501:
7497:
7487:
7484:
7482:
7479:
7477:
7474:
7472:
7469:
7467:
7464:
7462:
7459:
7457:
7456:
7452:
7450:
7447:
7445:
7442:
7440:
7437:
7435:
7432:
7430:
7427:
7425:
7422:
7420:
7417:
7415:
7412:
7410:
7407:
7405:
7402:
7400:
7397:
7395:
7392:
7390:
7387:
7385:
7382:
7380:
7377:
7375:
7372:
7369:
7366:
7364:
7361:
7360:
7355:
7344:
7341:
7330:
7323:
7320:
7316:
7315:
7310:
7306:
7302:
7298:
7289:
7287:
7286:
7281:
7277:
7276:
7271:
7267:
7266:
7261:
7257:
7256:
7251:
7247:
7246:
7241:
7237:
7236:
7231:
7230:
7225:
7221:
7217:
7213:
7212:Chinese opera
7209:
7205:
7201:
7197:
7190:
7186:
7181:
7177:
7175:
7171:
7167:
7163:
7159:
7155:
7145:
7143:
7139:
7135:
7131:
7127:
7123:
7119:
7115:
7111:
7102:
7098:
7096:
7092:
7088:
7084:
7080:
7076:
7072:
7071:
7066:
7062:
7061:
7056:
7055:
7050:
7049:
7039:
7035:
7030:
7021:
7019:
7015:
7011:
7005:
6998:
6994:
6989:
6985:
6981:
6977:
6967:
6963:
6961:
6956:
6952:
6948:
6943:
6941:
6937:
6933:
6929:
6925:
6921:
6917:
6913:
6907:
6897:
6893:
6889:
6885:
6881:
6879:
6875:
6871:
6860:
6857:
6856:Canton Cohong
6853:
6849:
6845:
6837:
6833:
6829:
6811:
6803:
6801:
6792:
6790:
6781:
6770:
6759:
6748:
6737:
6726:
6715:
6706:
6697:
6686:
6675:
6664:
6653:
6642:
6631:
6620:
6609:
6598:
6587:
6579:
6567:
6565:
6561:
6555:
6546:
6544:
6540:
6536:
6531:
6526:
6525:trade balance
6521:
6514:
6510:
6506:
6502:
6493:
6490:
6484:
6482:
6481:Western world
6478:
6474:
6469:
6465:
6459:
6456:
6451:
6443:
6438:
6430:
6425:
6415:
6412:
6406:
6404:
6400:
6396:
6391:
6386:
6380:
6375:
6370:
6368:
6364:
6360:
6356:
6352:
6348:
6343:
6341:
6337:
6332:
6328:
6323:
6318:
6316:
6312:
6308:
6303:
6297:
6293:
6289:
6285:
6281:
6277:
6273:
6269:
6259:
6257:
6253:
6249:
6245:
6241:
6237:
6233:
6229:
6225:
6221:
6217:
6213:
6209:
6205:
6201:
6192:
6187:
6177:
6175:
6171:
6166:
6162:
6158:
6154:
6152:
6148:
6147:Potala Palace
6144:
6140:
6132:
6127:
6122:
6112:
6110:
6106:
6102:
6098:
6094:
6090:
6086:
6080:
6070:
6066:
6064:
6063:
6057:
6051:
6049:
6041:
6037:
6027:
6020:Qing nobility
6017:
6015:
6009:
6001:
5997:
5994:
5990:
5986:
5980:
5979:Qing literati
5970:
5968:
5963:
5959:
5955:
5951:
5940:
5938:
5934:
5930:
5926:
5918:
5910:
5906:
5901:
5891:
5887:
5884:demanded the
5883:
5879:
5874:
5872:
5867:
5861:
5859:
5854:
5850:
5838:
5834:
5830:
5829:Qing literati
5820:
5818:
5814:
5809:
5805:
5801:
5797:
5796:Kumul Khanate
5793:
5789:
5785:
5784:Dungan revolt
5781:
5777:
5773:
5768:
5766:
5762:
5758:
5754:
5749:
5745:
5741:
5737:
5733:
5729:
5725:
5721:
5717:
5713:
5708:
5706:
5702:
5698:
5694:
5690:
5686:
5682:
5678:
5674:
5670:
5666:
5662:
5658:
5654:
5650:
5646:
5642:
5638:
5634:
5630:
5626:
5622:
5611:
5608:
5600:
5590:
5586:
5580:
5579:
5574:This section
5572:
5568:
5563:
5562:
5554:
5552:
5548:
5544:
5540:
5536:
5532:
5528:
5524:
5520:
5511:
5496:
5491:
5485:
5476:
5469:
5464:
5455:
5453:
5449:
5448:
5443:
5439:
5435:
5431:
5427:
5423:
5419:
5415:
5411:
5407:
5402:
5400:
5396:
5392:
5388:
5384:
5375:
5372:
5367:
5363:
5361:
5360:privy council
5356:
5352:
5351:Grand Council
5348:
5341:
5337:
5333:
5331:
5327:
5323:
5319:
5315:
5304:
5302:
5301:United States
5298:
5294:
5290:
5286:
5282:
5278:
5274:
5270:
5266:
5262:
5258:
5254:
5250:
5246:
5242:
5238:
5234:
5230:
5226:
5222:
5218:
5214:
5209:
5207:
5203:
5199:
5195:
5191:
5187:
5178:
5173:
5169:
5163:
5153:
5151:
5147:
5143:
5139:
5135:
5131:
5127:
5123:
5119:
5115:
5114:conservatives
5111:
5102:
5098:
5096:
5092:
5088:
5084:
5080:
5076:
5072:
5068:
5064:
5059:
5057:
5056:royal cabinet
5053:
5049:
5045:
5041:
5034:
5030:
5026:
5023:
5019:
5015:
5011:
5001:
4995:
4991:
4982:
4980:
4976:
4972:
4968:
4960:
4956:
4952:
4947:
4943:
4941:
4936:
4932:
4924:
4920:
4916:
4912:
4908:
4904:
4902:
4898:
4894:
4890:
4886:
4882:
4878:
4877:Juye Incident
4874:
4870:
4869:Summer Palace
4865:
4863:
4858:
4854:
4850:
4846:
4842:
4834:
4829:
4825:
4823:
4819:
4814:
4810:
4806:
4802:
4798:
4794:
4790:
4786:
4782:
4777:
4775:
4771:
4768:known as the
4767:
4763:
4759:
4755:
4751:
4747:
4743:
4739:
4735:
4730:
4728:
4724:
4720:
4716:
4712:
4708:
4704:
4700:
4696:
4686:
4684:
4680:
4676:
4672:
4667:
4665:
4661:
4657:
4653:
4646:
4642:
4638:
4636:
4632:
4623:
4619:
4617:
4613:
4609:
4605:
4601:
4597:
4593:
4589:
4584:
4580:
4576:
4572:
4571:civil service
4568:
4564:
4560:
4555:
4553:
4549:
4545:
4541:
4537:
4533:
4529:
4525:
4521:
4517:
4513:
4509:
4505:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4485:
4480:
4476:
4473:
4469:
4464:
4462:
4458:
4454:
4450:
4446:
4445:Canton System
4442:
4438:
4434:
4428:
4426:
4422:
4418:
4414:
4410:
4406:
4402:
4398:
4390:
4385:
4376:
4374:
4370:
4365:
4363:
4359:
4355:
4351:
4346:
4342:
4333:
4329:
4328:
4322:
4318:
4316:
4312:
4308:
4304:
4300:
4299:
4294:
4290:
4286:
4282:
4269:
4264:
4260:
4258:
4253:
4245:
4241:
4236:
4232:
4229:
4225:
4224:Grand Council
4221:
4211:
4206:
4204:
4200:
4192:
4191:Potala Palace
4188:
4184:
4180:
4171:
4169:
4165:
4160:
4156:
4152:
4148:
4144:
4140:
4136:
4132:
4128:
4124:
4120:
4112:
4107:
4103:
