History of science

1446: 1593: 2666:. The Aether was a celestial element, and therefore made up the matter of the celestial bodies. The elements of earth, water, air and fire were derived of a combination of two of the characteristics of hot, wet, cold, and dry, and all had their inevitable place and motion. The motion of these elements begins with earth being the closest to "the Earth," then water, air, fire, and finally Aether. In addition to the makeup of all things, Aristotle came up with theories as to why things did not return to their natural motion. He understood that water sits above earth, air above water, and fire above air in their natural state. He explained that although all elements must return to their natural state, the human body and other living things have a constraint on the elements – thus not allowing the elements making one who they are to return to their natural state. 5813: 84: 3594:, both of which were used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe well into the 17th century. Amongst his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases, and the introduction of clinical pharmacology. Institutionalization of medicine was another important achievement in the Islamic world. Although hospitals as an institution for the sick emerged in the Byzantium empire, the model of institutionalized medicine for all social classes was extensive in the Islamic empire and was scattered throughout. In addition to treating patients, physicians could teach apprentice physicians, as well write and do research. The discovery of the pulmonary transit of blood in the human body by 3102:

at the highest level had an obligation to provide advice or intellectual companionship to their Roman benefactors, or to even take care of their libraries. The less fortunate or accomplished ones would teach their children or perform menial tasks. The level of detail and sophistication of Greek knowledge was adjusted to suit the interests of their Roman patrons. That meant popularizing Greek knowledge by presenting information that were of practical value such as medicine or logic (for courts and politics) but excluding subtle details of Greek metaphysics and epistemology. Beyond the basics, the Romans did not value natural philosophy and considered it an amusement for leisure time.

4250: 15008: 4428:. Copernicus proposed the idea that the Earth and all heavenly spheres, containing the planets and other objects in the cosmos, rotated around the Sun. His heliocentric model also proposed that all stars were fixed and did not rotate on an axis, nor in any motion at all. His theory proposed the yearly rotation of the Earth and the other heavenly spheres around the Sun and was able to calculate the distances of planets using deferents and epicycles. Although these calculations were not completely accurate, Copernicus was able to understand the distance order of each heavenly sphere. The Copernican heliocentric system was a revival of the hypotheses of 3080:. Greek settlements had existed in Italy for centuries and the ability to read and speak Greek was not uncommon in Italian cities such as Rome. Moreover, the settlement of Greek scholars in Rome, whether voluntarily or as slaves, gave Romans access to teachers of Greek literature and philosophy. Conversely, young Roman scholars also studied abroad in Greece and upon their return to Rome, were able to convey Greek achievements to their Latin leadership. And despite the translation of a few Greek texts into Latin, Roman scholars who aspired to the highest level did so using the Greek language. The Roman 1059: 2354: 5021: 2594: 3231: 867:, written at about the same time, contains a surgical manual for treating wounds, fractures, and dislocations. The Egyptians believed that the effectiveness of their medicines depended on the preparation and administration under appropriate rituals. Medical historians believe that ancient Egyptian pharmacology, for example, was largely ineffective. Both the Ebers and Edwin Smith papyri applied the following components to the treatment of disease: examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis, which display strong parallels to the basic 4863: 3396: 6528: 907: 4478: 4436:. Aristarchus of Samos did propose that the Earth rotated around the Sun but did not mention anything about the other heavenly spheres' order, motion, or rotation. Seleucus of Seleucia also proposed the rotation of the Earth around the Sun but did not mention anything about the other heavenly spheres. In addition, Seleucus of Seleucia understood that the Moon rotated around the Earth and could be used to explain the tides of the oceans, thus further proving his understanding of the heliocentric idea. 3413:. An Ijazah differs from a western university degree in many ways one being that it is issued by a single person rather than an institution, and another being that it is not an individual degree declaring adequate knowledge over broad subjects, but rather a license to teach and pass on a very specific set of texts. Women were also allowed to attend madrasas, as both students and teachers, something not seen in high western education until the 1800s. Madrasas were more than just academic centers. The 6081: 5715: 1212: 16946: 2781: 6514: 103: 3330: 16910: 16236: 15401: 1200: 5596: 4411: 3812:). Such independence was a matter of custom, which could, in principle, be revoked by their respective rulers if they felt threatened. Discussions of various subjects or claims at these medieval institutions, no matter how controversial, were done in a formalized way so as to declare such discussions as being within the bounds of a university and therefore protected by the privileges of that institution's sovereignty. A claim could be described as 16211: 15389: 1967: 16935: 3673: 2052: 1842: 15378: 6446: 2898: 5141: 825: 2882: 16922: 5268: 4931: 4451: 5170:. Other highlights include the discoveries unveiling the nature of atomic structure and matter, simultaneously with chemistry – and of new kinds of radiation. The theory that all matter is made of atoms, which are the smallest constituents of matter that cannot be broken down without losing the basic chemical and physical properties of that matter, was provided by 6333:. New Classical economics was developed in the 1970s, emphasizing solid microeconomics as the basis for macroeconomic growth. New Keynesian economics was created partially in response to New Classical economics. It shows how imperfect competition and market rigidities, means monetary policy has real effects, and enables analysis of different policies. 659:. Historians in the 1980s and 1990s described the structural barriers to participation and began to recover the contributions of overlooked individuals. Historians have also investigated the mundane practices of science such as fieldwork and specimen collection, correspondence, drawing, record-keeping, and the use of laboratory and field equipment. 1160:

particularly in China occurred largely independently from those of Europe and the confirmed early influences that these two civilizations had on the development of science in Europe in the pre-modern era were indirect, with Mesopotamia and later the Islamic World acting as intermediaries. The arrival of modern science, which grew out of the

5309:, which was published in 1859. In it, Darwin proposed that the features of all living things, including humans, were shaped by natural processes over long periods of time. The theory of evolution in its current form affects almost all areas of biology. Implications of evolution on fields outside of pure science have led to both 4679:'s pre-existing notions of heating and cooling functions. The history of early modern biology and medicine is often told through the search for the seat of the soul. Galen in his descriptions of his foundational work in medicine presents the distinctions between arteries, veins, and nerves using the vocabulary of the soul. 6386:, began to exert their influence as well, leading some researchers to investigate the mind by investigating the brain, rather than cognition. These new forms of investigation assume that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible, and that such an understanding may be applied to other research domains, such as 2771:"With astonishment we find ourselves on the threshold of modern science. Nor should it be supposed that by some trick of translation the extracts have been given an air of modernity. Far from it. The vocabulary of these writings and their style are the source from which our own vocabulary and style have been derived." 5804:", requiring massive machines, budgets, and laboratories in order to test their theories and move into new frontiers. The primary patron of physics became state governments, who recognized that the support of "basic" research could often lead to technologies useful to both military and industrial applications. 3433:) and were protected by powerful patrons. They could also travel freely and exchange ideas as there were no political barriers within the unified Islamic state. Islamic science during this time was primarily focused on the correction, extension, articulation, and application of Greek ideas to new problems. 1226:(c. 4th millennium BCE ~ c. 3rd millennium BCE). The people of this civilization made bricks whose dimensions were in the proportion 4:2:1, which is favorable for the stability of a brick structure. They also tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler—the 5198:. By the 20th century, systematic production of refined materials provided a ready supply of products which provided not only energy, but also synthetic materials for clothing, medicine, and everyday disposable resources. Application of the techniques of organic chemistry to living organisms resulted in 632:, suggesting that religion and science have been in conflict methodologically, factually and politically throughout history. The "conflict thesis" has since lost favor among the majority of contemporary scientists and historians of science. However, some contemporary philosophers and scientists, such as 5131:

beyond those classical theories of Euclid, after a period of nearly two thousand years. The mathematical science of logic likewise had revolutionary breakthroughs after a similarly long period of stagnation. But the most important step in science at this time were the ideas formulated by the creators

3291:. The theory of impetus was an auxiliary or secondary theory of Aristotelian dynamics, put forth initially to explain projectile motion against gravity. It is the intellectual precursor to the concepts of inertia, momentum and acceleration in classical mechanics. The works of John Philoponus inspired 2661:

that put the celestial bodies in motion. Aristotle tried to explain everything through mathematics and physics, but sometimes explained things such as the motion of celestial bodies through a higher power such as God. Aristotle did not have the technological advancements that would have explained the

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of the 16th and 17th centuries "learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture." Western academic thought on the history of Chinese technology

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From the earliest the Chinese used a positional decimal system on counting boards in order to calculate. To express 10, a single rod is placed in the second box from the right. The spoken language uses a similar system to English: e.g. four thousand two hundred and seven. No symbol was used for zero.

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The ancient Egyptians even developed an official calendar that contained twelve months, thirty days each, and five days at the end of the year. Unlike the Babylonian calendar or the ones used in Greek city-states at the time, the official Egyptian calendar was much simpler as it was fixed and did not

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in 1231. The granting of a charter meant that the medieval universities were partially sovereign and independent from local authorities. Their independence allowed them to conduct themselves and judge their own members based on their own rules. Furthermore, as initially religious institutions, their

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was also steadily expanding during this time and soon became a major patron of education in the Latin West. Initially, the Christian church adopted some of the reasoning tools of Greek philosophy in the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE to defend its faith against sophisticated opponents. Nevertheless, Greek

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There was not a defined societal structure for healthcare during the age of Hippocrates. At that time, society was not organized and knowledgeable as people still relied on pure religious reasoning to explain illnesses. Hippocrates introduced the first healthcare system based on science and clinical

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cultures, messages from the gods or omens were concealed in all natural phenomena that could be deciphered and interpreted by those who are adept. Hence, it was believed that the gods could speak through all terrestrial objects (e.g., animal entrails, dreams, malformed births, or even the color of a

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and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities. In fact, European university put many works about the natural world and the study of nature at the center of its curriculum, with the result that the "medieval university laid far greater emphasis on science than does its

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In the beginning, support for scholarship in Greek knowledge was almost entirely funded by the Roman upper class. There were all sorts of arrangements, ranging from a talented scholar being attached to a wealthy household to owning educated Greek-speaking slaves. In exchange, scholars who succeeded

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astronomer and mathematician. Kiddinu's value for the solar year is in use for today's calendars. Babylonian astronomy was "the first and highly successful attempt at giving a refined mathematical description of astronomical phenomena." According to the historian A. Aaboe, "all subsequent varieties

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It was not that there was no order in nature for the Chinese, but rather that it was not an order ordained by a rational personal being, and hence there was no conviction that rational personal beings would be able to spell out in their lesser earthly languages the divine code of laws which he had

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Astronomical observations from China constitute the longest continuous sequence from any civilization and include records of sunspots (112 records from 364 BCE), supernovas (1054), lunar and solar eclipses. By the 12th century, they could reasonably accurately make predictions of eclipses, but the

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The oral tradition of preliterate societies had several features, the first of which was its fluidity. New information was constantly absorbed and adjusted to new circumstances or community needs. There were no archives or reports. This fluidity was closely related to the practical need to explain

6408:, who argued that aspects of society that promoted structural integration were therefore "functional". This structural functionalism approach was questioned in the 1960s, when sociologists came to see this approach as merely a justification for inequalities present in the status quo. In reaction, 5508:

approach to sociology. In particular, just Auguste Comte, illustrated with his work the transition from a theological to a metaphysical stage and, from this, to a positive stage. Comte took care of the classification of the sciences as well as a transit of humanity towards a situation of progress

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At the beginning of the 13th century, there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural philosophy in these

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Anthropology can best be understood as an outgrowth of the Age of Enlightenment. It was during this period that Europeans attempted systematically to study human behavior. Traditions of jurisprudence, history, philology and sociology developed during this time and informed the development of the

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Higher education at a madrasa (or college) was focused on Islamic law and religious science and students had to engage in self-study for everything else. And despite the occasional theological backlash, many Islamic scholars of science were able to conduct their work in relatively tolerant urban

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were centers for many different religious and scientific studies and were the culmination of different institutions such as mosques based around religious studies, housing for out-of-town visitors, and finally educational institutions focused on the natural sciences. Unlike Western universities,

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By the eleventh century, most of Europe had become Christian; stronger monarchies emerged; borders were restored; technological developments and agricultural innovations were made, increasing the food supply and population. Classical Greek texts were translated from Arabic and Greek into Latin,

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in the 12th century, cover topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each

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Navya-Nyāya developed a sophisticated language and conceptual scheme that allowed it to raise, analyse, and solve problems in logic and epistemology. It systematised all the Nyāya concepts into four main categories: sense or perception (pratyakşa), inference (anumāna), comparison or similarity

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applied the new technique to rocks throughout Europe and eastern North America, setting the stage for more detailed, government-funded mapping projects in later decades. Midway through the 19th century, the focus of geology shifted from description and classification to attempts to understand

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The medical sciences were prominently cultivated in the Islamic world. The works of Greek medical theories, especially those of Galen, were translated into Arabic and there was an outpouring of medical texts by Islamic physicians, which were aimed at organizing, elaborating, and disseminating

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appeared at Venice in 1482, one of the very earliest of mathematical books to be set in type; it has been estimated that since then at least a thousand editions have been published. Perhaps no book other than the Bible can boast so many editions, and certainly no mathematical work has had an

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required knowledge about the properties of metals. Nonetheless, the Mesopotamians seem to have had little interest in gathering information about the natural world for the mere sake of gathering information and were far more interested in studying the manner in which the gods had ordered the

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Mathematical achievements from Mesopotamia had some influence on the development of mathematics in India, and there were confirmed transmissions of mathematical ideas between India and China, which were bidirectional. Nevertheless, the mathematical and scientific achievements in India and

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in 1681, natural philosophers began to explore the idea that the Earth had changed over time. Burnet and his contemporaries interpreted Earth's past in terms of events described in the Bible, but their work laid the intellectual foundations for secular interpretations of Earth history.

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as "a book of political realism, a book analyzing how the political world does work and not very often stating how it ought to work, a book that frequently discloses to a king what calculating and sometimes brutal measures he must carry out to preserve the state and the common good."

2075:. Although no tremors could be felt in the capital when Zhang told the court that an earthquake had just occurred in the northwest, a message came soon afterwards that an earthquake had indeed struck 400 to 500 km (250 to 310 mi) northwest of Luoyang (in what is now modern 1106:. Using this data, they developed mathematical methods to compute the changing length of daylight in the course of the year, predict the appearances and disappearances of the Moon and planets, and eclipses of the Sun and Moon. Only a few astronomers' names are known, such as that of 2762:

worked out the laws of equilibrium; they must have had practical and intuitional knowledge of the principals involved. What Archimedes did was to sort out the theoretical implications of this practical knowledge and present the resulting body of knowledge as a logically coherent

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In the mid-20th century, much of the methodologies of earlier anthropological and ethnographical study were reevaluated with an eye towards research ethics, while at the same time the scope of investigation has broadened far beyond the traditional study of "primitive cultures".

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created comprehensive classification systems for rocks and minerals—a collective achievement that transformed geology into a cutting edge field by the end of the eighteenth century. These early geologists also proposed a generalized interpretations of Earth history that led

2697:; an awareness of the importance of certain scientific problems, especially those related to the problem of change and its causes; and a recognition of the methodological importance of applying mathematics to natural phenomena and of undertaking empirical research. In the 4030:

led to the study of medieval science as a serious discipline, "but no one in the field any longer endorses his view that modern science started in 1277". However, many scholars agree with Duhem's view that the mid-late Middle Ages saw important scientific developments.

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However, cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into "modern science". According to Needham, it may have been the religious and philosophical framework of Chinese intellectuals which made them unable to accept the ideas of laws of nature:

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In the late Victorian period it was common to write about the 'warfare between science and religion' and to presume that the two bodies of culture must always have been in conflict. However, it is a very long time since these attitudes have been held by historians of

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was developed, which was based in part on the philosophies of Karl Marx. Conflict theorists saw society as an arena in which different groups compete for control over resources. Symbolic interactionism also came to be regarded as central to sociological thinking.

4012:. Precursors of the modern scientific method, influenced by earlier contributions of the Islamic world, can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his 3065:, Cicero, and others provided examples of the politics of the republic and Rome's empire and wars. The study of politics during this age was oriented toward understanding history, understanding methods of governing, and describing the operation of governments. 2079:). Zhang called his device the 'instrument for measuring the seasonal winds and the movements of the Earth' (Houfeng didong yi 候风地动仪), so-named because he and others thought that earthquakes were most likely caused by the enormous compression of trapped air. 601:

Science is a human activity, and scientific contributions have come from people from a wide range of different backgrounds and cultures. Historians of science increasingly see their field as part of a global history of exchange, conflict and collaboration.

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text, composed in the early centuries of the common era, is a comprehensive text on Tamil grammar, which includes sutras on orthography, phonology, etymology, morphology, semantics, prosody, sentence structure and the significance of context in language.

3311:" as they brought with them a great deal of classical learning including an understanding of botany, medicine, and zoology. Byzantium also gave the West important inputs: John Philoponus' criticism of Aristotelian physics, and the works of Dioscorides. 4051:: natural philosophers should not postulate unnecessary entities, so that motion is not a distinct thing but is only the moving object and an intermediary "sensible species" is not needed to transmit an image of an object to the eye. Scholars such as 863:, written in around 1600 BCE, contains medical recipes for treating diseases related to the eyes, mouth, skin, internal organs, and extremities, as well as abscesses, wounds, burns, ulcers, swollen glands, tumors, headaches, and even bad breath. The 4083:

in 1453, when many Byzantine scholars sought refuge in the West. Meanwhile, the introduction of printing was to have great effect on European society. The facilitated dissemination of the printed word democratized learning and allowed ideas such as

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Starting in around 3000 BCE, the ancient Egyptians developed a numbering system that was decimal in character and had oriented their knowledge of geometry to solving practical problems such as those of surveyors and builders. Their development of

3824:(by hypothesis). This meant that the discussions were presented as purely an intellectual exercise that did not require those involved to commit themselves to the truth of a claim or to proselytize. Modern academic concepts and practices such as 6361:

limiting psychological study to overt behavior, since that could be reliably measured. Scientific knowledge of the "mind" was considered too metaphysical, hence impossible to achieve. The final decades of the 20th century have seen the rise of

4151:; but also the re-discovery of Aristotle during the Scholastic period presaged large social and political changes. Thus, a suitable environment was created in which it became possible to question scientific doctrine, in much the same way that 593:

The nature of the history of science is a topic of debate (as is, by implication, the definition of science itself). The history of science is often seen as a linear story of progress but historians have come to see the story as more complex.

3559:(known as Alhazen in the West), a mathematician and astronomer, synthesized a new theory of vision based on the works of his predecessors. His new theory included a complete system of geometrical optics, which was set in great detail in his 2549:, postulated non-supernatural explanations for natural phenomena. For example, that land floats on water and that earthquakes are caused by the agitation of the water upon which the land floats, rather than the god Poseidon. Thales' student 2701:

scholars frequently employed the principles developed in earlier Greek thought: the application of mathematics and deliberate empirical research, in their scientific investigations. Thus, clear unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient

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other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the patas of the sun and moon. The 13 chapters of the second part cover the nature of the sphere, as well as significant astronomical and trigonometric calculations based on it.

14855:– Contains primary sources by such major figures in the history of scientific inquiry as Otto Brunfels, Charles Darwin, Erasmus Darwin, Carolus Linnaeus Antony van Leeuwenhoek, Jan Swammerdam, James Sowerby, Andreas Vesalius, and others. 5194:, and by the end of the 19th century, scientists were able to synthesize hundreds of organic compounds. The later part of the 19th century saw the exploitation of the Earth's petrochemicals, after the exhaustion of the oil supply from 13928: 4131:

showed a decisive shift in focus from Aristotelian natural philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences (botany, anatomy, and medicine). Thus modern science in Europe was resumed in a period of great upheaval: the Protestant

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was also studied for divinatory purposes. Most information about the training and domestication of animals was probably transmitted orally without being written down, but one text dealing with the training of horses has survived.

5259:, which provided a plausible mechanism for it. Plate tectonics also provided a unified explanation for a wide range of seemingly unrelated geological phenomena. Since the 1960s it has served as the unifying principle in geology. 1499:'s updated the Aryabhatan model for the interior planets, Mercury, and Venus and the equation that he specified for the center of these planets was more accurate than the ones in European or Islamic astronomy until the time of 1230:—whose unit of length (approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimeters) was divided into ten equal parts. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length. 737:. Finally, there was an inclination to unquestioningly accept explanations that might be deemed implausible in more modern times while at the same time not being aware that such credulous behaviors could have posed problems. 11685:, Arab Origins of the Discovery of the Refraction of Light; Roshdi Hifni Rashed (Picture) Awarded the 2007 King Faisal International Prize, Optics & Photonics News (OPN, Logo), Vol. 18, No. 10, pp. 22–23 (October 2007). 3154:

began attacking and invading the Roman frontiers. These combined events led to a general decline in political and economic conditions. The living standards of the Roman upper class was severely impacted, and their loss of

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Scholars with geometric skills made significant improvements to the earlier classical texts on light and sight by Euclid, Aristotle, and Ptolemy. The earliest surviving Arabic treatises were written in the 9th century by

2853:. The collection notes descriptions of medical philosophies and how disease and lifestyle choices reflect on the physical body. Hippocrates influenced a Westernized, professional relationship among physician and patient. 14092: 3717:, began to venture further and further east. The written accounts of Polo and his fellow travelers inspired other Western European maritime explorers to search for a direct sea route to Asia, ultimately leading to the 4264:

is seen as a flowering of the European Renaissance. There was a willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers. This resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the

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based on natural causes. Inquiries were also aimed at such practical goals such as establishing a reliable calendar or determining how to cure a variety of illnesses. The ancient people who were considered the first

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of scientific astronomy, in the Hellenistic world, in India, in Islam, and in the West—if not indeed all subsequent endeavour in the exact sciences—depend upon Babylonian astronomy in decisive and fundamental ways."

3899:. Many of the Masters were drawn to encyclopedias and had used them as textbooks. But these scholars yearned for the complete original texts of the Ancient Greek philosophers, mathematicians, and physicians such as 4059:

started to reinterpret elements of Aristotle's mechanics. In particular, Buridan developed the theory that impetus was the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was a first step towards the modern concept of

1691:(c. 350–283 BCE). In this treatise, the behaviors and relationships of the people, the King, the State, the Government Superintendents, Courtiers, Enemies, Invaders, and Corporations are analyzed and documented. 3029:

The development of archaeology has its roots in history and with those who were interested in the past, such as kings and queens who wanted to show past glories of their respective nations. The 5th-century-BCE

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were shown by the analysis of the orbit of Mars. Kepler introduced the revolutionary concept of planetary orbit. Because of his work astronomical phenomena came to be seen as being governed by physical laws.

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for a wide range of diseases. It also includes sections on the importance of diet, hygiene, prevention, medical education, and the teamwork of a physician, nurse and patient necessary for recovery to health.

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The conflict thesis, at least in its simple form, is now widely perceived as a wholly inadequate intellectual framework within which to construct a sensible and realistic historiography of Western science.

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In historic reflections on art, cyclic schemas play a prominent role. This is a difference between art history and science history. The idea of linear progress simply does not apply in the esthetic domain.

10441:"The Eclipse That Ended a War and Shook the Gods Forever – Thales, a Greek philosopher 2,600 years ago, is celebrated for predicting a famous solar eclipse and founding what came to be known as science" 740:

The development of writing enabled humans to store and communicate knowledge across generations with much greater accuracy. Its invention was a prerequisite for the development of philosophy and later

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became a model for subsequent Roman encyclopedias and Varro's nine liberal arts were considered suitable education for a Roman gentleman. The first seven of Varro's nine arts would later define the

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contributed to the advancement of science in the period as well with its appearance out of Venice around 1450. The new glass allowed for better spectacles and eventually to the inventions of the

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that were empirical in nature, focusing on biological causation and the diversity of life. He made countless observations of nature, especially the habits and attributes of plants and animals on

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In the Middle Ages, the classical learning continued in three major linguistic cultures and civilizations: Greek (the Byzantine Empire), Arabic (the Islamic world), and Latin (Western Europe).

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of the early 19th century reshaped science by opening up new pursuits unexpected in the classical approaches of the Enlightenment. The decline of Romanticism occurred because a new movement,

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the surface of the Earth had changed. The first comprehensive theories of mountain building were proposed during this period, as were the first modern theories of earthquakes and volcanoes.

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in 180 CE, the favorable conditions for scholarship and learning in the Roman Empire were upended by political unrest, civil war, urban decay, and looming economic crisis. In around 250 CE,

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that is concerned with the study of happiness, mental well-being, and positive human functioning, and is a reaction to 20th century psychology's emphasis on mental illness and dysfunction.

14829: 13966: 10793:, many editions, such as the paperback by Penguin Books. Copyrights in 1944, 1949, 1953, 1961, 1963. The first quote above comes from Part 1, Chapter 1; the second, from Part 2, Chapter 4. 9518:. Sources and Studies in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences. Vol. I–II (1st ed.). Springer (jointly with Hindustan Book Agency, New Delhi). pp. LXVIII, 1084. 4687:

A critical innovation was the creation of permanent scientific societies and their scholarly journals, which dramatically sped the diffusion of new ideas. Typical was the founding of the

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of electrical science. Their work changed the face of physics and made possible for new technology to come about such as electric power, electrical telegraphy, the telephone, and radio.

3835:, which were aimed at providing beginning students with the skills for reasoning and scholarly language. Students would begin their studies starting with the first three liberal arts or 10854:

Kleisiaris CF, Sfakianakis C, Papathanasiou IV. Health care practices in ancient Greece: The Hippocratic ideal. J Med Ethics Hist Med. 2014 Mar 15;7:6. PMID 25512827; PMCID: PMC4263393.

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The beginning of the 20th century brought the start of a revolution in physics. The long-held theories of Newton were shown not to be correct in all circumstances. Beginning in 1900,

5525:, began to take hold of the ideals of the intellectuals after 1840 and lasted until about 1880. At the same time, the romantic reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers such as 3270:

in the 12th centuries. The curriculum of monastic schools included the study of the few available ancient texts and of new works on practical subjects like medicine and timekeeping.

4607:. Modern chemistry emerged from the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries through the material practices and theories promoted by alchemy, medicine, manufacturing and mining. 4571:, in 1661; although the alchemical tradition continued for some time after his work. Other important steps included the gravimetric experimental practices of medical chemists like 5647:, which explained the preceding quantum theories. Currently, general relativity and quantum mechanics are inconsistent with each other, and efforts are underway to unify the two. 4592: 2662:

motion of celestial bodies. In addition, Aristotle had many views on the elements. He believed that everything was derived of the elements earth, water, air, fire, and lastly the

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did not diminish learning and culture in the Greek provinces. On the contrary, the appreciation of Greek achievements in literature, philosophy, politics, and the arts by Rome's

1950: 1445: 14084: 4973:" that regulated economic systems made up of actors guided only by self-interest. The "invisible hand" mentioned in a lost page in the middle of a chapter in the middle of the " 4652: 2465:

representing numbers, coefficients, and calendar periods amounting to 20 days and even 20 years for tracking social, religious, political, and economic events in 360-day years.

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became a powerful tool for making geological maps, because it allowed geologists to correlate the rocks in one locality with those of similar age in other, distant localities.

3485:, drew up tables, and applied trignometry to spheres and planes. Many of their engineers, instruments makers, and surveyors contributed books in applied mathematics. It was in 3421:

in the 16th century. The Suleymaniye Mosque was home to a hospital and medical college, a kitchen, and children's school, as well as serving as a temporary home for travelers.

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Coppa, A.; et al. (6 April 2006). "Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry: Flint tips were surprisingly effective for drilling tooth enamel in a prehistoric population".

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caused massive changes in the dissemination of information. Advances in biology also led to large increases in food production, as well as the elimination of diseases such as

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in 1929 that the speed at which galaxies recede positively correlates with their distance, led to the understanding that the universe is expanding, and the formulation of the

3163:. These administrative divisions weakened the intellectual contact between the two regions. Eventually, both halves went their separate ways, with the Greek East becoming the 11032:

of Euclid not only was the earliest major Greek mathematical work to come down to us, but also the most influential textbook of all times. The first printed versions of the

2082:

There are many notable contributors to early Chinese disciplines, inventions, and practices throughout the ages. One of the best examples would be the medieval Song Chinese

1164:, in India and China and the greater Asian region in general can be traced to the scientific activities of Jesuit missionaries who were interested in studying the region's 847:

written in the 2500–1200 BCE, the ancient Egyptians believed that disease was mainly caused by the invasion of bodies by evil forces or spirits. Thus, in addition to using

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Lindberg, David C. (1990). "Conceptions of the Scientific Revolution from Baker to Butterfield: A preliminary sketch". In Lindberg, David C.; Westman, Robert S. (eds.).

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In political science during the 20th century, the study of ideology, behaviouralism and international relations led to a multitude of 'pol-sci' subdisciplines including

4756:, published between 1751 and 1772 brought this new understanding to a wider audience. The impact of this process was not limited to science and technology, but affected 6241:

Based on wireless transmission of electromagnetic radiation and global networks of cellular operation, the mobile phone became a primary means to access the internet.

5963:

from publishing this finding in her PhD thesis because of the widely held belief that stars had the same composition as the Earth. However, four years later, in 1929,

3695:, Greek and Roman taboos had meant that dissection was usually banned, but in the Middle Ages medical teachers and students at Bologna began to open human bodies, and 3113:(c. 135-c. 51 BCE), a native of Syria, wrote prolifically on history, geography, moral philosophy, and natural philosophy. He greatly influenced Latin writers such as 2630:

and the notion that universal truths can be arrived at via observation and induction, thereby laying the foundations of the scientific method. Aristotle also produced

1034:. The profession was generally passed down from father to son and was held in extremely high regard. Of less frequent recourse was another kind of healer known as an 5947:

emerged in the Atomic Age with the use of radioisotopes to visualize food webs and by the 1970s ecosystem ecology deeply influenced global environmental management.

3363:

The eastward transmission of Greek heritage to Western Asia was a slow and gradual process that spanned over a thousand years, beginning with the Asian conquests of

4277:. The Scientific Revolution is a convenient boundary between ancient thought and classical physics, and is traditionally held to have begun in 1543, when the books 15438: 11069:

Shortly after Euclid, compiler of the definitive textbook, came Archimedes of Syracuse (c. 287–212 BC.), the most original and profound mathematician of antiquity.

