History of Carthage

1793:, Pyrrhus set his sights on conquering Carthage itself, and to this end, began outfitting an expedition. The Carthaginians fought a battle outside Lilybaeum in 276 BC, and lost. The ruthless treatment of the Sicilian cities in his preparations for this expedition, and the execution of two Sicilian rulers whom Pyrrhus claimed were plotting against him, led to such a rise in animosity towards the Greeks that Pyrrhus withdrew from Sicily and returned to deal with events occurring in southern Italy. The fleet of Pyrrhus was defeated by Carthage, the Greeks losing 70 ships in the battle. Pyrrhus' campaigns in Italy were futile, and Pyrrhus eventually withdrew to Epirus. For Carthage, this meant a return to the status quo. For Rome, however, the failure of Pyrrhus to defend the colonies of 2436:(r.204–148 BC), who for decades had been attacking and provoking the city. Carthage eventually responded, yet by prosecuting this defensive war the city had broken its treaty with Rome. Hence, when challenged by Rome, Carthage surrendered to Rome's superior strength. The war faction in control at Rome, however, was determined to undo Carthage; cleverly hiding its true aims while talks proceeded (wherein Carthage gave up significant military resources), Rome eventually presented Carthage with an ultimatum: either evacuate the city which would then be destroyed; or war. Roman armies landed in Africa and began to lay siege to the magnificent city of Carthage, which rejected further negotiations. The end came: Carthage was destroyed; its surviving citizens enslaved. 750:

of Sicily, a key bottleneck for maritime trade between the east and west. The terrain proved as invaluable as the geography. The city was built on a hilly, triangular peninsula backed by the Lake of Tunis, which provided abundant supplies of fish and a place for safe harbor. The peninsula was connected to the mainland by a narrow strip of land, which combined with the rough surrounding terrain, made the city easily defensible; a citadel was built on Byrsa, a low hill overlooking the sea. Finally, Carthage would be conduit of two major trade routes: one between the Tyrian colony of Cadiz in southern Spain, which supplied raw materials for manufacturing in Tyre, and the other between North Africa and the northern Mediterranean, namely Sicily, Italy, and Greece.

2721: 814:, did not concentrate on conquering lands adjacent to the city prior to embarking on overseas ventures. Her dependence on trade and focus on protecting that trade network saw the evolution of an overseas hegemony before Carthage pushed inland into Africa. It may be possible that the power of the Libyan tribes prevented expansion in the neighbourhood of the city for some time. Until 550 BC, Carthage paid rent to the Libyans for use of land in the city surroundings and in Cape Bon for agricultural purposes. The Africa dominion controlled by Carthage was relatively small. The payment would be finally stopped around 450 BC, when the second major expansion inland into Tunisia would take place. Carthage probably colonized the 1535:. Finally, he laid siege to Syracuse itself after Mago, his kinsman, crushed the Greek fleet off Catana. The siege met with great success throughout 397 BC, but in 396 BC plague ravaged the Carthaginian forces, and they collapsed under Syracusan attack. Himilco paid an indemnity of 300 talents for safe passage of Carthaginian citizens to Dionysius. He abandoned his mercenaries and sailed to Carthage, only to commit suicide after publicly assuming full responsibility for the debacle. After his death, the power of "kings" would be severely curtailed, and the power of the oligarchy, ruling through the "Council of Elders" and the newly created "Tribunal of 104", correspondingly increased. 1958: 759: 1714: 1555: 1150: 903:, kings were elected on merit, not by the people but by the senate, and the post was not hereditary. However, the crown and military commands could also be purchased by the highest bidder. Initially these kings may have enjoyed near absolute power, which was curtailed as Carthage moved towards a more democratic government. Gradually, military command fell to professional officers, and a pair of suffetes replaced the king in some of the civic functions and eventually kings were no longer elected. Records show that two families had held the kingship with distinction during 550–310 BC. The 1778:, asking for military aid to remove the Carthaginian dominance over that island. Carthage had attacked Syracuse and besieged the city after seizing Akragas. Mago, the Carthaginian admiral, had 100 ships blockading the city. Pyrrhus agreed to intervene, and sailed for Sicily. Mago lifted the siege and Pyrrhus fortified the Sicilian cities with an army of 20,000 infantry, 3,000 cavalry and 20 war elephants, supported by some 200 ships. Initially, Pyrrhus' Sicilian campaign against Carthage was a success, pushing back the Carthaginian forces, and capturing the city-fortress of 1423:, which puts his expedition sometimes after 450 BC. Hanno the Navigator sailed down the African coast as far as Cameroon, and Himilco the Navigator explored the European Atlantic coast up to Britain in search of tin. These expeditions took place when Carthage was at the zenith of its power. If Hanno and Himilco are indeed related to Mago, then Carthage had recovered quite rapidly from her "crippled" state. If Hanno and Himilco are not of the Magoniod family, then these expeditions may have taken place before 500 BC and Carthage might have been crippled for 70 years. 205: 1090:

Iberia and the east. She bartered low-priced goods for metals, then bartered those for finished goods in the east and distributed these through their network. The threat from the Greek colonists was threefold: undercutting the Phoenicians by offering better products; taking over the distribution network; and preying on Punic shipping. While the Greek colonies also offered increased opportunities for trade and piracy, their nosing into areas of Punic influence caused the Punic cities to look for protection from their strongest city. Carthage took up the challenge.

375: 1225:. Two pairs of champions set out for Carthage and Cyrene on the same day, each pair running towards the other city. When the runners met, the Carthaginian pair had covered more ground. Accused of cheating by the Greeks, they consented to be buried alive on the meeting spot, so that the territory between that spot and Carthage would become part of the Carthaginian domain. The Carthaginian champions were brothers, called Philaeni, and the border was marked by two pillars called the "Altars of the Philaeni". The African territorial boundary between the 916:

hindered Phoenician activity. Trade had also developed between Punic and Etruscan cities, and Carthage had treaties with the Etruscan cities to regulate these activities, while mutual piracy had not led to full-blown war between the powers. Carthage's economic successes, and its dependence on shipping to conduct most of its trade, led to the creation of a powerful Carthaginian navy to discourage both pirates and rival nations. This, coupled with its success and growing hegemony, ultimately brought Carthage into increasing conflict with the

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consolidated his power in Sicily. The next clash against Carthage took place during 393 BC. Mago, in an attempt to aid the Sicels under attack from Syracuse, was defeated by Dionysius. Carthage reinforced Mago in 392 BC, but before he could engage the forces of Dionysius the Sicels had switched sides. The Carthaginian army was outmanoeuvred by Dionysius, and peace soon followed, which allowed Carthage to retain her domain in Sicily while allowing Syracuse a free hand against the Sicels. The treaty lasted nine years.

878:. The Punic cities not under direct Carthaginian control probably had similar treaties in place. The Libyo-Phoenicians, who lived in the African domain controlled by Carthage, also had rights similar to those of Carthaginian citizens. Carthaginian citizens were exempt from taxation and were primarily involved in commerce as traders or industrial workers. As a result, Carthage, unlike the other agricultural nations, could not afford to have her citizens serve in a long war, as it diminished her commercial activities. 131: 851:(allies contributing manpower/tribute to furnish the Roman war machine). The African lands near to the city faced the harshest control measures, with Carthaginian officers administering the area and Punic troops garrisoning the cities. Many cities had to destroy their defensive walls, while the Libyans living in the area had few rights. The Libyans could own land, but had to pay an annual tribute (50% of agricultural produce and 25% of their town income) and serve in the Carthaginian armies as conscripts. 874:, which in the course of her wars created an alliance system in Italy that expanded her lands and also expanded her citizen body and military manpower by adding allies (with varying degrees of political rights). Carthage, while she continued to expand until 218 BC, did not have a similar system to increase her citizen numbers. She had treaties in place with various Punic and non-Punic cities (the most famous and well known ones being the ones with Rome), detailing the rights of each power and their 1522:, the new tyrant of Syracuse, in battle. Himilco ultimately concluded a treaty with Dionysius (an outbreak of plague may have caused this), which allowed the Greek settlers to return to Selinus, Akragas, Camarina and Gela, but these were made tributary to Carthage. The Elymian and Sicel cities were kept free of both Punic and Greek dominion, and Dionysius, who had usurped power in Syracuse, was confirmed as tyrant of Syracuse. The home-bound Punic army carried the plague back to Carthage. 1459: 502:, four score temple maidens were taken aboard the ships. Then her fleet continues on, landing in Northwest Africa to found Carthage. Shortly after becoming established, according to Trogus, it is said that Hiarbus, a local Mauritani tribal chief, sought to marry the newly arrived queen. Instead, in order to honour her murdered husband the priest, Dido took her own life by the sword, publicly casting herself into a ceremonial fire. Thereafter she was celebrated as a goddess at Carthage. 1242: 1380: 2545: 506: 2577: 123: 1825: 1055: 24: 1646:. All the mainland Phoenician cities had submitted to Alexander except Tyre, which was besieged and sacked in 332 BC, though the Carthaginian citizens present in the city were spared. Carthage sent two delegations to Alexander, one in 332 BC and another in 323 BC, but little was achieved. Alexander was raising a fleet in Cilicia for the invasion of Carthage, Italy and Iberia when he died, sparing Carthage an ordeal. Battles among the 887: 924: 2340: 1986: 692: 742: 338:, and eventually to Carthage. Each colony paid tribute to either Tyre or Sidon, but neither mother city had actual control of the colonies. This changed with the rise of Carthage since the Carthaginians appointed their own magistrates to rule the towns and Carthage retained much direct control over the colonies. This policy resulted in a number of Iberian towns siding with the Romans during the 1209:, very near Carthage. The city became alarmed with palpable anxiety. Yet Carthage again defeated Agathocles (310–307 BC). Thereafter the Greek world, preoccupied with its conquest of the Persian Empire in the east, lost interest in expanding its colonies in Sicily. Greek influence in the western Mediterranean became supplanted by Rome, the new rival of Carthage. 1106:, and by 600 BC Carthage was actively warring with the Greeks to curb their colonial expansion. By 600 BC, the once-Phoenician lake had turned into a conflict zone with the Greeks rowing about in all corners. Carthaginian interests in Iberia, Sardinia and Sicily were threatened, which led to a series of conflicts between Carthage and various Greek city-states. 3243:(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans 1987) at 580–581 (Jezebel), 28–29 (Ahab), 30–31 (Ahaziah, King of Israel, son of Jezebel and Ahab), 559–560 (Jehoram, King of Israel, son of Jezebel and Ahab); 560 (Jehoram, King of Judah, husband of Athaliah), 103–104 (Athaliah, Queen of Judah, daughter of Jezebel and Ahab), 31 (Ahaziah, King of Judah, son of Jehoram and Athaliah). 920:, the other major power contending for control of the central Mediterranean. In conducting these conflicts, which spanned between 600–310 BC, the overseas empire of Carthage also came into being under the military leadership of the "kings". The Etruscans, also in conflict with the Greeks, became allies of Carthage in the ensuing struggle. 498:(1st century BC), a near contemporary of Virgil. Trogus describes a sinister web of court intrigue in which the new king Pygmalion (brother of Dido) slays the chief priest Acharbas (husband of Dido), which causes the Queen Elissa (Dido) along with some nobles to flee the city of Tyre westward in a fleet of ships carrying royal gold. At 1623:. Carthaginian army and fleet activity failed to stop his assumption of power in Syracuse. Mago, the Carthaginian commander, had the advantage of numbers, the support of allied Greeks, and was even admitted into Syracuse. But he bungled so much that he killed himself instead of facing the tribunal of 104 after returning to Carthage. 1695:

political rivals) were defeated by Agathocles, Hanno himself falling in battle. Ophellas came from Cyrene with 10,000 troops to aid the Syracusans. Agathocles eventually murdered Ophellas and took over his army. Although the Greeks eventually managed to capture Utica, Carthage continued to resist, and Syracuse remained blockaded.

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title "Magnus", along with great wealth, while Hamilcar and Gisco, his sons, served with distinction in the campaigns. However, Hanno aimed to obtain total power and planned to overthrow the "Council of Elders". His scheme failed, leading to his execution along with Hamilcar and most of his family. Gisco was exiled.