4101:
4095:
4093:
4087:
4085:
4081:
4077:
4073:
4069:
4065:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4048:
4043:
4042:Son of Heaven
4039:
4035:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4018:
4016:
4012:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3996:
3995:neo-Confucian
3992:
3988:
3980:
3975:
3970:
3969:High Qing era
3966:
3956:
3954:
3948:
3946:
3942:
3932:
3922:
3913:
3908:
3904:
3902:
3897:
3893:
3888:
3886:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3862:
3858:
3854:
3850:
3846:
3842:
3841:Son of Heaven
3838:
3833:
3831:
3827:
3823:
3822:Chen Yuanyuan
3819:
3815:
3811:
3806:
3804:
3800:
3796:
3792:
3787:
3785:
3781:
3777:
3767:
3762:
3752:
3749:
3743:
3737:
3733:
3732:Tiancong Khan
3729:
3725:
3721:
3719:
3715:
3711:
3707:
3703:
3702:imperial seal
3699:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3674:
3669:
3665:
3663:
3659:
3655:
3651:
3643:
3639:
3634:
3630:
3628:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3611:
3606:
3605:
3600:
3596:
3586:
3584:
3580:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3534:
3528:
3518:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3503:
3497:
3487:
3481:
3476:
3464:
3452:
3443:
3437:
3432:
3430:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3406:
3400:
3392:
3382:
3377:
3373:
3367:
3361:
3351:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3288:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3249:Dungan Revolt
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3209:High Qing era
3205:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3138:prince regent
3135:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3090:at the time.
3089:
3086:, it was the
3085:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3028:
3022:
3004:
2992:
2987:
2985:
2980:
2978:
2973:
2972:
2970:
2969:
2961:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2948:
2945:
2942:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2928:
2925:
2923:
2920:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2907:Green Ukraine
2905:
2903:
2900:
2897:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2865:
2862:Modern period
2859:
2858:
2851:
2848:
2845:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2830:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2820:Northern Yuan
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2770:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2757:
2751:
2750:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2678:
2675:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2667:Xianbei state
2665:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2642:Takri Kingdom
2640:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2619:
2613:
2612:
2605:
2602:
2601:
2595:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2585:
2582:
2576:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2564:
2554:
2549:
2547:
2542:
2540:
2535:
2534:
2532:
2531:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2493:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2486:Naval history
2484:
2482:
2479:
2475:
2472:
2471:
2470:
2469:Music history
2467:
2465:
2464:Media history
2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2449:Legal history
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2431:
2423:
2422:
2403:1949–present)
2399:
2398:
2394:
2393:
2391:
2383:
2382:
2376:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2369:
2364:
2354:
2353:
2349:
2348:
2344:
2338:
2337:
2321:
2320:
2316:
2315:
2308:
2307:
2303:
2302:
2295:
2294:
2290:
2289:
2286:
2265:
2264:
2260:
2257:
2252:
2251:
2247:
2244:
2239:
2238:
2234:
2231:
2230:
2228:
2220:
2219:
2218:Southern Song
2215:
2210:
2209:
2208:Northern Song
2205:
2204:
2198:
2197:
2193:
2192:
2185:
2184:
2178:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2171:
2166:
2146:
2143:
2142:
2141:
2140:
2136:
2135:
2131:
2130:
2123:
2122:
2118:
2117:
2110:
2109:
2103:
2102:
2099:
2078:
2077:
2073:
2070:
2067:
2066:
2064:
2056:
2055:
2051:
2046:
2045:
2041:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2034:
2029:
2014:
2013:
2009:
2008:
2004:
2003:
1998:
1997:
1992:
1991:
1987:
1986:
1980:
1979:
1975:
1974:
1967:
1966:
1962:
1957:
1956:
1952:
1947:
1946:
1942:
1939:(206–202 BCE)
1937:
1936:
1932:
1931:
1925:
1924:
1920:
1919:
1914:(221–207 BCE)
1912:
1911:
1907:
1906:
1903:
1896:
1890:
1889:
1879:(475–221 BCE)
1877:
1874:
1858:
1855:
1854:
1852:(771–256 BCE)
1850:
1849:
1845:
1840:
1839:
1835:
1834:
1817:
1816:
1812:
1811:
1793:
1792:
1788:
1787:
1770:
1769:
1765:
1764:
1746:
1745:
1741:
1740:
1736:
1730:
1729:
1722:
1721:
1716:
1715:
1710:
1709:
1705:
1704:
1687:
1686:
1682:
1681:
1677:
1676:
1672:
1671:
1667:
1661:
1660:
1655:
1652:
1650:
1647:
1645:
1642:
1641:
1640:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1630:
1627:
1624:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1614:
1606:
1603:Daicing gurun
1602:
1600:
1596:
1593:Daiqing gurun
1592:
1590:
1586:
1578:
1575:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1568:Manchu script