6701: 10468: 8542: 3324: 1046:. These physicians, who could be either male or female, also dressed wounds, set limbs, and performed simple surgeries. The ancient Mesopotamians also practiced 11558:(1990). "Al-Khwārizmī, Abu Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn Mūsā". In Gillispie, Charles Coulston. Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 7. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 10450: 5828:. The 20th century also saw the integration of physics and chemistry, with chemical properties explained as the result of the electronic structure of the atom. 2018:

used water power to rotate the sphere in real time. This included rings for the meridian and ecliptic. By 1270 they had incorporated the principles of the Arab

744:. Moreover, the extent to which philosophy and science would flourish in ancient times depended on the efficiency of a writing system (e.g., use of alphabets). 3763:, and conversed with other fellow scholars. A friar who became well-known would attract a following of disciples, giving rise to a brotherhood of scholars (or 11455: 11090: 8928: 5943:, whose particularly holistic view of nature in general (and Darwin's theory in particular) was important in the spread of ecological thinking. The field of 4893:

hiked central France and recorded their observations on some of the first geological maps. Aided by chemical experimentation, naturalists such as Scotland's

454:

into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived the learning of natural philosophy in the West. Traditions of early science were also developed in

3586:

in the West, c. 980–1037) was a prolific Persian medical encyclopedist wrote extensively on medicine, with his two most notable works in medicine being the

2626:

in 387 BCE, whose motto was "Let none unversed in geometry enter here," and also turned out many notable philosophers. Plato's student Aristotle introduced

984:. When a person became ill, doctors prescribed magical formulas to be recited as well as medicinal treatments. The earliest medical prescriptions appear in 16244: 2809: 12100: 5255:'s theory of "continental drift" was widely dismissed when he proposed it in the 1910s, but new data gathered in the 1950s and 1960s led to the theory of 5087:

In astronomy, the planet Neptune was discovered. Advances in astronomy and in optical systems in the 19th century resulted in the first observation of an

6325:

which advocates reducing taxes as a means to increase the amount of money available for economic expansion. Other modern schools of economic thought are

14815: 12351: 12066: 11728:

Jacquart, Danielle (2008). "Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances". European Review (Cambridge University Press) 16: 219–227.

9322: 6143:, first developed at the end of the 19th century, were perfected and universally deployed. The first car was introduced by Karl Benz in 1885. The first 1592: 609:

has been variously characterized in terms of "conflict", "harmony", "complexity", and "mutual independence", among others. Events in Europe such as the

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was preserved and absorbed into Islamic theology, law, culture, and commerce, which were aided by the translations of traditional Greek texts and some

3014:, while notes on other minerals presages mineralogy. He recognizes other minerals have characteristic crystal shapes, but in one example, confuses the 8743: 6321:. Monetarism focuses on using the supply and demand of money as a method for controlling economic activity. In the 1970s, monetarism has adapted into 6218:

Einstein's paper "On the Quantum Theory of Radiation" outlined the principles of the stimulated emission of photons. This led to the invention of the

3192:, due to invasions by Germanic tribes, civil unrest, and economic collapse. Contact with the classical tradition was lost in specific regions such as 3184:(354-430 CE) were ambivalent and defended Greek philosophy and science as the best ways to understand the natural world and therefore treated it as a 717:. They were also prone to identify causes with beginnings, thereby providing a historical origin with an explanation. There was also a reliance on a " 11501: 11348:

Duhem, Pierre (1913). "Physics, History of". In Herbermann, Charles G.; Pace, Edward A.; Pallen, Condé B.; Wynne, John J.; Shahan, Thomas J. (eds.).

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became part of a broadening of the field from a study of rocks into a study of the Earth as a planet. Other elements of this transformation include:

4918:, to argue that layers of rock could be dated by the fossils they contained: a principle first applied to the geology of the Paris Basin. The use of 11313:

The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, Prehistory to A.D. 1450

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Schaffer, Simon (1 June 1992). "Late Victorian metrology and its instrumentation: A manufactory of Ohms". In Bud, Robert; Cozzens, Susan E. (eds.).

5824:

In the early 20th century, the study of heredity became a major investigation after the rediscovery in 1900 of the laws of inheritance developed by

5468:

Modern sociology emerged in the early 19th century as the academic response to the modernization of the world. Among many early sociologists (e.g.,

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Kusuba, Takanori (2004). "Indian Rules for the Decomposition of Fractions". In Charles Burnett; Jan P. Hogendijk; Kim Plofker; et al. (eds.).

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questioned religious doctrine. The works of Ptolemy (astronomy) and Galen (medicine) were found not always to match everyday observations. Work by

2071:

in 132 CE which provided instant alert to authorities in the capital Luoyang that an earthquake had occurred in a location indicated by a specific

7901:

At the close of the twentieth century, proponents of the conflict thesis are well represented by Richard Dawkins, E. O. Wilson and Daniel Dennett.

5361:. However, Semmelweis' findings were not appreciated by his contemporaries and handwashing came into use only with discoveries by British surgeon 3895:) and the commentaries on them were required readings. As time passed, the lower faculty was allowed to confer its own doctoral degree called the 13958: 8792: 4692: 13203: 11534: 9719:, page 60-61, Quote: "(...) the Charaka Samhita and the Susruta Samhita, both being recensions of two ancient traditions of the Hindu medicine". 7199:

Grant, Edward (2007). "Transformation of medieval natural philosophy from the early period modern period to the end of the nineteenth century".

2824:

for calculating the position of planets. Technological artifacts of similar complexity did not reappear until the 14th century, when mechanical

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attributable to a re-examination of nature according to the affirmation of 'sociality' as the basis of the scientifically interpreted society.

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derived the centripetal and centrifugal forces and was the first to transfer mathematical inquiry to describe unobservable physical phenomena.

4079:

and other disasters sealed a sudden end to philosophic and scientific development. Yet, the rediscovery of ancient texts was stimulated by the

3667: 3137:(23/24–79 CE), a native of northern Italy, who wrote several books on the history of Rome and grammar. His most famous work was his voluminous 3092:. He mastered considerable portions of Greek philosophy, wrote Latin treatises on several topics, and even wrote Greek commentaries of Plato's 2003:

gained much favor in 1601 by his predictions. By 635 Chinese astronomers had observed that the tails of comets always point away from the sun.

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but instead existed as a cloud of isolated, disconnected ideas about rocks, minerals, and landforms long before it became a coherent science.

4627: 4303: 3255:) of Europe during the 5th century. In contrast, the Byzantine Empire resisted the barbarian attacks and preserved and improved the learning. 2618:

produced the first systematic discussions of natural philosophy, which did much to shape later investigations of nature. Their development of

13499: 8967: 6211:. Contemporary computer science typically distinguishes itself by emphasizing mathematical 'theory' in contrast to the practical emphasis of 6002:

The understanding of neurons and the nervous system became increasingly precise and molecular during the 20th century. For example, in 1952,

5615:

and others developed quantum theories to explain various anomalous experimental results, by introducing discrete energy levels. Not only did

3159:

diminished scholarly pursuits. Moreover, during the 3rd and 4th centuries CE, the Roman Empire was administratively divided into two halves:

8577:. Vol. 3. New York City, New York: Charles Schribner's Sons, MacMillan Library Reference USA, Simon & Schuster MacMillan. pp. 8333: 15431: 14959: 13833: 12766:

Newman, William R.; Mauskopf, Seymour H.; Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2014). Eddy, Matthew Daniel; Mauskopf, Seymour; Newman, William R. (eds.).

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In the early 21st century, some concepts that originated in 20th century physics were proven. On 4 July 2012, physicists working at CERN's

6171:. Gene mapping and gene sequencing, invented by Drs. Mark Skolnik and Walter Gilbert, respectively, are the two technologies that made the 2837:

protocols. Hippocrates' theories about physics and medicine helped pave the way in creating an organized medical structure for society. In

12673: 11678: 6034:. Beginning in 1966, Eric Kandel and collaborators examined biochemical changes in neurons associated with learning and memory storage in 3911:, which were not available to them at the time. These Ancient Greek texts were to be found in the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic World. 3565:. His book was translated into Latin and was relied upon as a principal source on the science of optics in Europe until the 17th century. 1066:(Iraq), 320-150 BCE, the list gives each constellation, the number of stars and the distance information to the next constellation in ells 713:

and justify a present state of affairs. Another feature was the tendency to describe the universe as just sky and earth, with a potential

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R.W. Vernon, G. McDonnell and A. Schmidt, 'An integrated geophysical and analytical appraisal of early iron-working: three case studies'

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The contributions of the Ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians in the areas of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine had entered and shaped

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and the Needham Research Institute. Among the technological accomplishments of China were, according to the British scholar Needham, the

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Cowan, W.M.; Harter, D.H.; Kandel, E.R. (2000). "The emergence of modern neuroscience: Some implications for neurology and psychiatry".

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saw social interactions as a stage performance, with individuals preparing "backstage" and attempting to control their audience through

5545:. During the late 19th century, battles over the "study of man" took place between those of an "anthropological" persuasion (relying on 5174:

in 1803, although the question took a hundred years to settle as proven. Dalton also formulated the law of mass relationships. In 1869,

3409:

students at a madrasa would learn from one specific teacher, who would issue a certificate at the completion of their studies called an

1567:(c. 520–460 BCE), whose grammar formulates close to 4,000 rules for Sanskrit. Inherent in his analytic approach are the concepts of the 15138: 15123: 15118: 15103: 5373:. Pasteur was able to link microorganisms with disease, revolutionizing medicine. He also devised one of the most important methods in 1828: 1398: 1381: 475: 471: 463: 3515:. Al-Battani also improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth's axis. Corrections were made to Ptolemy's 3121:, which covered nine arts: grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, musical theory, medicine, and architecture. The 2006:

From antiquity, the Chinese used an equatorial system for describing the skies and a star map from 940 was drawn using a cylindrical (

1401:

made significant advances in astronomy and especially mathematics, including fields such as trigonometry and analysis. In particular,

639:

Historians have emphasized that trust is necessary for agreement on claims about nature. In this light, the 1660 establishment of the

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originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians made several key refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of

3442: 2474: 1876: 606: 14031:"The new biological anthropology: Bringing Washburn's new physical anthropology into 2010 and beyond-The 2008 AAPA luncheon lecture" 13527: 13013: 11704: 5107:

In mathematics, the notion of complex numbers finally matured and led to a subsequent analytical theory; they also began the use of

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from different parts of society, and profoundly influenced the popular understanding of "man's place in the universe". Separately,

4636: 3956: 565:. Moreover, industrial and military concerns as well as the increasing complexity of new research endeavors ushered in the era of " 14425:

Physical Thought from the Presocratics to the Quantum Physicists: an anthology selected, introduced and edited by Shmuel Sambursky

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presented a mathematical model for transmission of electrical signals in neurons of the giant axon of a squid, which they called "

2845:(c. 460 BC – c. 370 BCE) and his followers were the first to describe many diseases and medical conditions and developed the 2302:, indeed, would have scorned such an idea as being too naïve for the subtlety and complexity of the universe as they intuited it. 16984: 16239: 15424: 14585: 14069: 11131: 9495: 7039:"Natural Philosophy or Science in Premodern Epistemic Regimes? The Case of the Astrology of Albert the Great and Galileo Galilei" 6207:. One area in which advances in computing have contributed to more general scientific development is by facilitating large-scale 6188: 2179:(1020–1101) was also a brilliant polymath, an astronomer who created a celestial atlas of star maps, wrote a treatise related to 13639: 12826: 12258: 11747:

Brater, D. Craig; Daly, Walter J. (2000). "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century".

10977: 4188:, remained authoritative for millennia: its interpretation of fossils was not overturned until after the Scientific Revolution. 14189: 13010:"A Correction to the Record of Early Electrophysiology Research on the 250th Anniversary of a Historic Expedition to Île de Ré" 11351:

The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, and History of the Catholic Church

5541:

encounters between Western Europe and the rest of the world, and much of 18th- and 19th-century anthropology is now classed as

4882: 3984: 3880: 15171: 13116: 12919: 12044: 6579: 1127:

dog urinating on a person) and celestial phenomena. Moreover, Babylonian astrology was inseparable from Babylonian astronomy.

15348: 15113: 15037: 14758: 14705: 14662: 14616: 14595: 14575: 14561: 14543: 14500: 14477: 14459: 14433: 14357: 14338: 13814: 13786: 13714: 13611: 13364: 13317: 13272: 12687: 12445: 12291: 11823: 11660: 11563: 11449: 11320: 11295: 11269: 11248: 11207: 11062: 10623: 10571: 10541: 10509: 10481: 10381: 10348: 10252: 9953: 9775: 9574: 9531: 9382: 9306: 9257: 9220: 9178: 9151: 8961: 8922: 8880: 8854: 8777: 8737: 8669: 8625: 8586: 8536: 8418: 8390: 8127: 8002: 7969: 7922: 7783: 7732: 7620: 7435: 7397: 7216: 7154: 7124: 7099: 6936: 6911: 6851: 6823: 6785: 6488:

developed in 2012 allowed scientists to precisely and easily modify DNA and led to the development of new medicine. In 2020,

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in its worldview, more integrated with mathematics, and more reliable and open as its knowledge was based on a newly defined

3320: 2639: 521:

in its worldview, more integrated with mathematics, and more reliable and open as its knowledge was based on a newly defined

514: 451: 11403: 9263: 8675: 8631: 8269:

Matsuoka, Yoshihiro; Vigouroux, Yves; Goodman, Major M.; Sanchez G., Jesus; Buckler, Edward; Doebley, John (30 April 2002).

7008:"Examination of Scientific Revolution Medicine on the Human Body / Bilimsel Devrim Tıbbını İnsan Bedeni Üzerinden İncelemek" 2638:, classified more than 540 animal species, and dissected at least 50. Aristotle's writings profoundly influenced subsequent 14115: 11355: 10440: 8435: 5885: 5310: 5243:

argued that river valleys were formed, over millions of years by the rivers that flow through them. After the discovery of

4539: 3663: 123: 17: 17313: 15932: 15646: 15047: 15032: 14982: 14794: 13310:

Natura, cultura e induzione nell'età delle scienze : fatti e idee del movimento scientifico in Francia e Inghilterra

12035: 11617: 11112: 10730: 10596: 6651: 4445: 4293: 3647: 2643: 419: 360: 14871:

Inter-Divisional Teaching Commission (IDTC) of the International Union for the History and Philosophy of Science (IUHPS)

6127:

In terms of applications, a massive number of new technologies were developed in the 20th century. Technologies such as

5357:

by simply requiring physicians to wash their hands before attending to women in childbirth. This discovery predated the

2561:, which investigated mathematics for its own sake, and was the first to postulate that the Earth is spherical in shape. 16196: 13381: 13286: 12408: 11987: 11886: 11021: 10465: 9800: 9741: 9733: 9716: 9645: 9599: 9088: 9001: 7823: 7516: 7491: 7463: 7372: 7347: 7322: 7297: 7272: 7244: 6711: 6666: 6661: 1807:(Greek) which is the name for a largely comparable, but not equatable, 'four corner argument' within the tradition of 8526: 5496:, qualitative analyses. This microlevel approach played an important role in American sociology, with the theories of 910:

Clay models of animal livers dating between the nineteenth and eighteenth centuries BCE, found in the royal palace at

15641: 15634: 15617: 15496: 15486: 15468: 14997: 14414: 14401: 14388: 14375: 11141: 10778: 10297: 10049: 10028: 9980: 8351: 8205: 7887: 7711:

the brilliant Periclean Age, according to Dr. A. E. Taylor, witnessed one of the periodical bankruptcies of science .

7669: 7585: 7550: 6547: 6341:

Psychology in the 20th century saw a rejection of Freud's theories as being too unscientific, and a reaction against

4402:

did some of the earliest experiments with electricity and magnetism, establishing that the Earth itself is magnetic.

1618:

graveyards in what is now Pakistan show evidence of proto-dentistry among an early farming culture. The ancient text

1468:

intelligent speculations about the genesis of the universe from nonexistence, the configuration of the universe, the

947:. Biology of non-human organisms was generally only written about in the context of mainstream academic disciplines. 467: 276: 210: 43: 14267: 12159: 12125:; Bower, Richard G.; Tanner, Brian K.; Smithson, Hannah E.; Panti, Cecilia; Lewis, Neil; Gasper, Giles E.M. (2014). 3469:, the beginning of the title of one of his publications. Islamic trigonometry continued from the works of Ptolemy's 17049: 16926: 15868: 14952: 14917: 12651: 12490: 11439: 11082: 10061:

Minford & Lau (2002), 307; Balchin (2003), 26–27; Needham (1986a), 627; Needham (1986c), 484; Krebs (2003), 31.

3248: 2429:(c. 250 CE – c. 900 CE) built on the shared heritage of the Olmecs by developing the most sophisticated systems of 2370: 1390:(lit. "Moonlight of mathematics") in 1356 about mathematical operations. The work anticipated many developments in 1357: 403: 14148: 8912: 6390:. Evolutionary theory was applied to behavior and introduced to anthropology and psychology, through the works of 5702:), which was evidence for this hypothesis, and formed the basis for a number of results that helped determine the 5553:" persuasion (looking at cultures and traditions), and these distinctions became part of the later divide between 3820: 3307:

in 1453, a number of Greek scholars fled to North Italy in which they fueled the era later commonly known as the "

2457:

for constructing their calendars. Maya writing, which was developed by 200 BCE, widespread by 100 BCE, and rooted

17044: 16862: 15977: 15295: 12879: 6542: 6192: 5892:

became practical for the first time, and a massive international effort began in 1990 to map out an entire human

5362: 4894: 3651: 1339: 725:" for healing, knowledge of divine or demonic causes of diseases, and in more extreme cases, for rituals such as 16950: 9970: 8367:, 'the father of corn', helps the success and vitality of corn when planted between the rows of its 'children', 7426:

Lightman, Bernard (2011). "Science and the Public". In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.).

2014:

is recorded from the 4th century BCE and a sphere permanently mounted in equatorial axis from 52 BCE. In 125 CE

83: 17245: 16819: 16473: 16314: 15447: 15333: 15239: 15027: 12237:

The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts

12224:

The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts

12185:

The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts

12092: 10969: 9414: 7775: 7015: 6589: 6492:, a new class of living robotics, were invented; reproductive capabilities were introduced the following year. 5777:. She was an expert experimentalist in beta decay and weak interaction physics. Wu designed an experiment (see 5484:, which he believed would trap individuals in an "iron cage" of rational thought. Some sociologists, including 3454: 3376: 2142: 598:

has characterised lean periods in the advance of scientific discovery as "periodical bankruptcies of science".

395: 128: 12803: 9748:: "The Hindu text known as Sushruta Samhita is possibly the earliest effort to classify diseases and injuries" 9513: 1472:, and the year of 360 days divided into 12 equal parts of 30 days each with a periodical intercalary month.". 17260: 17240: 16426: 16282: 14843:

Division of History of Science and Technology of the International Union of History and Philosophy of Science

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would learn Arabic in order to study these texts directly. The European universities aided materially in the

2994:

of the natural world in 77 CE, and was a successor to Theophrastus. For example, he accurately describes the

1409:

by providing the infinite and taylor series expansion of some trigonometric functions and pi approximation.

1262: 871:

of science and, according to G.E.R. Lloyd, played a significant role in the development of this methodology.

8617:

Mesopotamian Witchcraft: Towards a History and Understanding of Babylonian Witchcraft Beliefs and Literature

5287:

Perhaps the most prominent, controversial, and far-reaching theory in all of science has been the theory of

17255: 16767: 16677: 16164: 15994: 15922: 15622: 15551: 15305: 15267: 15022: 14778: 14293: 11911:, ed. and trans. R.A.B. Mynors, R.M. Thomson, and M. Winterbottom, 2 vols., Oxford Medieval Texts (1998–99) 9319: 8717: 6049: 5738: 5537:

concept which is central to the discipline. Traditionally, much of the history of the subject was based on

5460:. Freud's influence has been enormous, though more as cultural icon than a force in scientific psychology. 5408:

and assumes the value of good to be based on the amount of labor required to produce it. Under this axiom,

4399: 3976: 3225: 2312: 777: 741: 668: 328: 47: 15007: 14554: 11612: 11481: 9193:

B. van Nooten, "Binary Numbers in Indian Antiquity", Journal of Indian Studies, Volume 21, 1993, pp. 31–50

6421:. While these theories are currently prominent in sociological thought, other approaches exist, including 17392: 16977: 16319: 15404: 15300: 15257: 14945: 12844:"From Egyptian Science to Victorian Magic: On the Origins of Chemistry in Victorian Histories of Science" 12608:"The first Copernican was Copernicus: the difference between Pre-Copernican and Copernican heliocentrism" 9372: 9141: 7811: 5481: 5120: 5116: 4367: 3368: 2533:, provided competing answers to the question found in the myths of their neighbors: "How did the ordered 1926: 1832: 179: 14873: 12070: 4249: 3847:(arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music). Those who completed these requirements and received their 3771:

might travel to a town or request a monastery to host them. However, if the number of scholars within a

3287:, another Byzantine scholar, was the first to question Aristotle's teaching of physics, introducing the 2861:(335–280 BCE) was the first to base his conclusions on dissection of the human body and to describe the 1094:. Even today, astronomical periods identified by Mesopotamian proto-scientists are still widely used in 17022: 17017: 15972: 15148: 14882: 12015:

Grant, Edward. "Science in the Medieval University", in James M. Kittleson and Pamela J. Transue, ed.,

10138:"Joseph Needham's Research on Chinese Machines in the Cross-Cultural History of Science and Technology" 9249: 7848: 5853: 4743: 4632: 4620: 4279: 4109: 4101: 4039:

The first half of the 14th century saw much important scientific work, largely within the framework of

3832: 3536: 3151: 3126: 3088:(106 – 43 BCE) was a prime example. He had studied under Greek teachers in Rome and then in Athens and 2663: 2546: 2526: 2046: 1868: 1836: 1042:

composed of various herbs, animal products, and minerals, as well as potions, enemas, and ointments or

644: 510: 9442: 8870: 7664:. Cambridge history of science (revised ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 188. 7545:. Philosophie und Wissenschaft – Volume 13 (reprint ed.). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. p. 14. 5579:

Science advanced dramatically during the 20th century. There were new and radical developments in the

5476:, understanding the cohesion of social groups, and developing an "antidote" to social disintegration. 3172:

philosophy received a mixed reception from leaders and adherents of the Christian faith. Some such as

2669:

The important legacy of this period included substantial advances in factual knowledge, especially in

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A Century of Science in America: with special reference to the American Journal of Science, 1818-1918

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Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on the Historiography of Alchemy

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historical writing has largely abandoned the aim of telling a story of science's universal progress.

6611: 6533: 6366:, which considers the mind as once again a subject for investigation, using the tools of psychology, 6208: 6019: 5915:, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Equally important in the rise of ecology, however, were 3814: 3751:

in the 12th century. These urban institutions grew from the informal scholarly activities of learned

3252: 3160: 2446: 1250: 1223: 781: 582: 407: 39: 14929:

Free to view videos of scientists including Feynman, Perutz, Rotblat, Born and many Nobel Laureates.

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Needham, Joseph; Robinson, Kenneth G.; Huang, Jen-Yü (2004). "General Conclusions and Reflections".

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MS Valiathan (2009), An Ayurvedic view of life, Current Science, Volume 96, Issue 9, pages 1186-1192

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Kohler, Robert E. (December 2007). "Finders, Keepers: Collecting Sciences and Collecting Practice".

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macroeconomic trends can overwhelm economic choices made by individuals. Governments should promote

17397: 17080: 16914: 16762: 16752: 16549: 16275: 16059: 15962: 15609: 15556: 15204: 14992: 14604: 14215: 13959:"Nearly three quarters of the world will use just their smartphones to access the internet by 2025" 11851: 11086: 9767: 9636:

Weiss, Richard S. (2009). "The invasion of utopia: The corruption of Siddha medicine by Ayurveda".

9615: 9104: 8434:

Perkins, Michael D. (2001). "Pharmacological Practices of Ancient Egypt". In W. A. Whitelaw (ed.).

7882:. The History of Western Philosophy of Religion, Volume 5 (reprint ed.). Abingdon: Routledge. 6631: 6015: 5967:

came to the same conclusion through different reasoning and the discovery was eventually accepted.

5959:

determined that stars were composed mostly of hydrogen and helium. She was dissuaded by astronomer

5956: 5473: 4877:

Modern geology, like modern chemistry, gradually evolved during the 18th and early 19th centuries.

4312: 4211: 3418: 3037:

was the first scholar to systematically study the past and perhaps the first to examine artifacts.

2711: 2480: 1520: 1216: 1038:, who corresponds more closely to a modern physician and treated physical symptoms using primarily 926:, stone, and other natural materials, and applied this knowledge to practical use in manufacturing 447: 13488: 12713: 8951: 8327: 5856:

demonstrated in a simulation of primordial processes, that basic constituents of proteins, simple

4886: 4214:

further pushed the study of politics beyond normative determinations. In particular, the study of

3188:(or servant) of religion. Education in the West began its gradual decline, along with the rest of 42:. For the academic field that comprises science and its corresponding technological advances, see 17355: 16945: 16724: 16612: 16507: 16079: 15907: 15858: 15343: 15247: 15229: 15062: 15057: 14241: 12981:

VanderVeer, Joseph B. (6 July 2011). "Hugh Williamson: Physician, Patriot, and Founding Father".

9490: 7536: 7532: 6636: 6621: 6398: 6391: 6387: 6330: 6326: 6176: 6132: 6045: 5860:, could themselves be built up from simpler molecules, kickstarting decades of research into the 5800:

in the 1930s, physics in the postwar period entered into a phase of what historians have called "

5757:. Further developments took place during World War II, which led to the practical application of 5574: 5526: 5505: 5420:

as driving force of economic development. This replaced the labor theory of value by a system of

5199: 4995: 3828:

or freedom of inquiry are remnants of these medieval privileges that were tolerated in the past.

3728:(who had studied mathematics in 11th-century England), and the metallurgical achievements of the 3619: 3482: 3201: 3139: 3069: 2385: 1536: 1402: 1270: 844: 534: 14423: 13830: 13603:

The Monk in the Garden : The Lost and Found Genius of Gregor Mendel, the Father of Genetics

11737:

David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).

11675: 9909:

Trautmann 1971:5 "the very last verse of the work...is the unique instance of the personal name

9212: 8531:. Santa Barbara, California, Denver, Colorado, and Oxford, England: ABC-CLIO. pp. 273–276. 8167:"The Interactive Notebook: How Students Learned to Keep Notes during the Scottish Enlightenment" 7815: 6018:. In 1961–1962, Richard FitzHugh and J. Nagumo simplified Hodgkin–Huxley, in what is called the 3869:

for a theologian. Students who chose to remain in the lower faculty (arts) could work towards a

3857:) had the option to join the higher faculty (law, medicine, or theology), which would confer an 1058: 17293: 17200: 17065: 17032: 16970: 16834: 16554: 16382: 16089: 16074: 16034: 15806: 15629: 15310: 15252: 15219: 15186: 15052: 12040: 10501: 10495: 7208: 6599: 6559: 6274: 6250: 6184: 6041: 5983: 5749:

wrote the first theoretical interpretation of the fission process, which was later improved by

5518: 5449: 5358: 5330: 5280: 5128: 5072: 5067:, and their contemporaries led to the unification of the two phenomena into a single theory of 4839: 4148: 4080: 3304: 3114: 3109:

were the means by which Greek knowledge was popularized for Roman audiences. The Greek scholar

3006:

to cut and polish other gems owing to its great hardness. His recognition of the importance of

2707: 2631: 2415: 2373: 2316: 2068: 1532: 1524: 1254: 897: 761: 538: 495: 12388: 11381: 11328: 11287: 11013: 9343: 9243: 9170:

Sanskrit Prosody and Important Literary and Geographical Names in the Ancient History of India

9168: 8732:. Studies in Ancient Medicine. Vol. 27. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. pp. 97–116. 6815: 5432:

Psychology as a scientific enterprise that was independent from philosophy began in 1879 when

4696: 4196: 3477: 2925:

and introduced the concepts of definition, axiom, theorem and proof still in use today in his

1782:. The Indian tradition continued to develop through early to modern times, in the form of the 1477: 1450: 1376:

writes that his texts were the most significant Sanskrit mathematics treatises after those of

17250: 17150: 17130: 17125: 17100: 17070: 16993: 16757: 16747: 16709: 16682: 16644: 16617: 16527: 16436: 16355: 16345: 16186: 16154: 16129: 16014: 15967: 15863: 15841: 15831: 15816: 15756: 15743: 15716: 15581: 15546: 15503: 15381: 15287: 15272: 15224: 15042: 13081:

The Language of Mineralogy: John Walker, Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical School 1750–1800

12396: 12281: 11901: 11813: 11349: 10871:

Kleisiaris, Christos F.; Sfakianakis, Chrisanthos; Papathanasiou, Ioanna V. (15 March 2014).

10695:"Review of The Order of Nature in Aristotle's Physics: Place and the Elements, Helen S. Lang" 10561: 10373: 10340: 10275: 10244: 9736:, page 79; Sarah Boslaugh (2007), Encyclopedia of Epidemiology, Volume 1, SAGE Publications, 8847:

The man who loved only numbers: the story of Paul Erdős and the search for mathematical truth

6656: 6594: 6552: 6466: 6418: 6322: 5688: 5558: 5554: 5405: 5305: 5300: 5240: 4957: 4939: 4793: 4757: 4567: 4511: 4270: 4266: 4089: 3952: 3591: 3339: 3278: 2817: 2785: 2647: 2222: 1666: 1528: 1406: 1258: 1161: 518: 506: 269: 218: 184: 148: 138: 9876:

and the Arthaśāstra: A Statistical Investigation of the Authorship and Evolution of the Text

7200: 6807: 5329:

Another important landmark in medicine and biology were the successful efforts to prove the

3445:

was a direct descendant of Greek and Indian mathematics. For instance, what is now known as

3414: 3399: 2653:

Aristotle also contributed to theories of the elements and the cosmos. He believed that the

2137:(hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean), Shen Kuo devised a theory of land formation, or 529:

of the 18th century, for instance, introduced new quantitative methods and measurements for

17230: 17085: 16704: 16544: 16517: 16512: 16409: 16101: 16044: 15947: 15927: 15885: 15801: 15796: 15771: 15696: 15463: 15358: 15353: 15277: 15166: 15156: 14811: 13942:

Hecht, Jeff (10 August 2016). "The Bandwidth Bottleneck That is Throttling the Internet ".