1439:, refused to aid Segesta against Selinus in 415 BC and Athens against Syracuse in 413 BC. Nothing is known of any military activities Carthage might have taken in Africa or Iberia during this time. In 410 BC, Segesta, under attack from Selinus, appealed to Carthage again. The Carthaginian senate agreed to send help. 4925:) in Italy were in his hands and some 40% of Rome's allies were on his side." Lazenby notes "the refusal, as late as 209, of twelve of the thirty Latin states to supply their contingents to the Roman army." But in the end, "Hannibal's strategy was a failure." John B. Lazenby, "Carthage and Rome" at 225–241, 234, in 2212: 2689:. Carthage was little more than an agricultural village for nine hundred years until the middle of the 20th century; since then it has grown rapidly as an upscale coastal suburb. In 2004 it had a population of 15,922 according to the national census, and an estimated population of 21,276 in January 2013. 2300:, with Masinissa commanding Numidian cavalry on his right wing, defeated Hannibal Barca, ending the long war. Carthage lost all of its trading cities and silver mines in Hispania, and its other possessions in the western Mediterranean; also lost: Carthage's political influence over the Berber Kingdoms ( 2265:. Yet Roman forces soon began to contest Carthage for its control. In 207 BC an overland attempt by his brother Hasdrubal to reinforce Hannibal in Italy failed. Rome became encouraged. By 206, the fortunes of war in Hispania had turned against Carthage; the Roman general Publius Cornelius Scipio (later 951:. Mago, the 6th century ruler of Carthage, initiated the practice of recruiting the army from subject peoples and mercenaries, because "the population of Carthage was too small to provide defence for so widely scattered an empire." Hence, Libyans, Iberians, Sardinians, and Corsicans were soon enlisted. 3465:

Virgil attempted, in part, to personify Carthage and Rome, and mythically explain their subsequent antagonism. The story line follows Aeneas as he escapes from his city of Troy after its capture by the Greeks. Eventually, following adventures he arrives (as steered by the gods) in Italy where he acts

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in Africa. Carthage may have signed the treaty with Rome, then an insignificant backwater, because Romans had treaties with the Phocaeans and Cumae, who were aiding the Roman struggle against the Etruscans at that time. Carthage had similar treaties with Etruscan, Punic and Greek cities in Sicily. By

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Hasdrubal, the son of Mago, was elected as "king" eleven times, was granted a triumph four times (the only Carthaginian to receive this honour – there is no record of anyone else being given similar treatment by Carthage) and had died of his battle wounds received in Sardinia. Carthage had engaged in

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The site of Carthage itself was likely chosen by the Tyrians for several reasons. It was located in the central shore of the Gulf of Tunis, which gave it access to the Mediterranean sea while shielding it from the region's infamously violent storms. It was also close to the strategically vital Strait

4748:(Leipzig 1854–1856; London 1862–1866, reprint Dent, London 1911) at 56 (Bk.III, end of Ch.2), comments that Rome's victory here was due to the fortunes of war "and to the energy of her citizens, but still more to the errors of her enemies in the conduct of the war—errors far surpassing even her own." 2534:

rhetorically addressed the Roman governor with the fact that the Christians of Carthage that just yesterday were few in number, now "have filled every place among you —cities, islands, fortresses, towns, market-places, the very camp, tribes, companies, palaces, senate, forum; we have left nothing to

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The island of Sicily, lying at Carthage's doorstep, became the arena in which this conflict played out. From their earliest days, both the Greeks and Phoenicians had been attracted to the large island, establishing a large number of colonies and trading posts along its coasts. Small battles had been

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In Sicily, Hamilcar led a night attack on Syracuse, which failed, leading to his capture and subsequent execution by the Syracusans. Agathocles returned to Syracuse in 308 BC and defeated the Punic army, thus lifting the blockade, then returned to Africa. In 307, the war came to an end when Carthage

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ruled for 38 years and engaged in four wars against Carthage with varying results. In retaliation for Greek raids on Punic Sicilian possessions in 406 BC, Hannibal Mago led a second Carthaginian expedition, perhaps aiming to subjugate all Sicily. Carthaginians first moved against Akragas, during the

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in Sicily in 510 BC while attempting to establish a foothold in Western Sicily. Hamilcar, either the brother or nephew (son of Hanno) of Hasdrubal, followed him to power in Carthage. Hamilcar had served with Hasdrubal in Sardinia and had managed to put down the revolt of Sardinians which had started

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were energetic traders by sea, who had been establishing emporia throughout the Mediterranean region in furtherance of their commercial interests. These parallel activities both by the Greeks and by Carthage led to persistent disputes over influence and control of commercial spheres, particularly in

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The Phoenicians encountered little resistance in developing their trade monopoly during 1100–900 BC. The emergence of the Etruscans as a sea power did little to dent the Phoenician trade. The power of the Etruscans was localized around Italy, and their trade with Corsica, Sardinia and Iberia had not

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of Babylon was conducting the 13-year siege of Tyre starting from 585 BC, Carthage was probably independent of her mother city in political matters. However, close ties with Tyre still remained, Carthage continued to send annual tribute to Tyre (for the temple of Melqart) at irregular intervals over

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by the succession of empires that ruled them and later by fear of complete Greek colonization of that part of the Mediterranean suitable for commerce. The initial Phoenician colonization took place during a time when other neighboring kingdoms (Hellenic/Greek and Hattian/Hittite) were suffering from

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The fall of Carthage was at the end of the third Punic War in 146 BC. In spite of the initial devastating Roman naval losses at the beginning of the series of conflicts and Rome's recovery from the brink of defeat after the terror of a 15-year occupation of much of Italy by Hannibal, the end of the

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Carthage initiated peace negotiations, which dragged for a year but ultimately faltered. Dionysius had consolidated his gains during the lull, and attacked Punic Sicily. He was decisively defeated in the battle of Cronium in 376 BC by Himilco, the son of Mago. Carthage did not follow up the victory

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Focus was shifted on expansion in Africa and Sardinia, and on the exploration of Africa and Europe for new markets. The grandsons of Mago I, Hannibal, Hasdrubal and Sappho (sons of Hasdrubal), together with Hanno, Gisco and Himilco (sons of Hamilcar) are said to have played prominent parts in these

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Defeat in the First Sicilian War had far reaching consequences, both political and economic, for Carthage. Politically, the old government of entrenched nobility was ousted, replaced by the Carthaginian Republic. A king was still elected, but the senate and the "Tribunal of 104" gained dominance in

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in Libya) between 700–600 BC. Carthage also focused on bringing the existing Phoenician colonies along the African coast into the hegemony, but exact details are lacking. Emporia had fallen under Carthaginian influence prior to 509 BC, as the first treaty with Rome indicated. The eastward expansion

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being scarce though in high demand, its supply became very profitable. Yet Hispania was even more rich in silver. Originally Carthage was probably a stop on the way between Tyre and the region of Gadir, a stop where sailors might beach their boats and resupply with food and water. Eventually, local

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The Phoenician cities were highly dependent on both land- and seaborne trade and their cities included a number of major ports in the area. In order to provide a resting place for their merchant fleets, to maintain a Phoenician monopoly on an area's natural resource, or to conduct trade on its own,

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Lancel, Carthage (1992, 1995) at 17–19. The ruins of Utica, within the modern Republic of Tunisia and now situated 10 km inland, have been excavated to some extent, especially regarding a cemetery dating to the 8th century B.C.E. No conclusive earlier finds have been identified, but the ruins

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against Carthage. Inevitably, the accounts of Carthage written by outsiders include significant bias. Recent excavation of ancient Carthaginian sites has brought much more primary material to light. Some of the finds contradict or confirm aspects of the traditional picture of Carthage, but much of

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In desperation, Agathocles secretly led an expedition of 14,000 men to the mainland, hoping to save his rule by leading a counterstrike against Carthage itself. The expedition ravaged Carthaginian possessions in Africa. Troops recalled from Sicily under the joint command of Hanno and Bomilcar (two

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and Syracuse concluded a similar treaty. A power struggle saw Hanno eventually depose his rival Suniatus (Leader of the Council of Elders) through the judicial process and execute him. With Sicily secure, Carthage launched campaigns in Libya, Spain and Mauretania, which eventually earned Hanno the

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During these centuries Carthage enlarged its commercial sphere, augmenting its markets along the African coast, in southern Iberia, and among the islands of the western Mediterranean, venturing south to develop rudiments of the Saharan trade, and exploring commercial opportunities in the Atlantic.

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It has been noted that the culture of Phoenician colonies had gained a distinct "Punic" character by the end of the 7th century BC, indicating the emergence of a distinct culture in Western Mediterranean. In 650 BC, Carthage planted her own colony, and in 600 BC, she was warring with Greeks on her

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requires the hero Aeneas to leave his beloved Dido, who then commits suicide and burns in a funeral pyre. This episode employs not only the history or legends narrated by Trogus (mentioned above), but perhaps also subsequent mythical and cult-based elements, as Dido would become assimilated to the

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compels the hero Aeneas to leave Dido and travel to his destiny at Rome (at pages 103–105, lines 299–324, 352–402 ]). The Queen Dido then dies by her own hand and is consumed in a sacrificial fire (at 119–120, lines 903–934 ]). Later, Aeneas meets Dido in the underworld (at 175–176, lines 606–639

2237:(216 BC), which came close to destroying Rome's ability to wage war. But the majority of Rome's Italian allies remained loyal; Rome drew on all her resources and managed to rebuild her military strength. For many years Hannibal enjoyed the support of those cities who defected from Rome, including 1630:

in 341 BC by the combined Greek force. Gisco, the son of Hanno "Magnus" was recalled and elected as "king", but he achieved little and after Timoleon had captured some pro-Carthaginian Greek cities, a peace treaty was concluded in 338 BC. The accord left the Punic possessions in Sicily unchanged,

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and other aspirants. The Punic holdings in Sicily were secure as Syracuse had begun to lose its hegemony over other Sicilian cities because of internal political conflict that turned to open warfare. Carthage had done little directly during 366–346 BC to interfere, but in 343 BC decided to oppose

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boycotted Carthaginian traders. This led to the development of trade with the West and of caravan-borne trade with the East. Gisco, son of Hamilcar was exiled, and Carthage for the next 70 years made no recorded forays against the Greeks nor aided either the Elymians/Sicels or the Etruscans, then

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The trade network which Carthage inherited from Tyre depended heavily on Carthage keeping commercial rivals at arm's length. The goods produced by Carthage were mainly for the local African market and were initially inferior to Greek goods. Carthage was the middleman between mineral resource-rich

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Carthage and Rome (by now a significant power in Central Italy), concluded a second treaty in 348 BC. Romans were allowed to trade in Sicily, but not to settle there, and Iberia, Sardinia and Libya were forbidden to Roman exploration, trade and settlement activities. Romans were to hand over any

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in Iberia by 530 BC, either by armed conflict or by cutting off Greek trade. Carthage also besieged and took over Gades at this time. The Persians had taken over Cyrene by this time, and Carthage may have been spared a trial of arms against the Persian Empire when the Phoenicians refused to lend

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in Sicily after 750 BC. Over the next century, hundreds of Greek colonies sprang up along the Southern Italian and Sicilian coastlines (except Western Sicily). There are no records of Phoenicians initially clashing with Greeks over territory; in fact, the Phoenicians had withdrawn to the Western

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The plague, brought back from Sicily, ravaged Carthage and a severe rebellion in Africa occurred at the same time. Carthage was besieged and her naval power was crucial in supplying the city. Himilco was succeeded by his kinsman Mago, who was occupied with subduing the rebellion while Dionysius

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produced several members who were elected kings between 550 BC and 370 BC, who were in the forefront of the overseas expansion of Carthage. Hanno "Magnus", along with his son and grandson, held the kingship for some years between 367 and 310 BC. Records of other elected kings or their impact on

720:, then the leading Phoenician city in Africa, aided the early settlement in her dealings. The date from which Carthage can be counted as an independent power cannot exactly be determined, and probably nothing distinguished Carthage from the other Phoenician colonies in Africa during 800–700 BC. 2116:, former general of Pyrrhus and the new tyrant of Syracuse, took action against them. Faced with a vastly superior force, the Mamertines divided into two factions, one advocating surrender to Carthage, the other preferring to seek aid from Rome. As a result, embassies were sent to both cities. 1542:

Dionysius began the next war in 383 BC, but details of the first four years of clashes are unavailable. Carthage sent a force under Mago to Southern Italy for the first time to aid Italian Greeks against Syracuse in 379 BC. The expedition met with success, but during the same year, Libyans and

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and Greeks in the west and their political and economic independence by successive empires in the east, Phoenician influence from the mainland decreased in the west and Punic Carthage ultimately emerged at the head of a commercial empire. One theory is that refugees from Phoenicia swelled the

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Carthaginian senate. They in turn returned to Africa and besieged Carthage, which duly surrendered. Malchus assumed power, but was later deposed and executed. The Carthaginian army, which up to this point had been a predominantly citizen militia, became one primarily made up of mercenaries.

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warred successfully against the Libyan tribes in Africa, and then defeated the Greeks in Sicily, sending a part of the Sicilian booty to Tyre as tribute to Melqart. Malchus next moved to Sardinia, but suffered a severe defeat against the natives. He and his entire army were banished by the

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trade would begin, and huts built; later more permanent homes and warehouses constructed, then fortified, perhaps also a shrine. All would change and transform on the day when a Queen of Tyre arrived with a fleet of ships, carrying nobility and well-connected merchants, and royal treasure.