1565:
1560:
1548:
1546:
1542:
1537:
1533:
1523:
1520:
1519:
1514:
1512:
1508:
1500:
1498:
1494:
1489:
1477:
1475:
1471:
1463:
1461:
1458:
1454:
1451:
1447:
1441:
1436:
1434:
1430:
1422:
1420:
1416:
1408:
1406:
1402:
1399:
1395:
1389:
1384:
1382:
1378:
1370:
1368:
1364:
1356:
1354:
1350:
1342:
1340:
1336:
1328:
1326:
1322:
1319:
1315:
1310:
1306:
1301:
1298:
1293:
1291:
1287:
1284:Dynastic name
1282:
1270:
1268:
1264:
1256:
1254:
1251:
1247:
1244:
1240:
1234:
1229:
1227:
1223:
1215:
1213:
1209:
1201:
1199:
1195:
1192:
1188:
1180:
1178:
1174:
1171:
1167:
1161:
1156:
1154:
1150:
1142:
1140:
1136:
1126:
1124:
1120:
1112:
1110:
1106:
1098:
1096:
1092:
1089:
1085:
1080:
1076:
1068:
1066:
1062:
1057:
1053:
1048:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1027:
995:
993:
990:
989:
981:
979:
976:
975:
967:
965:
962:
961:
953:
951:
948:
947:
944:
938:
935:
928:
927:
924:
921:
914:
913:
910:
907:
900:
899:
896:
893:
886:
885:
882:
881:
878:
875:
873:
870:
869:
865:
859:
856:
854:
851:
849:
846:
845:
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
819:
815:
811:
807:
802:
798:
792:
789:
783:
779:
776:
770:
766:
763:
757:
753:
750:
744:
740:
737:
731:
727:
724:
718:
714:
710:
703:
699:
696:
695:2nd Opium War
690:
686:
683:
677:
673:
670:
669:1st Opium War
664:
660:
657:
651:
647:
643:
634:
630:
627:
619:
615:
612:
606:
602:
599:
596:
592:
583:
579:
574:
570:
569:
567:
563:
559:
556:
553:
547:
543:, Prince Qing
542:
538:
532:
528:
524:
522:
518:
514:
510:, Prince Chun
509:
505:
499:
495:
492:
486:
482:
478:
476:
472:
468:
465:
462:
456:
453:
450:
444:
441:
438:
432:
428:
424:
422:
418:
415:
412:
408:
405:
402:
400:
396:
390:
389:
385:
383:
380:
378:
375:
370:
367:
365:
362:
360:
357:
356:
354:
351:
349:
346:
344:
341:
336:
333:
331:
328:
326:
323:
322:
320:
317:
315:
312:
311:
309:
305:
299:
298:
294:
292:
289:
287:
284:
282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
269:
267:
264:
263:
261:
259:
255:
248:
244:
242:
239:
238:
236:
232:
228:
224:
216:
212:
208:
204:
203:
201:
197:
190:
185:
181:
170:
166:
137:" (1911–1912)
136:
126:
125:
122:
118:
113:
106:
99:
94:
85:
70:
66:
55:
54:
47:
44:
40:
33:
19:
19543:Qing dynasty
19445:
17636:Qing dynasty
17635:
17585:Treaty ports
17547:
17540:
17514:Other topics
17287:
17280:
17258:
17246:
17229:
17224:Peiwen Yunfu
17222:
17200:
17193:
17164:
16913:Beiyang Army
16895:Zongli Yamen
16751:Da-Qing Bank
16568:Red Lanterns
16221:Qing dynasty
16220:
16160:South Africa
16155:Sierra Leone
16102:
15932:Two Sicilies
15867:Papal States
15667:
15606:
15499:
15365:
15125:Cook Islands
14978:
14964:Saudi Arabia
14893:
14320:Contemporary
14170:Indo-Persian
14158:Nazi Germany
14102:Contemporary
14086:
14004:Vijayanagara
13903:Great Seljuk
13814:Thessalonica
13742:Golden Horde
13382:Carthaginian
13161:Neo-Assyrian
13146:Neo-Sumerian
13068:
13063:Ming dynasty
13007:the original
12978:
12975:Modern China
12974:
12948:
12925:
12905:
12892:. Retrieved
12872:
12841:
12821:
12799:
12796:Têng, Ssu-yü
12777:
12753:
12723:
12711:. Retrieved
12691:
12671:
12647:
12620:
12608:. Retrieved
12588:
12566:
12544:
12524:
12494:
12474:
12453:
12433:
12421:. Retrieved
12401:
12376:
12352:
12333:
12321:. Retrieved
12301:
12276:
12259:. Retrieved
12239:
12219:
12200:
12188:. Retrieved
12184:the original
12178:
12158:
12146:. Retrieved
12126:
12106:
12094:. Retrieved
12074:
12061:. Retrieved
12046:
12026:
12006:
11993:. Retrieved
11973:
11953:
11934:
11914:
11901:. Retrieved
11881:
11860:
11837:
11815:. Retrieved
11806:
11796:
11787:
11778:
11768:
11758:13 September
11756:. Retrieved
11749:the original
11744:
11732:
11720:. Retrieved
11711:
11701:
11693:the original
11688:
11679:
11669:13 September
11667:. Retrieved
11658:
11649:
11639:13 September
11637:. Retrieved
11633:the original
11628:
11619:
11600:
11594:
11582:. Retrieved
11573:
11563:
11555:
11554:Boda, Yang.
11550:
11535:. Retrieved
11521:
11496:
11488:
11478:10 September
11476:. Retrieved
11456:
11449:
11416:
11412:
11406:
11394:
11382:
11363:
11357:
11317:
11313:
11303:
11291:
11279:
11259:
11252:
11240:
11228:
11210:
11204:
11196:
11192:
11182:
11170:
11158:
11146:
11134:
11122:
11095:
11083:
11050:
11046:
11040:
11031:
11025:
11013:
11001:
10989:
10977:, retrieved
10957:
10950:
10938:
10918:
10902:
10886:
10870:
10854:
10838:
10831:Daily (2013)
10826:
10819:Daily (2013)
10814:
10809:, p. 1.
10807:Daily (2013)
10802:
10790:
10774:
10741:
10729:
10716:. Retrieved
10696:
10686:
10674:
10655:
10648:
10635:
10630:
10618:
10606:
10594:
10582:
10562:
10556:
10544:. Retrieved
10532:
10519:
10508:, retrieved
10499:
10490:
10485:, p. 3.
10478:
10462:
10446:
10409:
10397:
10381:
10369:
10357:
10345:
10333:
10300:
10288:
10276:. Retrieved
10256:
10249:
10237:. Retrieved
10217:
10210:
10198:. Retrieved
10189:
10180:
10160:
10153:
10141:. Retrieved
10121:
10114:
10102:. Retrieved
10069:
10065:
10055:
10028:
10016:
10000:
9993:
9981:. Retrieved
9969:
9957:
9941:
9932:
9916:
9911:
9899:
9887:
9875:
9851:
9850:王建朗 (2016).