13852:

Rachael Padman. "Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin (1900–1979)." Newnham College Biographies, 2004,

13829:

Erik Gregersen. "Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin | American Astronomer." Encyclopædia Britannica,

13656: 13446: 13410: 11906: 11113:"Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, BOOK XXXVII. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PRECIOUS STONES" 10973: 10816: 9670: 9519: 9447: 9239: 9033: 8801: 8578: 8572: 8282: 8235: 6574: 6564: 6278: 6212: 6180: 6172: 5964: 5960: 5924: 5897: 5840:

in ever-more complicated molecules. Pauling's work culminated in the physical modelling of

5699: 5092: 5028: 4911: 4805: 4600: 4499: 4433: 4429: 4144: 4128: 4027: 3896: 3849: 3725: 3635: 3532: 3528: 3189: 3031: 2948: 2936: 2926: 2902: 2793: 2723: 2622:

was of particular importance and usefulness to later scientific inquiry. Plato founded the

2396: 2353: 1897: 1234: 1204: 1147:(3,4,5) (5,12,13) ..., hinting that the ancient Mesopotamians might have been aware of the 1071: 893: 614: 595: 491: 223: 13908: 13547: 10591: 7507:

Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys (2020). "Introduction: Science, society, and history".

7390:

From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science

7038: 5640: 4878: 4695:, the first scientific journal in English. 1665 also saw the first journal in French, the 3879:) degree and would study three philosophies: metaphysics, ethics, and natural philosophy. 3351:

where commerce thrived, and new ideas and technologies emerged such as the importation of

816:

were used to build rectilinear structures, and the post and lintel architecture of Egypt.

643:

and its code of experiment – trustworthy because witnessed by its members – has become an

8: 17308: 17210: 17160: 17110: 16884: 16878: 16804: 16719: 16664: 16539: 16404: 16350: 16094: 16084: 15942: 15912: 15836: 15821: 15781: 15776: 15701: 15586: 15363: 15328: 15320: 15209: 15199: 14726:

The Cambridge History of Science, Volume 5: The Modern Physical and Mathematical Sciences

14030: 13524: 13009: 12335: 11938: 11696: 10999: 10097: 9760: 9559:

Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures

6927:

Lindberg, David C. (2007). "The recovery and assimilation of Greek and Islamic science".

6616: 6495: 6485: 6306: 6294: 6282: 6266: 6231: 6200: 5909: 5889: 5703: 5628: 5497: 5374: 5108: 5064: 4948: 4769: 4616: 4552: 4517: 4482: 4425: 4414: 4298: 4261: 4192: 4140: 3748: 3692: 3659: 3364: 3267: 3130: 2743: 2654: 2619: 2487: 2007: 1983: 1885: 1864: 1790: 1496: 1423: 1266: 1222:

The earliest traces of mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appear with the

1148: 989: 901: 864: 840: 618: 526: 356: 348: 308: 161: 13660: 13450: 13414: 10820: 9674: 9523: 9299:

The Universal History of Numbers : From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer

9037: 8917:. Indianapolis, Indiana and Cambridge, England: Hackett Publishing Company. p. 32. 8805: 8286: 8239: 7535:(25 October 2012) . "Progress: Fact and Fiction". In Burgen, Arnold; McLaughlin, Peter; 5773:

to help develop a process for separating uranium metal into U-235 and U-238 isotopes by

5664: 5412:

was based on employers not paying the full value of workers labor to create profit. The

5187: 5020: 3417:, for example, was one of the earliest and most well-known madrasas, which was built by 2935:, considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time, is credited with using the 2593: 17120: 16394: 16139: 16009: 15811: 15711: 15706: 15338: 15194: 15176: 15161: 14484: 14327: 14164: 13853: 13759: 13680: 13470: 13426: 13335: 13060: 12871: 12795: 12748: 12643: 12635: 12588: 12580: 12533: 12482: 12093:"023-A03: The Middle Ages and the Birth of Science – International Catholic University" 11772: 11593: 10951: 10897: 10872: 10722: 10675: 10557: 10530: 10525: 10445: 9855: 9694: 9472: 9205: 9049: 9021: 8825: 8817: 8477: 8251: 8197: 8145: 8100: 8071:"Corresponding interests: artisans and gentlemen in nineteenth-century natural history" 8051: 7940: 7868:(11 September 2014) . "Twentieth-century Philosophy of Religiion: An Introduction". In 7865: 7804: 7750: 7638: 7060: 6981: 6973: 6641: 6584: 6569: 6474: 6426: 6065: 6003: 5975: 5816:

Watson and Crick used many aluminium templates like this one, which is the single base

5797: 5746: 5632: 5620: 5441: 5248: 5223: 5060: 4966: 4660: 4395: 4343: 4238: 4065: 3997: 3944: 3876: 3866: 3862: 3348: 3274: 3235: 3181: 3094: 2979: 2922: 2850: 2825: 2751: 2597: 2483: 2400: 2358: 2348: 2072: 1893: 1881: 1194: 1144: 1095: 981: 836: 773: 443: 431: 391: 233: 113: 13048: 13035:

Bresadola, Marco (15 July 1998). "Medicine and science in the life of Luigi Galvani".

10364:

Palka, Joel W. (2010). "The Development of Maya Writing". In Christopher Woods (ed.).

10331:

Palka, Joel W. (2010). "The Development of Maya Writing". In Christopher Woods (ed.).

10235:

Palka, Joel W. (2010). "The Development of Maya Writing". In Christopher Woods (ed.).

9122:

Bisht, R.S. (1982). "Excavations at Banawali: 1974–77". In Possehl, Gregory L. (ed.).

8305: 8270: 5317:

formulated in the principles of inheritance in 1866, which became the basis of modern

3371:. The birth and expansion of Islam during the 7th century was quickly followed by its 3230: 2978:

wrote some of the earliest descriptions of plants and animals, establishing the first

16799: 16794: 16782: 16777: 16649: 16639: 16559: 16502: 16446: 16227: 16210: 16191: 15826: 15761: 15731: 15388: 15093: 14754: 14701: 14658: 14642: 14612: 14591: 14571: 14557: 14539: 14506: 14496: 14473: 14455: 14429: 14353: 14334: 14168: 14050: 13890: 13810: 13782: 13763: 13751: 13710: 13688: 13672: 13617: 13607: 13601: 13462: 13360: 13323: 13313: 13278: 13268: 13228: 13151: 13052: 12875: 12863: 12787: 12728: 12647: 12627: 12572: 12525: 12474: 12441: 12404: 12287: 12250: 12151: 11983: 11882: 11819: 11764: 11656: 11559: 11493: 11445: 11316: 11291: 11265: 11244: 11203: 11137: 11058: 11017: 11004: 10943: 10902: 10884: 10834: 10774: 10714: 10679: 10619: 10567: 10537: 10505: 10477: 10377: 10344: 10293: 10248: 10205: 10157: 10085: 10045: 10024: 10016: 9976: 9949: 9796: 9771: 9737: 9729: 9712: 9686: 9641: 9595: 9570: 9527: 9464: 9420: 9410: 9378: 9302: 9253: 9216: 9174: 9147: 9084: 8997: 8957: 8918: 8876: 8850: 8829: 8773: 8733: 8665: 8621: 8582: 8532: 8414: 8386: 8310: 8255: 8201: 8189: 8133: 8123: 8104: 8092: 8055: 8043: 8008: 7998: 7975: 7965: 7928: 7918: 7883: 7819: 7779: 7738: 7728: 7665: 7626: 7616: 7591: 7581: 7546: 7512: 7487: 7459: 7431: 7393: 7368: 7343: 7318: 7293: 7268: 7240: 7212: 7201: 7150: 7120: 7095: 7064: 6985: 6932: 6907: 6847: 6819: 6808: 6781: 6707: 6363: 6223: 6204: 6088: 6027: 6011: 5944: 5881: 5774: 5770: 5644: 5636: 5616: 5542: 5421: 5401: 5346: 5292: 5191: 4974: 4890: 4862: 4739: 4731: 4715: 4604: 4588: 4463: 4355: 4274: 4105: 4044: 3972: 3627: 3623: 3575: 3486: 3450: 3441:

Most of the achievements by Islamic scholars during this period were in mathematics.

3288: 3221: 2914: 2849:

for physicians, still relevant and in use today. Hippocrates' ideas are expressed in

2730:

of the modern day. Neither reason nor inquiry began with the Ancient Greeks, but the

2426: 2408: 2332: 2274: 2262: 2134: 1961: 1767: 1745: 1674: 1361: 1290: 985: 948: 919: 848: 801: 753: 656: 558: 522: 499: 228: 143: 14765:

The Oxford Encyclopedia of the History of American Science, Medicine, and Technology

13732:"The "Cycle of Life" in Ecology: Sergei Vinogradskii's Soil Microbiology, 1885–1940" 13064: 12799: 12752: 12592: 11776: 10955: 9053: 8508:

Magic, Reason and Experience: Studies in the Origin and Development of Greek Science

8383:

Tombs, Temples and their Orientations: a New Perspective on Mediterranean Prehistory

5469: 4375: 3395: 17333: 17323: 17265: 17235: 17188: 17155: 17145: 17090: 17012: 16814: 16659: 16634: 16441: 16431: 16421: 16144: 16119: 16019: 15880: 15875: 15656: 15214: 14650: 14322: 14156: 14042: 14009: 14001: 13886: 13882: 13743: 13684: 13664: 13647: 13580: 13474: 13454: 13430: 13418: 13401: 13218: 13108: 13044: 12990: 12911: 12855: 12779: 12740: 12729:"Kepler's Move from Orbs to Orbits: Documenting a Revolutionary Scientific Concept" 12619: 12564: 12141: 11756: 11585: 11555: 10933: 10892: 10824: 10706: 10667: 10197: 10149: 9866: 9847: 9698: 9678: 9566: 9562: 9460: 9456: 9406: 9041: 8809: 8769: 8697:

Biggs, R D. (2005). "Medicine, Surgery, and Public Health in Ancient Mesopotamia".

8571:

Farber, Walter (1995). "Witchcraft, Magic, and Divination in Ancient Mesopotamia".

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announced that they had discovered a new subatomic particle greatly resembling the

6394: 6371: 6342: 6310: 5991: 5873: 5735: 5580: 5489: 5417: 5350: 5175: 5167: 5151: 5144: 5124: 5112: 5068: 5044: 5024: 4847: 4288: 4048: 3854: 3825: 3718: 3696: 3615: 3578:

started to emerge, such as those involved in the treatment of eye diseases such as

3516: 3164: 2869:(129 – c. 200 CE) performed many audacious operations—including brain and eye 2846: 2735: 2623: 2458: 2377: 2207: 2111: 2034: 2011: 1753: 1634:, cataract surgery, and several other excisions and other surgical procedures. The 1619: 1598: 1508: 1440: 1282: 1021: 906: 868: 652: 562: 427: 262: 118: 62: 13989: 12030: 9508: 8992:

Joseph, George G. (2011). "The history of mathematics: Alternative perspectives".

7367:(2nd ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. pp. 134–171. 6087:

in Greenland in the winter of 1912–13. He is most remembered as the originator of

5789:

to disprove the law of parity experimentally, winning them a Nobel Prize in 1957.

4885:

saw the Earth as much older than the 6,000 years envisioned by biblical scholars.

4477: 1915:

developed algebraic methods in geometry in the 3rd century CE and also calculated

1892:

and solutions of equations of order higher than 3 appeared in print in 1245 CE by

1725: 17343: 17298: 17195: 16824: 16591: 16586: 16399: 16159: 16004: 15982: 15751: 15666: 15651: 15416: 14921: 14899:

Museo Galileo – Institute and Museum of the History of Science in Florence, Italy

14877: 14865: 14836: 14824: 14742: 13915: 13860: 13837: 13707:

Nature as the laboratory: Darwinian plant ecology in the German Empire, 1880-1900

13554: 13531: 12691: 11682: 11395: 11335: 10643:. Translated by J. L. Stocks: The Internet Classics Archive. pp. 279 a17-30. 10611: 10587: 10472: 10313:

Smith, David Eugene and LeVeque, William Judson. "Numerals and numeral systems".

9326: 8908: 8659: 8615: 8337: 7877: 7696: 7659: 7610: 7540: 6646: 6604: 6499: 6422: 6409: 6405: 6314: 6286: 6227: 6100: 6069: 5884:, suggested that the structure of DNA was a double helix. In their famous paper " 5877: 5865: 5766: 5754: 5608: 5530: 5436:

founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research (in

5413: 5354: 5256: 5056: 5048: 5040: 5001: 4842:

experimented on the effects of electricity on the human body. Further studies by

4835: 4675:

in producing blood movement in a circuit, and failed to find any confirmation of

4580: 4530: 4521: 4467: 4455: 4383: 4323: 4319: 4253: 4219: 4137: 4023: 4005: 3948: 3932: 3871: 3446: 3384: 3380: 3292: 3284: 3147: 3134: 3011: 2987: 2821: 2731: 2715: 2698: 2419: 2234: 1850: 1808: 1636: 1500: 1469: 1351: 1028:

cultures, the main medicinal authority was a kind of exorcist-healer known as an

1013: 964: 633: 629: 312: 300: 196: 174: 30: 14630:

The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes: Philosophical Papers Volume 1

14489: 13640:"Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid" 11649:

A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam

8452: 8271:"A single domestication for maize shown by multilocus microsatellite genotyping" 4752: 1414: 17371: 17350: 17215: 17140: 17095: 17075: 16939: 16787: 16699: 16694: 16451: 16372: 16367: 16298: 16217: 16169: 16124: 15917: 15853: 15766: 15726: 15566: 15526: 14581: 14367: 13804: 10767: 9438: 8866: 8328:

Sean B. Carroll (24 May 2010),"Tracking the Ancestry of Corn Back 9,000 Years"

8039: 6519: 6414: 6350: 6302: 6298: 6084: 5987: 5932: 5786: 5695: 5501: 5493: 5386: 5296: 5272: 5252: 5179: 5163: 5076: 4970: 4907: 4898: 4801: 4735: 4647: 4584: 4572: 4471: 4379: 4351: 4331: 3980: 3960: 3928: 3561: 3556: 3552: 3520: 3281:, where all Archimedes' mathematical contributions were collected and studied. 3259: 3058: 2862: 2703: 2558: 2461:

and Zapotec scripts, contains easily discernible calendar dates in the form of

2434: 2411: 2404: 2344: 2340: 2320: 2227: 2127: 2030: 1874:

By the 1st century BCE, negative numbers and decimal fractions were in use and

1548: 1491: 1386: 809: 698: 686: 685:

times, knowledge and technique were passed from generation to generation in an

648: 610: 588: 423: 415: 320: 316: 238: 191: 169: 107: 14491:

The Discoverers : A History of Man's Search to Know His World and Himself

14160: 13747: 12623: 12334:

Precise titles of these landmark books can be found in the collections of the

10938: 10921: 10726: 10694: 8087: 8070: 7995:

Primate visions : gender, race, and nature in the world of modern science

7979: 7742: 6313:

for goods as a means to encourage economic expansion. Following World War II,

6080: 1783: 1580: 1482: 1464:, religious literature of India. According to Sarma (2008): "One finds in the 1418: 1413:(1380–1460), presents a case of the Mean Value theorem in his commentaries on 613:

of the early-17th century – associated with the scientific revolution and the

17386: 17007: 16890: 16846: 16809: 16739: 16714: 16624: 16522: 16468: 16463: 16029: 15999: 15937: 15738: 15686: 15681: 15591: 14825:

Digital Archives of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)

14654: 14649:. The Cambridge History of Science. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. 14465: 13755: 13327: 12867: 12744: 12714:"Molecular Expressions: Science, Optics and You – Timeline – Johannes Kepler" 12631: 12576: 12529: 12478: 12391:. In Cantor, Geoffrey; Olby, Robert; Christie, John; Hodge, Jonathon (eds.). 11644: 11497: 10947: 10888: 10718: 10419: 10366:

Visible Language: Inventions of Writing in the Ancient Middle East and Beyond

10333:

Visible Language: Inventions of Writing in the Ancient Middle East and Beyond

10318: 10237:

Visible Language: Inventions of Writing in the Ancient Middle East and Beyond

9975:(in English, Japanese, and Chinese). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. p. 17. 9941: 9468: 9424: 9401: 8406: 8193: 8137: 8096: 8047: 8012: 7932: 7873: 7630: 6430: 6290: 6254: 6116: 6007: 5940: 5928: 5869: 5849: 5829: 5825: 5782: 5778: 5714: 5676: 5619:

show that the laws of motion did not hold on small scales, but the theory of

5584: 5546: 5457: 5453: 5433: 5370: 5334: 5314: 5244: 5232: 5219: 5215: 5155: 4915: 4868: 4843: 4813: 4761: 4747: 4711: 4688: 4421: 4391: 4371: 4363: 4335: 4327: 4152: 4124: 4113: 4092:, where scientific inquiry, halted at the start of the Black Death, resumed. 4056: 4040: 3993: 3775:

grew too large, they would opt to settle in a town instead. As the number of

3732: 3710: 3655: 3540: 3372: 3193: 3062: 3015: 2956: 2658: 2530: 2490:, whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the 2442: 2438: 2389: 2376:

of 8.5.16.9.7, or 156 CE. The other columns visible are glyphs from the

2336: 2328: 2324: 2250: 2138: 1779: 1692: 1516: 1391: 1369: 1335: 1039: 860: 829: 757: 640: 483: 459: 398:, wherein formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the 367: 243: 14682: 13731: 13621: 13282: 13262: 13139: 11760: 10137: 9333:, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland. 7595: 5599:

Einstein's official portrait after receiving the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics

3706:–1326) produced the first known anatomy textbook based on human dissection. 3061:, and the organization and histories of other nations, while statesmen like 2214:

mechanism and the world's oldest known use of an endless power-transmitting

1729: 1562: 17328: 16689: 16629: 16377: 16335: 15989: 15848: 15786: 15521: 14621: 14510: 14054: 13894: 13676: 13466: 13232: 13155: 12791: 12155: 11768: 10906: 10838: 10751: 10209: 10161: 10153: 9690: 9017: 8813: 8314: 8295: 7853:

In its traditional forms, the conflict thesis has been largely discredited.

6375: 6358: 6354: 6112: 6056:

began to be recognized as a distinct academic discipline in its own right.

6053: 6023: 5920: 5916: 5912: 5742: 5684: 5672: 5668: 5656: 5485: 5203: 4962: 4919: 4903: 4797: 4703: 4576: 4562: 4387: 4359: 4339: 4308: 4223: 4181: 4052: 4019: 3858: 3747:

An intellectual revitalization of Western Europe started with the birth of

3595: 3176:(c. 155-c. 230 CE) were vehemently opposed to philosophy, denouncing it as 3168: 3106: 3077: 2991: 2975: 2801: 2797: 2423: 2357:

Detail showing columns of glyphs from a portion of the 2nd century CE

2238: 2196: 2165: 2000: 1907:

Although the first attempts at an axiomatization of geometry appear in the

1889: 1697: 1653: 1504: 1410: 1319: 1211: 1140: 1025: 935: 722: 718: 672: 570: 542: 439: 324: 13223: 13056: 12994: 12859: 11284:

Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Volume 7, Nihilism-Quantum mechanics

10671: 10185: 9922: 9910: 9891: 9871: 9594:(3rd ed.). New Jersey: Princeton University Press. pp. 418–449. 8996:(3rd ed.). New Jersey: Princeton University Press. pp. 418–449. 8443:. Calgary: Faculty of Medicine, The University of Calgary. pp. 5–11. 7964:(5th pbk. print ed.). New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press. 7915:

Leviathan and the air-pump : Hobbes, Boyle, and the experimental life

6906:(Second ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 163–92. 6336: 5595: 5345:, and also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the 4656:

in 1628, which revealed his conclusions based on his extensive studies of

4072:

of motion, making this analysis without considering the causes of motion.

3251:

led to a deterioration of the classical tradition in the western part (or

3200:

but continued to exist in Rome, northern Italy, southern Gaul, Spain, and

2122:

to repair boats. After observing the natural process of the inundation of

1685: 1678: 1560: 1295: 655:

and persons of color) were excluded from elite scientific communities and

494:

established their first known traditions of astronomy and mathematics for

17303: 17270: 17225: 17205: 16841: 16729: 16654: 16571: 16490: 16483: 16340: 16024: 15721: 15691: 15676: 15541: 15536: 14932: 14697: 14637:

Transforming Matter: A History of Chemistry from Alchemy to the Buckyball

12318: 12126: 12122: 10266: 10264: 9509: 9368: 9137: 8875:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 429, 462. 8185: 8166: 7869: 7313:

Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys (2020). "The conservation of energy".

7145:

Lindberg, David C. (2007). "The legacy of ancient and medieval science".

6470: 6367: 6346: 6270: 6258: 6128: 6108: 6061: 6057: 6040:. In 1981 Catherine Morris and Harold Lecar combined these models in the 5974:

was observed by astronomers on Earth both visually, and in a triumph for

5861: 5801: 5762: 5723: 5719: 5538: 5445: 5171: 5159: 4719: 4347: 4234: 4207: 4203: 4156: 4133: 4076: 4009: 4001: 3920: 3919:

Contact with the Byzantine Empire, and with the Islamic world during the

3841:(grammar, rhetoric, and logic) followed by the next four liberal arts or 3791:. Many universities were chartered during this period, with the first in 3729: 3677: 3631: 3611: 3607: 3352: 3308: 3262:, Alexandria and Antioch, Western Europe's knowledge was concentrated in 3073: 2890: 2854: 2842: 2813: 2719: 2690: 2430: 2392: 2266: 2258: 2246: 2215: 2115: 2060: 2026: 1920: 1733: 1627: 1512: 1428: 1377: 1373: 1323: 1310: 1286: 1103: 1087: 1047: 977: 911: 881: 856: 734: 702: 566: 487: 479: 379: 371: 352: 14470:

Science and Its History: A Reassessment of the Historiography of Science

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Rosen, Edward (1985). "The Dissolution of the Solid Celestial Spheres".

11315:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 307–308. 11202:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 132–162. 10655: 10117:

Searching the Heavens and the Earth: The History of Jesuit Observatories

10021:

A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD)

9638:

Recipes for Immortality: Healing, Religion, and Community in South India

9515:

Ganita-Yukti-Bhasa (Rationales in Mathematical Astronomy) of Jyesthadeva

9022:"Why the Scientific Revolution did not take place in China – or did it?" 8120:

Observing by hand : sketching the nebulae in the nineteenth century

7486:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 262–285. 7482:

Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys (2020). "Twentieth-century physics".

7458:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 197–221. 7342:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 108–133. 7263:

Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys (2020). "The scientific revolution".

7149:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 357–368. 7055: 6931:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 225–253. 6846:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 193–224. 6700:

Cohen, Eliel (2021). "The boundary lens: theorising academic activity".

6119:", and comparisons of Earth and the solar system's other rocky planets. 5369:. Lister's work was based on the important findings by French biologist 5079:

led to an understanding of heat and the notion of energy being defined.

4301:, were first printed. The period culminated with the publication of the 3329: 2780: 17183: 16895: 16734: 16576: 16534: 16478: 15957: 15952: 15897: 15561: 15531: 15513: 14914: 14746: 14712:

The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance

14551:

Out of the Shadows: Contributions of Twentieth-Century Women to Physics

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Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Mesoamerican civilization".

10119:. (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003). p. 53 9825: 9590:

Joseph, George G. (2011). "A Passage to Infinity: The Kerala Episode".

9476: 9045: 8730:

Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine

8247: 7363:

Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys (2020). "The Darwinian revolution".

7317:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 83–107. 6318: 6262: 6168: 6156: 6140: 6136: 6104: 5979: 5857: 5837: 5750: 5612: 5604: 5562: 5522: 5480:

was concerned with the modernization of society through the concept of

5409: 5366: 4952: 4934: 4777: 4765: 4727: 4657: 4215: 4210:

and actors. Later, the expansion of the scientific paradigm during the

4175: 4069: 4014: 3843: 3714: 3630:. Nevertheless, many of the conquerors became patrons of the sciences. 3606:

Islamic science began its decline in the 12th–13th century, before the

3494: 3490: 3197: 3185: 3173: 3110: 3081: 3019: 2995: 2932: 2858: 2805: 2759: 2682: 2627: 2578: 2550: 2514: 2497: 2362: 2254: 2231: 2211: 2199: 2192: 2188: 2103: 2099: 2056: 2015: 1999:

knowledge of this was lost during the Ming dynasty, so that the Jesuit

1803: 1757: 1331: 1238: 1199: 1099: 952: 939: 730: 714: 682: 375: 340: 13929:"Computer Science vs. Software Engineering [Comparison Guide]" 13585: 13568: 13546:

Biography.com Editors. "Chien-Shiung Wu." Biography.com, 2 June 2016,

13399:

Alpher, Ralph A.; Herman, Robert (1948). "Evolution of the Universe".

12843: 12584: 12552: 12537: 12513: 10261: 9859: 9245:

Archimedes to Hawking: laws of science and the great minds behind them

8448: 7292:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 58–82. 7288:

Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys (2020). "The chemical revolution".

7267:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 25–57. 7119:(First ed.). Chicago: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–26. 6977: 6513: 6222:(light amplification by the stimulated emission of radiation) and the 5389:, to help prevent the spread of disease through milk and other foods. 4410: 3555:, and (in fragmentary form) Ahmad ibn Isā. Later in the 11th century, 1816: 1346:

translations of the two astronomers' texts were soon available in the

102: 17338: 16669: 16566: 16495: 16389: 16362: 16134: 15601: 15576: 15455: 14937: 14531: 13668: 13458: 13422: 12400: 12017:

Rebirth, Reform and Resilience: Universities in Transition, 1300–1700

10401: 8821: 8718:"Diagnosis, Divination, and Disease: Towards an Understanding of the 7511:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 1–24. 7176:(Fall 2016 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 6953: 6780:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 1–20. 6160: 6151:

flew thousands of miles in a matter of hours. The development of the

6092: 5905: 5793: 5731: 5692: 5624: 5550: 5477: 5397: 5288: 5052: 5039:

In physics, the behavior of electricity and magnetism was studied by

4851: 4707: 4459: 4200: 4171: 4167: 3936: 3900: 3818:(literally "from the chair", used within the context of teaching) or 3808:

faculties and students were protected from capital punishment (e.g.,

3804: 3756: 3672: 3458: 3263: 3034: 3026:

was a resin from pine trees, because of trapped insects within them.

2694: 2686: 2615: 2562: 2506: 2462: 2450: 2282: 2270: 2153: 2146: 2051: 2019: 1987: 1966: 1794: 1761: 1741: 1720: 1670: 1631: 1615: 1305: 1136: 1123: 1043: 1001: 960: 797: 706: 546: 530: 383: 336: 248: 14848:

Giants of Science (website of the Institute of National Remembrance)

12146: 11982:. New York, New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 101–138. 11589: 11235:

Linda E. Voigts, "Anglo-Saxon Plant Remedies and the Anglo-Saxons",

10829: 10804: 10201: 9682: 8728:. In Horstmanshoff, H.F.J.; Stol, Marten; Tilburg, Cornelis (eds.). 7239:. New York, New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 308–349. 7007: 5623:, proposed by Einstein in 1915, showed that the fixed background of 4318:

Other significant scientific advances were made during this time by

4088:

to propagate more rapidly. These developments paved the way for the

3634:, for example, who led the siege of Baghdad, became a patron of the 3133:. The pinnacle of the popularization movement was the Roman scholar 2545:, identified by later authors such as Aristotle as the first of the 2160:

province. If not for Shen Kuo's writing, the architectural works of

1841: 693:

for agriculture has been dated to about 9,000 years ago in southern

13523:

Ronald K. Smeltzer. "Chien-Shiung Wu." Atomic Heritage Foundation,

13144:

Bulletin of the Indian Institute of History of Medicine (Hyderabad)

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Singh, Parduman; Batra, H. S.; Naithani, Manisha (6 January 2004).

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Sarma, K.V. (2008). "Astronomy in India". In Selin, Helaine (ed.).

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Making Natural Knowledge: Constructivism and the History of Science

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Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys (2020). "The age of the earth".

6969: 6458: 6404:

American sociology in the 1940s and 1950s was dominated largely by

6383: 6379: 6235: 6196: 6148: 6144: 6031: 5971: 5680: 5660: 5318: 5182:

of elements on the basis of Dalton's discoveries. The synthesis of

5088: 5032: 4781: 4163:

on human cadavers found problems with the Galenic view of anatomy.

4160: 3968: 3964: 3924: 3886: 3724:

Technological advances were also made, such as the early flight of

3583: 3579: 3548: 3524: 3511: 3471: 3334: 3054: 3046: 3003: 2983: 2944: 2838: 2747: 2582: 2510: 2491: 2366: 2286: 2277:, toilet paper, the efficient harness, along with contributions in 2242: 2172: 2168: 2091: 2087: 2083: 1991: 1971: 1901: 1684: 1645: 1623: 1572: 1552: 1246: 1017: 944: 813: 793: 726: 550: 399: 387: 344: 16934: 16267: 14830:

Digital facsimiles of books from the History of Science Collection

14789: 14751:

The Ferment of Knowledge: Studies in the Historiography of Science

14738:

The Cambridge History of Science, Volume 4: The Eighteenth Century

14686: 12514:"From Copernicus to Kepler: Heliocentrism as Model and as Reality" 10870: 9079:

Bartholomew, James R. (2003). "Asia". In Heilbron, John L. (ed.).

8268: 6842:

Lindberg, David C. (2007). "The revival of learning in the West".

6445: 6345:'s atomistic approach of the mind. This led to the formulation of 6244: 6187:, studies the nature and limits of computation. Subfields include 4524:

in the early 17th century, which proposed that the planets follow

2796:

was the first known person to propose a heliocentric model of the

1460:

The first textual mention of astronomical concepts comes from the

1285:. He also presents a numerical system by adding one to the sum of 29:"New science" redirects here. For the treatise about history, see 17288: 16416: 15478: 15262: 14903: 11080: 10424:

Principium Sapientiae: The Origins of Greek Philosophical Thought

6489: 6453:–proton collision. It decays almost immediately into two jets of 6036: 5901: 5817: 5534: 5437: 5378: 5338: 5236: 5195: 5140: 5096: 4809: 4723: 4558: 4525: 4486: 4244: 4085: 4061: 3940: 3837: 3809: 3792: 3784: 3760: 3736: 3638:. Islamic astronomy continued to flourish into the 16th century. 3498: 3462: 3426: 3405: 3156: 3007: 2999: 2960: 2870: 2727: 2674: 2670: 2605: 2566: 2542: 2299: 2203: 2184: 2176: 2157: 2119: 2095: 1982:

published in 1092, featuring a cylindrical projection similar to

1975: 1912: 1845: 1775: 1737: 1649: 1641: 1568: 1465: 1327: 1274: 1242: 1119: 1111: 1107: 931: 927: 923: 676: 554: 332: 304: 296: 70: 16962: 14732:

The Cambridge History of Science, Volume 3: Early Modern Science

14546:. (Includes a description of the history of science in England.) 12283:

The Black Death: Natural & Human Disaster in Medieval Europe

10992: 10873:"Health care practices in ancient Greece: The Hippocratic ideal" 9946:

The First Great Political Realist: Kautilya and His Arthashastra

9640:. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 79–106. 6378:. New methods of visualizing the activity of the brain, such as 4631:, detailing two comprehensive and successful physical theories: 3489:

where Islamic mathematicians made their greatest contributions.