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against mainland Greece in 480 BC, prompting speculations about a possible alliance between Carthage and Persia against the Greeks, although no documentary evidence of this exists. The Punic fleet was battered by storms en route, and the Punic army was destroyed and Hamilcar killed in the

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were more independent and had their own government. Carthage stationed troops and some type of central administration in Sardinia and Iberia to control her domain. The cities, in return for surrendering these privileges, obtained Carthaginian protection, which provided the fleet to combat

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Exactly what social/political/geographic/military factors influenced the citizens of Carthage, and not the other Mediterranean Phoenician colonial members to create an economic and political hegemony is not clearly known. The city of Utica was far older than Carthage and enjoyed the same

465:, the major maritime city-state of Phoenicia and prime mover in the Phoenician mercantile expansion into the western Mediterranean, first settled Carthage. Probably Carthage started as one of Tyre's permanent stations en route to its very profitable, ongoing trade in metals with southern 1477:"King" Hannibal Mago (son of Gisco and grandson of Hamilcar, who had died at Himera in 480 BC), led a small force to Sicily to aid Segesta, and defeated the army of Selinus in 410 BC. Hannibal Mago invaded Sicily with a larger force in 409 BC, landed at Motya and stormed Selinus (modern 2245:

in the far south; Hannibal remained on campaign there, maintaining his army and posing an existential threat to Rome and her remaining Italian allies. Yet the passage of years appeared to forestall Hannibal's chances, although for a while Rome's fate appeared to hang in the balance.

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led to sustained rivalry with the more anciently established Carthage for dominion of the western Mediterranean. As early as 509 BC. Carthage and Rome had entered into treaty status, chiefly regarding trading areas; later in 348, another similar treaty was made between Carthage,

858:) paid an annual tribute and ran their own internal affairs, retained their defensive walls but had no independent foreign policy. Other cities had to provide personnel for the Punic army and the Punic navy along with tribute but retained internal autonomy. Allies like Utica and 3609:

Warmington previously noted that the ancient Greeks did not possess sufficient knowledge nor a firm grasp on the information then available, concerning their contemporaries the Phoenicians, nor Phoenician history; thus the Greeks were not trustworthy guides. B. H. Warmington,

443:, as recounted in the Bible, perhaps joined at times by ships assigned to Solomon, would date to the 10th century. "For the king had a fleet of ships of Tarshish at sea with the fleet of Hiram." The Punic port city of Utica was originally situated at the mouth of the fertile 299:. The Phoenicians lacked the population or necessity to establish self-sustaining cities abroad, and most cities had fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, but Carthage and a few other cities later developed into large, self-sustaining, independent cities. The Phoenicians controlled 898:

Carthage was initially ruled by kings, who were elected by the Carthaginian senate and served for a specific time period. The election took place in Carthage, and the kings at first were war leaders, civic administrators and performed certain religious duties. According to

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Little is known of the internal history and dealings of the early Phoenician city. The initial city covered the area around Byrsa, paid an annual tribute to the nearby Libyan tribes, and may have been ruled by a governor from Tyre, whom the Greeks identified as "king".

2464:. The Romans pulled the Phoenician warships out into the harbour and burned them before the city, and went from house to house, slaughtering and enslaving the people. The city was set ablaze, and in this way was razed with only ruins and rubble to field the aftermath. 1525:

In 398 BC, after building up the power of Syracuse while Carthage was suffering from the plague, Dionysius broke the peace treaty. His soldiers massacred the Carthaginian traders in Syracuse, and Dionysius then besieged, captured and destroyed the Carthaginian city of

1085:

but to extend their own area of influence, neither was Carthage interested in wiping out Greek ideals. It was the vulnerability of the Carthaginian economy to Greek commercial competition that caused Carthage to take on the Greeks during the early years of her empire.

799:. Carthage would establish new colonies, repopulate old Phoenician ones, come to the defence of other Punic cities under threat from natives/Greeks, as well as expand her territories by conquest. While some Phoenician colonies willingly submitted to Carthage, paying 235:, which was situated in the coast of what is now Lebanon. In the 10th century BC, the eastern Mediterranean shore was inhabited by various Semitic populations, who had built up flourishing civilizations. The people inhabiting what is now Lebanon were referred to as 2127:. A Carthaginian garrison was admitted to the city, and a Carthaginian fleet sailed into the Messanan harbour. However, soon afterwards they began negotiating with Hiero. Alarmed, the Mamertines sent another embassy to Rome asking them to expel the Carthaginians. 1801:, bringing it closer to complete domination of the Italian peninsula. Rome's domination of Italy, and proof that Rome could pit its military strength successfully against major international powers, would pave the way to the future Rome–Carthage conflicts of the 345:

Ancient sources concur that Carthage had become perhaps the wealthiest city in the world via its trade and commerce, yet few remains of its riches exist. This is due to the fact that most of it was short-lived materials—textiles, unworked metal, foodstuffs, and

3683:

With regard to the Jews and the city of Carthage, Jewish settlement there and in the region now called Tunisia may have begun as early as the 6th century, after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar in 586 B. C. E. André N. Chouraqui,

2324:

in Carthage joined with this Roman faction to terminate Hannibal's reforms; eventually Hannibal was forced to flee the city. Many Romans continued to nurse a hot, across-the-board opposition to Carthage. The anti-Punic faction was led by the politician

191:

was established on the ruins of the first. Roman Carthage was eventually destroyed—its walls torn down, its water supply cut off, and its harbours made unusable—following its conquest by Arab invaders at the close of the 7th century. It was replaced by

247:

the Phoenicians established numerous colonial cities along the coasts of the Mediterranean, stretching from Iberia to the Black Sea. They were stimulated to found their cities by a need for revitalizing trade in order to pay the tribute extracted from

3272:(Harvard Univ. 1973) at 227 (Uriah), 237 (Adonijah). Yet the Hebrew Bible condemns Jezebel (who killed Hebrew prophets) but not Bathsheba (whose adultery was a youthful affair, and whose latter alleged offense is subject to different interpretations). 2662:

which in turn vastly eclipsed Carthage as the major regional centre. Carthage's materials were used to supply the expansion of Tunis. The destruction of the Exarchate of Africa marked a permanent end to the Byzantine Empire's influence in the region.

1162:

Sicily. When combined with the permanent foreign conquest of Phoenicia in the Levant, these Greek commercial challenges had caused many Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean to choose the leadership of Carthage. In 480 BC (concurrent with

3627:(Pennsylvania State Univ. 1992). "To show awareness of the pitfalls of invented tradition and hence in the explanations offered, the historian must also reveal what it was like to have been there—a bard in Homeric Greece; a villager in Africa... ." 1121:

against the Greek city of Selineus in 580 BC. The result was the defeated Greeks establishing themselves in Lipera, which became a pirate hub, a threat to all commerce (Greek included). Shortly after this event, Carthaginians under a "king" called

2707:

save Carthage from Tunis' inconveniences and embarrassments and increase its attractiveness as a place of residence for the elites. If Carthage is not the capital, it tends to be the political pole, a "place of emblematic power," according to

2146:, which nearly prevented the rise of the Roman Empire. Eventual victory by Rome was a turning point which meant that the civilization of the ancient Mediterranean would pass to the modern world via Southern Europe instead of Northwest Africa. 1530:

in Western Sicily while foiling the relief effort of Himilco through a brilliant stratagem. Himilco, who had been elected "king", responded decisively the following year, leading an expedition which not only reclaimed Motya, but also captured

1408:

locked in struggle against the Greeks, or sent any aid to the Greek enemies of Syracuse, then the leading Greek city in Sicily. Based on this abstinence from Greek affairs, it is assumed that Carthage was crippled after the defeat of Himera.

3475:

The Queen bought as much land as an ox hide would cover, then cut it at the edge round and round into a very thin, long strip, enough to surround the citadel area. For the Romans this exemplified Berber simplicity and Phoenician sophistry.

2104:

When Agathocles died in 288 BC, a large company of Italian mercenaries who had previously been held in his service found themselves suddenly without employment. Rather than leave Sicily, they seized the city of Messana. Naming themselves

1430:

in Sicily against Syracuse, nor in the wars between Akragas and Syracuse, or the battles of the Etruscans against Syracuse and Cumae. Carthage's fleet also took no recorded part in the shattering defeat of the Etruscan fleet at the naval

733:

geographical/political advantages as Carthage, but it opted to be an allied entity, not a leader of the Punic hegemony that came into being probably sometime around the 6th century BC. When the Phoenician trade monopoly was challenged by

2130:

Hiero's intervention had placed Carthage's military forces directly across the narrow channel of water that separated Sicily from Italy. Moreover, the presence of the Carthaginian fleet gave them effective control over this channel, the

1485:

despite Syracusan intervention. Approximately 3,000 Greek prisoners were executed by Hannibal after the battle to avenge the death of Hamilcar at Himera, and the city was utterly destroyed. The Carthaginians did not attack Syracuse or

838:

took place but did not end with the creation of a Carthaginian empire. The degree of control Carthage exerted over her territories varied in their severity. In ways, the Carthaginian hegemony shared some of the characteristics of the

567:

the modern reader may form some understanding of how the ancient people of Carthage spoke to each other about their city's beginnings, i.e., an aspect of their collective self-image, or perhaps even infer some of the subtlety in the

4205:." Also, "200 children of the most noble families were chosen by the authorities and sacrificed" to the Punic deity Baal Hammon. Three hundred more children were later "voluntarily surrendered by parents" for sacrifice. Warmington, 1412:

activities, but specific details of their roles are lacking. By 450 BC, Carthage had finally stopped paying tribute to the Libyans, and a line of forts was built in Sardinia, securing Carthaginian control over the island coastline.

587:, who dwells at the entrance to the sea, merchant of many peoples on many coastlands... . ... Tarshish trafficked with you because of your great wealth of every kind; silver, iron, tin, and lead they exchanged for your wares." 790:

in Sicily and Italy respectively, and by 650 BC Phoenicians in Sicily had retreated to the western part of that island. Around this time the first recorded independent action by Carthage takes place, which is the colonization of

2754:

texts into Greek and Latin as well as inscriptions on monuments and buildings discovered in Northwest Africa survive. However, the majority of available primary source material about Carthaginian civilization was written by

539:, to Carthage, to Rome. The work contains inventive scenes, loosely based on the legendary history of Carthage, e.g., referring to the then well-known story how the Phoenician Queen cunningly acquired the citadel of the 3440:

The celebration of Dido thereafter demonstrates the Carthaginian's abiding respect for committed dedication to an all-encompassing purpose, even to taking the ultimate step of self-sacrifice. Cf., Soren, Khader, Slim,

3238:

of Israel, orchestrated sinister plots from her position at court. Her daughter Athaliah when Queen of Judah (r. 842–836) also involved herself in murderous court intrigue leading to her death. Allen C. Myers, editor,

2319:

initiated by Hannibal and, free of defence burdens, prospered as never before. In 191 Carthage offered to pay off early the indemnity due Rome, causing alarm in the anti-Punic faction there. Then the corrupt and rigid

2192:(father of Hannibal) whose army in Sicily the Romans did not defeat in the first war; the Roman seizure of Sardinia during the mercenary revolt; and, creation by the Barcid military family of a new Punic power base in 1662:

Syria spared Carthage any further clashes with the successor states for some time. Trade relations were opened with Egypt, giving Carthage sea-borne access to the Eastern markets, which had been cut off since 480 BC.

1593:

Hanno, a wealthy aristocrat, was in command in Sicily, and he and his family played a leading role in the politics of Carthage for the next fifty years. Carthage had entered into an alliance with the Etruscans, while

2504:, a Roman ally, was made capital of the region and replaced Carthage as the leading centre of Punic trade and leadership. It had the advantageous position of being situated on the Lake of Tunis and the outlet of the 459:(215). She does not appear in the first treaty with Rome (508), which perhaps means she was fully independent and not even bound in the Carthage-Rome alliance." Of course, eventually Utica was surpassed by Carthage. 2508:, Tunisia's only river that flowed all year long. However, the prestige of the site of Carthage was such that first Caesar, and then Augustus, decided to rebuild it as a Roman city and the capital of Roman Africa. 1301:. The Etruscans took control of Corsica, Carthage concentrated on Sardinia, ensuring that no Greek presence would be established in the island. The defeat also ended the westward expansion of Greeks for all time. 1699:

finally managed to defeat the Greeks in Africa, after surviving a coup attempt by Bomilcar. Agathocles abandoned his army and returned to Syracuse, where a treaty divided Sicily between Punic and Greek domains.