9845:
9826:
9820:
9801:
9795:
9783:. Retrieved
9779:the original
9769:
9757:
9737:
9730:
9718:
9706:
9694:
9682:
9673:
9661:
9649:
9637:
9625:
9613:
9601:
9581:
9574:
9562:. Retrieved
9553:
9541:
9529:
9522:Hevia (2003)
9517:
9510:Platt (2012)
9505:
9493:. Retrieved
9484:
9475:
9463:
9451:
9443:
9438:
9426:. Retrieved
9422:the original
9417:
9408:
9396:
9384:
9372:
9360:
9348:
9336:
9324:
9312:
9300:
9288:
9268:
9261:
9236:
9232:
9226:
9216:17 September
9214:. Retrieved
9203:(20220303).
9200:
9196:
9186:
9174:
9154:
9147:
9127:
9120:
9103:
9091:. Retrieved
9082:
9078:
9068:
9056:
9044:
9032:
9020:
9008:
9000:
8991:
8979:
8972:Ebrey (1993)
8967:
8960:Faure (2007)
8955:
8943:
8931:
8919:
8888:
8872:
8856:
8840:
8824:
8808:
8796:
8780:
8768:
8760:《清世祖實錄》,《明史》
8755:Shanhai Pass
8749:
8737:. Retrieved
8728:
8719:
8707:
8695:
8686:
8670:
8661:
8654:Ebrey (2010)
8634:. Retrieved
8614:
8607:
8595:. Retrieved
8575:
8568:
8552:
8540:
8535:, p. 3.
8528:
8521:Ebrey (2010)
8516:
8504:. Retrieved
8495:
8486:
8466:
8444:
8427:
8423:
8417:
8405:
8387:
8381:
8369:. Retrieved
8350:
8340:
8328:
8309:
8303:
8291:. Retrieved
8282:
8275:
8263:
8242:
8236:
8226:18 September
8224:. Retrieved
8214:
8204:18 September
8202:. Retrieved
8187:
8180:
8170:18 September
8168:. Retrieved
8164:
8154:
8144:18 September
8142:. Retrieved
8138:
8129:
8110:
8104:
8071:
8065:
8053:. Retrieved
8017:
8011:
7974:
7962:
7914:
7906:
7884:
7875:
7868:jūnjī dàchén
7866:
7853:
7846:
7838:
7812:
7799:
7792:
7784:
7760:
7747:
7740:
7732:
7708:
7699:
7692:
7684:
7660:
7647:
7638:
7629:
7609:
7596:
7583:
7575:
7567:
7547:
7539:
7531:
7509:
7500:
7453:
7340:China portal
7312:
7295:
7283:
7275:The Scholars
7273:
7263:
7253:
7243:
7233:
7227:
7193:
7151:
7134:Bada Shanren
7107:
7068:
7065:Zhang Zeduan
7058:
7052:
7048:Peiwen Yunfu
7046:
7043:
7038:Peking glass
7010:Liang Qichao
7006:
7002:
6996:
6964:
6944:
6909:
6894:
6890:
6886:
6882:
6866:
6841:
6799:
6788:
6614:
6563:
6559:
6556:
6552:
6542:
6538:
6534:
6517:
6485:
6460:
6450:Ming dynasty
6447:
6411:missionaries
6407:
6394:
6387:
6374:Hong Xiuquan
6371:
6344:
6319:
6315:Christianity
6299:
6224:Confucianism
6212:filial piety
6197:
6155:
6136:
6109:Sacred Edict
6082:
6067:
6060:
6052:
6045:
6010:
6006:
5988:
5985:Song dynasty
5982:
5957:
5953:
5946:
5936:
5932:
5924:
5900:Heilongjiang
5875:
5862:
5845:
5769:
5709:
5696:
5672:
5664:
5652:
5640:
5618:
5603:
5594:
5583:Please help
5578:verification
5575:
5516:
5468:China proper
5445:
5418:inner palace
5403:
5379:
5344:
5339:
5310:
5210:
5190:Ming dynasty
5186:bureaucratic
5183:
5150:Soviet Union
5144:. After the
5136:and founded
5107:
5079:Beiyang Army
5060:
5037:
5006:
4964:
4928:
4881:Jiaozhou Bay
4866:
4838:
4797:Itō Hirobumi
4778:
4731:
4727:Beiyang Army
4719:Zongli Yamen
4711:Li Hongzhang
4695:Zuo Zongtang
4692:
4668:
4651:
4649:
4628:
4567:Hong Xiuquan
4556:
4528:Treaty Ports
4492:mercantilist
4489:
4465:
4429:
4411:, while the
4394:
4366:
4358:Heilongjiang
4337:
4325:
4303:Siku Quanshu
4302:
4296:
4272:
4249:
4227:
4207:
4196:
4116:
4096:
4088:
4045:
4029:
4025:
4019:
4015:foot binding
4011:Sacred Edict
3984:
3949:
3917:
3889:
3881:
3869:
3865:
3834:
3814:Shanhai Pass
3807:
3799:Shun dynasty
3788:
3772:
3744:
3740:
3727:
3718:invade Korea
3706:Yuan dynasty
3698:Han mandarin
3683:
3647:
3610:Water Margin
3608:
3602:
3592:
3579:Heilongjiang
3556:
3510:
3506:
3504:
3495:nèiwài yījiā
3493:
3483:
3460:
3439:
3436:China proper
3433:
3402:
3388:
3378:
3371:
3369:
3320:Liang Qichao
3289:
3241:treaty ports
3206:
3178:Joseon Korea
3148:delayed the
3126:Shanhai Pass
3092:
3078:and in 1790
3064:Ming dynasty
3031:
3003:Qing dynasty
3002:
3000:
2800:Liao dynasty
2790:Later Balhae
2765:Tang dynasty
2717:Northern Yan
2459:LGBT history
2395:
2377:
2350:
2318:
2317:
2304:
2291:
2261:
2248:
2235:
2216:
2206:
2194:
2183:Ten Kingdoms
2179:
2132:
2119:
2106:Northern and
2104:
2074:
2052:
2042:
2010:
2000:
1994:
1988:
1982:(220–280 CE)
1976:
1963:
1953:
1943:
1933:
1921:
1908:
1848:Eastern Zhou
1846:
1838:Western Zhou
1836:
1813:
1789:
1766:
1742:
1718:
1712:
1706:
1683:
1673:
1551:Daiqing ulus
1450:Southern Min
1325:Hanyu Pinyin
1243:Southern Min
1130:Ch'ing ch'ao
1095:Hanyu Pinyin
1059:Chinese name
1050:Qing dynasty
1023:
964:Bogd Khanate
909:Ming dynasty
877:Succeeded by
876:
871:
626:Ming to Qing
535:• 1911
496:, Prince Rui
386:
377:Christianity
314:Confucianism
295:
226:Largest city
168:
120:
43:
19467: /
17638:(1644–1912)
17521:Aisin Gioro
17483:Paper money
17242:Qing poetry
16963:Wuwei Corps
16958:Shuishiying
16719:Family tree
16099:British Raj
16071:(Sri Lanka)
15957:Württemberg
15669:South Yemen
15557:Maguindanao
15450:Afghanistan
15211:Barotseland
15147:Saint Lucia
15120:New Zealand
15029:Netherlands
14802:Chhatrapati
14786:Sovereignty
14726:Aristocracy
13908:Khwarezmian
13841:Carolingian
13646:Rashtrakuta
13350:Shaishunaga
13249:Hellenistic
13232:New Kingdom
13222:Old Kingdom
12981:(1): 3–30.