2897: 1555:

for the purpose of the correct recitation and interpretation of

1330:

was a force of attraction. He also lucidly explained the use of

1154: 824: 525:. More "revolutions" in subsequent centuries soon followed. The 16111: 14398:

Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering

11815:

Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths about Science and Religion

11789:

Erica Fraser. The Islamic World to 1600, University of Calgary.

11198:

Lindberg, David C. (2007). "Roman and early medieval science".

8506:

Lloyd, G.E.R. "The development of empirical research", in his

6706:(1st ed.). New York, New York: Routledge. pp. 14–41. 6454: 6450: 5893: 5382: 5342: 4668: 4596: 4557:

A decisive moment came when "chemistry" was distinguished from

4227: 4199:

established the emphasis of modern political science on direct

3904: 3800: 3410: 3355:

from China, which made the copying of manuscripts inexpensive.

3258:

While the Byzantine Empire still held learning centers such as

3177: 3089: 3085: 2918: 2881: 2678: 2635: 2601: 2570: 2538: 2534: 2180: 2161: 2149: 2130: 2107: 1908: 1347: 1343: 1091: 1079: 852: 694: 435: 14898: 14847: 13261:

Campbell, Neil A.; Williamson, Brad; Heyden, Robin J. (2006).

12352:"What Is the Enlightenment and How Did It Transform Politics?" 10399:, pp. 3, 37 called the pre-Socratics the transition from 9762:

The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective

9711:

E. Schultheisz (1981), History of Physiology, Pergamon Press,

5876:

for expressing life in all its forms, building on the work of

5267: 4958:

An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations

4873:

by Georges Cuvier based on fossil remains from the Paris Basin

3971:. European scholars had access to the translation programs of 3831:

The curriculum of these medieval institutions centered on the

3098:

as well as a Latin translation of it, which has not survived.

2982:

and looking at minerals in terms of their properties, such as

2468: 17318: 14870: 14472:(Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, 253) Springer. 13831:

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cecilia-Payne-Gaposchkin

10407: 9917: 9886: 9838:

Mabbett, I.W. (1 April 1964). "The Date of the Arthaśāstra".

8790:

Aaboe, A. (2 May 1974). "Scientific Astronomy in Antiquity".

8368: 8232:

Invisible Connections: Instruments, Institutions, and Science

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came into focus. And in the 20th century, new discoveries in

411: 14888:

International History, Philosophy and Science Teaching Group

14858: 14853:

History of Science Digital Collection: Utah State University

13990:"The State of New Keynesian Economics: A Partial Assessment" 9728:

Wendy Doniger (2014), On Hinduism, Oxford University Press,

9512:; Ramasubramanian, K.; Srinivas, M.D.; Sriram, M.S. (2008). 8234:. SPIE Conference Series. Vol. 10309. p. 1030904. 6484:

The Human Genome Project was declared complete in 2003. The

6289:, public administration, comparative political analysis and 6044:. Such increasingly quantitative work gave rise to numerous 5214:

Over the first half of the 19th century, geologists such as

4930: 4792:

Geology did not undergo systematic restructuring during the

4269:, which led to the emergence of a New Science that was more 4233:

In archaeology, the 15th and 16th centuries saw the rise of

2955:. He is also known in physics for laying the foundations of 1626:

describes procedures on various forms of surgery, including

1182:

History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent

1143:, dating to the eighteenth-century BCE, records a number of 918:

The ancient Mesopotamians had extensive knowledge about the

14802: 14783: 14147:

Castelvecchi, Davide; Witze, Alexandra (11 February 2016).

14120: 12688:"Johannes Kepler: His Life, His Laws and Times | NASA" 11724: 11722: 11521: 11519: 10216: 9592:

The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics

8994:

The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics

7962:

Nature's body : gender in the making of modern science

6107:

of the interior of the Earth, the grouping of geology with

6072:

as having played critical roles in establishing the field.

6014:", and how they are initiated and propagated, known as the 5440:). Other important early contributors to the field include 5183: 5055:, and others. The experiments, theories and discoveries of 5000:

The 19th century saw the birth of science as a profession.

4672: 3914: 3050: 2940: 2646:

scholarship, though they were eventually superseded in the

2537:

in which we live come to be?" The pre-Socratic philosopher

2454: 2123: 1576: 1547:

Some of the earliest linguistic activities can be found in

1461: 1315: 1083: 1075: 1063: 805: 14926: 14892: 14842: 14803:

The CNRS History of Science and Technology Research Center

13382:"Why String Theory Still Offers Hope We Can Unify Physics" 12900:

Power, d'Arcey. Life of Harvey. Longmans, Green, & co.

12121: 11354:. Vol. 12. New York: Encyclopedia Press. p. 51. 11241:

The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages

10276:

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mesoamerican-civilization

9400:

Studies in the History of the Exact Sciences in Honour of

8956:. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. p. 27. 5587:

sciences, building on the progress from the 19th century.

4812:

were the remains of once-living creatures. Beginning with

4450: 4123:

The renewal of learning in Europe began with 12th century

2657:(such as the planets and the Sun) had something called an 747: 16458: 14915:

The Royal Society, trailblazing science from 1650 to date

14908: 14678: 14385:

Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth

14116:"New results indicate that new particle is a Higgs boson" 12463:"Ficino, Copernicus and Bruno on the Motion of the Earth" 12251:"The Renaissance: The 'Rebirth' of Science & Culture" 11264:, Liverpool: Liverpool Univ. Pr., 2004, pp. xviii–xxxiv. 10426:, (Gloucester, Massachusetts, Peter Smith, 1971), p. 159. 6449:

One possible signature of a Higgs boson from a simulated

5986:. This discrepancy forced a change in some values in the 5841: 5235:

and others established the reality of continent-covering

2931:, considered the most influential textbook ever written. 2808:(c. 190 – c. 120 BCE) produced the first systematic 2505:, as practitioners of a skilled profession (for example, 2418:. Following a period of initial urban development in the 1740:(c. 6th century BCE to 2nd century BCE); the analysis of 14904:

National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) Archives

14085:"Physicists Find Particle That Could Be the Higgs Boson" 13260: 12962: 12945:. UCSC library: Princeton University Press. p. 201. 11719: 11516: 7381: 6954:"History of East Asian Science: Needs and Opportunities" 6776:

Lindberg, David C. (2007). "Science before the Greeks".

5997: 5683:

in the background temperature of the universe. In 1964,

4493: 2812:. The level of achievement in Hellenistic astronomy and 2067:

To better prepare for calamities, Zhang Heng invented a

1770:

logic stands as one of the three original traditions of

13548:

https://www.biography.com/people/chien-shiung-wu-053116

12955:

Meyrick H. Carré, "The Formation of the Royal Society"

12553:"The History of Ancient Astronomy Problems and Methods" 11879:

Maritime Exploration in the Age of Discovery, 1415–1800

11402:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2018. 9989: 8437:

Proceedings of the 10th Annual History of Medicine Days

7454:

Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys (2020). "Genetics".

6337:

Developments in psychology, sociology, and anthropology

6175:

feasible. Computer science, built upon a foundation of

6147:

flight occurred in 1903, and by the end of the century

5792:

Though the process had begun with the invention of the

4850:

established the electrical nature of what Volta called

4520:

was followed by the model of planetary motion given by

4502:, which accelerated the development of modern science. 3325:

Timeline of science and engineering in the Muslim world

2952: 2906: 1952:

which remained the most accurate value for 1200 years.

1916: 1900:

for binomial coefficients was described around 1100 by

1289:. Pingala's work also includes material related to the 38:

For approaches to the study of history of science, see

13809:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 13525:

https://www.atomicheritage.org/profile/chien-shiung-wu

12226:, (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996), pp. 95–97. 5251:

methods were developed, starting in the 20th century.

2873:— that were not tried again for almost two millennia. 2804:

accurately calculated the circumference of the Earth.

1931: 1880:

included methods for extracting higher order roots by

1748:(c. 6th century BC to 2nd century CE), founder of the 1253:. The topics covered include fractions, square roots, 657:

characterized by the science establishment as inferior

517:

and traditions. The New Science that emerged was more

14350:

The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science

14294:"Martin Seligman and the Rise of Positive Psychology" 13115:. The Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 12440:. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 47. 12213:, (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1976), pp. 140–142. 11239:, 70 (1979): 250–268; reprinted in Michael H. Shank, 10064: 9083:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 51–55. 9081:

The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science

7430:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 367. 7163: 4528:

orbits, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. In

3688:

stimulating scientific discussion in Western Europe.

3040: 2037:

unearthed, studied, and cataloged ancient artifacts.

1929: 1053: 651:

of science. Many people in modern history (typically

557:

laid the foundations for new sub disciplines such as

14887: 14408: 14268:"Team builds first living robots—that can reproduce" 13854:

http://www.newn.cam.ac.uk/about/history/biographies/

12438:

The Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction

11375: 11373: 11243:, Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 2000, pp. 163–181. 10287: 10091: 9202: 6509: 5691:

discovered a 3 Kelvin background hiss in their

4682: 4639:, which describes the fundamental force of gravity. 4241:

who were interested in the collection of artifacts.

1050:

and took measures to prevent the spread of disease.

14626:

History of Science and its Rational Reconstructions

13437:Gamow, G. (1948). "The Evolution of the Universe". 13077: 10796: 9166: 7763: 7608: 7477: 7475: 7449: 7447: 7258: 7256: 7094:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–3. 5836:used the principles of quantum mechanics to deduce 5679:had calculated that there should be evidence for a 4610: 3568: 3390: 3045:During the rule of Rome, famous historians such as 2055:A modern replica of Han dynasty polymath scientist 1801:form of logic. The Catuskoti is also often glossed 1559:texts. The most notable grammarian of Sanskrit was 752:The earliest roots of science can be traced to the 576: 15446: 14911:. Features biographies and info on Nobel laureates 14730:Park, Katharine, and Lorraine Daston, eds. (2006) 14488: 14326: 13848: 13846: 13137: 13028: 12765: 11881:. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood. pp. 1–8. 11783: 11310: 11193: 11191: 11189: 11187: 11185: 11183: 11181: 11179: 11177: 11175: 11173: 11003: 10529: 9759: 9204: 7845:Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives 7803: 6681:– Migration of center of activity of world science 6401:, incorporating elements of evolutionary biology. 4986:social sciences of which anthropology was a part. 4834:During the late 18th century, researchers such as 4424:astronomical model of the universe was refined by 4366:. In philosophy, major contributions were made by 3618:in the East in the 11th–13th century. The Mongols 2951:, and gave a remarkably accurate approximation of 2885:One of the oldest surviving fragments of Euclid's 2573:is made of indivisible, imperishable units called 2164:would be little known, along with the inventor of 1944: 980:had no distinction between "rational science" and 14779:'What is the History of Science', British Academy 14146: 13872: 13542: 13540: 12518:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 12382: 12380: 12378: 11370: 11171: 11169: 11167: 11165: 11163: 11161: 11159: 11157: 11155: 11153: 11081:O'Connor, J.J.; Robertson, E.F. (February 1996). 10877:Journal of Medical Ethics and History of Medicine 10476:, p. 45. Rowman & Littlefield, 2005. 386 pp. 9126:. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. pp. 113–124. 9124:Harappan Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective 8664:. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan. p. 42. 7772:Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction 7416:dates the origin of the word "scientist" to 1834. 7207:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 7170:Del Soldato, Eva (2016). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). 6814:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 5888:" In the late 20th century, the possibilities of 5400:developed an alternative economic theory, called 5279:, and on page 36 wrote "I think" above his first 4043:commentaries on Aristotle's scientific writings. 3457:(c. 780–850) gave his name to the concept of the 3358: 3347:This was the period (8th–14th century CE) of the 3242: 2758:"Men were weighing for thousands of years before 2445:among Mesoamerican peoples. The Maya developed a 359:after the establishment of formal disciplines of 17384: 14519:The Norton History of the Environmental Sciences 14483: 12974: 12824: 10866: 10864: 10862: 10860: 10466:Philosophy in the ancient world: an introduction 10434: 10432: 10106:, pp. 111, 165, 445, 448, 456–457, 469–471. 10040:Morton, W. Scott and Charlton M. Lewis. (2005). 9751: 9552: 9550: 8914:Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History 7578:An introduction to the historiography of science 7500: 7472: 7444: 7356: 7331: 7306: 7281: 7253: 7140: 7138: 7136: 7092:Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction 7012:The Legends: Journal of European History Studies 6897: 6895: 6893: 6891: 6889: 6887: 6885: 6883: 6806:Grant, Edward (2007). "Ancient Egypt to Plato". 6771: 6769: 6767: 6765: 6763: 6761: 6759: 6757: 6755: 6672:Timeline of the history of the scientific method 5904:typically traces its origin to the synthesis of 4311:, representative of the unprecedented growth of 2090:and statesman who was the first to describe the 1724:of Medhatithi Gautama (c. 6th century BCE); the 963:, was studied in particularly intensive detail. 14883:International Academy of the History of Science 13843: 13633: 13631: 11877:Love, Ronald S. (2006). "Historical overview". 11282:Craig, Edward, ed. (1998). "Philoponus, John". 10974:"One of the Oldest Extant Diagrams from Euclid" 10922:"Hippocratic Medicine and the Greek Body Image" 9757: 9072: 8793:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 8520: 8518: 8516: 8275:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 6881: 6879: 6877: 6875: 6873: 6871: 6869: 6867: 6865: 6863: 6837: 6835: 6753: 6751: 6749: 6747: 6745: 6743: 6741: 6739: 6737: 6735: 6245:Developments in political science and economics 3277:compiled Archimedes' mathematical works in the 3076:coincided with the increased prosperity of the 418:during the early centuries (400 to 1000 CE) of 14568:Women Scientists from Antiquity to the Present 14149:"Einstein's gravitational waves found at last" 14113: 13537: 12768:"Chemical Knowledge in the Early Modern World" 12375: 12356:World101 from the Council on Foreign Relations 12067:"Rediscovering the Science of the Middle Ages" 11475: 11473: 11150: 10850: 10848: 10656:"On the Elements: Aristotle's Early Cosmology" 9790: 9105:"3: Early Indian culture – Indus civilisation" 8987: 8985: 8953:Pythagoras: His Life, Teachings, and Influence 8620:. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. p. 56. 8427: 8075:The British Journal for the History of Science 7090:Principe, Lawrence M. (2011). "Introduction". 6902:Lindberg, David C. (2007). "Islamic science". 5984:a fraction of its theoretically expected value 5820:(A), to build a physical model of DNA in 1953. 5303:. It was described in detail in Darwin's book 5102: 4977:", 1776, advances as Smith's central message. 4693:Philosophical Transaction of the Royal Society 4691:in London in 1660 and its journal in 1665 the 4245:Scientific Revolution and birth of New Science 3668:Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe 3436: 3273:In the sixth century in the Byzantine Empire, 3238:, which shows a set of seven famous physicians 2963:, and the explanation of the principle of the 1273:of the second degree. In the 3rd century BCE, 505:Natural philosophy was transformed during the 498:, followed by other civilizations such as the 434:worldview was preserved and absorbed into the 16978: 16283: 15432: 14953: 14719:The Norton History of Astronomy and Cosmology 14641: 14609:Science and the Raj: A Study of British India 14590:(3rd ed.). University of Chicago Press. 13001: 12239:, (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996), pp. 100–103. 12187:, (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996), pp. 127–131. 11973: 11971: 11969: 11967: 11281: 10857: 10758:, (New York: W.W. Norton, 1970), pp. 144–146. 10429: 10136:Baichun, Zhang; Miao, Tian (6 January 2019). 9809: 9547: 9377:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 8566: 8564: 8562: 8560: 7842: 7419: 7133: 6498:is a branch of psychology founded in 1998 by 6203:, artificial intelligence, and the design of 4866:1812 skeletal and muscular reconstruction of 4824: 4498:The Scientific Revolution continued into the 3979:from Arabic to Latin. Later translators like 1539:; they were completed between 1724 and 1735. 1155:Ancient and medieval South Asia and East Asia 786: 270: 14076: 13781:. Berkeley: University of California press. 13628: 13398: 13171:"Chapter 3 Planet earth and Plate tectonics" 12726: 11965: 11963: 11961: 11959: 11957: 11955: 11953: 11951: 11949: 11947: 11927: 11482:"The Social Structure of Islamicate Science" 8513: 8478:"Edwin Smith papyrus: Egyptian medical book" 8411:Astronomy in Prehistoric Britain and Ireland 7769: 7108: 7083: 6920: 6860: 6832: 6801: 6799: 6797: 6732: 6473:, confirmed as such by the following March. 5262: 5135: 5008:in 1833, which soon replaced the older term 4925: 4857: 4458:, one of the founders and fathers of modern 3927:, allowed Latin Europe access to scientific 2577:. This was greatly expanded on by his pupil 2306: 1955: 430:. Aided by translations of Greek texts, the 14452:Science in the Twentieth Century and Beyond 14366: 13637: 13567:Garwin, Richard L.; Lee, Tsung-Dao (1997). 13357:Science in the Twentieth Century and Beyond 12983:Journal of the American Medical Association 11470: 11037:influence comparable with that of Euclid's 10968: 10845: 10524: 10288:Price, T. Douglas; Gary M. Feinman (2005). 10222: 10135: 9784: 9583: 9489:J. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson (2000). 9367: 9146:. Princeton University Press. p. 158. 9078: 8982: 7959: 7770:Russel, C.A. (2002). Ferngren, G.B. 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Cambridge University Press. 13907:American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 13379: 13340:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 13201: 12980: 12550: 12393:Companion to the History of Modern Science 12211:Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler 12019:, Ohio State University Press, 1984, p. 68 11870: 11746: 11286:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 371–377, 10563:The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science 10319:https://www.britannica.com/science/numeral 10292:(Fourth ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. 10183: 9629: 8872:Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism 8557: 8150:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 7945:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 7864: 7836: 7801: 7795: 7755:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 7643:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 7580:. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. 7531: 7192: 6230:. It is optical amplification that allows 6091:hypothesis by suggesting in 1912 that the 6030:across the space between neurons known as 5872:clarified the basic structure of DNA, the 5591:Theory of relativity and quantum mechanics 5416:responded to Marxian economics by viewing 5015: 4897:, Sweden's Torbern Bergman, and Germany's 4787: 3985:translation and propagation of these texts 3493:(c. 858–929) improved the measurements of 2226:and science was galvanized by the work of 2106:, improved the design of the astronomical 1829:History of science and technology in China 1644:describes ancient theories on human body, 1551:(1st millennium BCE) with the analysis of 1399:Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics 1020:, during the reign of the Babylonian king 959:, which was seen as an important organ in 366:Science's earliest roots can be traced to 277: 263: 14909:The official site of the Nobel Foundation 14421: 14298:The National Endowment for the Humanities 14035:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 14013: 13709:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 13704: 13584: 13566: 13307: 13222: 13034: 13012:. HAL open-access archive. hal-03423498. 12511: 12338:. A list of these titles can be found in 12325:, (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1978). 12279: 12145: 12022: 11944: 11935:Henry "Stamped Out Industrial Revolution" 10937: 10896: 10828: 10773:. New York: W.W. Norton & Co, 1973. 10638: 10396: 10179: 10177: 10175: 10173: 10171: 9968: 9865: 9766:. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 9561:. Springer, Dordrecht. pp. 317–321. 9318:O'Connor, J.J. and E.F. Robertson. 2000. 9173:. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 648–649. 9010: 8789: 8609: 8607: 8605: 8304: 8294: 8086: 7117:Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution 7054: 6794: 5427: 4965:, advocating a system of free trade with 4546: 3117:(116-27 BCE), who wrote the encyclopedia 2742:, and the natural sciences. According to 2475:History of science in classical antiquity 1877:The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art 1819:), and testimony (sound or word; śabda). 1630:, the repair of torn ear lobes, perineal 1354:to the Islamic world by the 9th century. 607:relationship between science and religion 14893:IsisCB Explore: History of Science Index 14839:, Linda Hall Library Digital Collections 14611:, 2nd edition. Oxford University Press. 14395: 14382: 14347: 12968: 12909: 12435: 12386: 12369: 12028: 11914: 11818:. Harvard University Press. p. 45. 11749:Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 11197: 11052: 10802: 10756:Early Greek Science: Thales to Aristotle 10131: 10129: 10127: 10125: 10103: 9995: 9840:Journal of the American Oriental Society 9828:, Science, Vol. 22, No. 545, pages 17-18 9238: 8653: 8651: 8649: 8524: 8229: 7879:Twentieth-Century Philosophy of Religion 7657: 7425: 7392:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 7225: 7144: 7114: 7089: 6926: 6901: 6841: 6775: 6693: 6444: 6234:to transmit the massive capacity of the 6079: 5811: 5741:with radiochemical methods, and in 1939 5713: 5594: 5295:, which was independently formulated by 5266: 5139: 5019: 4929: 4861: 4800:formulated a theory of earthquakes, and 4776:), and society and politics in general ( 4772:(the increasingly significant impact of 4663:. He identified the central role of the 4635:, which led to classical mechanics; and 4476: 4449: 4409: 4248: 3915:Translations of Greek and Arabic sources 3742: 3671: 3394: 3328: 3229: 2896: 2880: 2779: 2592: 2352: 2050: 1965: 1840: 1683:, who are traditionally identified with 1591: 1444: 1210: 1198: 1057: 971: 905: 823: 800:to preserve the layout and ownership of 378:. These civilizations' contributions to 14674:Knowledge Transfer and Science Transfer 14587:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions 14404:. Vol. 4. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. 14391:. Vol. 3. 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Physical anthropology would become 6095:are slowly drifting around the Earth. 5998:Neuroscience as a distinct discipline 5978:, by the solar neutrino detectors at 4642: 4637:Newton's law of universal gravitation 4505: 4494:Continuation of Scientific Revolution 3321:Science in the medieval Islamic world 3146:After the death of the Roman Emperor 2970: 2588: 1888:. Cubic equations were solved in the 1869:History of mathematics § Chinese 1660: 1151:over a millennium before Pythagoras. 1062:Star list with distance information, 884:and solar cycles into consideration. 828:The Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BCE) from 689:. For instance, the domestication of 16921: 14671:Lipphardt, Veronika/Ludwig, Daniel, 14580: 14240:Brown, Joshua E. 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Marxian economics is based on the 4943:, the first modern work of economics 4625:In 1687, Isaac Newton published the 4068:began to mathematically analyze the 3988:modern counterpart and descendent." 3664:List of medieval European scientists 2876: 2407:of the region (possibly predated by 1986:, and the corrected position of the 1884:and solving linear equations and by 1397:During the 14th–16th centuries, the 1304:Indian astronomer and mathematician 804:, which was flooded annually by the 709:knowledge in preliterate societies. 662: 509:in 16th- to 17th-century Europe, as 16297: 15933:Digital media use and mental health 15647:Sociology of the history of science 14795:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 14029:Fuentes, Agustin (6 January 2010). 13956: 13204:"Biology, Molecular and Organismic" 13168: 13119:from the original on 4 January 2010 13113:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 12036:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 11977: 11618:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 11358:from the original on 3 January 2014 11338:from Google's copy of 2008 reprint. 11055:A Contextual History of Mathematics 10597:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 9884:he is generally referred to by his 9795:. 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But the solar neutrino flux was 5385:. Pasteur invented the process of 4718:, science was on a path to modern 4702:. Science drawing on the works of 4516:The heliocentric model revived by 3497:, preserved in the translation of 3041:Greek scholarship under Roman rule 2775: 2501:may have thought of themselves as 1919:to 5 significant figures. In 480, 1054:Astronomy and celestial divination 636:, still subscribe to this thesis. 25: 17409: 16992: 15642:Sociology of scientific ignorance 15487:History and philosophy of science 15469:Economics of scientific knowledge 14998:History and philosophy of science 14772: 14685:, 2011, retrieved: 8 March 2020 ( 14415:Science and Civilisation in China 14402:Science and Civilisation in China 14389:Science and Civilisation in China 14376:Science and Civilisation in China 14216:"Nobel prize: who gets left out?" 14214:Owens, Rebecca (8 October 2020). 14190:"Human Genome Project Fact Sheet" 13736:Journal of the History of Biology 13730:Ackert, Lloyd T. 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It encompasses all three major 44:History of science and technology 16944: 16933: 16920: 16909: 16908: 16235: 16234: 16209: 15400: 15399: 15387: 15376: 15006: 14566:Herzenberg, Caroline L. 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Shen's contemporary 1350:, introducing what would become 1186: 1074:, records of the motions of the 767: 577:Approaches to history of science 404:fall of the Western Roman Empire 101: 82: 46:. For the academic journal, see 17045:History of Western civilization 16863:List of social science journals 14526:The Norton History of Chemistry 14348:Heilbron, John L., ed. (2003). 14083:Overbye, Dennis (4 July 2012). 13202:Dobzhansky, Theodosius (1964). 13016:from the original on 6 May 2022 12557:Journal of Near Eastern Studies 12249:Szalay, Jessie (29 June 2016). 11578:Journal of the History of Ideas 11438:Moosa, Ebrahim (6 April 2015). 11136:. Reaktion Books. p. 107. 11130:King, Rachel (29 August 2022). 9969:Martzloff, Jean-Claude (2006). 9962: 9948:. Lexington Books. p. 17. 9934: 9901: 9831: 9818: 9722: 9705: 9654: 9608: 9483: 9391: 9361: 9336: 9278: 9232: 9196: 9187: 9160: 9115: 9097: 8943: 8901: 8859: 8836: 8783: 8758: 8690: 8500: 8470: 8399: 8374: 8343: 8321: 8262: 8223: 8158: 8111: 8062: 8019: 7986: 7953: 7906: 7858: 7716: 7688: 7658:Golinski, Jan (22 July 2008) . 7651: 7602: 7569: 7525: 7406: 7203:A History of Natural Philosophy 7043:Teorie Vědy / Theory of Science 6810:A History of Natural Philosophy 6720:from the original on 5 May 2021 6543:2020s in science and technology 6440: 6122: 5927:concept, prominent in the work 5852:, 1953). In the same year, the 5834:The Nature of the Chemical Bond 5568: 5472:), the aim of sociology was in 5444:(a pioneer in memory studies), 5349:. In 1847, Hungarian physician 4989: 4218:, to study the subjects of the 3787:that would convert them into a 3652:Renaissance of the 12th century 3010:shape is a precursor to modern 2949:summation of an infinite series 1470:spherical self-supporting earth 1322:and the number 0 . In 628 CE, 1281:the earliest known treatise on 17246:Second Agricultural Revolution 16820:Science and technology studies 15448:Science and technology studies 14635:Levere, Trevor Harvey. (2001) 13887:10.1146/annurev.neuro.23.1.343 12436:Principe, Lawrence M. (2011). 11057:. Prentice-Hall. p. 150. 10536:. Routledge & Kegan Paul. 10042:China: Its History and Culture 9567:10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0_9554 9461:10.1080/0025570X.1995.11996307 8069:Secord, Anne (December 1994). 7993:Haraway, Donna Jeanne (1989). 7960:Schiebinger, Londa L. (2013). 7776:Johns Hopkins University Press 7030: 6999: 6945: 6590:History of the social sciences 6429:, rational choice theory, and 5709: 5512: 5324: 4095: 3992:texts began to be extended by 3935:texts, including the works of 3610:in Europe, due in part to the 3455:Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi 3377:Greek conceptions of the world 3359:Translations and Hellenization 3243:Preservation of Greek heritage 3207: 3022:. Pliny was the first to show 2403:, established the first known 1665:An ancient Indian treatise on 1130: 1004:medical text, however, is the 1000:2004 BCE). The most extensive 887: 408:Greek conceptions of the world 13: 1: 14895:An open access discovery tool 14683:Institute of European History 14679:EGO – European History Online 13988:Galí, Jordi (1 August 2018). 13875:Annual Review of Neuroscience 13600:Henig, Robin Marantz (2000). 13489:"Wilson's 1978 Nobel lecture" 13049:10.1016/s0361-9230(98)00023-9 12674:"DPMA | Johannes Kepler" 12606:Carman, Christián C. (2018). 12280:Gottfried, Robert S. (1985). 11980:The Origins of Modern Science 11695:Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). 11486:Journal of World Philosophies 10771:Greek Science after Aristotle 9203:Susantha Goonatilake (1998). 8165:Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2016). 7237:The Origins of Modern Science 6686: 6486:CRISPR gene editing technique 6060:and collaborators have cited 5549:techniques) and those of an " 5377:, when in 1880 he produced a 5190:opened a new research field, 3883:of Aristotle's works such as 3700: 3612:Christian reconquest of Spain 3574:classical medical knowledge. 2921:laid down the foundations of 2816:is impressively shown by the 2565:(5th century BCE) introduced 2388:(c. 900 BCE – c. 300 BCE) of 2210:, his clocktower featured an 2073:cardinal or ordinal direction 2040: 1994:'s astronomical observations. 1475:The first 12 chapters of the 1263:simultaneous linear equations 997: 993: 622: 17256:Second Industrial Revolution 15995:Normalization process theory 15552:Philosophy of social science 14753:Cambridge University Press. 14632:. Cambridge University Press 13078:Matthew Daniel Eddy (2008). 12467:Bruniana & Campanelliana 12004:Rise of early modern science 11527:"Süleymaniye Mosque, Turkey" 10639:Aristotle (7 January 2009). 10321:. Accessed 13 February 2024. 10278:. Accessed 13 February 2024. 10186:"The man who unveiled China" 9167:Vaman Shivaram Apte (1970). 8950:Riedweg, Christoph (2005) . 7609:Bernard V. Lightman (2016). 6297:prompted a division between 6209:archiving of scientific data 6050:models of neural computation 4914:, following in the steps of 4047:emphasized the principle of 3977:Toledo School of Translators 3387:during the 8th–9th century. 3226:List of Byzantine inventions 2990:produced one of the largest 2905:to approximate the value of 2734:did, along with the idea of 2399:, heavily influenced by the 2313:Ancient American engineering 2102:, discovered the concept of 2010:) projection. The use of an 1434: 1368:) (1340–1400) was an Indian 1334:as both a placeholder and a 1237:contains problems involving 1203:The numerical system of the 778:Ancient Egyptian mathematics 764:in around 3000 to 1200 BCE. 697:, before the development of 669:Science in the ancient world 7: 15349:Neurology and neurosurgery 14536:The Common Sense of Science 14428:. Pica Press. p. 584. 14411:Science and Chinese society 14352:. Oxford University Press. 13534:. Accessed 26 October 2017. 13359:. Cambridge: Polity Press. 12959:(Aug 1960) 10#8 pp 564–571. 12387:Schuster, John A. (1996) . 12286:. Free Press. p. xiv. 11311:Lindberg, David C. (2007). 11262:Bede: The Reckoning of Time 9923: 9911: 9892: 9872: 7812:University of Chicago Press 6505: 6353:, which was popularized by 5650: 5117:arithmetization of analysis 5115:and others carried out the 5103:Developments in mathematics 4256:, father of modern science. 3626:, in 1258, which ended the 3437:Advancements in mathematics 3333:15th-century manuscript of 3298: 3057:documented the rise of the 2118:, and described the use of 1833:List of Chinese discoveries 1686: 1679: 1587: 1561: 1340:Hindu–Arabic numeral system 1296: 874: 835:Egypt was also a center of 10: 17414: 17261:Britain's Imperial Century 17023:Timelines of world history 17018:List of historical periods 15618:construction of technology 14724:Nye, Mary Jo, ed. (2002). 14694:It Started with Copernicus 14555:Cambridge University Press 14422:Sambursky, Shmuel (1974). 14315: 13777:Egerton, Frank N. (2012). 13705:Cittadino, Eugene (2002). 12912:"Ancient Theories of Soul" 12253:. Historical development. 12069:. BioLogos. Archived from 10566:. Bloomsbury. p. 7–. 9250:Oxford University Press US 8525:McIntosh, Jane R. (2005). 8040:10.1177/007327530704500403 7849:Cambridge University Press 7388:Cahan, David, ed. (2003). 7037:Hendrix, Scott E. (2011). 6952:Shigeru, Nakayama (1995). 6261:(also used in economics), 5739:discovered nuclear fission 5572: 4993: 4825:Post-Scientific Revolution 4818:Sacred Theory of the Earth 4614: 4593:father of modern chemistry 4550: 4509: 4443: 4280:De humani corporis fabrica 4110:Decline of Western alchemy 4102:Science in the Renaissance 4099: 3645: 3601: 3383:intermediary sources into 3318: 3219: 2472: 2310: 2195:, and had erected a large 2047:List of Chinese inventions 2044: 1959: 1862: 1837:List of Chinese inventions 1826: 1732:(c. 5th century BCE); the 1542: 1438: 1192: 1179: 922:of clay, sand, metal ore, 891: 787:Number system and geometry 771: 666: 586: 580: 515:previous Greek conceptions 295:covers the development of 37: 28: 17364: 17279: 17179:Chronological world eras: 17169: 17058: 17000: 16904: 16871: 16855: 16602: 16328: 16305: 16205: 16150:Politicization of science 16110: 15896: 15665: 15600: 15512: 15477: 15454: 15372: 15319: 15286: 15238: 15185: 15147: 15071: 15015: 15004: 14975: 14864:15 September 2020 at the 14736:Porter, Roy, ed. (2003). 14692:Margolis, Howard (2002). 14396:Needham, Joseph (1986c). 14383:Needham, Joseph (1986a). 14372:Introductory Orientations 14246:The University of Vermont 14161:10.1038/nature.2016.19361 13802:Martin, Laura J. (2022). 13748:10.1007/s10739-006-9104-6 13530:15 September 2019 at the 13267:. Pearson Prentice Hall. 13140:"History of biochemistry" 12624:10.1007/s00407-017-0198-3 12134:Nature News & Comment 11655:. pp. 254, 256–257. 11653:New York University Press 11424:Lindberg, David. (1992). 11053:Calinger, Ronald (1999). 10939:10.1162/posc.1999.7.3.349 10920:DeHart, Scott M. (1999). 10682:– via Project MUSE. 10223:Needham & Wang (1954) 10164:– via Project MUSE. 10084:Meng Ch'i Pi Than (夢溪筆談, 9325:29 September 2007 at the 8088:10.1017/S0007087400032416 7806:The Scientific Revolution 7414:Oxford English Dictionary 6612:History of science policy 6534:History of science portal 5263:Evolution and inheritance 5239:, and "fluvialists" like 5136:Developments in chemistry 4926:Birth of modern economics 3266:until the development of 3161:Greek East and Latin West 3119:Nine Books of Disciplines 2453:that included the use of 2447:positional numeral system 2307:Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica 1956:Astronomical observations 1365: 1224:Indus Valley Civilisation 1086:are left on thousands of 839:research for much of the 782:Ancient Egyptian medicine 583:Historiography of science 511:new ideas and discoveries 40:Historiography of science 17081:History of communication 15557:Philosophy of technology 14655:10.1017/CHO9780511974007 14517:Bowler, Peter J. (1993) 14329:The Landmarks of Science 13914:28 November 2021 at the 12745:10.1162/1063614053714126 12512:Gingerich, Owen (1973). 11812:Numbers, Ronald (2009). 11798:Lindberg, David. (1992) 11379:Lindberg, David. (1992) 11222:Lindberg, David. (1992) 11087:University of St Andrews 11010:A History of Mathematics 10805:"In search of lost time" 10654:Frede, Dorothea (1976). 9758:Ariel Glucklich (2008). 8381:Hoskin, Michael (2001). 8363:pp 299, 453 writes that 7533:von Wright, Georg Henrik 6632:List of years in science 6580:History of Earth science 6193:computational complexity 6046:biological neuron models 5957:Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin 5862:chemical origins of life 5277:Transmutation of Species 5129:new progress in geometry 4804:developed the theory of 4587:and through the work of 4540:laws of planetary motion 4538:), the first two of the 4026:– the Bishop of Paris – 3779:within a town grew, the 3590:("Book of Healing") and 3481:, from which they added 3419:Suleiman the Magnificent 3234:The frontispiece of the 3070:Roman conquest of Greece 2708:Hellenistic philosophers 2632:many biological writings 2509:), or as followers of a 1822: 1789:In the 2nd century, the 1705: 1175: 742:science in ancient times 17241:Agricultural Revolution 16508:international relations 15063:20th century in science 15058:19th century in science 14876:13 January 2020 at the 14835:13 January 2020 at the 13553:26 October 2017 at the 13264:Biology: Exploring Life 13037:Brain Research Bulletin 12842:Hroncek, Susan (2017). 12733:Perspectives on Science 12551:Neugebauer, O. (1945). 12389:"Scientific Revolution" 11924:31(2) (1998), 72–75 79. 11761:10.1067/mcp.2000.106465 11701:Encyclopædia Britannica 11531:architecturecourses.org 11083:"A history of calculus" 10926:Perspectives on Science 10693:Johnson, Monte (2004). 10600:(Spring 2018 ed.). 10592:"Aristotle's Influence" 10315:Encyclopedia Britannica 10272:Encyclopedia Britannica 10212:– via nature.com. 9791:Robert Svoboda (1992). 9616:"The Observatory Sites" 9207:Toward a Global Science 8658:Brown, Michael (1995). 8482:Encyclopædia Britannica 8349:Francesca Bray (1984), 8118:Nasim, Omar W. (2013). 7997:. New York: Routledge. 7913:Shapin, Steven (2018). 7723:Poskett, James (2022). 7695:Thomas, Norman (1961). 