323:; the latter settlements were in perpetual conflict with the Greeks. The Phoenicians managed to control Sicily for a limited time, but Phoenician control did not extend inland and was limited to the coast only. 2149:"robably both sides miscalculated the reaction of the other. The war... escalated beyond anyone's expectations... . egun over one town in became a struggle for the whole island." The conflict developed into 175:. The date from which Carthage can be counted as an independent power cannot exactly be determined, and probably nothing distinguished Carthage from the other Phoenician colonies in Northwest Africa and the 1296:

in Corsica (Greeks had settled there since 562 BC), and began preying on Etruscan and Punic commerce. Between 540 and 535 BC, a Carthaginian-Etruscan alliance had expelled the Greeks from Corsica after the

2417:, school of philosophy. Despite the above Roman peace faction and such multiple, cultural and artistic interactions between Rome and Carthage within the context of the Mediterranean world, again war came. 2556:

a few years later, no fewer than 70 bishops attended. Tertullian later broke with the mainstream that was represented more and more by the bishop of Rome, but a more serious rift among Christians was the

1922:. It was also fighting wars in defence of Punic colonies and commerce. However, only the details of her struggle against the Greeks have survived – which often makes Carthage seem "obsessed with Sicily". 2135:, and demonstrated a clear and present danger to nearby Rome and her interests. The Roman senate was unable to decide on a course of action and referred the matter to the people, who voted to intervene. 954:

The commercial territories regularly visited by Punic traders encompassed all the western maritime region. Trading partnerships were established nearby, among the Numidian Berbers to the west along the

1081:

The nature of the conflict between Carthage and the Greeks was more due to economic factors rather than ideological and cultural differences. The Greeks did not wage a crusade to save the world from

2692:

In February 1985, Ugo Vetere, the mayor of Rome, and Chedly Klibi, the mayor of Carthage, signed a symbolic treaty "officially" ending the conflict between their cities, which had been supposedly

2142:. Over the course of the next century, these three major conflicts between Rome and Carthage would determine the course of Western civilization. The wars included a Carthaginian invasion led by 1308:

to Greek shipping, while Massalians retained their Iberian colonies in Eastern Iberia above Cape Nao. Southern Iberia was closed to the Greeks. Carthaginians in support of the Phoenician colony

1551:

but settled for an indemnity payment of 1000 talents and restoration of Carthaginian holdings in Sicily. Nothing is known of how or when Carthage subdued the African and Sardinian rebellion.

5454: 2312:, was restored to an enlarged realm. Carthage, reduced to its immediate surroundings, its actions restricted by treaty, was required to pay a very large indemnity to Rome over fifty years. 738:

population and enhanced the culture of Carthage during the time the Phoenician homeland came under attack from the Babylonians and Persians, transferring the tradition of Tyre to Carthage.

2604:. After a failed attempt to recapture the city in the 5th century, the Byzantines finally subdued the Vandals in the 6th century. Using Gaiseric's grandson's disposal by a distant cousin, 2101:

by the combined armies of Himera, Akragas and Syracuse under Gelo. Carthage made peace with the Greeks and paid a large indemnity of 2000 silver talents, but lost no territory in Sicily.

2042:

fought between these settlements for centuries. Carthage had to contend with at least three Greek incursions, in 580 BC, in 510 BC, and a war in which the city of Heraclea was destroyed.

179:

during 800–700 BC. By the end of the 7th century BC, Carthage was becoming one of the leading commercial centres of the West Mediterranean region. After a long conflict with the emerging

1046:. The traders of Carthage were known to be secretive about business and particularly about trade routes; it was their practice to keep the straits to the Atlantic closed to the Greeks. 4860:(London: Robert Hale 1960, 2d ed. 1969) at 191, who discusses the division at Carthage between the merchant supporters of Hamilcar and Hannibal, and pro-peace landed aristocrats under 870:

Carthaginian citizenship was more exclusive, and the goal of the state was more focused on protecting the trade infrastructure than expanding the citizen body. This contrasts with the

563:"Nothing of historical value can be derived from the foundation legends transmitted to us in various versions by Greek and Roman authors", comments professor Warmington. Yet from such 1569:(26 mm, 16.84 g, 7h). Head of Arethousa left, wearing wreath of grain ears, triple-pendant earring, and necklace; three dolphins around / Head of horse left; palm tree to right, 469:. Such stations were often established by Tyre at intervals of about 30 to 50 kilometres along the African coast. Carthage would grow to out-rival all other Phoenician settlements. 795:. By the end of the 7th century BC, Carthage was becoming one of the leading commercial centres of the West Mediterranean region, a position it retained until overthrown by the 330:. The center of the Phoenician world was Tyre, serving as an economic and political hub. The power of this city waned following numerous sieges and its eventual destruction by 3331:(New York: Simon & Schuster 1990) at 23–24 (Dido's escape from Tyre), 17–29 (Dido), 23–25 (Trogus). Trogus appears to be following the events as recorded by the historian 5344:(1990) at 170–171, 265–266. Following the Arab conquest in 705, "the ancient stone blocks, columns and pillars" of Carthage were used in the construction of the new city of 552:. Each autumn a pyre was built outside the old city of Carthage; into it the goddess was thought to throw herself in self-immolation for the sake of the dead vegetation god 2092:

Hamilcar prepared the largest Punic overseas expedition to date and, after three years of preparations, sailed for Sicily. This enterprise coincided with the expedition of

3792: 2631:

in Italy. These two exarchates were the western bulwarks of Byzantium, all that remained of its power in the west. In the early 7th century, it was the Exarch of Carthage

2393:

There were likewise citizens of Carthage who increasingly accepted the cultural influence of the Hellenic world. For example, Hasdrubal, a son of Carthage (also known as

1758:

and expelled the newly installed Roman garrison in 282 BC. Committed to war, they appealed to Pyrrhus, who ultimately arrived with an army and defeated the Romans in the

1626:

Timoleon managed to gain support of the tyrants in league with Carthage, and the Punic expedition sent to Sicily in retaliation of Syracusan raids was crushed in the

2600:, or as migrants in search of safety. They subsequently fought against the Roman forces there and by 435 had defeated the Roman forces in Africa and established the 2157:. Carthage lost Sicily (all of its former western portion) and paid a huge indemnity. Evidently Carthage had not then been ready to wage war against an equal power. 472:

Legends alive in the city for centuries assigned its foundation in 814 BC to a queen of Tyre, Elissa, also called Dido ("beloved"). Dido's great aunt must have been

1607:, and not to spend the night in Roman territory under arms. This shows that the Iberian Phoenician colonies were in the Carthaginian sphere of influence by 348 BC. 1292:, established the warlike tradition of Carthage by their successes in Africa, Sicily and Sardinia. In 546 BC, Phocaeans fleeing from a Persian invasion established 729:

the centuries. Carthage inherited no colonial empire from Tyre and had to build her own. It is likely that Carthage did not have an empire prior to 6th century BC.

4023:(London: Methuen 1929; revised, Baltimore: Pelican 1963) at 45–47 (Himilco), at 63–68 (Hanno), at 47 (straits closed). The Phoenicians themselves had followed the 1403:

political matters, and the position of "suffet" became more influential. Economically, sea-borne trade with the Middle East was cut off by the mainland Greeks and

683:

imagines that the city's founding coincides with the end of the Trojan War. However, it is most likely that the city was founded sometime between 846 and 813 BC.

4809:(Penguin Books 1979) at 187–188. Polybius relates the story of Hannibal's youthful oath never to befriend Rome, required by his father Hamilcar Barca. Polybius, 3335:(c. 300) of Sicily, whose works are largely lost. Much of the writings of Trogus himself are lost, but its abbreviated content survives in an ancient summary by 2703:

The modern Carthage, beyond its residential vocation, seems to be invested with an affirmed political role. The geographical configuration of Carthage as an old

1750:

waged two major campaigns in an effort to protect and extend the influence of the Molossians in the western Mediterranean: one against the emerging power of the

912:, who would ultimately displace the kings, were elected by the people. Suffets would ultimately discard their military duties and become purely civic officials. 3023:(Princeton Univ. 1998) at 12–13, 40, 134. At 133 Patai notes the Jewish reliance on Phoenician shipwrights and craft in building and managing the ships, citing 2608:, as either a valid justification or pretext, the Byzantines dispatched an army to conquer the Vandal kingdom. On Sunday, 15 October 533, the Byzantine general 358:, silver, gold, and iron were gained in return for consumer goods. Like their Phoenician predecessors the Carthaginians produced and exported the very valuable 5528: 1213:

Carthage also established its authority directly among the Numidian Berber peoples in the lands immediately surrounding the city, which grew more prosperous.

2443:

as the new Province of Africa. The city of Carthage was eventually rebuilt by the Romans under Julius Caesar, beginning in 46 BC. It later became capital of

5586: 4757:

The first war had shown "significant divisions" among the leaders of Carthage and a "general ineptitude". Lazenby, "Carthage and Rome" 225–241, at 238, in

5323:(203–120) attempts to give both sides, presenting the case against Rome, preceded and followed by rather weak arguments defending its actions. Polybius, 1789:

Following these losses, Carthage sued for peace, but Pyrrhus refused unless Carthage was willing to renounce its claims on Sicily entirely. According to

2447:

and a leading city of the Empire. The entire province, Berber and Punic with a large Latin and multinational influx, then experienced a centuries-long

5174:(London: Methuen 1936; 3d ed. 1954, reprint Dutton, New York 1960) at 72–80, 72–73 ('Afer', Scipio circle). Professor Rose (at 73, n12 and 511) cites 3221:(New York: Frederick A. Praeger 1962) at 52, 66. Harden at 53 gives a schema of the "Royal Houses of Tyre, Israel, and Judah in the 9th century B.C." 3368:

The captured temple women of Cyprus are possibly symbolic or a metaphor, parallel to the rape of the Sabine women in Roman lore, notes Lancel in his

1679:(present-day Messina). In 311 BC, he invaded the Carthaginian holdings on Sicily, breaking the terms of the current peace treaty, and laid siege to 5502: 5458: 3701:(XV: 249–250), translated by E.V. Rieu (Penguin 1946) at 240–242, tells the tale of a notorious ship of Phoenicians stopping at an island to trade. 3466:

in the foundation of Rome. In the meantime, during the course of his journeys, he landed at Carthage where the Queen Dido and Aeneas became lovers.

2693: 1321:

in 525 BC for an African expedition. Carthage may have paid tribute irregularly to the Great King. It is not known if Carthage had any role in the

2511:

A new city of Carthage was built on the same land, and by the 1st century AD it had grown to the second largest city in the western half of the

1543:

Sardinians revolted, and a plague again swept through Africa. The stalemate in Sicily was broken when Dionysius defeated and killed Mago at the

439:, meaning "to be old", which lends some support to this chronology, for Carthage signifies "new city" (as stated above). The fleets of the King 4119:

IX, as translated by E.V.Rieu (Penguin 1946) at 141–142, appears the tale of the "lotus eaters" whose location has been reckoned the island of

1687:, grandson of Hanno "Magnus", led the Carthaginian response and met with tremendous success. By 310 BC, he controlled almost all of Sicily and 447:(Medjerda River), at a point along the coast about 30 kilometres north of Carthage. "Utica is named besides Carthage in the second treaty with 1889:

indicating a division of influence and commercial activities. This is the first known source indicating that Carthage had gained control over

834:

Carthage spread her influence along the west coast relatively unhindered, but the chronology is unknown. Wars with the Libyans, Numidians and

2795:. These authors came from cultures nearly always in competition and often in conflict, with Carthage. The Greeks contested with Carthage for 2172:. During this crisis at Carthage, Rome refused to aid the rebels (underpaid mercenaries and dissident Berbers), but later occupied Sardinia. 2085:

of Akragas, father-in-law of Gelo, deposed the tyrant of Himera in 483 BC, Carthage decided to intervene at the instigation of the tyrant of

268:, paid an annual tribute to the nearby Libyan tribes, and may have been ruled by a governor from Tyre, whom the Greeks identified as "king". 223:

Carthage was one of a number of Phoenician settlements in the western Mediterranean that were created to facilitate trade from the cities of

350:; its trade in fabricated goods was only a part of its wares. There can be no doubt that the most fruitful trade was that acquired from the 5311:(1935; 4th ed. 1980, 1991) at 306–317. Scipio Aemilianus of the Scipio circle nonetheless served as Roman Consul in 147 (and again in 134). 1130:

In the 530s there had been a three-sided naval struggle between the Phoenicians, the Greeks, and the Etrusco-Punic allies; the Greeks lost

1102:

corner of Sicily in the face of Greek expansion. However, the situation changed sometime after 638 BC, when the first Greek trader visited

1547:

in 378 BC (Mago was the last "suffet" to lead troops personally in battle. The Magonid dynasty ended with the death of his son Himilco).

509:

The city-state of Carthage and territories under its political control or commercial influence, circa 264 BC (before the First Punic War)

1603:

settlements they captured there to Carthage. Carthaginians pledged to be friendly with the Latins, to return to Rome cities captured in

5276: 609: 3225:

was mother of kings both in Israel and in Judah. Jezebel's daughter Athaliah wed the King of Judah, where Athaliah later became queen.