12063:1 September
11915:The Manchus
11505:–331, 396.
11053:: 129–149.
10925:, pp.
10845:, pp.
10746:Bays (2012)
10734:Bays (2012)
10469:, pp.
10441:, p. .
10414:Rowe (2009)
10374:Rowe (2009)
10362:Rowe (2009)
10350:Rowe (2009)
10338:Rowe (2009)
10328:, p. .
10326:Rowe (2009)
10293:Rowe (2002)
10048:Rowe (2009)
10033:Rowe (2009)
10021:Rowe (2009)
9723:Rowe (2009)
9564:9 September
9428:30 December
9365:Rowe (2009)
9239:(1): 5–34.
9093:14 November
9061:Rowe (2009)
8974:, p. .
8636:19 November
8597:19 November
8506:15 February
8449:Zhao (2006)
8410:Zhao (2006)
8289:. p. 1
8268:Rowe (2009)
7981:, pp.
7943:Rowe (2009)
7903:Möllendorff
7835:Möllendorff
7793:dorgi yamun
7785:dorgi yamun
7781:Möllendorff
7729:Möllendorff
7693:aliha amban
7685:aliha amban
7681:Möllendorff
7564:Möllendorff
7528:Möllendorff
7278:(1750) and
7240:Pu Songling
7110:Calligraphy
7095:Orientalism
7087:chinoiserie
7014:Wang Guowei
6988:Qing poetry
6916:mathematics
6819: 1710
6505:Silver coin
6468:Grand Canal
6367:White Lotus
6248:White Lotus
5973:Qing gentry
5858:infanticide
5748:Tarim Basin
5657:prefectures
5503: 1820
5347:Inner Court
5326:Outer Court
5269:Netherlands
5194:Han Chinese
5089:he created
5075:Sun Yat-sen
4994:Yuan Shikai
4935:Kang Youwei
4793:Gapsin Coup
4766:proto-state
4762:gold miners
4707:Zeng Guofan
4679:Prince Gong
4596:Miao people
4588:Zeng Guofan
4157:. The 1689
4022:Inner Asian
3857:Pindale Min
3462:Zhōngguórén
3316:Kang Youwei
3312:Sun Yat-sen
3170:scholarship
3164:(including
3124:opened the
2657:Han dynasty
2578:History of
2506:Discoveries
2501:Cartography
2496:Archaeology
2434:Art history
2323:(1644–1912)
2310:(1368–1644)
2297:(1271–1368)
2267:(1115–1234)
2254:(1038–1227)
2250:Western Xia
2222:(1127–1279)
2054:Eastern Jin
2044:Western Jin
1969:(25–220 CE)
1965:Eastern Han
1945:Western Han
1824: 1046
1804: 1046
1800: 1250
1777: 1600
1753: 2070
1694: 8500
1675:Paleolithic
1666:Prehistoric
1599:Möllendorff
1562:Manchu name
1425:daai6 cing1
1411:Daaih Chīng
1273:Tshing tiâu
1259:Chheng tiâu
1204:Chīng Chìuh
872:Preceded by
858:Paper money
598:Late modern
585:(1910–1912)
576:(1636–1733)
565:Legislature
555:Yuan Shikai
217:(1644–1912)
209:(1636–1644)
114:(1889–1912)
39:Qin dynasty
19482:Categories
17189:Four Wangs
17080:mausoleums
17033:Golden Urn
17006:Inner Asia
16983:Xiang Army
16953:Hushenying
16878:Liangguang
16858:Liangjiang
16796:Lifan Yuan
16701:Government
16165:Tanganyika
16080:The Gambia
16008:Niuē-Fekai
15947:Yugoslavia
15847:Montenegro
15654:Upper Yafa
15649:Upper Asir
15286:Madagascar
15019:Luxembourg
14751:Government
14716:Abdication
14685:Hereditary
14613:Monarchies
14478:Portuguese
14359:Revival Le
14349:Vietnamese
13992:Later Tran
13962:Vietnamese
13858:Singhasari
13846:Holy Roman
13470:Bulgarian
13406:Satavahana
13377:Phoenician
13313:Achaemenid
13274:Indo-Greek
13254:Macedonian
13168:Babylonian
13074:1644–1912
12599:0295979380
12443:0521228093
11722:18 January
10909:, p.
10893:, p.
10877:, p.
10861:, p.
10781:, p.
10765:, p.
10707:0674445155
10572:0340741333
10453:, p.
10388:, p.
10239:8 November
10200:8 November
10104:8 November
10008:Wikisource
9948:, p.
9785:19 October
9654:Hsü (1990)
9546:Hsü (1990)
9495:7 November
9377:Hsü (1990)
9353:Hsü (1990)
8895:, p.
8879:, p.
8863:, p.
8847:, p.
8831:, p.
8815:, p.
8787:, p.
8677:, p.
8559:, p.
8424:Inner Asia
8020:(3): 500.
7923:References
7587:Briefly a
7260:Cao Xueqin
7196:literature
7130:Four Wangs
6974:See also:
6947:Opium Wars
6928:metallurgy
6870:Opium wars
6832:Puankhequa
6359:Opium Wars
6331:Franciscan
6101:State Cult
5827:See also:
5732:Lifan Yuan
5597:March 2022
5299:) and the
5233:consulates
5166:See also:
5156:Government
5110:abdication
4899:, and the
4845:Wade–Giles
4833:Hubert Vos
4813:Pescadores
4774:Amur river
4409:Inner Asia
4405:Lifan Yuan
4164:Dalai Lama
4064:Bogda Khan
3963:See also:
3849:Prince Gui
3845:pretenders
3818:Great Wall
3795:Li Zicheng
3759:See also:
3730:(Coins of
3686:Hong Taiji
3680:Hong Taiji
3640:" or the "
3515:Wade–Giles
3513:using the
3492:) and
3465:; Manchu:
3425:Inner Asia
3372:Great Qing
3364:See also:
3265:suzerainty
3225:Opium Wars
3192:including
3190:Inner Asia
3182:Lê dynasty
3114:Hong Taiji
3032:Great Qing
2707:Former Qin
2702:Former Yan
2511:Inventions
2241:(916–1125)
2212:(960–1127)
2200:(960–1279)
1867: – c.