6637:Materialism Controversy 6622:List of Nobel laureates 6399:biological anthropology 6392:cultural anthropologist 6388:artificial intelligence 6357:. Behaviorism proposed 6331:New Keynesian economics 6327:New Classical economics 6317:created the concept of 6177:theoretical linguistics 6133:incandescent light bulb 6099:Geologists' embrace of 5575:20th century in science 5527:Johann Gottfried Herder 5506:symbolic interactionism 5200:physiological chemistry 5027:demonstrates the first 5016:Developments in physics 4996:19th century in science 4858:Developments in geology 4788:Developments in geology 4744:Jean le Rond d'Alembert 4633:Newton's laws of motion 4621:Newton's laws of motion 4481:Isaac Newton initiated 4313:scientific publications 3537:Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi 3483:trigonometric functions 2893:and dated to c. 100 CE. 2800:, while the geographer 2416:calendar in Mesoamerica 2386:Middle Formative Period 2298:decreed aforetime. The 1403:Madhava of Sangamagrama 1271:indeterminate equations 934:, glass, soap, metals, 617:– led scholars such as 390:influenced later Greek 17201:Post-classical history 17066:History of agriculture 17033:Cradle of civilization 16835:Quantum social science 15630:Sociology of knowledge 14983:Theories and sociology 14927:The Vega Science Trust 14920:18 August 2015 at the 13836:8 October 2018 at the 13312:. Roma. pp. 79–. 12825:Florin George Calian. 12041:University of Stanford 12031:"Condemnation of 1277" 11611:Rabin, Sheila (2004). 11005:"Euclid of Alexandria" 10154:10.1353/tech.2019.0041 10142:Technology and Culture 9344:"Narayana - Biography" 9297:Ifrah, Georges. 1999. 8814:10.1098/rsta.1974.0007 8722:Behind the Babylonian 8716:Heeßel, N. P. (2004). 8661:Israel's Divine Healer 8336:30 August 2017 at the 8296:10.1073/pnas.052125199 7843:Brooke, J. H. (1991). 6600:History of scholarship 6560:History of measurement 6481:on 14 September 2015. 6462: 6275:political anthropology 6251:rational choice theory 6185:electrical engineering 6096: 5854:Miller–Urey experiment 5821: 5727: 5600: 5450:classical conditioning 5428:Founding of psychology 5359:germ theory of disease 5351:Ignác Fülöp Semmelweis 5331:germ theory of disease 5311:opposition and support 5284: 5147: 5127:. It also saw rise to 5036: 4944: 4874: 4547:Emergence of chemistry 4490: 4474: 4417: 4257: 4222:, has been applied to 4149:Fall of Constantinople 4081:Fall of Constantinople 3885: 3684: 3402: 3344: 3305:Fall of Constantinople 3239: 3115:Marcus Terentius Varro 2910: 2894: 2851:The Hippocratic Corpus 2789: 2746:, former professor of 2608: 2569:, the theory that all 2381: 2317:Mesoamerican calendars 2304: 2064: 1995: 1946: 1855: 1611: 1457: 1259:geometric progressions 1219: 1208: 1067: 915: 898:Babylonian mathematics 832: 569:," particularly after 539:conservation of energy 17334:Agricultural/Agrarian 17251:Industrial Revolution 17151:History of literature 17131:History of navigation 17126:History of technology 17101:History of philosophy 17071:History of government 16872:Other categorizations 16725:International studies 16710:History of technology 16645:Communication studies 16528:public administration 16197:Transition management 16187:Technology assessment 16155:Regulation of science 16130:Evidence-based policy 16015:Sociotechnical system 15864:Traditional knowledge 15744:Psychology of science 15717:Mapping controversies 15623:shaping of technology 15582:Social constructivism 15547:Philosophy of science 15504:History of technology 15043:Scientific Revolution 14717:North, John. (1995). 14710:Mayr, Ernst. (1985). 14370:; Wang, Ling (1954). 14057:– via CrossRef. 14018:– via CrossRef. 13859:25 March 2017 at the 12995:10.1001/jama.2011.933 12941:Galen, David (1984). 12860:10.1353/vcr.2017.0032 12461:Knox, Dilwyn (1999). 12397:Abingdon, Oxfordshire 11922:Historical Metallurgy 11902:William of Malmesbury 11613:"Nicolaus Copernicus" 11334:3 August 2020 at the 10803:Marchant, Jo (2006). 10672:10.1353/hph.2008.0115 10374:University of Chicago 10341:University of Chicago 10245:University of Chicago 10070:Needham (1986a), 626. 9878:. Brill. p. 10. 8766:Epilepsy in Babylonia 8614:Abusch, Tzvi (2002). 7576:Kragh, Helge (1987). 7509:Making Modern Science 7484:Making Modern Science 7456:Making Modern Science 7428:Wrestling with Nature 7365:Making Modern Science 7340:Making Modern Science 7315:Making Modern Science 7290:Making Modern Science 7265:Making Modern Science 6595:History of technology 6553:Philosophy of science 6467:Large Hadron Collider 6448: 6419:impression management 6323:supply-side economics 6285:, political economy, 6226:which ushered in the 6083: 6020:FitzHugh–Nagumo model 5900:). The discipline of 5815: 5769:was recruited by the 5717: 5598: 5573:Further information: 5559:cultural anthropology 5555:physical anthropology 5406:labor theory of value 5347:asymmetry of crystals 5306:The Origin of Species 5270: 5241:Andrew Crombie Ramsay 5143: 5023: 4994:Further information: 4940:The Wealth of Nations 4933: 4887:Jean-Étienne Guettard 4865: 4794:Scientific Revolution 4774:science upon religion 4628:Principia Mathematica 4568:The Sceptical Chymist 4512:Copernican Revolution 4480: 4453: 4444:Further information: 4413: 4267:Scientific Revolution 4252: 4100:Further information: 4090:Scientific Revolution 3795:in 1088, followed by 3749:medieval universities 3743:Medieval universities 3713:, Europeans, such as 3675: 3646:Further information: 3592:The Canon of Medicine 3582:. Ibn Sina (known as 3398: 3340:The Canon of Medicine 3332: 3319:Further information: 3295:ten centuries later. 3279:Archimedes Palimpsest 3268:medieval universities 3233: 3220:Further information: 2900: 2884: 2818:Antikythera mechanism 2786:Antikythera mechanism 2783: 2648:Scientific Revolution 2596: 2473:Further information: 2356: 2311:Further information: 2295: 2223:Jesuit China missions 2152:found underground at 2054: 1969: 1947: 1863:Further information: 1844: 1827:Further information: 1764:(c. 2nd century CE). 1736:school's analysis of 1595: 1503:in the 17th century. 1448: 1314:(499) introduced the 1217:Brahmagupta's theorem 1215:Drawing representing 1214: 1202: 1180:Further information: 1162:Scientific Revolution 1061: 972:Mesopotamian medicine 955:; the anatomy of the 938:, and waterproofing. 909: 892:Further information: 827: 772:Further information: 667:Further information: 587:Further information: 507:Scientific Revolution 17231:Age of Enlightenment 17086:History of economics 17050:Eastern civilization 16705:Historical sociology 16102:Women in engineering 15948:Financial technology 15928:Digital anthropology 15697:Criticism of science 15610:Actor–network theory 15572:Religion and science 15464:Economics of science 15296:Agricultural science 15048:Age of Enlightenment 14812:Henry Smith Williams 13606:. Houghton Mifflin. 13386:Smithsonian Magazine 12403:. pp. 217–242. 11907:Gesta Regum Anglorum 11681:5 March 2016 at the 10494:Dicks, D.R. (1970). 10471:4 April 2023 at the 10376:. pp. 226–227. 9867:Trautmann, Thomas R. 9448:Mathematics Magazine 9286:Late Classical India 9227:Virahanka Fibonacci. 9143:Mathematics in India 9026:The Environmentalist 8764:Marten Stol (1993), 8186:10.1353/bh.2016.0002 7701:. Norton. p. 25 7542:The Idea of Progress 6657:Timelines of science 6575:History of chemistry 6565:History of astronomy 6305:in the 1920s. Under 6279:political psychology 6232:fiber optic networks 6213:software engineering 6181:discrete mathematics 6173:Human Genome Project 6016:Hodgkin–Huxley model 5965:Henry Norris Russell 5961:Henry Norris Russell 5898:Human Genome Project 5808:Advances in genetics 5765:. Around this time, 5700:Holmdel Horn Antenna 5393:Schools of economics 5162:, created the first 5109:hypercomplex numbers 5083:Discovery of Neptune 5004:had coined the term 4969:. He postulated an " 4912:Alexandre Brongniart 4601:conservation of mass 4500:Age of Enlightenment 4440:Age of Enlightenment 4434:Seleucus of Seleucia 4430:Aristarchus of Samos 4297:, by the astronomer 4145:Christopher Columbus 4129:Northern Renaissance 4028:Condemnation of 1277 3865:for a physician, or 3726:Eilmer of Malmesbury 3636:Maragheh observatory 3533:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi 3190:Western Roman Empire 2937:method of exhaustion 2917:, the mathematician 2903:method of exhaustion 2901:Archimedes used the 2832:Hellenistic medicine 2828:appeared in Europe. 2794:Aristarchus of Samos 2503:natural philosophers 2397:Zapotec civilization 2289:, and other fields. 2245:, the double-action 1927: 1235:Bakhshali manuscript 1205:Bakhshali manuscript 1145:Pythagorean triplets 1072:Babylonian astronomy 1024:(1069–1046 BCE). In 1012:, or chief scholar, 914:in what is now Syria 894:Babylonian astronomy 615:Age of Enlightenment 596:Alfred Edward Taylor 492:Zapotec civilization 374:around 3000 to 1200 355:declined during the 18:Historian of science 17211:Early modern period 17161:History of painting 17111:History of medicine 17106:Science/Technology: 16885:Geisteswissenschaft 16879:Behavioral sciences 16805:Political sociology 16720:Information science 16665:Development studies 15943:Engineering studies 15913:Cyborg anthropology 15702:Demarcation problem 15587:Social epistemology 15334:Veterinary medicine 15028:Classical Antiquity 14790:"Scientific Change" 14524:Brock, W.H. (1993) 14006:10.1257/jep.32.3.87 13944:Scientific American 13694:on 24 October 2017. 13661:1953Natur.171..737W 13451:1948Natur.162..680G 13415:1948Natur.162..774A 13224:10.1093/icb/4.4.443 13158:– via PubMed. 12358:. 17 February 2023. 12336:Library of Congress 12209:David C. Lindberg, 12006:2nd ed. pp. 180–181 11939:The Daily Telegraph 11444:. UNC Press Books. 10821:2006Natur.444..534M 10558:Leroi, Armand Marie 9675:2006Natur.440..755C 9524:2008rma..book.....S 9284:Mainak Kumar Bose, 9038:1985ThEnv...5...39S 8806:1974RSPTA.276...21A 8724:Diagnostic Handbook 8287:2002PNAS...99.6080M 8240:1992SPIE10309E..04S 7866:Taliaferro, Charles 7802:Shapin, S. (1996). 7615:. Chichester (GB). 7537:Mittelstraß, Jürgen 7056:10.46938/tv.2011.72 6617:List of experiments 6496:Positive psychology 6475:Gravitational waves 6461:, visible as lines. 6307:Keynesian economics 6295:John Maynard Keynes 6283:political sociology 6267:political geography 6201:computer networking 6105:geophysical studies 5970:In 1987, supernova 5906:Darwinian evolution 5890:genetic engineering 5704:age of the universe 5655:The observation by 5629:Newtonian mechanics 5498:George Herbert Mead 5375:preventive medicine 5202:, the precursor to 5073:Maxwell's equations 5065:James Clerk Maxwell 5010:natural philosopher 4949:classical economics 4661:circulatory systems 4617:History of calculus 4553:Chemical revolution 4518:Nicolaus Copernicus 4483:classical mechanics 4426:Nicolaus Copernicus 4415:Nicolaus Copernicus 4315:throughout Europe. 4299:Nicolaus Copernicus 4262:early modern period 4197:Niccolò Machiavelli 4193:Italian Renaissance 4141:Counter-Reformation 4119:Revival of learning 3709:As a result of the 3693:classical antiquity 3660:Medieval technology 3576:Medical specialties 3529:Maragha astronomers 3365:Alexander the Great 2943:under the arc of a 2826:astronomical clocks 2744:Benjamin Farrington 2712:Muslim philosophers 2620:deductive reasoning 2547:Ionian philosophers 2511:religious tradition 2488:classical antiquity 2439:calendrical science 2420:Preclassical period 2405:full writing system 1980:Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao 1886:Pythagoras' theorem 1865:Chinese mathematics 1859:Chinese mathematics 1710:The development of 1596:Palm leaves of the 1497:Nilakantha Somayaji 1478:Siddhanta Shiromani 1405:led advancement in 1267:quadratic equations 1149:Pythagorean theorem 1006:Diagnostic Handbook 990:Third Dynasty of Ur 920:chemical properties 902:Babylonian medicine 865:Edwin Smith papyrus 820:Disease and healing 812:and other rules of 619:John William Draper 527:chemical revolution 496:producing calendars 480:Western exploration 396:classical antiquity 357:early modern period 349:classical antiquity 309:branches of science 17393:History of science 17121:History of writing 17116:History of science 16940:Society portal 16427:auxiliary sciences 16223:History of science 16140:Funding of science 16010:Skunkworks project 15707:Double hermeneutic 15492:History of science 14969:History of science 14817:History of Science 14805:in Paris (France) 14643:Lindberg, David C. 14570:Locust Hill Press 14089:The New York Times 14047:10.1002/ajpa.21438 13355:Agar, Jon (2012). 13211:American Zoologist 13169:Dastrup, R. Adam. 12372:, pp. 741–744 12368:See, for example, 12123:McLeish, Tom C. B. 11933:David Derbyshire, 11852:"Debunking a myth" 11441:What Is a Madrasa? 10446:The New York Times 10370:Oriental Institute 10337:Oriental Institute 10290:Images of the Past 10241:Oriental Institute 10017:de Crespigny, Rafe 9240:Pickover, Clifford 9046:10.1007/BF02239866 8248:10.1117/12.2283709 8028:History of Science 7917:. Princeton, N.J. 6642:Multiple discovery 6627:List of scientists 6585:History of physics 6570:History of biology 6463: 6427:post-structuralism 6374:, philosophy, and 6097: 6066:Francis O. Schmitt 6042:Morris–Lecar model 6004:Alan Lloyd Hodgkin 5976:neutrino astronomy 5923:—particularly the 5846:the secret of life 5822: 5798:Ernest O. Lawrence 5747:Otto Robert Frisch 5728: 5633:special relativity 5621:general relativity 5601: 5442:Hermann Ebbinghaus 5333:. Following this, 5285: 5249:radiometric dating 5224:Roderick Murchison 5148: 5061:Andre-Marie Ampere 5037: 4967:division of labour 4945: 4875: 4643:Circulatory system 4506:Planets and orbits 4491: 4475: 4418: 4396:Christiaan Huygens 4344:Christiaan Huygens 4258: 4239:Renaissance Europe 4066:Oxford Calculators 4022:'s thesis is that 3998:Robert Grosseteste 3945:Isidore of Miletus 3881:Latin translations 3833:seven liberal arts 3685: 3549:Abū Ishāq al-Kindī 3507:The great treatise 3503:Hè Megalè Syntaxis 3443:Arabic mathematics 3415:Suleymaniye Mosque 3403: 3400:Süleymaniye Mosque 3367:in 335 BCE to the 3349:Islamic Golden Age 3345: 3275:Isidore of Miletus 3240: 3236:Vienna Dioscurides 3182:Augustine of Hippo 3127:seven liberal arts 2971:Other developments 2923:mathematical rigor 2911: 2895: 2820:(150–100 BCE), an 2790: 2752:Swansea University 2718:, to the European 2609: 2589:Natural philosophy 2559:Pythagorean school 2527:Greek philosophers 2484:natural philosophy 2401:Olmec civilization 2382: 2359:La Mojarra Stela 1 2349:Aztec architecture 2114:, sight tube, and 2065: 1996: 1942: 1940: 1911:canon in 330 BCE, 1856: 1714:dates back to the 1661:Politics and state 1612: 1458: 1452:Siddhānta Śiromaṇī 1308:(476–550), in his 1228:Mohenjo-daro ruler 1220: 1209: 1195:Indian mathematics 1068: 916: 859:, and ritual. The 833: 774:Egyptian astronomy 466:having influenced 458:and separately in 444:Islamic Golden Age 392:natural philosophy 293:history of science 108:Science portal 49:History of Science 17380: 17379: 16960: 16959: 16800:Political economy 16795:Political ecology 16650:Community studies 16640:Cognitive science 16603:Interdisciplinary 16503:Political science 16265: 16264: 16192:Technology policy 15923:Dematerialization 15732:black swan events 15414: 15413: 15306:Materials science 15268:Political science 15033:Medieval European 14759:978-0-521-22599-1 14706:978-0-07-138507-7 14664:978-0-521-59448-6 14617:978-0-19-568003-4 14597:978-0-226-45807-6 14576:978-0-933951-01-3 14562:978-0-521-82197-1 14544:978-84-297-1380-0 14502:978-0-394-40229-1 14478:978-1-4020-5631-4 14460:978-0-7456-3469-2 14450:Agar, Jon (2012) 14435:978-0-87663-712-8 14359:978-0-19-511229-0 14340:978-0-8160-2137-6 14333:. Facts on File. 14323:Bruno, Leonard C. 14124:(Press release). 13816:978-0-674-97942-0 13788:978-0-520-27174-6 13716:978-0-521-52486-5 13655:(4356): 737–738. 13613:978-0-395-97765-1 13586:10.1063/1.2806727 13569:"Chien-Shiung Wu" 13445:(4122): 680–682. 13409:(4124): 774–775. 13366:978-0-7456-3469-2 13319:978-88-6812-497-7 13274:978-0-13-250882-7 13185:"Plate Tectonics" 13109:"William Whewell" 12910:Stanford (2003). 12447:978-0-19-956741-6 12293:978-0-02-912370-6 12140:(7491): 161–163. 11825:978-0-674-03327-6 11676:Sameen Ahmed Khan 11662:978-0-8147-8023-7 11564:978-0-684-16962-0 11451:978-1-4696-2014-5 11396:"John Philoponus" 11322:978-0-226-48205-7 11297:978-0-415-18712-1 11270:978-0-85323-693-1 11249:978-0-226-74951-8 11209:978-0-226-48205-7 11117:perseus.tufts.edu 11064:978-0-02-318285-3 10815:(7119): 534–538. 10625:978-0-19-285408-7 10573:978-1-4088-3622-4 10543:978-0-7100-1903-5 10511:978-0-8014-0561-7 10482:978-0-7425-3329-5 10463:Arieti, James A. 10383:978-1-885923-76-9 10350:978-1-885923-76-9 10254:978-1-885923-76-9 10196:(7203): 409–411. 10086:Dream Pool Essays 9955:978-0-7391-0401-9 9777:978-0-19-531405-2 9669:(7085): 755–756. 9576:978-1-4020-4425-0 9533:978-1-84882-072-2 9384:978-0-691-12067-6 9320:'Indian Numerals' 9307:978-0-471-37568-5 9259:978-0-19-533611-5 9222:978-0-253-33388-9 9180:978-81-208-0045-8 9153:978-0-691-12067-6 8963:978-0-8014-7452-1 8924:978-0-87220-575-8 8882:978-0-674-53918-1 8855:978-0-7868-6362-4 8778:978-90-72371-63-8 8739:978-90-04-13666-3 8671:978-0-310-20029-1 8627:978-90-04-12387-8 8588:978-0-684-19279-6 8538:978-1-57607-966-9 8420:978-0-300-07814-5 8392:978-0-9540867-1-8 8129:978-0-226-08440-4 8004:978-1-136-60815-5 7971:978-0-8135-3531-9 7924:978-0-691-17816-5 7785:978-0-8018-7038-5 7734:978-0-241-39409-0 7622:978-1-118-62077-9 7437:978-0-226-31783-0 7399:978-0-226-08928-7 7218:978-052-1-68957-1 7156:978-0-226-48205-7 7126:978-0-521-34262-9 7101:978-0-199-56741-6 6938:978-0-226-48205-7 6913:978-0-226-48205-7 6853:978-0-226-48205-7 6825:978-052-1-68957-1 6787:978-0-226-48205-7 6364:cognitive science 6359:epistemologically 6224:optical amplifier 6205:computer hardware 6089:continental drift 6028:neurotransmission 6012:action potentials 5951:Space exploration 5945:ecosystem ecology 5882:Rosalind Franklin 5848:(in the words of 5775:Gaseous diffusion 5771:Manhattan Project 5645:quantum mechanics 5641:Erwin Schrödinger 5637:Werner Heisenberg 5617:quantum mechanics 5543:scientific racism 5519:Romantic Movement 5494:microsociological 5422:supply and demand 5402:Marxian economics 5293:natural selection 5281:evolutionary tree 5271:In mid-July 1837 5192:organic chemistry 5125:complex variables 5119:for functions of 4975:Wealth of Nations 4891:Nicolas Desmarest 4879:Benoît de Maillet 4740:Mikhail Lomonosov 4732:Benjamin Franklin 4605:phlogiston theory 4589:Antoine Lavoisier 4464:scientific method 4356:Gottfried Leibniz 4294:De Revolutionibus 4275:scientific method 4184:' work on rocks, 4166:The discovery of 4106:Continuity thesis 4045:William of Ockham 3973:Raymond of Toledo 3861:for a lawyer, an 3624:Abbasid Caliphate 3622:, capital of the 3461:, while the term 3289:theory of impetus 3222:Byzantine science 3180:. Others such as 3105:Commentaries and 3018:with the work of 2939:to calculate the 2915:Hellenistic Egypt 2877:Greek mathematics 2784:Schematic of the 2726:, to the secular 2541:(640–546 BCE) of 2427:Maya civilization 2333:Maya architecture 2275:raised-relief map 2267:winnowing machine 2263:suspension bridge 2253:, the multi-tube 2135:Taihang Mountains 2035:scholar-officials 1962:Chinese astronomy 1939: 1898:Pascal's triangle 1786:school of logic. 1675:military strategy 1511:constructed five 1380:, other than the 1338:, along with the 1291:Fibonacci numbers 1135:The Mesopotamian 1096:Western calendars 949:Animal physiology 808:River. The 3-4-5 754:Ancient Near East 663:Prehistoric times 645:important chapter 559:molecular biology 523:scientific method 452:Islamic inquiries 287: 286: 16:(Redirected from 17405: 17266:American Century 17236:Age of Discovery 17189:Three-age system 17156:History of music 17146:History of drama 17091:History of trade 17013:Recorded history 16987: 16980: 16973: 16964: 16963: 16948: 16938: 16937: 16924: 16923: 16912: 16911: 16815:Regional science 16660:Cultural studies 16635:Business studies 16292: 16285: 16278: 16269: 16268: 16238: 16237: 16213: 16165:Right to science 16145:Horizon scanning 16120:Academic freedom 16020:Technical change 15881:Women in science 15876:Unity of science 15657:Strong programme 15441: 15434: 15427: 15418: 15417: 15407: 15403: 15402: 15395: 15391: 15380: 15379: 15301:Computer science 15149:Natural sciences 15114:Medieval Islamic 15010: 14962: 14955: 14948: 14939: 14938: 14808: 14799: 14743:Rousseau, George 14668: 14647:Medieval Science 14601: 14514: 14495:. Random House. 14494: 14485:Boorstin, Daniel 14454:, Polity Press. 14439: 14418: 14405: 14392: 14379: 14363: 14344: 14332: 14309: 14308: 14306: 14304: 14289: 14283: 14282: 14280: 14278: 14263: 14257: 14256: 14254: 14252: 14237: 14231: 14230: 14228: 14226: 14220:The Conversation 14211: 14205: 14204: 14202: 14200: 14186: 14180: 14179: 14177: 14175: 14144: 14138: 14137: 14135: 14133: 14111: 14105: 14104: 14102: 14100: 14080: 14074: 14073: 14065: 14059: 14058: 14026: 14020: 14019: 14017: 13985: 13979: 13978: 13976: 13974: 13954: 13948: 13947: 13939: 13933: 13932: 13925: 13919: 13905: 13899: 13898: 13870: 13864: 13850: 13841: 13827: 13821: 13820: 13799: 13793: 13792: 13774: 13768: 13767: 13727: 13721: 13720: 13702: 13696: 13695: 13693: 13687:. Archived from 13669:10.1038/171737a0 13644: 13635: 13626: 13625: 13597: 13591: 13590: 13588: 13564: 13558: 13544: 13535: 13521: 13515: 13514: 13512: 13510: 13504: 13493: 13485: 13479: 13478: 13459:10.1038/162680a0 13434: 13423:10.1038/162774b0 13396: 13390: 13389: 13377: 13371: 13370: 13352: 13346: 13345: 13339: 13331: 13305: 13299: 13298: 13296: 13294: 13258: 13252: 13251: 13249: 13247: 13241: 13235:. Archived from 13226: 13208: 13199: 13193: 13192: 13181: 13175: 13174: 13166: 13160: 13159: 13135: 13129: 13128: 13126: 13124: 13104: 13098: 13097: 13095: 13093: 13075: 13069: 13068: 13032: 13026: 13025: 13023: 13021: 13005: 12999: 12998: 12978: 12972: 12966: 12960: 12953: 12947: 12946: 12938: 12932: 12931: 12929: 12927: 12907: 12901: 12898: 12892: 12891: 12889: 12887: 12848:Victorian Review 12839: 12833: 12832: 12822: 12816: 12815: 12813: 12811: 12763: 12757: 12756: 12724: 12718: 12717: 12710: 12704: 12703: 12701: 12699: 12690:. Archived from 12684: 12678: 12677: 12670: 12664: 12663: 12661: 12659: 12603: 12597: 12596: 12548: 12542: 12541: 12509: 12503: 12502: 12500: 12498: 12458: 12452: 12451: 12433: 12427: 12426: 12424: 12422: 12384: 12373: 12366: 12360: 12359: 12348: 12342: 12332: 12326: 12316: 12310: 12309: 12307: 12305: 12277: 12271: 12270: 12268: 12266: 12246: 12240: 12233: 12227: 12220: 12214: 12207: 12201: 12194: 12188: 12181: 12175: 12174: 12172: 12170: 12164: 12149: 12131: 12119: 12113: 12112: 12110: 12108: 12089: 12083: 12082: 12080: 12078: 12063: 12057: 12056: 12054: 12052: 12026: 12020: 12013: 12007: 12000: 11994: 11993: 11975: 11942: 11931: 11925: 11918: 11912: 11899: 11893: 11892: 11874: 11868: 11867: 11865: 11863: 11848: 11842: 11841: 11839: 11837: 11809: 11803: 11796: 11790: 11787: 11781: 11780: 11744: 11738: 11735: 11729: 11726: 11717: 11716: 11714: 11712: 11692: 11686: 11673: 11667: 11666: 11641: 11635: 11634: 11632: 11630: 11608: 11602: 11601: 11573: 11567: 11553: 11547: 11546: 11544: 11542: 11523: 11514: 11513: 11511: 11509: 11477: 11468: 11467: 11465: 11463: 11435: 11429: 11422: 11416: 11415: 11413: 11411: 11392: 11386: 11377: 11368: 11367: 11365: 11363: 11345: 11339: 11326: 11308: 11302: 11301: 11279: 11273: 11258: 11252: 11233: 11227: 11220: 11214: 11213: 11195: 11148: 11147: 11127: 11121: 11120: 11109: 11103: 11102: 11100: 11098: 11078: 11072: 11071: 11050: 11044: 11043: 11007: 10996: 10990: 10989: 10987: 10985: 10966: 10960: 10959: 10941: 10917: 10911: 10910: 10900: 10868: 10855: 10852: 10843: 10842: 10832: 10800: 10794: 10788: 10782: 10765: 10759: 10749: 10743: 10742: 10740: 10738: 10690: 10684: 10683: 10651: 10645: 10644: 10636: 10630: 10629: 10612:Barnes, Jonathan 10608: 10602: 10601: 10588:Zalta, Edward N. 10584: 10578: 10577: 10554: 10548: 10547: 10535: 10526:O'Leary, De Lacy 10522: 10516: 10515: 10491: 10485: 10461: 10455: 10454: 10436: 10427: 10417: 10411: 10394: 10388: 10387: 10361: 10355: 10354: 10328: 10322: 10317:, 17 Dec. 2023, 10311: 10305: 10303: 10285: 10279: 10268: 10259: 10258: 10232: 10226: 10220: 10214: 10213: 10181: 10166: 10165: 10133: 10120: 10113: 10107: 10101: 10095: 10077: 10071: 10068: 10062: 10059: 10053: 10038: 10032: 10014: 10008: 10005: 9999: 9993: 9987: 9986: 9966: 9960: 9959: 9938: 9932: 9926: 9915:rather than the 9914: 9905: 9899: 9898: 9895: 9875: 9863: 9835: 9829: 9822: 9816: 9813: 9807: 9806: 9788: 9782: 9781: 9765: 9755: 9749: 9726: 9720: 9709: 9703: 9702: 9658: 9652: 9651: 9633: 9627: 9626: 9624: 9622: 9612: 9606: 9605: 9587: 9581: 9580: 9554: 9545: 9544: 9542: 9540: 9506: 9500: 9487: 9481: 9480: 9435: 9429: 9428: 9395: 9389: 9388: 9365: 9359: 9358: 9356: 9354: 9340: 9334: 9316: 9310: 9295: 9289: 9282: 9276: 9275: 9273: 9271: 9236: 9230: 9229: 9210: 9200: 9194: 9191: 9185: 9184: 9164: 9158: 9157: 9134: 9128: 9127: 9119: 9113: 9112: 9101: 9095: 9094: 9076: 9070: 9069: 9067: 9065: 9014: 9008: 9007: 8989: 8980: 8979: 8977: 8975: 8947: 8941: 8940: 8938: 8936: 8909:Kahn, Charles H. 8905: 8899: 8898: 8896: 8894: 8863: 8857: 8840: 8834: 8833: 8787: 8781: 8770:Brill Publishers 8762: 8756: 8755: 8753: 8751: 8713: 8707: 8706: 8694: 8688: 8687: 8685: 8683: 8655: 8644: 8643: 8641: 8639: 8611: 8600: 8599: 8597: 8595: 8568: 8555: 8554: 8552: 8550: 8522: 8511: 8504: 8498: 8497: 8495: 8493: 8474: 8468: 8467: 8465: 8463: 8457: 8451:. Archived from 8442: 8431: 8425: 8424: 8403: 8397: 8396: 8378: 8372: 8347: 8341: 8325: 8319: 8318: 8308: 8298: 8281:(9): 6080–6084. 8266: 8260: 8259: 8227: 8221: 8220: 8218: 8216: 8210: 8171: 8162: 8156: 8155: 8149: 8141: 8115: 8109: 8108: 8090: 8066: 8060: 8059: 8023: 8017: 8016: 7990: 7984: 7983: 7957: 7951: 7950: 7944: 7936: 7910: 7904: 7903: 7898: 7896: 7862: 7856: 7855: 7840: 7834: 7833: 7809: 7799: 7793: 7792: 7767: 7761: 7760: 7754: 7746: 7720: 7714: 7713: 7708: 7706: 7698:Great Dissenters 7692: 7686: 7685: 7680: 7678: 7655: 7649: 7648: 7642: 7634: 7606: 7600: 7599: 7573: 7567: 7566: 7561: 7559: 7529: 7523: 7522: 7504: 7498: 7497: 7479: 7470: 7469: 7451: 7442: 7441: 7423: 7417: 7410: 7404: 7403: 7385: 7379: 7378: 7360: 7354: 7353: 7335: 7329: 7328: 7310: 7304: 7303: 7285: 7279: 7278: 7260: 7251: 7250: 7232: 7223: 7222: 7206: 7196: 7190: 7189: 7187: 7185: 7167: 7161: 7160: 7142: 7131: 7130: 7112: 7106: 7105: 7087: 7081: 7080: 7078: 7076: 7058: 7034: 7028: 7027: 7025: 7023: 7003: 6997: 6996: 6994: 6992: 6949: 6943: 6942: 6924: 6918: 6917: 6899: 6858: 6857: 6839: 6830: 6829: 6813: 6803: 6792: 6791: 6773: 6730: 6729: 6727: 6725: 6697: 6679:Yuasa Phenomenon 6536: 6531: 6530: 6529: 6522: 6517: 6516: 6395:Napoleon Chagnon 6372:computer science 6343:Edward Titchener 6311:aggregate demand 5992:particle physics 5874:genetic material 5736:Fritz Strassmann 5665:Georges Lemaître 5627:, on which both 5547:anthropometrical 5500:and his student 5490:W. E. B. Du Bois 5464:Modern sociology 5448:(who discovered 5418:entrepreneurship 5210:Age of the Earth 5188:Friedrich Wöhler 5176:Dmitri Mendeleev 5154:, following the 5152:Dmitri Mendeleev 5145:Dmitri Mendeleev 5113:Karl Weierstrass 5071:as described by 5069:electromagnetism 5045:Alessandro Volta 5025:Alessandro Volta 4848:Alessandro Volta 4808:and argued that 4742:(1711–1765) and 4603:, which refuted 4289:Andreas Vesalius 4035:Medieval science 3953:Jābir ibn Hayyān 3890: 3855:Bachelor of Arts 3826:academic freedom 3719:Age of Discovery 3705: 3702: 3697:Mondino de Luzzi 3616:Mongol conquests 3517:geocentric model 3509:) translated as 3465:is derived from 3216:Byzantine Empire 3165:Byzantine Empire 3131:medieval schools 3084:and philosopher 2847:Hippocratic Oath 2655:celestial bodies 2624:Platonic Academy 2378:Epi-Olmec script 2208:armillary sphere 2126:and the find of 2112:armillary sphere 2012:armillary sphere 1951: 1949: 1948: 1943: 1941: 1932: 1854:, 3rd century AD 1774:, alongside the 1754:Hindu philosophy 1726:Sanskrit grammar 1689: 1682: 1677:by Kautilya and 1604:Sahottara-Tantra 1599:Sushruta Samhita 1566: 1441:Indian astronomy 1367: 1358:Narayana Pandita 1299: 1283:Sanskrit prosody 1022:Adad-apla-iddina 999: 995: 869:empirical method 756:, in particular 627: 624: 563:particle physics 428:Byzantine Empire 410:deteriorated in 279: 272: 265: 110: 106: 105: 86: 58: 57: 21: 17413: 17412: 17408: 17407: 17406: 17404: 17403: 17402: 17398:Science studies 17383: 17382: 17381: 17376: 17360: 17356:Post-industrial 17299:Hunter-gatherer 17281: 17275: 17196:Ancient history 17171: 17165: 17054: 17028:Major concepts: 16996: 16991: 16961: 16956: 16932: 16900: 16867: 16851: 16825:Science studies 16609:Administration 16598: 16324: 16301: 16299:Social sciences 16296: 16266: 16261: 16201: 16160:Research ethics 16106: 16005:Reverse salient 15899: 15892: 15668: 15661: 15652:Sociotechnology 15596: 15508: 15473: 15450: 15445: 15415: 15410: 15398: 15386: 15368: 15315: 15282: 15240:Social 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E. R. 10766: 10762: 10750: 10746: 10736: 10734: 10691: 10687: 10652: 10648: 10637: 10633: 10626: 10609: 10605: 10585: 10581: 10574: 10555: 10551: 10544: 10523: 10519: 10512: 10492: 10488: 10473:Wayback Machine 10462: 10458: 10437: 10430: 10418: 10414: 10395: 10391: 10384: 10368:. Chicago: The 10362: 10358: 10351: 10343:. p. 227. 10335:. Chicago: The 10329: 10325: 10312: 10308: 10300: 10286: 10282: 10274:, 3 Feb. 2024, 10269: 10262: 10255: 10247:. p. 226. 10239:. Chicago: The 10233: 10229: 10221: 10217: 10202:10.1038/454409a 10182: 10169: 10134: 10123: 10115:Agustín Udías, 10114: 10110: 10104:Needham (1986c) 10102: 10098: 10078: 10074: 10069: 10065: 10060: 10056: 10039: 10035: 10015: 10011: 10006: 10002: 9996:Needham (1986a) 9994: 9990: 9983: 9967: 9963: 9956: 9939: 9935: 9908: 9906: 9902: 9864: 9836: 9832: 9823: 9819: 9814: 9810: 9803: 9789: 9785: 9778: 9756: 9752: 9727: 9723: 9710: 9706: 9683:10.1038/440755a 9659: 9655: 9648: 9634: 9630: 9620: 9618: 9614: 9613: 9609: 9602: 9588: 9584: 9577: 9555: 9548: 9538: 9536: 9534: 9507: 9503: 9488: 9484: 9439:Katz, Victor J. 9436: 9432: 9417: 9409:. p. 497. 9396: 9392: 9385: 9366: 9362: 9352: 9350: 9342: 9341: 9337: 9327:Wayback Machine 9317: 9313: 9296: 9292: 9283: 9279: 9269: 9267: 9260: 9252:. p. 105. 9237: 9233: 9223: 9201: 9197: 9192: 9188: 9181: 9165: 9161: 9154: 9135: 9131: 9120: 9116: 9103: 9102: 9098: 9091: 9077: 9073: 9063: 9061: 9015: 9011: 9004: 8990: 8983: 8973: 8971: 8964: 8948: 8944: 8934: 8932: 8925: 8906: 8902: 8892: 8890: 8883: 8869:(1 June 1972). 8867:Burkert, Walter 8864: 8860: 8841: 8837: 8800:(1257): 21–42. 