767: 326:

The first colonies were made on the two paths to Iberia's mineral wealth—along with the African coast and on Sicily, Sardinia and the

4813:

III, 11; Penguin translation (1979) at 189. As to the existing treaty, and discussion of the fault for the war and its origin, cf.,

2448: 2355: 1221:

No records of any confrontations between the two powers are available, but a legend describes how the powers agreed on a border in

88: 5797: 2316: 963:. Carthage founded many trading stations in the western Mediterranean, which often developed into cities. Island posts included: 1585:

led to a stalemate and the war ended with his death in 367 BC. Carthaginian holdings west of the Halycas river remained secure.

60: 2658:

was finally overrun by Hassan Ibn al Numan and a force of 40,000 men. The population was displaced to the neighbouring town of

5818: 1205:. Agathocles then attempted a bold strategy by putting his forces aboard ships, leaving Sicily, and landing his Greek army at 5741: 5684: 5422: 1353:

had submitted willingly to Carthaginian rule. Hasdrubal's war against the Libyans failed to stop the annual tribute payment.

1506:

of which the Carthaginian forces were ravaged by plague, Hannibal Mago himself succumbing to it. His kinsman and successor,

1846: 1011:, who had established a powerful state in north-west Italy. Among the clients of the Etruscans was the then infant city of 279:, which established a number of trading posts around the Mediterranean. Ultimately Phoenicians established 300 colonies in 67: 41: 2164:

against them, which threatened the survival of the Punic social order. Yet Carthage endured, under their opposing leaders

5532: 3260:(r., c. 1010–970) led to the covert murder of her soldier husband. Later on, she apparently connived in the execution of 2223: 1356:

Carthaginians managed to defeat and drive away the colonization attempt near Leptis Magna in Libya by the Spartan prince

1754:

in southern Italy, the other against Carthage in Sicily. The Greek city of Tarentum had attacked and sacked the city of

1069:, circa 212–209 BC. AR Reduced Nomos (3.70 g, 8h). ΚΛΗ above, ΣΗΡΑΜ/ΒΟΣ below, nude youth on horseback right, placing a 4201:

As a result of the fear at Carthage "a large amount of treasure and precious offerings were sent to the god Melcart at

2875: 1814: 1688: 3281:

Intrigue and palace revolts were then common to the royal courts of Phoenicia, Judah and Israel. Soren, Khader, Slim,

3000:(1969) at 16–17, where Tarshish might refer to a cargo, a ship, or a place. Tarshish ships sailed over the Red Sea to 2386:(c. 250–184 BC) had featured an extended family from Carthage who in Greece triumphed over the nefarious schemes of a 947:

family, Carthage became pre-eminent among the Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean, which included nearby

5722: 5703: 5665: 5646: 4663: 4647: 4631: 4597: 4563: 4547: 4531: 4475: 4450: 4416: 4400: 4354: 4338: 4313: 4074: 4058: 3893: 3868: 3852: 2430: 2285: 1872: 107: 74: 1854: 1304:

A war with Greek Massalia followed. Carthage lost battles but managed to safeguard Phoenician Iberia and close the

5757: 5590: 4995:

Zama had been the traditional capital of the Massyli of Numidia, whose king became Masinissa. Picard and Picard,

827:

of Carthaginian influence along the African coast (through what is now Libya) was blocked by the Greek colony of

775: 5805: 1146:

and Carthage in 509 entered into a treaty, which had the purpose of defining their respective commercial zones.

56: 5781: 3722:

chapter VII (1962); reprinted as "The Epics Drawn from a Common Eastern Mediterranean Tradition" at 93–102, in

2725: 1850: 45: 1450:, though in that year the Iberian colonies seceded, cutting off Carthage's major supply of silver and copper. 5868: 5800:(Latin text, English translation by John Selby Watson 1853, French translation, partial Spanish translation.) 5041:(London: Methuen 1935, 4th ed. 1980; reprint Routledge, London 1991), "Part II Rome and Carthage" at 155–239. 2613: 2516: 2154: 1143: 5199:(University of California 1930, 1957), Chapter IV, "Terence and his Successors" at 99–129, 104–106, 115–123. 5771: 2720: 1113:, the Phoenician cities in Sicily repelled an invasion of Dorian Greek settlers in Sicily while aiding the 1012: 944: 572:

of the accepted tradition, if not the personality of the characters nor the gist of the events themselves.

196:

as the major regional centre, which has spread to include the ancient site of Carthage in a modern suburb.

4140:

IV, 175, 181, as translated by Aubrey de Selincourt (Penguin 1954, 1972) at 330 & 332 (the Lotophagi).

2409:(129–110 BC). Hasdrubal may be said to have followed in the footsteps of a Phoenician trader from Cyprus, 2292:, who would soon grow in power and fame. Decisively, he chose to fight with Rome against Carthage. At the 579:

in a lamentation nonetheless sings the praises of the Phoenicians, specifically of the cities of Tyre and

2740: 5506: 4787:(London: Robert Hale 1960, 2d ed. 1969), chap. 7 at 154–185, Mercenary War at 190, Sardinia at 190–191. 3208:, a Phoenician city-state and major rival to Tyre; more likely at that time Tyre and Sidon were united. 2229:

At first Hannibal ("grace of Baal") won great military victories against Rome on its own territory, at

1139: 782:

The mainland Greeks began their colonization efforts in the western Mediterranean with the founding of

616:. Here mining was already underway, and early on the Phoenicians founded the city of Gadir (Phoenician 2650:

conquerors of the 7th century. The first Arab assault on the Exarchate of Carthage was initiated from

1015:. A 6th century Punic-Etruscan treaty reserved for Carthage a commercial monopoly in southern Iberia. 758: 4743: 4243:(1992, 1995) at 197 & 249 (anxiety over Agathocles perhaps leads to child sacrifice at Carthage). 3778:(London: Thames and Hudson 1988) at 41–50 (Phoenician colonies); 80–92 (Carthage); 41, 81–83 (Gadir). 2566: 2460:

series of wars resulted in the end of Carthaginian power and the complete destruction of the city by

2394: 2329:(234–149 BC) who, before the last Punic war, at every occasion in the Senate at Rome had proclaimed, 2098: 1957: 1179: 1138:

south of Rome, but unsuccessfully. As an eventual result, Rome threw off their Etruscan kings of the

431:; this "late" foundation date of 814 BC is the one generally accepted by modern historians. As such, 3552:(Univ.of Pennsylvania 1934) at 305–306, where he cites the work of Lewis R. Farnell per Dido of the 1713: 1446:, strengthened and founded new colonies in Northwest Africa, and had sponsored a journey across the 392: 272:, then the leading Phoenician city in Northwest Africa, aided the early settlement in her dealings. 5863: 4956: 4900: 4801: 4679: 2519:, which was a major "breadbasket" of the empire. Carthage briefly became the capital of a usurper, 2230: 1835: 1615: 518: 491: 382: 745:

Map of Ancient Carthage showing the peninsular location and lake Tunis below and lake Arina above.

5858: 3545: 3285:(1990) at 24. Historically, of course, similar criminality by royals is reported in many nations. 2672: 2109:(or "sons of Mars"), they became a law unto themselves, terrorizing the surrounding countryside. 1839: 1627: 1519: 1498: 1285: 1187: 81: 34: 4111:

Ancient Greek sailors were familiar with the Mediterranean early on. For example in the epic of

3643:, chapters 27 and 28. His praise is followed by a warning from his God for the cities to repent. 1481:); which fell before Syracuse could intervene effectively. Hannibal then attacked and destroyed 5438: 5163: 2917: 2371: 1898:

the end of the 6th century BC, Carthage had conquered most of the old Phoenician colonies e.g.

1289: 1202: 680: 139: 5836: 5412: 1149: 4827: 3257: 2908:

Hogan, C. Michael (2 November 2007). "Mogador". The Megalithic Portal. Retrieved 7 June 2011.

2841: 2624: 2284:, supported Carthage; however, Syphax met an early defeat. Rome found an old ally in another 1962: 1766:. In the midst of Pyrrhus' Italian campaigns, he received envoys from the Sicilian cities of 1740: 1420: 1134:

to the Etruscans and Sardinia to Carthage. Then the Etruscans attacked Greek colonies in the

696: 656: 5569: 3834:(1968, 1969), at 24–26 (Homer), 23–28, 34–35 (primitive sites similar to earliest Carthage). 2654:

without much success in 647. A more protracted campaign lasted from 670 to 683. In 698, the

2485: 5397: 3042:

More on the Punic Tarshish trade as found in the Bible: here at end of this section, i.e.,

2960:(1968, 1969) at 28–35 - Picard specifically favors 750-25 BC, closer to Apion than Timaeus. 2628: 2553: 2331: 2113: 1635: 1230: 1226: 1000: 5776: 5272: 2123:

debated the best course of action, the Carthaginians eagerly agreed to send a garrison to

1554: 1182:. A long struggle ensued, with intermittent warfare between Syracuse and Carthage. In 367 204: 8: 4227: 3531: 3332: 3029: 2655: 1798: 1718: 1639: 1416: 1305: 1274: 1270: 1039: 996: 875: 544: 456: 420: 408: 331: 171:

that grew out of it, Carthage developed into a significant trading empire throughout the

5170:

then signified the Berber people (from whence the continent's name Africa). H. J. Rose,

2253:

remained throughout the year 211 BC the domain of armies under Hannibal's two brothers:

2038:. Yet eventually their opposing interests led to disagreement, suspicion, and conflict. 1490:, but departed for Africa with the spoils of war, and a three-year lull fell in Sicily. 427:

c. 300 BC, gives the foundation date of Carthage as thirty-eight years before the first

5243: 4922: 4149:

Regarding Homer and Herodotus per the island of Jerba: John Anthony (aka John Sabini),

3336: 2562: 2520: 2489: 2254: 2242: 2165: 2150: 2093: 2034:, and Rome; a third Romano-Punic treaty in 280 regarded wars against the Greek invader 1759: 1281: 1062: 374: 2308:), which became independent Roman allies. Masinissa, traditional king of the Numidian 1577:

Dionysius initiated hostilities again in 368 BC, and after initial successes besieged

1093:

The Greek colonization in the Western Mediterranean started with the establishment of

163:

settlements in the western Mediterranean created to facilitate trade from the city of

5853: 5737: 5718: 5699: 5680: 5661: 5642: 5418: 5133: 4710: 4593: 4559: 4543: 4527: 4471: 4446: 4412: 4396: 4350: 4334: 4309: 4070: 4054: 3889: 3864: 3848: 2871: 2620: 2597: 2479: 2461: 2363: 2132: 2082: 2035: 1998: 1763: 1747: 1655: 1651: 1643: 1436: 1284:, a general of the army, had assumed power in Carthage by 550 BC. Mago and his sons, 1123: 1022:, explored in the Atlantic to the north of the straits, i.e., along the coast of the 984: 725: 499: 424: 292: 211:

of a priest, showing a bearded man with his hand raised; 4th century BC Carthaginian

172: 3710:

For Homer's epic compared to literature of the east, including the Sumerian tale of

2451:. Long after the fall of Rome, the re-built city of Carthage would be again undone. 5812: 5555:

Notables des colonies. Une élite de circonstance en Tunisie et au Maroc (1881–1939)

3077:

were very disturbed before its trained excavation and much work remains to be done.