1865: 770
1826: – c.
1802: – c.
1791:Late Shang
1779: – c.
1755: – c.
1696: – c.
1503:Дайчин Улс
1480:Tāi-tshing
1466:Tāi-chheng
1353:Wade–Giles
1218:cing1 ciu4
1177:Suzhounese
1123:Wade–Giles
611:Proclaimed
410:Government
399:Demonym(s)
50:Great Qing
18:Great Qing
17011:Manchuria
16978:Huai Army
16968:Yong Ying
16853:Shaan-Gan
16309:High Qing
16255:Later Jin
16135:Mauritius
16028:Rarotonga
16013:Nuku Hiva
16003:Mangareva
15978:Bora Bora
15857:Neuchâtel
15827:Lithuania
15732:Catalonia
15619:Sri Lanka
15572:Manchukuo
15547:Kurdistan
15501:Indonesia
15424:Talamanca
15384:Araucanía
15367:and other
15346:Wassoulou
15090:Australia
14766:Oligarchy
14471:Couronian
14109:Ethiopian
14097:Manchukuo
14052:Brazilian
13898:Ghaznavid
13868:Srivijaya
13819:Trebizond
13804:Byzantine
13786:North Sea
13781:Norwegian
13769:Almoravid
13752:Ilkhanate
13722:Majapahit
13695:Muromachi
13604:Solomonic
13589:Ethiopian
13503:Caliphate
13436:Aragonese
13264:Ptolemaic
13034:from the
13003:144587815
12610:2 October
12513:920818520
11918:. Wiley.
11441:202928323
11334:225162563
10086:0004-5608
9418:china.com
9085:: 59–92.
9049:Ho (2011)
9037:Ho (2011)
9025:Ho (2011)
9013:Ho (2011)
8712:Li (2002)
8700:Li (2002)
8090:cite book
8072:歷史與時事學法指導
8034:0020-8833
7928:Citations
7814:jūnjī chù
7511:Shèngjīng
7280:Li Ruzhen
7270:Wu Jingzi
7122:four arts
7024:Fine arts
6960:feng shui
6920:geography
6912:astronomy
6800:Altishahr
6520:New World
6403:indemnity
6355:Liang Afa
6327:Dominican
6157:Shamanism
6133:, Beijing
5929:Manchuria
5888:annexing
5792:Kashgaria
5788:Yakub Beg
5757:Manchuria
5744:Dzungaria
5740:Tian Shan
5629:censorate
5621:provinces
5553:in 1895.
5263:, Japan,
5229:legations
5138:Manchukuo
5126:Zhang Xun
4835:c. 1905))
4449:Guangzhou
4441:Indonesia
4401:East Asia
4350:Manchuria
4246:1755–1758
3991:High Qing
3810:Wu Sangui
3539:Formation
3421:Manchuria
3158:Confucian
2947:Manchuria
2932:Manchukuo
2850:Qing rule
2835:Later Jin
2825:Ming rule
2815:Yuan rule
2712:Later Yan
2580:Manchuria
2187:(907–979)
2148:(690–705)
2138:(618–907)
2125:(581–618)
2112:(420–589)
2080:(304–439)
2058:(317–420)
2048:(266–316)
2016:(266–420)
1959:(9–23 CE)
1685:Neolithic
1649:Dynasties
1359:Ta Ch'ing
1183:Tshin záu
1145:Cing cháo
1101:Qīng cháo
895:Later Jin
780:1911–1912
767:1901–1911
754:1900–1901
728:1894–1895
715:1861–1895
700:1856–1860
687:1850–1864
674:1839–1842
661:1747–1792
648:1687–1758
631:1644–1662
369:Mongolian
353:Shamanism
330:Mongolian
307:Religion
96:1644–1912
19455:116°23′E
17463:Hongqian
17432:Currency
17302:Treaties
17208:Kaozheng
17155:Booi Aha
17097:Hetu Ala
17050:Timeline
17045:Xinjiang
17016:Mongolia
16973:Chu Army
16948:New Army
16905:Military
16843:Viceroys
16150:Rhodesia
16145:Pakistan
16064:Barbados
16033:Rimatara
16023:Rapa Iti
15952:Valencia
15927:Tavolara
15917:Scotland
15882:Portugal
15842:Moldavia
15727:Bulgaria
15722:Brittany
15697:Asturias
15577:Mongolia
15567:Maldives
15429:Trinidad
15419:Suriname
15377:Americas
15361:Zimbabwe
15356:Zanzibar
15341:Wituland
15316:Ngazidja
15311:Ndzuwani
15246:Ethiopia
14969:Thailand
14949:Malaysia
14929:Cambodia
14879:Eswatini
14675:Elective
14660:Absolute
14451:Japanese
14414:Scottish
14394:American
14386:Colonial
14315:Imperial
14283:Moroccan
14219:Japanese
14197:Afsharid
14056:Burmese
14042:Austrian
13997:Later Le
13972:Early Le
13957:Venetian
13883:Tiwanaku
13796:Hellenic
13759:Moroccan
13690:Kamakura
13680:Japanese
13663:Saffarid
13616:Georgian
13530:Chalukya
13508:Rashidun
13498:Calakmul
13466:Bruneian
13345:Haryanka
13323:Sasanian
13318:Parthian
13269:Bactrian
13259:Seleucid
13239:Goguryeo
13217:Egyptian
13151:Assyrian
13141:Akkadian
13132:Colonies
13044:Archived
12995:20062627
12888:Archived
12870:(1977).
12752:(1990).
12707:Archived
12604:Archived
12417:Archived
12317:Archived
12255:Archived
12142:Archived
12090:Archived
11989:Archived
11897:Archived
11858:(2012).
11811:Archived
11716:Archived
11663:Archived
11578:Archived
11531:Archived
11472:Archived
11075:34206810
10973:archived
10712:Archived
10694:(1999).
10664:Archived
10640:Archived
10537:Archived
10504:archived
10278:8 August
10272:Archived
10233:Archived
10194:Archived
10192:. 2012.