8788: 8784: 8763: 8759: 8749: 8747: 8740: 8714: 8710: 8695: 8691: 8681: 8679: 8672: 8656: 8647: 8637: 8635: 8628: 8612: 8603: 8593: 8591: 8589: 8569: 8558: 8548: 8546: 8539: 8523: 8514: 8505: 8501: 8491: 8489: 8476: 8475: 8471: 8461: 8459: 8458:on 7 April 2008 8455: 8440: 8432: 8428: 8421: 8404: 8400: 8393: 8379: 8375: 8348: 8344: 8338:Wayback Machine 8326: 8322: 8267: 8263: 8228: 8224: 8214: 8212: 8208: 8169: 8163: 8159: 8143: 8142: 8130: 8116: 8112: 8067: 8063: 8024: 8020: 8005: 7991: 7987: 7972: 7958: 7954: 7938: 7937: 7925: 7911: 7907: 7894: 7892: 7890: 7874:Trakakis, N. N. 7863: 7859: 7841: 7837: 7826: 7800: 7796: 7786: 7768: 7764: 7748: 7747: 7735: 7721: 7717: 7704: 7702: 7693: 7689: 7676: 7674: 7672: 7656: 7652: 7636: 7635: 7623: 7607: 7603: 7588: 7574: 7570: 7557: 7555: 7553: 7530: 7526: 7519: 7505: 7501: 7494: 7480: 7473: 7466: 7452: 7445: 7438: 7424: 7420: 7411: 7407: 7400: 7386: 7382: 7375: 7361: 7357: 7350: 7336: 7332: 7325: 7311: 7307: 7300: 7286: 7282: 7275: 7261: 7254: 7247: 7233: 7226: 7219: 7197: 7193: 7183: 7181: 7168: 7164: 7157: 7143: 7134: 7127: 7113: 7109: 7102: 7088: 7084: 7074: 7072: 7035: 7031: 7021: 7019: 7004: 7000: 6990: 6988: 6950: 6946: 6939: 6925: 6921: 6914: 6900: 6861: 6854: 6840: 6833: 6826: 6804: 6795: 6788: 6774: 6733: 6723: 6721: 6714: 6698: 6694: 6689: 6684: 6647:Science tourism 6605:Science studies 6532: 6527: 6525: 6518: 6511: 6508: 6500:Martin Seligman 6443: 6423:feminist theory 6410:conflict theory 6406:Talcott Parsons 6339: 6315:Milton Friedman 6287:policy analysis 6247: 6228:Information Age 6125: 6115:as one of the " 6101:plate tectonics 6078: 6076:Plate tectonics 6070:Stephen Kuffler 6000: 5953: 5878:Maurice Wilkins 5866:James D. Watson 5810: 5767:Chien-Shiung Wu 5755:John A. Wheeler 5712: 5653: 5609:Albert Einstein 5593: 5577: 5571: 5531:Wilhelm Dilthey 5515: 5482:rationalization 5466: 5430: 5414:Austrian School 5395: 5355:puerperal fever 5337:made the first 5327: 5265: 5257:plate tectonics 5212: 5138: 5105: 5085: 5057:Michael Faraday 5049:Michael Faraday 5041:Giovanni Aldini 5029:electrical cell 5018: 5002:William Whewell 4998: 4992: 4983: 4928: 4883:Comte de Buffon 4860: 4836:Hugh Williamson 4832: 4827: 4790: 4685: 4645: 4623: 4615:Main articles: 4613: 4599:and the law of 4581:Torbern Bergman 4555: 4549: 4536:A New Astronomy 4531:Astronomia Nova 4522:Johannes Kepler 4514: 4508: 4496: 4456:Johannes Kepler 4448: 4442: 4408: 4400:William Gilbert 4384:Pierre Gassendi 4324:Johannes Kepler 4320:Galileo Galilei 4254:Galileo Galilei 4247: 4121: 4116: 4098: 4037: 4024:Stephen Tempier 4006:Albertus Magnus 3949:John Philoponus 3917: 3745: 3703: 3670: 3644: 3604: 3588:Kitāb al-shifāʾ 3571: 3519:by al-Battani, 3447:Arabic numerals 3439: 3425:centers (e.g., 3393: 3375:. Knowledge of 3361: 3327: 3317: 3301: 3293:Galileo Galilei 3285:John Philoponus 3245: 3228: 3218: 3210: 3148:Marcus Aurelius 3140:Natural History 3135:Pliny the Elder 3043: 3032:Greek historian 3012:crystallography 2988:Pliny the Elder 2973: 2879: 2834: 2822:analog computer 2792:The astronomer 2778: 2776:Greek astronomy 2732:Socratic method 2699:Hellenistic age 2598:Plato's Academy 2591: 2529:, known as the 2523: 2477: 2471: 2351: 2309: 2235:celestial globe 2086:(1031–1095), a 2049: 2043: 1964: 1958: 1930: 1928: 1925: 1924: 1894:Ch'in Chiu-shao 1882:Horner's method 1871: 1861: 1851:Haidao Suanjing 1839: 1825: 1809:Classical logic 1718:of Pingala and 1708: 1663: 1637:Charaka Samhita 1590: 1545: 1501:Johannes Kepler 1443: 1437: 1427:was written by 1384:. He wrote the 1352:Arabic numerals 1326:suggested that 1279:Pingala-sutras, 1197: 1189: 1184: 1178: 1157: 1133: 1056: 1014:Esagil-kin-apli 1008:written by the 974: 965:Animal behavior 904: 890: 877: 843:. Based on the 822: 789: 784: 770: 750: 699:writing systems 679: 665: 634:Richard Dawkins 630:conflict thesis 625: 591: 585: 579: 420:the Middle Ages 406:, knowledge of 283: 254: 253: 214: 213: 202: 201: 165: 164: 153: 124:Article indexes 100: 99: 91: 90: 89: 88: 87: 54: 36: 32:The New Science 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 17411: 17401: 17400: 17395: 17378: 17377: 17375: 17374: 17372:Historiography 17368: 17366: 17362: 17361: 17359: 17358: 17353: 17348: 17347: 17346: 17341: 17336: 17331: 17326: 17321: 17316: 17311: 17306: 17301: 17294:Pre-industrial 17291: 17285: 17283: 17277: 17276: 17274: 17273: 17268: 17263: 17258: 17253: 17248: 17243: 17238: 17233: 17228: 17223: 17221:Societal eras: 17218: 17216:Modern history 17213: 17208: 17203: 17198: 17193: 17192: 17191: 17181: 17175: 17173: 17167: 17166: 17164: 17163: 17158: 17153: 17148: 17143: 17141:History of art 17138: 17133: 17128: 17123: 17118: 17113: 17108: 17103: 17098: 17096:History of war 17093: 17088: 17083: 17078: 17076:History of law 17073: 17068: 17062: 17060: 17056: 17055: 17053: 17052: 17047: 17042: 17040:World regions: 17036: 17035: 17030: 17025: 17020: 17015: 17010: 17004: 17002: 16998: 16997: 16990: 16989: 16982: 16975: 16967: 16958: 16957: 16955: 16954: 16942: 16930: 16918: 16905: 16902: 16901: 16899: 16898: 16893: 16888: 16881: 16875: 16873: 16869: 16868: 16866: 16865: 16859: 16857: 16853: 16852: 16850: 16849: 16844: 16839: 16838: 16837: 16832: 16822: 16817: 16812: 16807: 16802: 16797: 16792: 16791: 16790: 16785: 16780: 16772: 16771: 16770: 16768:social science 16765: 16760: 16755: 16750: 16742: 16737: 16732: 16727: 16722: 16717: 16712: 16707: 16702: 16700:Global studies 16697: 16695:Gender studies 16692: 16687: 16686: 16685: 16680: 16678:social science 16674:Environmental 16672: 16667: 16662: 16657: 16652: 16647: 16642: 16637: 16632: 16627: 16622: 16621: 16620: 16615: 16606: 16604: 16600: 16599: 16597: 16596: 16595: 16594: 16589: 16584: 16579: 16574: 16564: 16563: 16562: 16557: 16552: 16547: 16542: 16532: 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15975: 15970: 15965: 15955: 15950: 15945: 15940: 15935: 15930: 15925: 15920: 15918:Design studies 15915: 15910: 15904: 15902: 15894: 15893: 15891: 15890: 15889: 15888: 15878: 15873: 15872: 15871: 15861: 15856: 15854:Scientometrics 15851: 15846: 15845: 15844: 15839: 15834: 15829: 15824: 15819: 15814: 15809: 15804: 15799: 15791: 15790: 15789: 15784: 15779: 15774: 15769: 15764: 15759: 15754: 15746: 15741: 15736: 15735: 15734: 15727:Paradigm shift 15724: 15719: 15714: 15709: 15704: 15699: 15694: 15689: 15684: 15679: 15673: 15671: 15663: 15662: 15660: 15659: 15654: 15649: 15644: 15639: 15638: 15637: 15627: 15626: 15625: 15620: 15612: 15606: 15604: 15598: 15597: 15595: 15594: 15589: 15584: 15579: 15574: 15569: 15567:Postpositivism 15564: 15559: 15554: 15549: 15544: 15539: 15534: 15529: 15527:Antipositivism 15524: 15518: 15516: 15510: 15509: 15507: 15506: 15501: 15500: 15499: 15497:and technology 15489: 15483: 15481: 15475: 15474: 15472: 15471: 15466: 15460: 15458: 15452: 15451: 15444: 15443: 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14786: 14781: 14774: 14773:External links 14771: 14769: 14768: 14761: 14749:, eds. 1980). 14740: 14734: 14728: 14722: 14715: 14708: 14690: 14669: 14663: 14639: 14633: 14619: 14602: 14596: 14578: 14564: 14547: 14529: 14522: 14515: 14501: 14481: 14466:Agassi, Joseph 14463: 14447: 14445: 14442: 14441: 14440: 14434: 14419: 14406: 14393: 14380: 14364: 14358: 14345: 14339: 14317: 14314: 14311: 14310: 14284: 14272:Wyss Institute 14258: 14232: 14206: 14181: 14139: 14106: 14075: 14060: 14021: 13980: 13949: 13934: 13920: 13900: 13865: 13842: 13822: 13815: 13805:Wild by Design 13794: 13787: 13769: 13742:(1): 109–145. 13722: 13715: 13697: 13627: 13612: 13592: 13559: 13536: 13516: 13496:nobelprize.org 13480: 13391: 13372: 13365: 13347: 13318: 13300: 13273: 13253: 13217:(4): 443–452. 13194: 13176: 13161: 13130: 13099: 13070: 13043:(5): 367–380. 13027: 13000: 12973: 12971:, p. 741. 12961: 12948: 12933: 12916:Plato.Stanford 12902: 12893: 12854:(2): 213–228. 12834: 12817: 12784:10.1086/678110 12758: 12719: 12705: 12679: 12665: 12598: 12569:10.1086/370729 12543: 12524:(6): 513–522. 12504: 12473:(2): 333–366. 12453: 12446: 12428: 12410:978-0415145787 12409: 12374: 12361: 12343: 12327: 12311: 12292: 12272: 12241: 12235:Edward Grant, 12228: 12222:Edward Grant, 12215: 12202: 12196:Edward Grant, 12189: 12183:Edward Grant, 12176: 12114: 12084: 12058: 12021: 12008: 11995: 11989:978-1316649701 11988: 11943: 11941:(21 June 2002) 11926: 11913: 11894: 11888:978-0313320439 11887: 11869: 11843: 11824: 11804: 11791: 11782: 11739: 11730: 11718: 11687: 11668: 11661: 11645:Saliba, George 11636: 11603: 11568: 11556:Toomer, Gerald 11548: 11515: 11469: 11450: 11430: 11417: 11387: 11369: 11340: 11321: 11303: 11296: 11274: 11260:Faith Wallis, 11253: 11228: 11215: 11208: 11149: 11142: 11122: 11104: 11073: 11063: 11045: 11023:978-0471543978 11022: 10991: 10961: 10932:(3): 349–382. 10912: 10856: 10844: 10795: 10783: 10760: 10744: 10727:10.1086/432288 10711:10.1086/432288 10705:(4): 687–688. 10685: 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Hassler, 9817: 9808: 9802:978-0140193220 9801: 9783: 9776: 9750: 9742:978-1412928168 9734:978-0199360079 9721: 9717:978-0080273426 9704: 9653: 9647:978-0195335231 9646: 9628: 9607: 9601:978-0691135267 9600: 9582: 9575: 9546: 9532: 9501: 9482: 9455:(3): 163–174. 9430: 9415: 9390: 9383: 9360: 9335: 9311: 9290: 9277: 9258: 9231: 9221: 9195: 9186: 9179: 9159: 9152: 9129: 9114: 9096: 9090:978-0195112290 9089: 9071: 9009: 9003:978-0691135267 9002: 8981: 8962: 8942: 8923: 8900: 8881: 8858: 8835: 8782: 8757: 8738: 8708: 8689: 8670: 8645: 8626: 8601: 8587: 8556: 8537: 8512: 8499: 8469: 8426: 8419: 8407:Ruggles, Clive 8398: 8391: 8373: 8342: 8330:New York Times 8320: 8261: 8222: 8157: 8128: 8110: 8081:(4): 383–408. 8061: 8034:(4): 428–454. 8018: 8003: 7985: 7970: 7952: 7923: 7905: 7888: 7857: 7851:. p. 42. 7835: 7825:978-0226750200 7824: 7794: 7784: 7762: 7733: 7715: 7687: 7670: 7650: 7621: 7601: 7586: 7568: 7551: 7524: 7518:978-0226365763 7517: 7499: 7493:978-0226365763 7492: 7471: 7465:978-0226365763 7464: 7443: 7436: 7418: 7405: 7398: 7380: 7374:978-0226365763 7373: 7355: 7349:978-0226365763 7348: 7330: 7324:978-0226365763 7323: 7305: 7299:978-0226365763 7298: 7280: 7274:978-0226365763 7273: 7252: 7246:978-1316649701 7245: 7224: 7217: 7191: 7162: 7155: 7132: 7125: 7107: 7100: 7082: 7049:(1): 111–132. 7029: 6998: 6970:10.1086/368744 6944: 6937: 6919: 6912: 6859: 6852: 6831: 6824: 6793: 6786: 6731: 6713:978-0367562984 6712: 6691: 6690: 6688: 6685: 6683: 6682: 6676: 6675: 6674: 6669: 6664: 6654: 6649: 6644: 6639: 6634: 6629: 6624: 6619: 6614: 6609: 6608: 6607: 6597: 6592: 6587: 6582: 6577: 6572: 6567: 6562: 6557: 6556: 6555: 6545: 6539: 6538: 6537: 6523: 6520:Science portal 6507: 6504: 6442: 6439: 6415:Erving Goffman 6351:John B. Watson 6338: 6335: 6303:macroeconomics 6299:microeconomics 6246: 6243: 6169:Dr. Jonas Salk 6124: 6121: 6117:earth sciences 6085:Alfred Wegener 6077: 6074: 5999: 5996: 5988:standard model 5952: 5949: 5939:was coined by 5933:Ferdinand Cohn 5809: 5806: 5787:Chen-Ning Yang 5711: 5708: 5696:radiotelescope 5652: 5649: 5592: 5589: 5570: 5567: 5514: 5511: 5502:Herbert Blumer 5470:Émile Durkheim 5465: 5462: 5429: 5426: 5394: 5391: 5387:pasteurization 5326: 5323: 5301:Alfred Wallace 5297:Charles Darwin 5273:Charles Darwin 5264: 5261: 5253:Alfred Wegener 5211: 5208: 5180:periodic table 5164:periodic table 5150:In chemistry, 5137: 5134: 5104: 5101: 5084: 5081: 5077:Thermodynamics 5017: 5014: 4991: 4988: 4982: 4981:Social science 4979: 4971:invisible hand 4947:The basis for 4927: 4924: 4908:Georges Cuvier 4899:Abraham Werner 4859: 4856: 4831: 4830:Bioelectricity 4828: 4826: 4823: 4802:Nicholas Steno 4789: 4786: 4736:Leonhard Euler 4684: 4681: 4653:De Motu Cordis 4648:William Harvey 4644: 4641: 4612: 4609: 4585:Pierre Macquer 4573:William Cullen 4551:Main article: 4548: 4545: 4510:Main article: 4507: 4504: 4495: 4492: 4472:modern science 4441: 4438: 4407: 4404: 4380:Baruch Spinoza 4376:René Descartes 4352:Marin Mersenne 4332:William Harvey 4246: 4243: 4120: 4117: 4097: 4094: 4036: 4033: 3981:Michael Scotus 3916: 3913: 3744: 3741: 3643: 3642:Western Europe 3640: 3628:Abbasid empire 3620:sacked Baghdad 3603: 3600: 3570: 3567: 3562:Book of Optics 3557:Ibn al-Haytham 3553:Qustā ibn Lūqā 3521:Ibn al-Haytham 3438: 3435: 3392: 3389: 3360: 3357: 3316: 3313: 3300: 3297: 3260:Constantinople 3244: 3241: 3217: 3214: 3209: 3206: 3059:Roman Republic 3042: 3039: 2972: 2969: 2878: 2875: 2863:nervous system 2833: 2830: 2788:(150–100 BCE). 2777: 2774: 2773: 2772: 2765: 2764: 2710:, to medieval 2600:. 1st century 2590: 2587: 2522: 2519: 2515:temple healers 2513:(for example, 2492:physical world 2470: 2467: 2412:Cascajal Block 2345:Aztec calendar 2341:Aztec medicine 2321:Maya astronomy 2308: 2305: 2237:(Zhang Heng), 2228:Joseph Needham 2143:climate change 2045:Main article: 2042: 2039: 2031:Imperial China 2029:(960–1279) of 1960:Main article: 1957: 1954: 1938: 1935: 1860: 1857: 1824: 1821: 1707: 1704: 1695:describes the 1662: 1659: 1620:Suśrutasamhitā 1614:Findings from 1589: 1586: 1549:Iron Age India 1544: 1541: 1517:Jantar Mantars 1492:Tantrasangraha 1439:Main article: 1436: 1433: 1387:Ganita Kaumudi 1193:Main article: 1188: 1185: 1177: 1174: 1156: 1153: 1132: 1129: 1055: 1052: 973: 970: 889: 886: 876: 873: 845:medical papyri 821: 818: 810:right triangle 788: 785: 769: 766: 749: 746: 703:archaeological 687:oral tradition 664: 661: 649:historiography 621:to postulate ( 611:Galileo affair 589:Historiography 581:Main article: 578: 575: 513:departed from 416:Western Europe 400:physical world 329:early sciences 285: 284: 282: 281: 274: 267: 259: 256: 255: 252: 251: 246: 241: 236: 231: 226: 221: 215: 209: 208: 207: 204: 203: 200: 199: 194: 189: 188: 187: 182: 172: 166: 160: 159: 158: 155: 154: 152: 151: 146: 141: 136: 131: 126: 121: 116: 111: 96: 93: 92: 81: 80: 79: 78: 77: 74: 73: 67: 66: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 17410: 17399: 17396: 17394: 17391: 17390: 17388: 17373: 17370: 17369: 17367: 17363: 17357: 17354: 17352: 17349: 17345: 17342: 17340: 17337: 17335: 17332: 17330: 17329:Horticultural 17327: 17325: 17322: 17320: 17317: 17315: 17312: 17310: 17307: 17305: 17302: 17300: 17297: 17296: 17295: 17292: 17290: 17287: 17286: 17284: 17278: 17272: 17269: 17267: 17264: 17262: 17259: 17257: 17254: 17252: 17249: 17247: 17244: 17242: 17239: 17237: 17234: 17232: 17229: 17227: 17224: 17222: 17219: 17217: 17214: 17212: 17209: 17207: 17204: 17202: 17199: 17197: 17194: 17190: 17187: 17186: 17185: 17182: 17180: 17177: 17176: 17174: 17168: 17162: 17159: 17157: 17154: 17152: 17149: 17147: 17144: 17142: 17139: 17137: 17134: 17132: 17129: 17127: 17124: 17122: 17119: 17117: 17114: 17112: 17109: 17107: 17104: 17102: 17099: 17097: 17094: 17092: 17089: 17087: 17084: 17082: 17079: 17077: 17074: 17072: 17069: 17067: 17064: 17063: 17061: 17057: 17051: 17048: 17046: 17043: 17041: 17038: 17037: 17034: 17031: 17029: 17026: 17024: 17021: 17019: 17016: 17014: 17011: 17009: 17008:Human history 17006: 17005: 17003: 16999: 16995: 16994:World history 16988: 16983: 16981: 16976: 16974: 16969: 16968: 16965: 16953: 16952: 16947: 16943: 16941: 16936: 16931: 16929: 16928: 16919: 16917: 16916: 16907: 16906: 16903: 16897: 16894: 16892: 16891:Human science 16889: 16887: 16886: 16882: 16880: 16877: 16876: 16874: 16870: 16864: 16861: 16860: 16858: 16854: 16848: 16847:Vegan studies 16845: 16843: 16840: 16836: 16833: 16831: 16828: 16827: 16826: 16823: 16821: 16818: 16816: 16813: 16811: 16810:Public health 16808: 16806: 16803: 16801: 16798: 16796: 16793: 16789: 16786: 16784: 16781: 16779: 16776: 16775: 16773: 16769: 16766: 16764: 16761: 16759: 16756: 16754: 16751: 16749: 16746: 16745: 16744:Philosophies 16743: 16741: 16740:Media studies 16738: 16736: 16733: 16731: 16728: 16726: 16723: 16721: 16718: 16716: 16715:Human ecology 16713: 16711: 16708: 16706: 16703: 16701: 16698: 16696: 16693: 16691: 16688: 16684: 16681: 16679: 16676: 16675: 16673: 16671: 16668: 16666: 16663: 16661: 16658: 16656: 16653: 16651: 16648: 16646: 16643: 16641: 16638: 16636: 16633: 16631: 16628: 16626: 16625:Anthrozoology 16623: 16619: 16616: 16614: 16611: 16610: 16608: 16607: 16605: 16601: 16593: 16590: 16588: 16585: 16583: 16580: 16578: 16575: 16573: 16570: 16569: 16568: 16565: 16561: 16558: 16556: 16553: 16551: 16550:developmental 16548: 16546: 16543: 16541: 16538: 16537: 16536: 16533: 16529: 16526: 16524: 16523:public policy 16521: 16519: 16516: 16514: 16511: 16509: 16506: 16505: 16504: 16501: 16497: 16494: 16493: 16492: 16489: 16485: 16482: 16480: 16477: 16475: 16474:legal systems 16472: 16470: 16469:legal history 16467: 16465: 16464:jurisprudence 16462: 16461: 16460: 16457: 16453: 16450: 16448: 16445: 16443: 16440: 16438: 16435: 16433: 16430: 16428: 16425: 16423: 16420: 16419: 16418: 16415: 16411: 16408: 16406: 16403: 16401: 16398: 16396: 16393: 16392: 16391: 16388: 16384: 16381: 16379: 16376: 16374: 16371: 16369: 16366: 16365: 16364: 16361: 16357: 16354: 16352: 16349: 16347: 16344: 16342: 16339: 16338: 16337: 16334: 16333: 16331: 16327: 16321: 16318: 16316: 16313: 16311: 16308: 16307: 16304: 16300: 16293: 16288: 16286: 16281: 16279: 16274: 16273: 16270: 16256: 16253: 16251: 16248: 16246: 16243: 16242: 16241: 16233: 16229: 16226: 16224: 16221: 16219: 16216: 16215: 16212: 16208: 16207: 16204: 16198: 16195: 16193: 16190: 16188: 16185: 16181: 16178: 16176: 16173: 16172: 16171: 16168: 16166: 16163: 16161: 16158: 16156: 16153: 16151: 16148: 16146: 16143: 16141: 16138: 16136: 16133: 16131: 16128: 16126: 16123: 16121: 16118: 16117: 16115: 16113: 16109: 16103: 16100: 16096: 16093: 16091: 16088: 16086: 16083: 16081: 16078: 16076: 16073: 16072: 16070: 16066: 16063: 16061: 16058: 16056: 16053: 16051: 16048: 16046: 16043: 16042: 16040: 16036: 16033: 16032: 16031: 16030:Technoscience 16028: 16026: 16023: 16021: 16018: 16016: 16013: 16011: 16008: 16006: 16003: 16001: 16000:Media studies 15998: 15996: 15993: 15991: 15988: 15984: 15981: 15979: 15976: 15974: 15971: 15969: 15966: 15964: 15961: 15960: 15959: 15956: 15954: 15951: 15949: 15946: 15944: 15941: 15939: 15938:Early adopter 15936: 15934: 15931: 15929: 15926: 15924: 15921: 15919: 15916: 15914: 15911: 15909: 15908:Co-production 15906: 15905: 15903: 15901: 15895: 15887: 15884: 15883: 15882: 15879: 15877: 15874: 15870: 15867: 15866: 15865: 15862: 15860: 15857: 15855: 15852: 15850: 15847: 15843: 15840: 15838: 15835: 15833: 15830: 15828: 15825: 15823: 15820: 15818: 15815: 15813: 15810: 15808: 15805: 15803: 15800: 15798: 15795: 15794: 15792: 15788: 15785: 15783: 15780: 15778: 15775: 15773: 15770: 15768: 15765: 15763: 15760: 15758: 15757:communication 15755: 15753: 15750: 15749: 15747: 15745: 15742: 15740: 15739:Pseudoscience 15737: 15733: 15730: 15729: 15728: 15725: 15723: 15720: 15718: 15715: 15713: 15710: 15708: 15705: 15703: 15700: 15698: 15695: 15693: 15690: 15688: 15687:Boundary-work 15685: 15683: 15682:Bibliometrics 15680: 15678: 15675: 15674: 15672: 15670: 15664: 15658: 15655: 15653: 15650: 15648: 15645: 15643: 15640: 15636: 15633: 15632: 15631: 15628: 15624: 15621: 15619: 15616: 15615: 15613: 15611: 15608: 15607: 15605: 15603: 15599: 15593: 15592:Transhumanism 15590: 15588: 15585: 15583: 15580: 15578: 15575: 15573: 15570: 15568: 15565: 15563: 15560: 15558: 15555: 15553: 15550: 15548: 15545: 15543: 15540: 15538: 15535: 15533: 15530: 15528: 15525: 15523: 15520: 15519: 15517: 15515: 15511: 15505: 15502: 15498: 15495: 15494: 15493: 15490: 15488: 15485: 15484: 15482: 15480: 15476: 15470: 15467: 15465: 15462: 15461: 15459: 15457: 15453: 15449: 15442: 15437: 15435: 15430: 15428: 15423: 15422: 15419: 15406: 15397: 15394: 15390: 15385: 15383: 15375: 15374: 15371: 15365: 15362: 15360: 15357: 15355: 15352: 15350: 15347: 15345: 15342: 15340: 15337: 15335: 15332: 15330: 15327: 15326: 15324: 15322: 15318: 15312: 15309: 15307: 15304: 15302: 15299: 15297: 15294: 15293: 15291: 15289: 15285: 15279: 15276: 15274: 15271: 15269: 15266: 15264: 15261: 15259: 15256: 15254: 15251: 15249: 15246: 15245: 15243: 15241: 15237: 15231: 15228: 15226: 15223: 15221: 15218: 15216: 15213: 15211: 15208: 15206: 15205:Combinatorics 15203: 15201: 15198: 15196: 15193: 15192: 15190: 15188: 15184: 15178: 15175: 15173: 15172:Earth science 15170: 15168: 15165: 15163: 15160: 15158: 15155: 15154: 15152: 15150: 15146: 15140: 15137: 15135: 15132: 15130: 15127: 15125: 15122: 15120: 15117: 15115: 15112: 15110: 15107: 15105: 15102: 15100: 15097: 15095: 15092: 15090: 15087: 15085: 15082: 15080: 15077: 15076: 15074: 15070: 15064: 15061: 15059: 15056: 15054: 15051: 15049: 15046: 15044: 15041: 15039: 15036: 15034: 15031: 15029: 15026: 15024: 15023:Ancient world 15021: 15020: 15018: 15014: 15009: 14999: 14996: 14994: 14993:Pseudoscience 14991: 14989: 14986: 14984: 14981: 14980: 14978: 14974: 14970: 14963: 14958: 14956: 14951: 14949: 14944: 14943: 14940: 14934: 14931: 14928: 14925: 14923: 14919: 14916: 14913: 14910: 14907: 14905: 14902: 14900: 14897: 14894: 14891: 14889: 14886: 14884: 14881: 14879: 14875: 14872: 14869: 14867: 14863: 14860: 14857: 14854: 14851: 14849: 14846: 14844: 14841: 14838: 14834: 14831: 14828: 14826: 14823: 14821:, online text 14820: 14818: 14813: 14810: 14804: 14801: 14797: 14796: 14791: 14787: 14785: 14782: 14780: 14777: 14776: 14766: 14762: 14760: 14756: 14752: 14748: 14744: 14741: 14739: 14735: 14733: 14729: 14727: 14723: 14720: 14716: 14713: 14709: 14707: 14703: 14699: 14695: 14691: 14688: 14684: 14680: 14676: 14675: 14670: 14666: 14660: 14656: 14652: 14648: 14644: 14640: 14638: 14634: 14631: 14628:published in 14627: 14623: 14622:Lakatos, Imre 14620: 14618: 14614: 14610: 14606: 14605:Kumar, Deepak 14603: 14599: 14593: 14589: 14588: 14583: 14579: 14577: 14573: 14569: 14565: 14563: 14559: 14556: 14552: 14548: 14545: 14541: 14537: 14533: 14532:Bronowski, J. 14530: 14527: 14523: 14520: 14516: 14512: 14508: 14504: 14498: 14493: 14492: 14486: 14482: 14479: 14475: 14471: 14467: 14464: 14461: 14457: 14453: 14449: 14448: 14437: 14431: 14427: 14426: 14420: 14416: 14412: 14407: 14403: 14399: 14394: 14390: 14386: 14381: 14377: 14373: 14369: 14365: 14361: 14355: 14351: 14346: 14342: 14336: 14331: 14330: 14324: 14320: 14319: 14299: 14295: 14288: 14273: 14269: 14262: 14247: 14243: 14236: 14221: 14217: 14210: 14195: 14191: 14185: 14170: 14166: 14162: 14158: 14154: 14150: 14143: 14127: 14123: 14122: 14117: 14110: 14094: 14090: 14086: 14079: 14071: 14064: 14056: 14052: 14048: 14044: 14041:(S51): 2–12. 14040: 14036: 14032: 14025: 14016: 14011: 14007: 14003: 14000:(3): 87–112. 13999: 13995: 13991: 13984: 13968: 13964: 13960: 13953: 13945: 13938: 13930: 13924: 13917: 13913: 13910: 13904: 13896: 13892: 13888: 13884: 13880: 13876: 13869: 13862: 13858: 13855: 13849: 13847: 13839: 13835: 13832: 13826: 13818: 13812: 13808: 13806: 13798: 13790: 13784: 13780: 13773: 13765: 13761: 13757: 13753: 13749: 13745: 13741: 13737: 13733: 13726: 13718: 13712: 13708: 13701: 13690: 13686: 13682: 13678: 13674: 13670: 13666: 13662: 13658: 13654: 13650: 13649: 13641: 13634: 13632: 13623: 13619: 13615: 13609: 13605: 13604: 13596: 13587: 13582: 13578: 13574: 13573:Physics Today 13570: 13563: 13556: 13552: 13549: 13543: 13541: 13533: 13529: 13526: 13520: 13501: 13497: 13490: 13484: 13476: 13472: 13468: 13464: 13460: 13456: 13452: 13448: 13444: 13440: 13432: 13428: 13424: 13420: 13416: 13412: 13408: 13404: 13403: 13395: 13387: 13383: 13376: 13368: 13362: 13358: 13351: 13343: 13337: 13329: 13325: 13321: 13315: 13311: 13304: 13288: 13284: 13280: 13276: 13270: 13266: 13265: 13257: 13238: 13234: 13230: 13225: 13220: 13216: 13212: 13205: 13198: 13190: 13186: 13180: 13172: 13165: 13157: 13153: 13149: 13145: 13141: 13134: 13118: 13114: 13110: 13103: 13087: 13083: 13082: 13074: 13066: 13062: 13058: 13054: 13050: 13046: 13042: 13038: 13031: 13015: 13011: 13004: 12996: 12992: 12988: 12984: 12977: 12970: 12965: 12958: 12957:History Today 12952: 12944: 12937: 12921: 12917: 12913: 12906: 12897: 12881: 12877: 12873: 12869: 12865: 12861: 12857: 12853: 12849: 12845: 12838: 12830: 12829: 12821: 12805: 12801: 12797: 12793: 12789: 12785: 12781: 12777: 12773: 12769: 12762: 12754: 12750: 12746: 12742: 12738: 12734: 12730: 12723: 12715: 12709: 12693: 12689: 12683: 12675: 12669: 12653: 12649: 12645: 12641: 12637: 12633: 12629: 12625: 12621: 12617: 12613: 12609: 12602: 12594: 12590: 12586: 12582: 12578: 12574: 12570: 12566: 12562: 12558: 12554: 12547: 12539: 12535: 12531: 12527: 12523: 12519: 12515: 12508: 12492: 12488: 12484: 12480: 12476: 12472: 12468: 12464: 12457: 12449: 12443: 12439: 12432: 12416: 12412: 12406: 12402: 12398: 12394: 12390: 12383: 12381: 12379: 12371: 12370:Heilbron 2003 12365: 12357: 12353: 12347: 12341: 12337: 12331: 12324: 12320: 12315: 12299: 12295: 12289: 12285: 12284: 12276: 12260: 12256: 12252: 12245: 12238: 12232: 12225: 12219: 12212: 12206: 12199: 12193: 12186: 12180: 12161: 12157: 12153: 12148: 12143: 12139: 12135: 12128: 12124: 12118: 12102: 12098: 12094: 12088: 12072: 12068: 12062: 12046: 12042: 12038: 12037: 12032: 12025: 12018: 12012: 12005: 11999: 11991: 11985: 11981: 11974: 11972: 11970: 11968: 11966: 11964: 11962: 11960: 11958: 11956: 11954: 11952: 11950: 11948: 11940: 11936: 11930: 11923: 11917: 11910: 11908: 11903: 11898: 11890: 11884: 11880: 11873: 11857: 11853: 11847: 11831: 11827: 11821: 11817: 11816: 11808: 11801: 11795: 11786: 11778: 11774: 11770: 11766: 11762: 11758: 11754: 11750: 11743: 11734: 11725: 11723: 11706: 11702: 11698: 11691: 11684: 11680: 11677: 11672: 11664: 11658: 11654: 11650: 11646: 11640: 11624: 11620: 11619: 11614: 11607: 11599: 11595: 11591: 11587: 11583: 11579: 11572: 11565: 11561: 11557: 11552: 11536: 11532: 11528: 11522: 11520: 11503: 11499: 11495: 11491: 11487: 11483: 11476: 11474: 11457: 11453: 11447: 11443: 11442: 11434: 11427: 11421: 11405: 11401: 11397: 11391: 11384: 11383: 11376: 11374: 11357: 11353: 11352: 11344: 11337: 11333: 11330: 11324: 11318: 11314: 11307: 11299: 11293: 11289: 11285: 11278: 11271: 11267: 11263: 11257: 11250: 11246: 11242: 11238: 11232: 11225: 11219: 11211: 11205: 11201: 11194: 11192: 11190: 11188: 11186: 11184: 11182: 11180: 11178: 11176: 11174: 11172: 11170: 11168: 11166: 11164: 11162: 11160: 11158: 11156: 11154: 11145: 11143:9781789145922 11139: 11135: 11134: 11126: 11118: 11114: 11108: 11092: 11088: 11084: 11077: 11070: 11066: 11060: 11056: 11049: 11042: 11040: 11035: 11031: 11025: 11019: 11015: 11011: 11006: 11001: 10995: 10979: 10975: 10971: 10965: 10957: 10953: 10949: 10945: 10940: 10935: 10931: 10927: 10923: 10916: 10908: 10904: 10899: 10894: 10890: 10886: 10882: 10878: 10874: 10867: 10865: 10863: 10861: 10851: 10849: 10840: 10836: 10831: 10826: 10822: 10818: 10814: 10810: 10806: 10799: 10792: 10791:Greek Science 10787: 10780: 10779:0-393-00780-4 10776: 10772: 10769: 10764: 10757: 10753: 10748: 10732: 10728: 10724: 10720: 10716: 10712: 10708: 10704: 10700: 10696: 10689: 10681: 10677: 10673: 10669: 10665: 10661: 10657: 10650: 10642: 10635: 10627: 10621: 10617: 10613: 10607: 10599: 10598: 10593: 10589: 10583: 10575: 10569: 10565: 10564: 10559: 10553: 10545: 10539: 10534: 10533: 10527: 10521: 10513: 10507: 10503: 10499: 10498: 10490: 10483: 10479: 10475: 10474: 10470: 10467: 10460: 10452: 10448: 10447: 10442: 10435: 10433: 10425: 10421: 10420:F.M. Cornford 10416: 10410: 10409: 10404: 10403: 10398: 10393: 10385: 10379: 10375: 10371: 10367: 10360: 10352: 10346: 10342: 10338: 10334: 10327: 10320: 10316: 10310: 10301: 10299:0-07-286311-0 10295: 10291: 10284: 10277: 10273: 10267: 10265: 10256: 10250: 10246: 10242: 10238: 10231: 10224: 10219: 10211: 10207: 10203: 10199: 10195: 10191: 10187: 10180: 10178: 10176: 10174: 10172: 10163: 10159: 10155: 10151: 10147: 10143: 10139: 10132: 10130: 10128: 10126: 10118: 10112: 10105: 10100: 10094:, p. 244 10093: 10089: 10087: 10081: 10076: 10067: 10058: 10051: 10050:0-07-141279-4 10047: 10043: 10037: 10030: 10029:90-04-15605-4 10026: 10022: 10018: 10013: 10004: 9997: 9992: 9984: 9982:9783540337836 9978: 9974: 9973: 9965: 9957: 9951: 9947: 9943: 9937: 9930: 9925: 9920: 9919: 9913: 9904: 9897: 9894: 9889: 9888: 9883: 9877: 9874: 9868: 9861: 9857: 9853: 9849: 9845: 9841: 9834: 9827: 9821: 9812: 9804: 9798: 9794: 9787: 9779: 9773: 9769: 9764: 9763: 9754: 9747: 9743: 9739: 9735: 9731: 9725: 9718: 9714: 9708: 9700: 9696: 9692: 9688: 9684: 9680: 9676: 9672: 9668: 9664: 9657: 9649: 9643: 9639: 9632: 9617: 9611: 9603: 9597: 9593: 9586: 9578: 9572: 9568: 9564: 9560: 9553: 9551: 9535: 9529: 9525: 9521: 9517: 9516: 9511: 9505: 9498: 9497: 9492: 9486: 9478: 9474: 9470: 9466: 9462: 9458: 9454: 9450: 9449: 9444: 9441:(June 1995). 9440: 9434: 9426: 9422: 9418: 9412: 9408: 9404: 9403: 9402:David Pingree 9394: 9386: 9380: 9376: 9375: 9370: 9364: 9349: 9348:Maths History 9345: 9339: 9332: 9328: 9324: 9321: 9315: 9308: 9304: 9300: 9294: 9287: 9281: 9265: 9261: 9255: 9251: 9247: 9246: 9241: 9235: 9228: 9224: 9218: 9214: 9209: 9208: 9199: 9190: 9182: 9176: 9172: 9171: 9163: 9155: 9149: 9145: 9144: 9139: 9133: 9125: 9118: 9110: 9106: 9100: 9092: 9086: 9082: 9075: 9059: 9055: 9051: 9047: 9043: 9039: 9035: 9031: 9027: 9023: 9019: 9018:Sivin, Nathan 9013: 9005: 8999: 8995: 8988: 8986: 8969: 8965: 8959: 8955: 8954: 8946: 8930: 8926: 8920: 8916: 8915: 8910: 8904: 8888: 8884: 8878: 8874: 8873: 8868: 8862: 8856: 8852: 8848: 8844: 8839: 8831: 8827: 8823: 8819: 8815: 8811: 8807: 8803: 8799: 8795: 8794: 8786: 8779: 8775: 8771: 8767: 8761: 8745: 8741: 8735: 8731: 8727: 8725: 8721: 8712: 8704: 8700: 8693: 8677: 8673: 8667: 8663: 8662: 8654: 8652: 8650: 8633: 8629: 8623: 8619: 8618: 8610: 8608: 8606: 8590: 8584: 8580: 8576: 8575: 8567: 8565: 8563: 8561: 8544: 8540: 8534: 8530: 8529: 8521: 8519: 8517: 8509: 8503: 8487: 8483: 8479: 8473: 8454: 8450: 8446: 8439: 8438: 8430: 8422: 8416: 8412: 8408: 8402: 8394: 8388: 8384: 8377: 8370: 8366: 8362: 8361: 8357: 8354: 8353: 8346: 8339: 8335: 8332: 8331: 8324: 8316: 8312: 8307: 8302: 8297: 8292: 8288: 8284: 8280: 8276: 8272: 8265: 8257: 8253: 8249: 8245: 8241: 8237: 8233: 8226: 8207: 8203: 8199: 8195: 8191: 8187: 8183: 8180:(1): 86–131. 8179: 8175: 8168: 8161: 8153: 8147: 8139: 8135: 8131: 8125: 8121: 8114: 8106: 8102: 8098: 8094: 8089: 8084: 8080: 8076: 8072: 8065: 8057: 8053: 8049: 8045: 8041: 8037: 8033: 8029: 8022: 8014: 8010: 8006: 8000: 7996: 7989: 7981: 7977: 7973: 7967: 7963: 7956: 7948: 7942: 7934: 7930: 7926: 7920: 7916: 7909: 7902: 7891: 7889:9781317546382 7885: 7881: 7880: 7875: 7871: 7867: 7861: 7854: 7850: 7846: 7839: 7832: 7827: 7821: 7817: 7813: 7808: 7807: 7798: 7791: 7787: 7781: 7778:. p. 7. 