2686: 2643: 2478:

Since the 19th century, some historians have written that the city of Carthage was

2402: 2398: 2354:(236–183 BC) favoured a generous policy toward Hannibal. Later Scipio's son-in-law 2351: 2297: 2266: 2234: 2181: 2014: 1943: 1771: 1611: 1544: 1384: 1298: 1171: 988: 451:(348), and... appears again as nominally equal with Carthage in the treaty between 327: 312: 168: 152: 3544:

Tanit, known also for fertility, was a goddess of vegetation similar to the Roman

2138:

The Roman attack on the Carthaginian forces at Messana triggered the first of the

2112:

The Mamertines became a growing threat to Carthage and Syracuse alike. In 265 BC,

1914:

tribes, and had taken control of parts of the Northwest African coast from modern

1042:, explored the Atlantic to the south, along the African coast well past the River 815: 5832: 5822: 5791: 5055: 4978: 4878: 4861: 4826:

Polybius also discusses and rejects theories about the war's origins proposed by

4739: 3715: 3670: 3567: 3043: 2822: 2817: 2780: 2776: 2736: 2728: 2697: 2444: 2426: 2262: 2086: 2074: 1947: 1935: 1659: 1432: 1322: 1183: 939:

By the middle of the 6th century BC, Carthage had grown into a fully independent

928: 495: 134: 2515:, with a peak population of 500,000. It was the centre of the Roman province of 1419:, which places his expedition around 460–425 BC, and Himilco may be the same as 130: 5361:

Ridley, R.T., "To Be Taken with a Pinch of Salt: The Destruction of Carthage",

5112: 5103: 4917:

Lazenby (2004) states that for Hannibal in 212, "the two largest cities (i.e.,

3580: 2983: 2921: 2800: 2756: 2601: 2570: 2505: 2501: 2473: 2440: 2410: 2375: 2326: 2293: 2273: 2215: 2189: 2169: 2143: 2031: 2022: 1903: 1751: 1570: 1532: 1510:(the son of Hanno), successfully captured Akragas, then captured the cities of 1158: 1098: 948: 932: 871: 848: 835: 804: 796: 783: 717: 649: 645: 485: 448: 432: 269: 248: 188: 180: 5480: 4384: 2378:

well and became a celebrated Roman playwright. Also the Roman comedy entitled

1360:

after a three-year war (514–511 BC). Dorieus was later defeated and killed at

5847: 4223: 4202: 3572: 3513: 3055:

The Wadi Majardah was also known to the ancient classical world as the river

2732: 2709: 2258: 2161: 2027: 1970: 1939: 1911: 1794: 1458: 1447: 1404: 1374: 1361: 1334: 1329:

a 25-year struggle in Sardinia, where the natives may have received aid from

1070: 940: 840: 828: 584: 462: 444: 359: 276: 228: 176: 164: 2081:, had been attempting to unite the island under his rule since 485 BC. When 1241: 1178:) on the island's eastern coast; yet the Greeks decisively prevailed at the 5285:(Chicago: Henry Regnery 1969, reprint Gateway), "Zeno" 229–252, at 229–231. 5033:(3 volumes, Leipzig 1854–1856, 6th ed. 1875), translated by Wm. Dickson as 4010:(London: George Allen and Unwin 1961) at 171 (Nora), 172 (Etruscan treaty). 3265: 3130: 2760: 2537: 2512: 2374:(195–159 BC). Terence was born in Carthage yet in Rome he had mastered the 2120: 1978: 1886: 855: 811: 676: 386: 366:

on the northwestern coast of Africa was a center of Tyrian dye production.

240: 212: 5106:, they say, stirred up the third and last war against the Carthaginians." 5037:(4 volumes 1862, 4th ed. 1894), Punic Wars in volume two; H. H. Scullard, 2405:

at Athens. Several decades later Hasdrubal himself became its leader, the

2211: 847:(serfs tilling for the Punic elite and state) and to a lesser extent, the 5117: 4717:(Oxford University 1965): Appendix on treaties between Carthage and Rome. 2788: 2616:, made his formal entry into Carthage, sparing it a sack and a massacre. 2524: 2439:

In the aftermath, the region (much of modern Tunisia) was annexed by the

2078: 1997:

where it was circulated during the Carthaginian occupation (216–211 BC);

1736: 1732: 1708: 1566: 1379: 1338: 1318: 1023: 972: 886: 632:

then was a highly useful and popular material, made from copper and tin.

351: 261: 208: 5734:

Carthage Must Be Destroyed: The Rise and Fall of an Ancient Civilization

5679:. Cities of the ancient world. Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge. 5410: 4942:(London: Methuen 1935; 4th ed. 1980, reprint Routledge 1991) at 225–229. 2544: 1038:

trade from Oestrymnis southward into the Mediterranean. Another sailor,

415:, for an "early" foundation date of around 1215 BC – that is before the 411:

means "New City". There is a tradition in some ancient sources, such as

5457:(in French). National Institute of Statistics – Tunisia. Archived from 2804: 2609: 2593: 2531: 2358:(183–132 BC) supported the cause of Carthage. Indeed, the pro-Hellenic 2305: 2139: 2106: 1931: 1899: 1802: 1767: 1722: 1680: 1672: 1004: 956: 668: 477: 416: 339: 264:. The city of Carthage initially covered the area around a hill called 184: 167:

on the coast of what is now Lebanon. The name of both the city and the

2057:. By 490 BC, Carthage had concluded treaties with the Greek cities of 1337:

and an ally of the Phocaeans. The Carthaginians faced resistance from

867:

and fought wars needed to protect these cities from external threats.

5175: 4133: 3598:

General History of Africa, volume II, Ancient Civilizations of Africa

3253: 3007: 2792: 2704: 2632: 2576: 2433: 2429:(149–146 BC) began following armed conflict between Carthage and the 2406: 2343: 2321: 2289: 1919: 1907: 1783: 1578: 1478: 1395: 1313: 1191: 1110: 1103: 1031: 1018:

Punic ships sailed into the Atlantic. A merchant sailor of Carthage,

1008: 980: 900: 891: 734: 641: 605: 412: 400: 232: 160: 5570:

Sophie Bessis, « Défendre Carthage, encore et toujours »,

2269:, 236–183 BC) had decisively defeated Punic power in the peninsula. 2153:

in which the Romans learned how to fight at sea and then decisively

2049:

The Punic domain in Sicily by 500 BC contained the cities of Motya,

1824: 1426:

Carthage took no known part in the activities of the Sicilian chief

1293: 1054: 505: 122: 23: 5414:

International Dictionary of Historic Places: Middle East and Africa

5320: 5235: 5107: 4951: 4895: 4796: 4674: 3329:

Carthage. Uncovering the Mysteries and Splendors of Ancient Tunisia

3261: 2784: 2768: 2589: 2558: 2414: 2379: 2370:(203–120 BC) the Greek historian, welcomed and embraced the Berber 2367: 2309: 2277: 2250: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2185: 2054: 2010: 1994: 1985: 1894: 1790: 1775: 1726: 1684: 1647: 1620: 1582: 1515: 1427: 1266: 1262: 1206: 1198: 1167: 1135: 1066: 1058: 1027: 904: 823: 708: 704: 700: 691: 613: 601: 600:

Modern consensus locates this ancient, mineral-rich region (called

466: 452: 428: 304: 148: 4222:(1968) at 166–167 (Persian occupation of Phoenicia, and taking of 3688:(Paris 1952, 1965; Philadelphia 1968; reprint Atheneum 1973) at 8. 2946:. Translated by Antonia Nevill. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 20–23. 1610:

The death of Dionysius ultimately led to a power struggle between

1309: 1250: 992: 859: 625: 5557:, éd. Presses universitaires de Rennes, Rennes, 2009, pp. 257–258 4024: 3341: 3222: 3116:(1969) at 18, and at 27: 30 km being "a good day's sailing". 2696:

for more than 2,100 years. Carthage is a tourist attraction. The

2682: 2605: 2585: 2383: 2301: 2124: 2058: 2050: 2046:

had fought in the last war and had secured terms for the Greeks.

2002: 1974: 1915: 1729: 1676: 1595: 1562: 1507: 1487: 1443: 1357: 1350: 1346: 1330: 1258: 1254: 1175: 1153:

Colonies, 4th century BC: Greek (red tags), and Phoenician (gold)

1131: 1118: 1114: 1074: 1019: 964: 923: 819: 800: 652: 593: 576: 522: 473: 440: 363: 288: 284: 280: 156: 5153:(1935; 4th ed. 1980, 1991) at 306–307, 309; 362 (Scipio circle). 3795:, 47–51 (Tartessos and Gadir); cf. at 190–193 (ancient authors). 3596:

B. H. Warmington, "The Carthaginian period" at 246–260, 247, in

2339: 1634:

While Carthage was engaged in Sicily, the rise of Macedon under

435:

predates Carthage. The name Utica is derived from a Punic stem '

362:

dye that was extracted from shellfish. The Phoenician colony of

3776:

Spain at the Dawn of History. Iberians, Phoenicians, and Greeks

3505: 3461:, as translated by Fitzgerald (New York: Vintage 1990). In the 3454: 3060: 2796: 2772: 2636: 2496:. On the reverse, the personification of Carthage, his capital. 2493: 2281: 2070: 2066: 2062: 1990: 1966: 1890: 1755: 1604: 1558: 1482: 1387: 1163: 1073:

on his horse's head; ΤΑΡΑΣ, Taras riding dolphin left, holding

1043: 1030:), c. 500 BC. Carthage would soon supplant the Iberian city of 968: 917: 909: 864: 844: 807:, others in Iberia and Sardinia resisted Carthaginian efforts. 664: 629: 557: 553: 532: 527: 514: 404: 378: 347: 320: 300: 256: 216: 5124:(New York: The Modern Library), "Marcus Cato" at 411–431, 431. 4843:

Cf., John B. Lazenby, "Carthage and Rome" at 225–241, 231, in

2382:("The Carthaginian") of circa 190 BC by the popular dramatist 1325:

in 524 BC, after which Etruscan power began to wane in Italy.

5411:

Trudy Ring; Robert M. Salkin; Sharon La Boda (January 1996).

5345: 4918: 4726:

John B. Lazenby, "Carthage and Rome" 225–241, at 229–230, in

4120: 4112: 3205: 3002: 2751: 2678: 2659: 2651: 2565:

spent much time and parchment arguing against. In 397 at the

2413:(335–265 BC), who earlier in Athens had founded another, the 2276:

near Carthage, which forced Hannibal's return to Africa. One

2238: 2219: 2089:, who was the father-in-law of the deposed tyrant of Himera. 1779: 1527: 1503: 1470: 1391: 1342: 1246: 1222: 1094: 976: 960: 792: 787: 771: 763: 588: 580: 549: 540: 335: 316: 308: 296: 265: 252: 224: 193: 4044:(Chicago: Ares 1977), ed. and transl. by Al. N. Oikonomides. 3686:

Between East and West. A History of the Jews of North Africa

3397:, instead of interpreting it as a corrupt form of the tribe 3145:) is the feminine form of the remote Phoenician creator god 2700:(the Tunisian presidential palace), is located in the city. 2200:(near modern Valencia) in Hispania. After prevailing there, 2196:. Nonetheless, the immediate cause was a dispute concerning 476:, who was also the daughter of a King of Tyre, in this case 5455:"Population, ménages et logements par unité administrative" 5212:(Cambridge University 1954, reprint Penguin 1958) at 32–34. 5050: 4973: 4908:(Penguin Books 1979) at 190–193, 194–195, 197–199, 204–229. 4873: 3235: 2764: 2744: 2647: 2205: 2043: 2006: 1511: 991:

and other posts along its south and east coasts, including

741: 536: 481: 187:(264–146 BC), Rome finally destroyed Carthage in 146 BC. A 5826: 3346:. Dates for Justin are approximate: the 2nd–4th centuries. 2712:, leaving to Tunis the economic and administrative roles. 2204:

set out northward, eventually leading his armies over the

4904:

Book III, 14–15, 17, 20–21, 27–56, translated in part as

1035: 675:

between 1244 and 1234 BC, according to the chronology of

633: 604:

by Ezekiel) in the south of Hispania, possibly linked to

355: 4847:

edited by Harriet I. Flower (Cambridge University 2004).

4730:

edited by Harriet I. Flower (Cambridge University 2004).

3297:

is a Greek form of a Phoenician name, which was perhaps

1642:

saw the defeat of Greek city-states and the fall of the

1631:

with Syracuse free to deal with other cities in Sicily.

5443:. Mittal Publications. p. 1615. GGKEY:C6Z1Y8ZWS0N. 4102:(París: Les Éditions Arthaud 1989) at VII, "documents". 3750:

The Children of Noah. Jewish Seafaring in Ancient Times

3021:

The Children of Noah. Jewish Seafaring in Ancient Times

1893:

and Sardinia, as well as Emporia and the area south of

5238:

are spoken in Punic by the principal character Hanno.

5076:(Paris: Librairie Arthème Fayard 1992), translated as 1435:

in 474 BC at the hands of the Greeks. She sat out the

369: 3948:(1960; 2d ed. 1969) at 45 (quote), 52 (the enlisted). 2685:, situated at the site of the ancient capital of the 2530:

Carthage also became a centre of early Christianity.

2350:

Yet the Roman military hero of the Second Punic War,

1442:

By 410 BC, Carthage had conquered much of modern-day

753: 724:

own away from the African mainland. By the time King

5529:"More Tunisia unrest: Presidential palace gunbattle" 4136:(c.480s–425) also mentions the lotus eaters, in his 1885:

In 509 BC, a treaty was signed between Carthage and

1469:

BC Carthaginian shekel bearing the wreathed head of

295:, and to a much lesser extent, on the arid coast of 5636: 5398:"www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/97373/Carthage" 4929:

edited by Harriet I. Flower (Cambridge Univ. 2004).