10137:Archived
10098:Archived
9974:Archived
9925:6931635M
9489:Archived
9087:Archived
8733:Archived
8630:Archived
8591:Archived
8500:Archived
8371:14 March
8365:Archived
8293:22 March
8046:Archived
7909:,
7901:,
7841:,
7833:,
7827:ᠨᠠᠰᡥᡡᠨ ᡳ
7787:,
7779:,
7735:,
7727:,
7687:,
7679:,
7662:shàngshū
7615:Dulimbai
7570:,
7562:,
7534:,
7526:,
7326:See also
7301:Yuan Mei
7288:(1827).
7232:and the
7185:Qianlong
7170:Wei Yuan
7166:Lin Zexu
7158:Gu Yanwu
7154:Dai Zhen
7114:painting
7075:ceramics
7034:Daoguang
6936:printing
6924:ceramics
6848:the West
6789:Khalkhas
6513:Chopmark
6509:Xuantong
6228:Buddhism
6161:Tungusic
6089:Tian Xia
6073:Religion
5954:liangmin
5950:literati
5925:Guandong
5853:smallpox
5724:Xinjiang
5643:) and a
5633:governor
5531:Xinjiang
5438:Jiangnan
5430:Mongolia
5322:chancery
5295:(or the
5281:Portugal
4791:led the
4614:and the
4548:Shanghai
4504:Lin Zexu
4459:and the
4289:Mongolia
4285:Xinjiang
4240:Dzungars
4228:de facto
4119:Dzungars
4070:"). The
4030:hūwangdi
3941:smallpox
3901:Jiangnan
3658:Liaoyang
3654:Hetu Ala
3644:Tartars"
3599:Jianzhou
3567:Jurchens
3517:system.
3467:ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳ
3441:Zhōngguó
3413:Manjusri
3401:, while
3202:Xinjiang
3198:Mongolia
3180:and the
3162:Buddhism
3144:and the
3136:and his
3048:Shenyang
3034:, was a
2805:Xingliao
2687:Goguryeo
2622:Gojoseon
2569:a series
2567:Part of
2474:Timeline
2401:(Taiwan,
2381:of China
1895:Imperial
1644:Timeline
1618:a series
1616:Part of
1545:SASM/GNC
1419:Jyutping
1339:Bopomofo
1212:Jyutping
1109:Bopomofo
841:Currency
319:Buddhism
286:Tibetans
207:Shenyang
19452:39°55′N
17634:in the
17448:Zhiqian
17440:Coinage
17177:Economy
17148:culture
16883:Yun-Gui
16873:Min-Zhe
16868:Sichuan
16863:Huguang
16709:Emperor
16230:History
16140:Nigeria
16115:Ireland
16043:Tahuata
16018:Raiatea
15998:Huahine
15973:Abemama
15966:Oceania
15937:Tuscany
15892:Romania
15887:Prussia
15852:Navarre
15832:Majorca
15812:Ireland
15807:Imereti
15802:Iceland
15797:Hungary
15792:Hanover
15787:Granada
15777:Germany
15772:Georgia
15767:Galicia
15757:Finland
15747:Corsica
15742:Cilicia
15712:Bavaria
15702:Austria
15687:Albania
15659:Vietnam
15602:Sarawak
15592:Qu'aiti
15527:Kathiri
15490:Dapitan
15465:Bukhara
15414:Miskito
15336:Tunisia
15326:Shilluk
15236:Dahomey
15226:Burundi
15216:Bagirmi
15196:Adamawa
15115:Jamaica
15110:Grenada
15095:Bahamas
15059:Oceania
15009:Denmark
15004:Belgium
14999:Andorra
14914:Bahrain
14889:Morocco
14884:Lesotho
14863:Current
14854:Pharaoh
14807:Emperor
14746:Dynasty
14700:Regency
14680:Federal
14670:Diarchy
14624:Monarch
14518:largest
14513:Empires
14493:Swedish
14488:Spanish
14483:Russian
14446:Italian
14421:Chinese
14409:English
14404:British
14399:Belgian
14374:Vietnam
14364:Tay son
14310:Tsarist
14305:Russian
14300:Ottoman
14266:Dzungar
14261:Khoshut
14234:Mexican
14229:Maratha
14212:Pahlavi
14192:Safavid
14187:Iranian
14114:Haitian
14077:Chinese
14037:Ashanti
14009:Wagadou
13935:Eastern
13930:Western
13913:Timurid
13873:Tibetan
13863:Songhai
13853:Serbian
13774:Almohad
13764:Idrisid
13668:Samanid
13658:Tahirid
13653:Iranian
13631:Kannauj
13611:Genoese
13547:Chinese
13540:Eastern
13535:Western
13523:Fatimid
13518:Abbasid
13513:Umayyad
13486:Burmese
13446:Ayyubid
13441:Angevin
13411:Xianbei
13399:Eastern
13394:Western
13340:Magadha
13303:Iranian
13296:Xiongnu
13281:Hittite
13190:Chinese
13178:Kassite
13127:Ancient
13119:Empires
13050:at the
12894:12 July
12860:2424772
12645:(ed.).
12434:Chinese
12423:5 March
12374:(ed.).
12274:(ed.).
12261:15 June
12190:17 June
12148:15 June
12096:12 July
11995:12 July
11829:Sources
11777:(ed.).