7777: 7773: 7766: 7758: 7752: 7744: 7740: 7736: 7730: 7726: 7719: 7712: 7700: 7699: 7691: 7684: 7673: 7671:9780226302324 7667: 7663: 7662: 7654: 7646: 7640: 7632: 7628: 7624: 7618: 7614: 7613: 7605: 7597: 7593: 7589: 7587:0-521-33360-1 7583: 7579: 7572: 7565: 7554: 7552:9783110820423 7548: 7544: 7543: 7538: 7534: 7528: 7520: 7514: 7510: 7503: 7495: 7489: 7485: 7478: 7476: 7467: 7461: 7457: 7450: 7448: 7439: 7433: 7429: 7422: 7415: 7409: 7401: 7395: 7391: 7384: 7376: 7370: 7366: 7359: 7351: 7345: 7341: 7334: 7326: 7320: 7316: 7309: 7301: 7295: 7291: 7284: 7276: 7270: 7266: 7259: 7257: 7248: 7242: 7238: 7231: 7229: 7220: 7214: 7210: 7205: 7204: 7195: 7179: 7175: 7174: 7166: 7158: 7152: 7148: 7141: 7139: 7137: 7128: 7122: 7118: 7111: 7103: 7097: 7093: 7086: 7070: 7066: 7062: 7057: 7052: 7048: 7044: 7040: 7033: 7017: 7013: 7009: 7002: 6987: 6983: 6979: 6975: 6971: 6967: 6963: 6959: 6955: 6948: 6940: 6934: 6930: 6923: 6915: 6909: 6905: 6898: 6896: 6894: 6892: 6890: 6888: 6886: 6884: 6882: 6880: 6878: 6876: 6874: 6872: 6870: 6868: 6866: 6864: 6855: 6849: 6845: 6838: 6836: 6827: 6821: 6817: 6812: 6811: 6802: 6800: 6798: 6789: 6783: 6779: 6772: 6770: 6768: 6766: 6764: 6762: 6760: 6758: 6756: 6754: 6752: 6750: 6748: 6746: 6744: 6742: 6740: 6738: 6736: 6719: 6715: 6709: 6705: 6704: 6696: 6692: 6680: 6677: 6673: 6670: 6668: 6665: 6663: 6660: 6659: 6658: 6655: 6653: 6650: 6648: 6645: 6643: 6640: 6638: 6635: 6633: 6630: 6628: 6625: 6623: 6620: 6618: 6615: 6613: 6610: 6606: 6603: 6602: 6601: 6598: 6596: 6593: 6591: 6588: 6586: 6583: 6581: 6578: 6576: 6573: 6571: 6568: 6566: 6563: 6561: 6558: 6554: 6551: 6550: 6549: 6546: 6544: 6541: 6540: 6535: 6524: 6521: 6515: 6510: 6503: 6501: 6497: 6493: 6491: 6487: 6482: 6480: 6476: 6472: 6468: 6460: 6456: 6452: 6447: 6438: 6434: 6432: 6431:postmodernism 6428: 6424: 6420: 6416: 6411: 6407: 6402: 6400: 6396: 6393: 6389: 6385: 6381: 6377: 6373: 6369: 6365: 6360: 6356: 6352: 6348: 6344: 6334: 6332: 6328: 6324: 6320: 6316: 6312: 6308: 6304: 6300: 6296: 6292: 6291:peace studies 6288: 6284: 6280: 6276: 6272: 6268: 6264: 6260: 6256: 6255:voting theory 6252: 6242: 6239: 6237: 6233: 6229: 6225: 6221: 6216: 6214: 6210: 6206: 6202: 6198: 6194: 6190: 6189:computability 6186: 6182: 6178: 6174: 6170: 6166: 6162: 6158: 6154: 6150: 6146: 6142: 6138: 6134: 6130: 6120: 6118: 6114: 6110: 6106: 6102: 6094: 6090: 6086: 6082: 6073: 6071: 6067: 6063: 6059: 6055: 6051: 6047: 6043: 6039: 6038: 6033: 6029: 6025: 6021: 6017: 6013: 6009: 6008:Andrew Huxley 6005: 5995: 5993: 5989: 5985: 5981: 5977: 5973: 5968: 5966: 5962: 5958: 5948: 5946: 5942: 5941:Ernst Haeckel 5938: 5934: 5930: 5929:Louis Pasteur 5926: 5925:cycle of life 5922: 5918: 5914: 5911: 5907: 5903: 5899: 5895: 5891: 5887: 5883: 5879: 5875: 5871: 5870:Francis Crick 5867: 5863: 5859: 5855: 5851: 5850:Francis Crick 5847: 5843: 5839: 5835: 5831: 5830:Linus Pauling 5827: 5819: 5814: 5805: 5803: 5799: 5795: 5790: 5788: 5784: 5783:Tsung-Dao Lee 5780: 5779:Wu experiment 5776: 5772: 5768: 5764: 5760: 5756: 5752: 5748: 5744: 5740: 5737: 5733: 5726:" in physics. 5725: 5721: 5716: 5707: 5705: 5701: 5697: 5694: 5690: 5689:Robert Wilson 5686: 5682: 5678: 5677:Robert Herman 5674: 5670: 5666: 5662: 5658: 5648: 5646: 5642: 5638: 5634: 5630: 5626: 5622: 5618: 5614: 5610: 5606: 5597: 5588: 5586: 5582: 5576: 5566: 5564: 5560: 5556: 5552: 5548: 5544: 5540: 5536: 5532: 5528: 5524: 5520: 5510: 5507: 5503: 5499: 5495: 5491: 5487: 5483: 5479: 5475: 5474:structuralism 5471: 5461: 5459: 5458:Sigmund Freud 5455: 5454:William James 5451: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5434:Wilhelm Wundt 5425: 5423: 5419: 5415: 5411: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5390: 5388: 5384: 5380: 5376: 5372: 5371:Louis Pasteur 5368: 5364: 5363:Joseph Lister 5360: 5356: 5352: 5348: 5344: 5340: 5336: 5335:Louis Pasteur 5332: 5322: 5320: 5316: 5315:Gregor Mendel 5312: 5308: 5307: 5302: 5298: 5294: 5290: 5282: 5278: 5274: 5269: 5260: 5258: 5254: 5250: 5246: 5245:radioactivity 5242: 5238: 5234: 5233:Louis Agassiz 5230: 5225: 5221: 5220:Adam Sedgwick 5217: 5216:Charles Lyell 5207: 5205: 5201: 5197: 5193: 5189: 5185: 5181: 5178:composed his 5177: 5173: 5169: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5156:atomic theory 5153: 5146: 5142: 5133: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5100: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5080: 5078: 5074: 5070: 5066: 5062: 5058: 5054: 5050: 5046: 5042: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5013: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4997: 4987: 4978: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4959: 4954: 4950: 4942: 4941: 4936: 4932: 4923: 4921: 4920:index fossils 4917: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4900: 4896: 4892: 4888: 4884: 4880: 4872: 4870: 4869:Anoplotherium 4864: 4855: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4844:Luigi Galvani 4841: 4837: 4822: 4819: 4815: 4814:Thomas Burnet 4811: 4807: 4806:superposition 4803: 4799: 4795: 4785: 4783: 4779: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4762:Immanuel Kant 4759: 4755: 4754: 4749: 4748:Denis Diderot 4746:(1717–1783). 4745: 4741: 4738:(1707–1783), 4737: 4734:(1706–1790), 4733: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4713: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4700: 4694: 4690: 4689:Royal Society 4680: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4659: 4655: 4654: 4649: 4640: 4638: 4634: 4630: 4629: 4622: 4618: 4608: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4582: 4578: 4574: 4570: 4569: 4564: 4560: 4554: 4544: 4541: 4537: 4533: 4532: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4513: 4503: 4501: 4488: 4484: 4479: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4457: 4452: 4447: 4437: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4416: 4412: 4406:Heliocentrism 4403: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4392:Thomas Hobbes 4389: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4372:Thomas Browne 4369: 4368:Francis Bacon 4365: 4364:Blaise Pascal 4361: 4357: 4353: 4349: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4336:Pierre Fermat 4333: 4329: 4328:Edmond Halley 4325: 4321: 4316: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4305: 4300: 4296: 4295: 4290: 4286: 4282: 4281: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4263: 4255: 4251: 4242: 4240: 4236: 4231: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4212:Enlightenment 4209: 4206:of political 4205: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4189: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4164: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4153:Martin Luther 4150: 4146: 4142: 4139: 4135: 4130: 4126: 4125:Scholasticism 4115: 4114:Natural magic 4111: 4107: 4103: 4093: 4091: 4087: 4082: 4078: 4075:In 1348, the 4073: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4058: 4057:Nicole Oresme 4054: 4050: 4046: 4042: 4032: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4016: 4011: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3989: 3986: 3982: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3912: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3889: 3888: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3873: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3851: 3850:baccalaureate 3846: 3845: 3840: 3839: 3834: 3829: 3827: 3823: 3822: 3817: 3816: 3811: 3806: 3803:in 1167, and 3802: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3767:in Latin). A 3766: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3740: 3738: 3734: 3733:blast furnace 3731: 3727: 3722: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3711:Pax Mongolica 3707: 3698: 3694: 3689: 3683: 3679: 3674: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3656:Scholasticism 3653: 3649: 3639: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3599: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3566: 3564: 3563: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3544: 3542: 3541:Ibn al-Shatir 3538: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3513: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3479: 3474: 3473: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3451:decimal point 3448: 3444: 3434: 3432: 3428: 3422: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3407: 3401: 3397: 3388: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3373:Hellenization 3370: 3366: 3356: 3354: 3350: 3342: 3341: 3336: 3331: 3326: 3322: 3315:Islamic world 3312: 3310: 3306: 3296: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3280: 3276: 3271: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3256: 3254: 3250: 3237: 3232: 3227: 3223: 3213: 3205: 3203: 3199: 3196:and northern 3195: 3194:Roman Britain 3191: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3153: 3149: 3144: 3142: 3141: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3107:encyclopedias 3103: 3099: 3097: 3096: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3066: 3064: 3063:Julius Caesar 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3038: 3036: 3033: 3027: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3016:crystal habit 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2998:shape of the 2997: 2993: 2992:encyclopedias 2989: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2968: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2929: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2908: 2904: 2899: 2892: 2888: 2883: 2874: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2829: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2787: 2782: 2770: 2769: 2768: 2761: 2757: 2756: 2755: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2724:Enlightenment 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2667: 2665: 2660: 2659:unmoved mover 2656: 2651: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2586: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2531:pre-Socratics 2528: 2525:The earliest 2521:Pre-socratics 2518: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2499: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2482: 2476: 2466: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2391: 2390:Pre-Columbian 2387: 2379: 2375: 2374:calendar date 2372: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2355: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2337:Maya medicine 2334: 2330: 2329:Maya calendar 2326: 2325:Maya numerals 2322: 2318: 2314: 2303: 2301: 2294: 2290: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2251:blast furnace 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2233: 2232:water-powered 2229: 2224: 2219: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2167: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2139:geomorphology 2136: 2132: 2129: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2080: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2062: 2058: 2053: 2048: 2038: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2023: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2004: 2002: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1968: 1963: 1953: 1936: 1933: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1905: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1878: 1870: 1866: 1853: 1852: 1847: 1843: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1820: 1818: 1812: 1810: 1806: 1805: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1787: 1785: 1781: 1780:Chinese logic 1777: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1722: 1717: 1713: 1703: 1700: 1699: 1694: 1693:Roger Boesche 1690: 1688: 1681: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1658: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1638: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1600: 1594: 1585: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1565: 1564: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1540: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1519:in total, in 1518: 1514: 1513:observatories 1510: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1493: 1487: 1484: 1481:, written by 1480: 1479: 1473: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1455: 1453: 1447: 1442: 1432: 1430: 1426: 1425: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1395: 1393: 1392:combinatorics 1389: 1388: 1383: 1382:Kerala school 1379: 1375: 1371: 1370:mathematician 1366:नारायण पण्डित 1363: 1359: 1355: 1353: 1349: 1348:Islamic world 1345: 1341: 1337: 1336:decimal digit 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1312: 1307: 1302: 1300: 1298: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1277:presents the 1276: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1231: 1229: 1225: 1218: 1213: 1206: 1201: 1196: 1191: 1183: 1173: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1152: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1128: 1125: 1121: 1116: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1065: 1060: 1051: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1040:folk remedies 1037: 1033: 1032: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 991: 987: 983: 979: 978:Mesopotamians 969: 966: 962: 958: 954: 950: 946: 941: 937: 933: 929: 925: 921: 913: 908: 903: 899: 895: 885: 883: 872: 870: 866: 862: 861:Ebers Papyrus 858: 854: 850: 846: 842: 841:Mediterranean 838: 831: 830:ancient Egypt 826: 817: 815: 811: 807: 803: 799: 795: 783: 779: 775: 768:Ancient Egypt 765: 763: 759: 758:Ancient Egypt 755: 745: 743: 738: 736: 733:, songs, and 732: 728: 724: 720: 716: 710: 708: 704: 701:. Similarly, 700: 696: 692: 688: 684: 678: 674: 670: 660: 658: 654: 650: 646: 642: 641:Royal Society 637: 635: 631: 620: 616: 612: 608: 603: 599: 597: 590: 584: 574: 572: 568: 564: 560: 556: 552: 548: 544: 540: 536: 532: 528: 524: 520: 516: 512: 508: 503: 501: 497: 493: 489: 485: 484:Pre-Columbian 481: 477: 473: 469: 465: 464:Chinese model 461: 460:ancient China 457: 456:ancient India 453: 449: 445: 441: 437: 433: 429: 425: 421: 417: 413: 409: 405: 401: 397: 393: 389: 385: 381: 377: 373: 369: 368:Ancient Egypt 364: 362: 358: 354: 350: 346: 342: 338: 334: 330: 326: 322: 318: 314: 310: 306: 302: 301:ancient times 298: 294: 289: 280: 275: 273: 268: 266: 261: 260: 258: 257: 250: 247: 245: 244:Pseudoscience 242: 240: 237: 235: 232: 230: 227: 225: 222: 220: 219:Communication 217: 216: 212: 206: 205: 198: 195: 193: 190: 186: 183: 181: 178: 177: 176: 173: 171: 168: 167: 163: 157: 156: 150: 147: 145: 142: 140: 137: 135: 132: 130: 127: 125: 122: 120: 117: 115: 112: 109: 104: 98: 97: 95: 94: 85: 76: 75: 72: 69: 68: 64: 60: 59: 56: 52: 50: 45: 41: 34: 33: 27: 19: 17220: 17178: 17135: 17115: 17105: 17039: 17027: 16949: 16925: 16913: 16883: 16829: 16690:Food studies 16630:Area studies 16383:mathematical 16378:econometrics 16336:Anthropology 16245:Associations 16080:criticism of 15990:Leapfrogging 15973:linear model 15859:Team science 15849:Scientocracy 15772:Neo-colonial 15522:Anthropocene 15491: 15344:Neuroscience 15248:Anthropology 15230:Trigonometry 14968: 14816: 14793: 14764: 14750: 14737: 14731: 14725: 14718: 14711: 14693: 14673: 14646: 14636: 14629: 14625: 14608: 14586: 14567: 14550: 14535: 14525: 14518: 14490: 14469: 14451: 14424: 14410: 14397: 14384: 14371: 14349: 14328: 14301:. Retrieved 14297: 14287: 14275:. Retrieved 14271: 14261: 14249:. Retrieved 14245: 14235: 14223:. Retrieved 14219: 14209: 14197:. Retrieved 14193: 14184: 14172:. Retrieved 14152: 14142: 14130:. Retrieved 14119: 14109: 14097:. Retrieved 14088: 14078: 14063: 14038: 14034: 14024: 13997: 13993: 13983: 13973:28 September 13971:. Retrieved 13962: 13952: 13943: 13937: 13923: 13903: 13878: 13874: 13868: 13825: 13803: 13797: 13778: 13772: 13739: 13735: 13725: 13706: 13700: 13689:the original 13652: 13646: 13602: 13595: 13576: 13572: 13562: 13519: 13507:. Retrieved 13495: 13483: 13442: 13438: 13406: 13400: 13394: 13385: 13375: 13356: 13350: 13309: 13303: 13291:. Retrieved 13263: 13256: 13244:. Retrieved 13237:the original 13214: 13210: 13197: 13188: 13179: 13164: 13150:(1): 75–86. 13147: 13143: 13133: 13121:. Retrieved 13112: 13102: 13092:19 September 13090:. Retrieved 13080: 13073: 13040: 13036: 13030: 13018:. Retrieved 13003: 12986: 12982: 12976: 12964: 12956: 12951: 12942: 12936: 12924:. 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Skinner 6340: 6248: 6240: 6217: 6126: 6123:Applications 6113:oceanography 6098: 6054:Neuroscience 6035: 6024:Bernard Katz 6001: 5969: 5954: 5936: 5921:soil science 5917:microbiology 5913:biogeography 5845: 5833: 5823: 5791: 5743:Lise Meitner 5729: 5722:ushered in " 5685:Arno Penzias 5673:Ralph Alpher 5669:George Gamow 5657:Edwin Hubble 5654: 5602: 5578: 5569:20th century 5551:ethnological 5516: 5492:, used more 5486:Georg Simmel 5467: 5431: 5396: 5328: 5304: 5286: 5276: 5228: 5213: 5204:biochemistry 5149: 5106: 5086: 5038: 5009: 5005: 4999: 4990:19th century 4984: 4963:mercantilism 4956: 4946: 4938: 4904:James Hutton 4876: 4867: 4833: 4817: 4798:Robert Hooke 4791: 4753:Encyclopédie 4751: 4698: 4697:Journal des 4686: 4651: 4646: 4626: 4624: 4577:Joseph Black 4566: 4565:in his work 4563:Robert Boyle 4556: 4535: 4529: 4515: 4497: 4454:Portrait of 4422:heliocentric 4419: 4388:Robert Boyle 4360:Isaac Newton 4340:Robert Hooke 4317: 4309:Isaac Newton 4302: 4292: 4284: 4278: 4259: 4235:antiquarians 4232: 4208:institutions 4190: 4185: 4182:Theophrastus 4180: 4165: 4122: 4074: 4053:Jean Buridan 4038: 4020:Pierre Duhem 4013: 3990: 3957:al-Khwarizmi 3918: 3892: 3870: 3848: 3842: 3836: 3830: 3821:ex hypothesi 3819: 3813: 3788: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3759:, consulted 3755:who visited 3746: 3723: 3708: 3690: 3686: 3605: 3596:Ibn al-Nafis 3587: 3572: 3560: 3545: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3476: 3470: 3466: 3440: 3423: 3404: 3362: 3346: 3338: 3302: 3283: 3272: 3257: 3246: 3211: 3202:North Africa 3169:Christianity 3145: 3138: 3122: 3118: 3104: 3100: 3093: 3078:Roman Empire 3067: 3044: 3028: 2976:Theophrastus 2974: 2957:hydrostatics 2927: 2912: 2886: 2835: 2810:star catalog 2802:Eratosthenes 2798:Solar System 2791: 2766: 2668: 2652: 2610: 2557:founded the 2524: 2502: 2496: 2478: 2383: 2361:(found near 2296: 2291: 2220: 2197:astronomical 2166:movable type 2081: 2066: 2024: 2005: 2001:Matteo Ricci 1997: 1979: 1906: 1890:Tang dynasty 1875: 1872: 1849: 1813: 1802: 1798: 1797:refined the 1793:philosopher 1788: 1766: 1719: 1716:Chandahsutra 1715: 1712:Indian logic 1711: 1709: 1696: 1664: 1654:therapeutics 1650:symptomology 1635: 1613: 1603: 1597: 1546: 1505:Jai Singh II 1490: 1488: 1476: 1474: 1459: 1451: 1449:Copy of the 1422: 1415:Govindasvāmi 1411:Parameshvara 1396: 1385: 1356: 1320:trigonometry 1318:function in 1309: 1303: 1294: 1287:place values 1278: 1249:, including 1232: 1227: 1221: 1190: 1158: 1141:Plimpton 322 1134: 1124:Near Eastern 1117: 1098:such as the 1088:clay tablets 1069: 1035: 1029: 1026:East Semitic 1009: 1005: 976:The ancient 975: 936:lime plaster 917: 878: 834: 790: 751: 739: 735:incantations 719:medicine man 711: 707:astronomical 680: 673:Protoscience 638: 604: 600: 592: 571:World War II 543:age of Earth 535:19th century 504: 482:. Among the 440:Muslim world 365: 325:Protoscience 292: 290: 288: 133: 55: 48: 31: 26: 17309:Circumpolar 17271:Digital Age 17226:Renaissance 17206:Middle Ages 16951:Wikiversity 16842:Social work 16730:Linguistics 16655:Criminology 16572:criminology 16555:personality 16513:comparative 16491:Linguistics 16484:private law 16341:archaeology 16090:theories of 16075:and society 16071:Technology 16065:transitions 16055:determinism 16050:convergence 16025:Technocracy 15807:controversy 15793:Scientific 15777:post-normal 15722:Metascience 15692:Consilience 15677:Antiscience 15542:Neo-Luddism 15537:Fuzzy logic 15311:Engineering 15253:Archaeology 15220:Probability 15187:Mathematics 15053:Romanticism 15038:Renaissance 14807:(in French) 14698:McGraw-Hill 14538:Heinemann. 14153:Nature News 14015:10230/35942 13881:: 345–346. 13293:9 September 13084:. Ashgate. 12698:1 September 12618:(1): 1–20. 12319:Allen Debus 11541:24 November 11508:24 November 11462:25 November 10641:"De Caelo" 9929:Arthaśāstra 9882:arthaśāstra 9539:17 December 9510:Sarma, K.V. 9491:Paramesvara 9369:Kim Plofker 8492:21 December 8360:Agriculture 8122:. Chicago. 7075:20 February 6991:10 February 6477:were first 6471:Higgs boson 6368:linguistics 6347:behaviorism 6271:geopolitics 6259:game theory 6129:electricity 6109:meteorology 6062:David Rioch 6058:Eric Kandel 6022:. In 1962, 5935:. The word 5910:Humboldtian 5864:. By 1953, 5858:amino acids 5838:bond angles 5832:'s book on 5802:Big Science 5763:atomic bomb 5724:Big Science 5720:atomic bomb 5710:Big science 5643:formulated 5513:Romanticism 5446:Ivan Pavlov 5325:Germ theory 5172:John Dalton 5160:John Dalton 4895:John Walker 4720:mathematics 4348:Tycho Brahe 4307:in 1687 by 4291:, and also 4271:mechanistic 4204:observation 4191:During the 4186:Peri lithōn 4157:John Calvin 4134:Reformation 4096:Renaissance 4077:Black Death 4010:Duns Scotus 4002:Roger Bacon 3994:scholastics 3921:Reconquista 3893:On the Soul 3815:ex cathedra 3789:universitas 3757:monasteries 3704: 1275 3678:Roger Bacon 3632:Hulagu Khan 3608:Renaissance 3475:and Indian 3353:papermaking 3309:Renaissance 3303:During the 3264:monasteries 3208:Middle Ages 3123:Disciplines 3074:upper class 2891:Oxyrhynchus 2889:, found at 2855:Hippocrates 2843:Hippocrates 2814:engineering 2767:and again: 2720:Renaissance 2691:mathematics 2443:mathematics 2393:Mesoamerica 2384:During the 2259:wheelbarrow 2247:piston pump 2216:chain drive 2069:seismometer 2061:seismometer 2027:Song Empire 1970:One of the 1921:Zu Chongzhi 1784:Navya-Nyāya 1734:Vaisheshika 1698:Arthaśāstra 1680:Viṣhṇugupta 1673:policy and 1628:rhinoplasty 1581:Tolkāppiyam 1429:Jyeshtadeva 1419:Bhāskara II 1378:Bhaskara II 1324:Brahmagupta 1311:Aryabhatiya 1251:mensuration 1187:Mathematics 1131:Mathematics 1120:Babylonians 1104:lunar month 1090:created by 1048:prophylaxis 996:2112 BCE – 988:during the 888:Mesopotamia 857:incantation 762:Mesopotamia 683:prehistoric 626: 1874 567:big science 519:mechanistic 488:Mesoamerica 486:peoples of 448:Greek works 442:during the 432:Hellenistic 380:mathematics 372:Mesopotamia 353:Middle Ages 339:during the 17387:Categories 17351:Industrial 17184:Prehistory 17170:Historical 16896:Humanities 16830:historical 16763:psychology 16735:Management 16577:demography 16535:Psychology 16518:philosophy 16479:public law 16410:integrated 16228:Technology 16180:science of 16175:history of 16060:revolution 15968:disruptive 15958:Innovation 15953:Hype cycle 15898:Technology 15869:ecological 15842:skepticism 15832:misconduct 15817:enterprise 15635:scientific 15562:Positivism 15532:Empiricism 15514:Philosophy 15288:Technology 15273:Psychology 15225:Statistics 15072:By culture 14976:Background 14819:, Vols 1–4 14747:Roy Porter 14194:genome.gov 13246:5 February 12739:: 74–111. 12658:4 December 12497:4 December 12340:Bruno 1989 12107:26 October 12077:26 October 11697:"Avicenna" 10737:4 December 10019:. (2007). 9912:Viṣṇugupta 9621:29 January 9416:9004132023 8705:(1): 7–18. 8449:1880/51835 7980:1048657291 7895:13 October 7814:. p. 7743:1235416152 7705:13 October 7677:13 October 7558:13 October 6687:References 6319:monetarism 6263:psephology 6157:television 6141:phonograph 6137:automobile 6093:continents 5980:Kamiokande 5751:Niels Bohr 5663:theory by 5613:Niels Bohr 5605:Max Planck 5563:Franz Boas 5529:and later 5523:Positivism 5410:capitalism 5367:antisepsis 4953:Adam Smith 4935:Adam Smith 4840:John Walsh 4778:Adam Smith 4766:David Hume 4758:philosophy 4728:technology 4658:vertebrate 4650:published 4526:elliptical 4216:statistics 4176:microscope 4070:kinematics 4041:scholastic 4015:Opus Majus 3844:Quadrivium 3730:Cistercian 3715:Marco Polo 3676:Statue of 3495:Hipparchus 3491:Al-Battani 3253:Latin West 3186:handmaiden 3174:Tertullian 3152:barbarians 3111:Posidonius 3020:lapidaries 2996:octahedral 2933:Archimedes 2859:Herophilos 2806:Hipparchus 2760:Archimedes 2716:scientists 2683:mineralogy 2628:empiricism 2581:and later 2579:Democritus 2551:Pythagoras 2507:physicians 2498:scientists 2463:logographs 2451:base of 20 2371:Long Count 2363:La Mojarra 2255:seed drill 2241:, sliding 2212:escapement 2200:clocktower 2193:metallurgy 2189:mineralogy 2104:true north 2100:navigation 2057:Zhang Heng 2041:Inventions 2033:, Chinese 2016:Zhang Heng 1990:thanks to 1804:Tetralemma 1758:tetralemma 1756:; and the 1752:school of 1667:statecraft 1495:treatise, 1424:Yuktibhāṣā 1255:arithmetic 1239:arithmetic 1122:and other 1100:solar year 1082:, and the 1002:Babylonian 953:divination 940:Metallurgy 731:divination 723:wise woman 715:underworld 438:-speaking 426:-speaking 414:-speaking 351:, and the 341:Bronze Age 211:In society 149:Philosophy 139:Literature 129:Glossaries 17314:Subarctic 17282:societies 17001:Overviews 16774:Planning 16753:economics 16670:Education 16567:Sociology 16545:cognitive 16496:semiotics 16447:political 16405:technical 16390:Geography 16363:Economics 16135:Factor 10 15963:diffusion 15802:consensus 15797:community 15762:education 15602:Sociology 15577:Scientism 15456:Economics 15382:Timelines 15359:Pathology 15354:Nutrition 15278:Sociology 15258:Economics 15167:Chemistry 15157:Astronomy 15094:Byzantine 15089:Brazilian 15084:Argentine 14681:, Mainz: 14169:182916902 13909:Karl Benz 13764:128410978 13756:1573-0387 13336:cite book 13328:913218837 12876:166044943 12868:1923-3280 12648:253894214 12632:0003-9519 12577:0022-2968 12530:0003-049X 12479:1125-3819 12401:Routledge 11498:2474-1795 10948:1063-6145 10889:2008-0387 10781:, p. 177. 10719:0021-1753 10680:144547689 9469:0025-570X 9425:0169-8729 9353:3 October 9301:, Wiley. 8974:3 October 8935:3 October 8893:3 October 8830:122508567 8768:, p. 55, 8720:Rationale 8579:1891–1908 8549:3 October 8256:115323404 8202:151427109 8194:1529-1499 8146:cite book 8138:868276095 8105:144777485 8097:0007-0874 8056:147175644 8048:0073-2753 8013:555643149 7941:cite book 7933:984327399 7751:cite book 7639:cite book 7631:950521936 7065:258069710 6986:224789083 6964:: 80–94. 6459:electrons 6384:CAT scans 6380:PET scans 6161:computers 6149:airliners 5955:In 1925, 5794:cyclotron 5732:Otto Hahn 5693:Bell Labs 5625:spacetime 5478:Max Weber 5398:Karl Marx 5289:evolution 5099:in 1846. 5053:Georg Ohm 5006:scientist 4852:galvanism 4708:Descartes 4460:astronomy 4201:empirical 4172:telescope 4168:Cristallo 4049:parsimony 3937:Aristotle 3901:Aristotle 3805:Cambridge 3799:in 1150, 3773:collegium 3769:collegium 3765:collegium 3761:libraries 3580:cataracts 3487:astronomy 3478:Siddhanta 3459:algorithm 3082:statesman 3035:Herodotus 3004:engravers 2947:with the 2871:surgeries 2695:astronomy 2687:geography 2616:Aristotle 2563:Leucippus 2435:astronomy 2409:the Olmec 2283:astronomy 2271:gunpowder 2239:dry docks 2147:petrified 2116:clepsydra 2098:used for 2063:of 132 CE 2020:torquetum 1988:pole star 1972:star maps 1799:Catuskoti 1795:Nagarjuna 1762:Nagarjuna 1742:inference 1728:rules of 1721:anviksiki 1632:lithotomy 1616:Neolithic 1521:New Delhi 1435:Astronomy 1431:in 1530. 1306:Aryabhata 1297:mātrāmeru 1293:, called 1137:cuneiform 1044:poultices 961:haruspicy 849:medicines 798:surveying 547:evolution 533:. In the 531:chemistry 384:astronomy 337:astrology 249:Scientist 229:Education 224:Community 51:(journal) 17324:Pastoral 17280:Types of 16915:Category 16783:regional 16778:land use 16613:business 16582:internet 16540:abnormal 16442:military 16432:economic 16422:cultural 16395:physical 16356:physical 16346:cultural 16255:Scholars 16250:Journals 16240:Category 16214:Portals 16095:transfer 16085:dynamics 16035:feminist 15837:priority 15822:literacy 15782:rhetoric 15748:Science 15712:Logology 15405:Category 15364:Pharmacy 15321:Medicine 15210:Geometry 15200:Calculus 15119:Japanese 14918:Archived 14874:Archived 14862:Archived 14833:Archived 14624:(1978). 14607:(2006). 14584:(1996). 14487:(1983). 14325:(1989). 14126:Archived 14093:Archived 14055:21086524 13967:Archived 13912:Archived 13895:10845068 13857:Archived 13834:Archived 13677:13054692 13622:43648512 13551:Archived 13528:Archived 13509:23 March 13500:Archived 13467:18893719 13287:Archived 13283:75299209 13233:14223586 13156:17152615 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9691:16598247 9371:(2009). 9323:Archived 9264:Archived 9242:(2008). 9140:(2009). 9058:Archived 9054:45700796 9020:(1985). 8968:Archived 8929:Archived 8911:(2001). 8887:Archived 8744:Archived 8676:Archived 8632:Archived 8543:Archived 8486:Archived 8409:(1999). 8365:teosinte 8334:Archived 8315:11983901 8206:Archived 7876:(eds.). 7831:science. 7596:14692886 7539:(eds.). 7178:Archived 7069:Archived 7016:Archived 6718:Archived 6506:See also 6490:xenobots 6479:detected 6457:and two 6236:Internet 6199:design, 6197:database 6145:airplane 6139:and the 6032:synapses 6026:modeled 5972:SN 1987A 5730:In 1938 5681:Big Bang 5661:Big Bang 5651:Big Bang 5581:physical 5539:colonial 5381:against 5341:against 5319:genetics 5237:ice ages 5168:elements 5089:asteroid 5035:in 1801. 5033:Napoleon 4881:and the 4782:Voltaire 4770:religion 4669:arteries 4161:Vesalius 4138:Catholic 3996:such as 3969:Averroes 3965:Avicenna 3925:Crusades 3923:and the 3887:De Anima 3877:Master's 3872:Magister 3781:collegia 3777:collegia 3614:and the 3584:Avicenna 3531:such as 3527:and the 3525:Averroes 3512:Almagest 3472:Almagest 3406:Madrasas 3335:Avicenna 3299:Collapse 3055:Plutarch 3047:Polybius 2984:hardness 2980:taxonomy 2945:parabola 2928:Elements 2887:Elements 2839:medicine 2763:system." 2748:Classics 2728:sciences 2644:European 2583:Epicurus 2459:in Olmec 2367:Veracruz 2287:medicine 2243:calipers 2173:Bi Sheng 2169:printing 2120:drydocks 2094:-needle 2092:magnetic 2088:polymath 2084:Shen Kuo 2008:Mercator 1992:Shen Kuo 1984:Mercator 1902:Jia Xian 1791:Buddhist 1778:and the 1687:Chāṇakya 1671:economic 1646:etiology 1588:Medicine 1575:and the 1573:morpheme 1553:Sanskrit 1537:Varanasi 1483:Bhāskara 1456:c. 1650 1407:analysis 1362:Sanskrit 1247:geometry 1112:Chaldean 1102:and the 1018:Borsippa 986:Sumerian 945:universe 875:Calendar 814:geometry 802:farmland 794:geometry 727:exorcism 551:genetics 388:medicine 345:Iron Age 180:Physical 162:Branches 119:Category 63:a series 61:Part of 17365:Related 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