4002:Gilbert Charles-Picard and Colette Charles-Picard, 3492:Reference to Dido's purchase of the Byrsa: Virgil, 3416:

Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus

3327:David Soren, Aicha Ben Abed Ben Khader, Hedi Slim, 3316:

Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus

3305:, volume 1 (Paris: Librairie Hachette 1921) at 391. 3067:, II, 44, as translated (Penguin Books 1996) at 92. 2552:In the first of a string of rather poorly reported 2009:wields a thunderbolt and sceptre while riding in a 1453: 1170:landed a large army in Sicily in order to confront 48:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 5387:"Procopius Wars" 3.5.23–24 in Collins 2004, p. 124 4817:III, 27–33; Penguin translation (1979) at 204–209. 4179:at 88–91 (Himera), 114, 115 (Dionysius vs. Hanno). 4098:Text of treaty in Gras, Rouillar, & Teixidor, 3614:(Robert Hale 1960; reprinted by Penguin) at 24–25. 2865: 2646:Exarchate was not, however, able to withstand the 1666: 260:a "Dark Age", perhaps after the activities of the 151:was founded in the 9th century BC on the coast of 5278:Bioi kai gnomai ton en philosophia eudokimesanton 4004:La Vie quotidienne à Carthage au temps d'Hannibal 3550:Semitic and Hamitic Origins. Social and Religious 3496:(Vintage 1990) at 16, lines 501–503 (I, 367–368). 3149:, also a name for the God of the Hebrews. Smith, 3027:22:49, as well as the biblical moral critique in 2971:History of Syria. Including Lebanon and Palestine 2592:crossed to Africa in 429, either as a request of 1197:In 311 near Syracuse, Punic armies under another 1007:. Further, Carthage enjoyed an alliance with the 5845: 5712: 4834:III, 8–9; Penguin translation (1979) at 185–187. 4333:Casson, Lionel, The Ancient Mariners, pp 74–75, 4006:(Paris: Librairie Hachette 1958), translated as 3821:(1960, 1964) at 27 (Tyre to Gadir), 83 (silver). 484:of Israel (r. 875–853), according to the Hebrew 5531:. philSTAR.com. 17 January 2011. Archived from 5404: 5140:(London: Longmans Green 1878, 1908) at 346–347. 4470:Lancel, Serge, Carthage A History, pp 256–258, 3660:(New York: Taplinger 1969), at 15–16 (Ezekiel). 3623:Cf., Gwyn Prins, "Oral History" at 114–139, in 1588: 1026:and perhaps as far north as Oestrymnis (modern 999:on the Atlantic side. South of the straits was 766:, 5th–3rd centuries BC, from the necropolis of 5792:Diodorus Siculus translated by G. Booth (1814) 4008:Daily Life in Carthage at the time of Hannibal 3739:(1968, 1969), at 16–17 (location of Tarshish). 1312:in Iberia, also brought about the collapse of 5693: 5655: 5587:"The Neo-Punic Inscriptions and Coin Legends" 4927:The Cambridge Companion to The Roman Republic 4845:The Cambridge Companion to The Roman Republic 4830:, the Roman historian and senator. Polybius, 4759:The Cambridge Companion to The Roman Republic 4728:The Cambridge Companion to The Roman Republic 4592:Lazanby, J.F, The First Punic War, pp 31–33, 4411:Lancel, Serge, Carthage A History, pp 91–93, 3752:(Princeton Univ. 1998) at xviii, 40, 133–134. 2482:, but there is no ancient evidence for this. 2077:, backed in part by support from other Greek 1786:. After a two-month siege, Pyrrhus withdrew. 1675:, the tyrant of Syracuse, seized the city of 1190:, thereby blocking his attempt to take Punic 5584: 5483:. National Institute of Statistics – Tunisia 5016:(1992, 1995) at 376–401; Picard and Picard, 4982:(c.20 B.C.), Book XXX, 32–36, translated as 4123:, off the southeast coast of modern Tunisia. 3863:Lancel, Serge, Carthage A History, pp 81–83 2941: 908:Carthaginian history are not available. The 315:, as well as obtaining minor possessions in 4882:(c.20 B.C.), Book XXI, 5–38, translated as 4151:Tunisia. A personal view of a timeless land 3652:Gilbert Charles Picard and Colette Picard, 3344:of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus 2580:Antonine baths ruins, from the Roman period 2272:In 204 Roman armies under Scipio landed at 1853:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1493: 1049: 943:. Under Mago (r., c.550–530) and later his 5440:Illustrated Encyclopaedia of World History 5378:, XIV, Cambridge University Press, pp. 124 5080:(Oxford: Blackwell 1995, 1997) at 395–402. 5059:(c.20 B.C.), Books XXI-XXX, translated as 4558:Lancel, Serge, Carthage A History, p 115, 4395:Lancel, Serge, Carthage A History, p 257, 4166:(1968) at 78–80 (Himera), 131–134 (Hanno). 3204:chapter 9. Some place Jezebel's origin at 2596:, a Roman general and the governor of the 2184:(218–201 BC), the ancient Greek historian 1650:and the ultimate three-way struggle among 1186:won a major naval victory over the tyrant 1077:in right hand, aphlaston in his left hand. 843:(allies sharing defence expenditure), the 5197:Life and Literature in the Roman Republic 4053:Markoe, Glenn E., Phoenicians, pp 104–05 3006:, as well as across the Mediterranean to 1873:Learn how and when to remove this message 1415:Hanno, son of Hamilcar may be the famous 894:style glass pendant in the form of a head 667:dates the founding 50 years prior to the 108:Learn how and when to remove this message 4940:A History of the Roman World, 753 to 146 2719: 2575: 2543: 2484: 2338: 2210: 2160:Following the defeat of Carthage, their 1984: 1956: 1735:armor found in a Carthaginian tomb near 1712: 1553: 1457: 1378: 1240: 1236: 1166:'s invasion of Greece), Mago's grandson 1148: 1109:Twenty years after the establishment of 1053: 922: 885: 757: 740: 690: 591:describes such a Phoenician ship in the 504: 373: 203: 129: 121: 5806:Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography 5560: 1797:meant that Rome absorbed them into its 1518:while repeatedly defeating the army of 959:as well as to the east with Berbers in 354:in the western Mediterranean, in which 5846: 5589:. University of Leiden. Archived from 5309:History of the Roman World, 753–146 AD 5122:Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans 5093:(1935; 4th ed. 1980, 1991) at 306–307. 5039:History of the Roman World, 753–146 BC 4256:(University of California 2000) at 61. 4153:(New York: Scribners 1961) at 192–194. 3957: 3791:(New York: Friderick A. Praeger 1964) 3656:(Paris: Hachette 1968), translated as 3625:New Perspectives on Historical Writing 3477: 3385:(1992, 1995) at 38, reads in Justin's 3303:Histoire ancienne de l'Afrique du Nord 2973:(New York: Macmillan 1951) at 102 n.4. 2928:(Paris: Hachette 1968), translated as 2694:extended by the lack of a peace treaty 2573:for the Western Church was confirmed. 1216: 5731: 5674: 5481:"Statistical Information: Population" 5417:. Taylor & Francis. p. 177. 4960:Book XV, 5–16, translated in part as 3565:Virgil's epic has spawned the operas 2870:. Brill Academic Press. p. 436. 2500:When Carthage fell, its nearby rival 1808: 1565:. Punic issues. Circa 320–300 BC. AR 494:story is told by the Roman historian 480:(r. 891–859); Jezebel became wife to 5263:(1960; reprint Penguin 1964) at 163. 3993:(Univ. of California 2000) at 54–56. 3980:(New York: Taplinger 1969) at 59–72. 3431:(1968, 1969) re Dido at 31, 47, 154. 3256:, whose adulterous affair with King 3166:is an epithet from the Semitic root 2868:Historic Cities of the Islamic World 2535:you but the temples of your gods." ( 2315:Yet Carthage soon revived under the 1851:adding citations to reliable sources 1818: 1782:; though he was not able to capture 762:Adorned Statue of the Punic Goddess 46:adding citations to reliable sources 17: 5225:(1936; 3d ed. 1954, 1960) at 51–52. 5151:History of the Roman World, 753–146 5091:History of the Roman World, 753–146 3972:Gilbert Picard and Colette Picard, 2677:The modern Carthage is a suburb of 2454: 2224:Museo Archeologico Nazionale Napoli 2175: 663:1215 BC, while the Roman historian 370:Dido and the foundation of Carthage 334:, and the role as leader passed to 140:The Rise of the Carthaginian Empire 13: 5717:. University of California Press. 5630: 5246:(London: G. Bell and Sons 51912): 4683:III, 22–26, translated in part as 2932:(New York: Taplinger 1969), at 30. 2666: 2420: 1952: 1815:Treaties between Rome and Carthage 754:Beginning of Carthaginian hegemony 659:dates the founding of Carthage to 275:The Phoenicians' leading city was 14: 5880: 5751: 5298:(1992, 1995) at 401–406, 409–427. 4805:III, 9–10, translated in part as 4282:(Blackwell 1992, 1995) at 88–102. 2808:the material is still ambiguous. 2623:reign, Carthage was made into an 2467: 2336:"Carthage must be blotted out!". 2188:gives three causes: the anger of 1581:, but the defeat of his fleet at 931:(245–207 BC), younger brother of 881: 686: 5614: 5605: 5578: 5547: 5521: 5495: 5473: 5447: 5431: 5390: 5381: 5368: 5355: 5334: 5314: 5301: 5288: 5266: 5253: 5228: 5215: 5202: 5189: 5156: 5143: 5127: 5096: 5083: 5066: 5044: 5023: 5002: 4989: 4986:(Penguin Books 1965) at 658–665. 4967: 4964:(Penguin Books 1979) at 468–479. 4945: 4932: 4911: 4889: 4867: 4850: 4837: 4820: 4790: 4777: 4764: 4751: 4733: 4720: 4703: 4690: 4687:(Penguin Books 1979) at 199–203. 4668: 4652: 4636: 4620: 4611: 4602: 4586: 4577: 4568: 4552: 4542:Baker, G.P, Hannibal, pp 20–21, 4536: 4516: 4507: 4498: 4489: 4480: 4464: 4455: 4439: 4430: 4421: 4405: 4269:(Cambridge Univ. 1971) at 17–20. 4209:(1960, 2d ed. 1969) at 122; 149. 3600:(UNESCO 1990), Abridged Edition. 3517:, at Book VIII: chap. 1, sec. 1. 3141:(Greek version; from Phoenician 1823: 1454:Second Sicilian War (410–404 BC) 1368: 22: 4445:Baker, G.P, Hannibal, p 16-18, 4389: 4377: 4368: 4359: 4343: 4327: 4318: 4298: 4285: 4272: 4259: 4246: 4233: 4212: 4195: 4182: 4169: 4156: 4143: 4126: 4105: 4092: 4079: 4069:Baker, G.P, Hannibal, pp 12–13, 4063: 4047: 4034: 4013: 3996: 3983: 3966: 3951: 3938: 3929: 3920: 3911: 3898: 3888:Baker, G.P, Hannibal, pp 10–11 3882: 3873: 3857: 3837: 3824: 3811: 3798: 3781: 3768: 3765:(1962, 2d ed. 1963) at 64, 160. 3755: 3742: 3729: 3704: 3691: 3677: 3663: 3646: 3634: 3617: 3603: 3590: 3559: 3538: 3520: 3499: 3486: 3469: 3448: 3434: 3421: 3408: 3375: 3362: 3349: 3321: 3308: 3288: 3275: 3246: 3228: 3211: 3190: 3177: 3156: 3119: 3106: 3093: 3080: 3070: 3049: 3036: 3013: 2990: 2976: 1667:Third Sicilian War (315–307 BC) 1273:are two tuna fish with several 776:Archaeology Museum of Catalonia 575:The 6th century Hebrew prophet 33:needs additional citations for 5641:. Cassel Military Paperbacks. 5223:A Handbook of Latin Literature 5172:A Handbook of Latin Literature 5138:Carthage and the Carthaginians 4997:The Life and Death of Carthage 4886:(Penguin Books 1965) at 26–63. 