11659:The Met
11067:7581277
10979:16 June
10718:15 June
10546:15 June
10510:15 June
10471:105–106
10143:11 July
10094:2563132
9983:13 June
9253:2718931
8739:21 July
8725:"China"
8055:24 July
8042:2600793
7983:133–134
7825:ᠴᠣᡠ᠋ᡥᠠᡳ
7721:ᠠᠰᡥᠠᠨ ᡳ
7710:shìláng
7297:Cuisine
7292:Cuisine
7250:Shen Fu
7036:period
6863:Revenue
6735:KHANATE
6724:KHANATE
6722:CRIMEAN
6695:KHANATE
6693:BUKHARA
6684:KHANATE
6671:OTTOMAN
6660:SAFAVID
6638:MADURAI
6618:DYNASTY
6607:KHANATE
6605:KHOSHUT
6596:KHANATE
6594:DZUNGAR
6564:gongsuo
6560:huiguan
6418:Economy
6395:jiao'an
6322:Jesuits
6311:Judaism
6097:Emperor
5989:shenshi
5958:jianmin
5823:Society
5776:Muslims
5736:Qinghai
5705:Beijing
5689:viceroy
5625:Huguang
5470:in 1875
5452:Banners
5434:ginseng
5422:eunuchs
5257:Germany
5241:Belgium
5202:Mongols
5198:Manchus
5142:emperor
5071:Nanjing
5052:Yikuang
4915:Germany
4911:Britain
4631:Taiping
4604:Guizhou
4592:Muslims
4575:Guizhou
4332:Xu Yang
4293:Sichuan
4242:in the
4193:, Lhasa
4187:Chengde
4151:Albazin
4143:Koxinga
4135:Formosa
4111:Khalkha
4034:Chinese
4026:Huangdi
3714:Emperor
3704:of the
3675:in 1619
3621:of the
3595:Nurhaci
3589:Nurhaci
3583:nomadic
3563:Manchus
3521:History
3471:ᠨᡳᠶᠠᠯᠮᠠ
3417:Tartary
3094:Nurhaci
3052:Beijing
2795:Jeongan
2722:Kumo Xi
2677:Cao Wei
2652:Xiongnu
2145:Wu Zhou
1735:Ancient
1714:Yangtze
1576:ᡩᠠᡳ᠌ᠴᡳᠩ
1521:ᠳᠠᠢᠢᠴᠢᠩ
1457:Hokkien
1373:Dà Cing
1345:ㄉㄚˋ ㄑㄧㄥ
1331:Dà Qīng
1290:Chinese
1250:Hokkien
1115:ㄑㄧㄥ ㄔㄠˊ
1065:Chinese
786:•
773:•
760:•
747:•
734:•
721:•
706:•
693:•
680:•
667:•
654:•
637:•
622:•
609:•
541:Yikuang
508:Zaifeng
421:Emperor
404:Chinese
335:Tibetan
325:Chinese
291:Uyghurs
281:Mongols
276:Manchus
229:Beijing
215:Beijing
199:Capital
121:Anthem:
74:ᡩᠠᡳ᠌ᠴᡳᠩ
65:Chinese
17062:Taiwan
16238:Early
16223:topics
16175:Uganda
16125:Malawi
16090:Guyana
16069:Ceylon
16048:Tahiti
16038:Rurutu
15993:Hawaii
15922:Serbia
15907:Saxony
15897:Russia
15782:Greece
15762:France
15752:Cyprus
15737:Crimea
15717:Bosnia
15692:Aragon
15680:Europe
15644:Taiwan
15614:Sikkim
15597:Ryukyu
15582:Najran
15480:Chehab
15460:Bengal
15409:Mexico
15394:Brazil
15321:Rwanda
15301:Maravi
15201:Ankole
15189:Africa
15181:Former
15162:Tuvalu
15105:Canada
15100:Belize
15044:Sweden
15034:Norway
15024:Monaco
14991:Europe
14944:Kuwait
14939:Jordan
14924:Brunei
14919:Bhutan
14871:Africa
14844:Sultan
14795:Titles
14709:Topics
14456:Mongol
14441:German
14436:French
14426:Danish
14369:Dainam
14344:Tongan
14332:Somali
14327:Sokoto
14293:'Alawi
14271:Kalmyk
14251:Mongol
14244:Second
14224:Korean
14175:Mughal
14165:Indian
14148:German
14141:Second
14131:French
14124:Second
14060:Second
14032:Afghan
14024:Modern
13950:Kyrgyz
13945:Uighur
13940:Second
13920:Turkic
13888:Toltec
13824:Epirus
13809:Nicaea
13732:Mongol
13685:Yamato
13621:Huetar
13479:Second
13416:Rouran
13365:Shunga
13360:Maurya
13335:Kushan
13308:Median
13286:Hunnic
13244:Harsha
13001:
12993:
12955:
12932:
12913:
12880:
12858:
12848:
12829:
12808:
12784:
12762:
12738:
12699:
12678:
12659:
12627:
12596:
12575:
12552:
12531:
12511:
12501:
12482:
12461:
12440:
12409:
12388:
12359:
12340:
12323:18 May
12309:
12288:
12247:
12226:
12207:
12165:
12134:
12113:
12082:
12054:
12033:
12014:
11981:
11960:
11941:
11922:
11903:18 May
11889:
11868:
11844:
11817:7 June
11685:"Home"
11607:
11584:7 June
11537:17 May
11509:
11464:
11439:
11433:311679
11431:
11370:
11332:
11267:
11217:
11073:
11065:
10965:
10704:
10569:
10264:
10225:
10168:
10129:
10092:
10084:
10003:
9923:
9833:
9808:
9745:
9589:
9276:
9251:
9162:
9135:
8997:Jesuit
8622:
8583:
8474:
8394:
8357:
8316:
8195:
8117:
8078:
8040:
8032:
7893::
7891:Manchu
7821::
7819:Manchu
7769::
7767:Manchu
7717::
7715:Manchu
7669::
7667:Manchu
7576:Beging
7568:Beging
7554::
7552:Manchu
7540:Mukden
7532:Mukden
7522:ᠮᡠᡴᡩᡝᠨ
7518::
7516:Manchu
7200:Poetry
7138:Shitao
7091:Europe
6986:, and
6918:, and
6852:Cohong
6844:Canton
6838:family
6836:Cohong
6733:KALMYK
6673:EMPIRE
6662:EMPIRE
6640:NAYAKS
6629:EMPIRE
6627:MUGHAL
6530:Kangxi
6496:Silver
6464:corvée
6442:Yantai
6294:, and
6232:Daoism
6230:, and
6095:, the
5937:minren
5919::
5911::
5866:Yunnan
5835:, and
5697:zongdu
5681:county
5543:Fujian
5539:Taiwan
5316:. The
5285:Russia
5273:Panama
5265:Mexico
5253:France
5245:Brazil
5020:, and
4967:Boxers
4923:France
4919:Russia
4895:, the
4891:, the
4857:a coup
4612:Yunnan
4606:, the
4544:Ningbo
4540:Fuzhou
4532:Canton
4455:. The
4345:peanut
4341:potato
4334:, 1759
4311:Heshen
4127:Galdan
4084:Jesuit
4038:Manchu
3861:Yunnan
3780:Dorgon
3710:Khagan
3662:Mukden
3638:Nüzhen
3551:, and
3292:Boxers
3285:a coup
3200:, and
3102:vassal
3036:Manchu
2878:Korean
2829:Nurgan
2775:Balhae
2737:Shiwei
2727:Khitan
2662:Wuhuan
2637:Yemaek
2632:Donghu
2627:Sushen
2571:on the
2343:Modern
1999:, and
1717:, and
1708:Yellow
1620:on the
1474:Tâi-lô
1267:Tâi-lô
1026:Manchu
525:
494:Dorgon
479:
475:Regent
425:
388:others
364:Manchu
343:Taoism
297:others
241:Manchu
174:大清帝國之璽
123:
84:Manchu
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