4087:The Life and Death of Carthage 3832:The Life and Death of Carthage 3806:The Life and Death of Carthage 3737:The Life and Death of Carthage 3658:The Life and Death of Carthage 3270:Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic 3241:The Eerdman's Bible Dictionary 3151:Carthage and the Carthaginians 2963: 2950: 2935: 2930:The Life and Death of Carthage 2911: 2902: 2893: 2890:Encyclopædia Britannica Online 2884: 2859: 2834: 2541:written at Carthage, c. 197). 2001:female heads are shown on the 1993:, perhaps struck in a mint at 1702: 1394:and a standing horse before a 854:Other Phoenician cities (like 1: 5327:Book XXXVI, 9, translated as 5281:, translated by Caponigri as 4999:(Paris; New York 1969) at 89. 4295:(Oxford 1958, 1968) at 18–28. 4293:The Golden Trade of the Moors 4040:Cf., Hanno the Carthaginian, 3697:Homer (before 700 BC) in the 3252:Jezebel might be compared to 3187:(1992, 1995) at 23–24, 35–36. 2828: 2750:Some ancient translations of 1981:on the reverse, c. 239–209 BC 1925: 1463: 1390:bearing the wreathed head of 5782:Resources in other libraries 5637:Goldsworthy, Adrian (2003). 5329:The Rise of the Roman Empire 4962:The Rise of the Roman Empire 4906:The Rise of the Roman Empire 4807:The Rise of the Roman Empire 4685:The Rise of the Roman Empire 4504:Pliny, H.N. II p 67, VI p 36 4349:Baker, G.P, Hannibal, p 11, 4132:The ancient Greek historian 2296:in 202 BC the Roman general 2261:, and also the Punic leader 1589:Other fourth century actions 1257:shows a male head depicting 1233:was later set on this spot. 927:Carthaginian coin depicting 648:, who brought with them the 543:. In Virgil's epic, the god 199: 126:Carthage archaeological site 7: 5837:English & Greek version 3726:(1970) ed. by C. G. Thomas. 3172:Semitic and Hamitic Origins 2866:C. Edmund Bosworth (2008). 2811: 2288:of Numidia, the scrambling 1333:, then the richest city in 1065:, during the occupation by 774:(Spain), now housed in the 10: 5885: 5331:(Penguin 1979) at 535–537. 5018:Life and Death of Carthage 4772:Life and Death of Carthage 4698:Life and Death of Carthage 4220:Life and death of Carthage 4164:Life and Death of Carthage 4027:in the ancient sea trade, 3978:Life and Death of Carthage 3935:Diodorus Siculus, 20.8.3–4 3879:Diodorus Siculus, 5.15.2–3 3793:Ancient Peoples and Places 3429:Life and Death of Carthage 3114:Life and Death of Carthage 2998:Life and Death of Carthage 2958:Life and Death of Carthage 2715: 2670: 2612:, accompanied by his wife 2471: 2401:and travelled to join the 1969:depicting a man wearing a 1929: 1812: 1706: 1372: 1201:defeated the Greek tyrant 644:settlers from the city of 5777:Resources in your library 5713:Markoe, Glenn E. (2000). 5283:Lives of the Philosophers 5012:(1971) at 25–28. Lancel, 4115:(redacted before 700 BC) 3393:, per the Punic district 3234:Jezebel, as wife of King 3200:chapters 16, 18, 21, and 1910:, subjugated some of the 1245:A Punic bronze coin from 423:, a Greek historian from 5698:. Blackwell Publishers. 5503:"written by John Lawton" 5010:A History of the Maghrib 4267:A History of the Maghrib 4230:), 167–171 (Agathocles). 4192:(1960, 1964) at 115–116. 3962:. pp. 20–25, 79–86. 3714:(third millennium), see 3530:(Vintage 1990). The god 2899:SorenKhader 1991, p. 90. 2635:, who overthrew Emperor 2362:at Rome, which included 2155:defeated the Punic fleet 1746:Between 280 and 275 BC, 1616:Dionysius II of Syracuse 1494:Wars against Dionysius I 1050:Conflict with the Greeks 640:Carthage was founded by 548:Punic or Berber goddess 399:Carthage was founded by 159:, as one of a number of 5821:2 December 2003 at the 5732:Miles, Richard (2010). 5611:Herodotus, V2. pp 165–7 5572:Le Courrier de l'Unesco 5374:Collins, Roger (2000), 5240:The Comedies of Plautus 4617:Diodorus, XIX, p106-110 3974:Vie et mort de Carthage 3654:Vie et mort de Carthage 3548:. George Aaron Barton, 3137:which means "beloved". 2926:Vie et Mort de Carthage 2673:Carthage (municipality) 1628:Battle of the Crimissus 1499:Dionysius I of Syracuse 1188:Dionysius I of Syracuse 5694:Lancel, Serge (1997). 5675:Hoyos, Dexter (2021). 5656:Hoyos, Dexter (2010). 5376:Vandal Africa, 429–533 5365:vol. 81, no. 2 (1986). 5164:Publius Terentius Afer 4574:Diodorus, XX,5, XXI, 4 3787:Cf., Antonio Arribas, 3478:Lancel, Serge (1992). 2747: 2681:, the capital city of 2581: 2549: 2548:Roman villas, Carthage 2497: 2397:) became a student of 2372:Publius Terentius Afer 2347: 2226: 2218:, recent engraving of 2018: 1982: 1743: 1574: 1474: 1399: 1278: 1154: 1078: 975:in southern Sardinia, 936: 895: 831:(established 630 BC). 779: 746: 712: 510: 396: 220: 144: 127: 5798:Forum Romanum: Justin 5677:Carthage: a biography 5585:K. Jongeling (2005). 5340:Soren, Khader, Slim, 5063:(Penguin Books 1965). 5061:The War with Hannibal 4984:The War with Hannibal 4884:The War with Hannibal 4700:(1969) at 72–77, 135. 4427:Herodotus, VII, p 165 4365:Justin, XLIII, 5, 2–3 4265:Jamil M. Abun-Naysr, 4021:The Ancient Explorers 4019:Cary and Warmington, 3976:(1968) translated as 3917:Livy, Titus, 34.62.12 3774:Richard J. Harrison, 3583:(1803–1869). Lancel, 3264:, a rival to her son 2942:Serge Lancel (1995). 2723: 2579: 2547: 2488: 2342: 2214: 2069:in Sicily. Gelo, the 2021:The emergence of the 2017:, goddess of victory. 1988: 1977:, and a man riding a 1960: 1930:Further information: 1741:Bardo National Museum 1716: 1557: 1473:and a standing horse. 1461: 1421:Himilco the Navigator 1382: 1373:Further information: 1244: 1237:Mago and the Magonids 1231:Eastern Roman Empires 1152: 1057: 926: 890:4th–3rd centuries BC 889: 818:region (area between 761: 744: 694: 657:Philistos of Syracuse 525:in his epic poem the 508: 419:in 1180 BC; however, 413:Philistos of Syracuse 407:. The city's name in 377: 207: 133: 125: 57:"History of Carthage" 5869:Histories of empires 5639:The Fall of Carthage 5184:De uiris illustribus 4608:Diodorus, XVI, 81–82 4495:Pliny, H.N. II, p 67 3129:comes from the same 2763:historians, such as 2554:Councils of Carthage 2332:Carthago delenda est 2162:mercenaries revolted 1847:improve this section 803:and giving up their 517:(70–19 BC) presents 42:improve this article 5794:(scanned by Google) 5763:History of Carthage 5696:Carthage: a History 5535:on 8 September 2012 5363:Classical Philology 5275:(fl. 3rd century), 5078:Carthage. A history 5031:Romische Geschichte 4770:Picard and Picard, 4696:Picard and Picard, 4436:Thucidides, VI, p34 4324:Justin, XIX, pp 1–2 4306:Carthage: A History 4280:Carthage. A history 4100:L'Univers phénicien 3960:Carthage. A history 3845:Carthage: A History 3830:Picard and Picard, 3808:(1968, 1969) at 17. 3735:Picard and Picard, 3587:(1992, 1995) at 23. 3372:(1992, 1995) at 34. 3153:(1878, 1902) at 13. 3090:(1960, 1964) at 69. 2741:Museum of Fine Arts 2687:Carthaginian empire 2656:Exarchate of Africa 2619:During the emperor 2567:Council of Carthage 2561:controversy, which 1799:sphere of influence 1725:, a 3rd century BC 1719:Ksour Essef cuirass 1640:Alexander the Great 1417:Hanno the Navigator 1345:in Sardinia, while 1306:Strait of Gibraltar 1269:by the Romans); on 1217:Cyrene and Carthage 1194:in western Sicily. 1083:Imperium Barbaricum 1040:Hanno the Navigator 876:sphere of influence 699:possibly depicting 421:Timaeus of Taormina 409:Phoenician language 332:Alexander the Great 215:now located in the 5509:on 5 February 2009 5461:on 7 December 2013 5259:B. H. Warmington, 5244:Henry Thomas Riley 5234:Eighteen lines in 5182:, included in his 5020:(1969) at 230–267. 4856:B. H. Warmington, 4783:B. H. Warmington, 4524:Carthage A History 4513:Diodorus, XIV, p41 3301:. Stéphane Gsell, 3170:, "love". Barton, 2748: 2731:, palm motif, and 2729:votive inscription 2582: 2563:Augustine of Hippo 2550: 2521:Domitius Alexander 2498: 2490:Domitius Alexander 2390:, a Roman slaver. 2348: 2241:south of Rome and 2227: 2166:Hanno II the Great 2019: 1983: 1918:to the borders of 1809:Conflict with Rome 1760:Battle of Heraclea 1744: 1575: 1475: 1400: 1398:and beside a star. 1279: 1275:Phoenician letters 1265:by the Greeks and 1155: 1142:dynasty. Then the 1079: 937: 896: 780: 747: 713: 679:). The Roman poet 511: 397: 221: 145: 128: 5758:Library resources 5743:978-0-7139-9793-4 5686:978-1-138-78820-6 5658:The Carthaginians 5424:978-1-884964-03-9 5273:Diogenes Laërtius 5250:, Act 5, scene 1. 5134:R. Bosworth Smith 5029:Theodor Mommsen, 4774:(1969)at 182–202. 4715:Hannibal's Legacy 4711:Arnold J. Toynbee 4461:Justin XIX pp 1–4 3908:(1960, 1964) at . 3510:Romaiken Istorian 3482:. pp. 23–25. 3183:But cf., Lancel, 3103:(1960, 1964) at . 2969:Philip K. Hitti, 2598:Diocese of Africa 2588:under their king 2462:Scipio Aemilianus 2366:(185–129 BC) and 2364:Scipio Aemilianus 2233:(217 BC), and at 2133:Strait of Messina 2005:; on the reverse 1883: 1882: 1875: 1764:Battle of Asculum 1748:Pyrrhus of Epirus 1689:besieged Syracuse 1652:Antigonid Macedon 1644:Achaemenid Empire 1437:Peloponnesian War 1184:Hanno I the Great 985:Iberian peninsula 810:Carthage, unlike 726:Nebuchadnezzar II 697:Carthaginian coin 457:Philip of Macedon 155:, in what is now 118: 117: 110: 92: 5876: 5809:, London, (1854) 5803:Smith, William; 5747: 5728: 5709: 5690: 5671: 5652: 5625: 5618: 5612: 5609: 5603: 5602: 5600: 5598: 5582: 5576: 5574:, septembre 1999 5568: 5564: 5558: 5551: 5545: 5544: 5542: 5540: 5525: 5519: 5518: 5516: 5514: 5505:. Archived from 5499: 5493: 5492: 5490: 5488: 5477: 5471: 5470: 5468: 5466: 5451: 5445: 5444: 5435: 5429: 5428: 5408: 5402: 5401: 5394: 5388: 5385: 5379: 5372: 5366: 5359: 5353: 5338: 5332: 5318: 5312: 5305: 5299: 5292: 5286: 5270: 5264: 5257: 5251: 5232: 5226: 5219: 5213: 5210:Roman Literature 5206: 5200: 5193: 5187: 5178:(70-c.140): his 5160: 5154: 5147: 5141: 5131: 5125: 5116:, translated by 5100: 5094: 5087: 5081: 5070: 5064: 5048: 5042: 5027: 5021: 5006: 5000: 4993: 4987: 4971: 4965: 4949: 4943: 4938:H. H. Scullard, 4936: 4930: 4915: 4909: 4893: 4887: 4871: 4865: 4854: 4848: 4841: 4835: 4824: 4818: 4794: 4788: 4781: 4775: 4768: 4762: 4755: 4749: 4737: 4731: 4724: 4718: 4707: 4701: 4694: 4688: 4672: 4666: 4660:Life of Pyrrhus 4656: 4650: 4644:Life of Pyrrhus 4640: 4634: 4624: 4618: 4615: 4609: 4606: 4600: 4590: 4584: 4583:Diodorus, XVI, 8 4581: 4575: 4572: 4566: 4556: 4550: 4540: 4534: 4520: 4514: 4511: 4505: 4502: 4496: 4493: 4487: 4486:Heeren, IV p 539 4484: 4478: 4468: 4462: 4459: 4453: 4443: 4437: 4434: 4428: 4425: 4419: 4409: 4403: 4393: 4387: 4381: 4375: 4374:Justin, XIX, p 2 4372: 4366: 4363: 4357: 4347: 4341: 4331: 4325: 4322: 4316: 4302: 4296: 4289: 4283: 4276: 4270: 4263: 4257: 4250: 4244: 4237: 4231: 4216: 4210: 4199: 4193: 4186: 4180: 4173: 4167: 4160: 4154: 4147: 4141: 4130: 4124: 4109: 4103: 4096: 4090: 4083: 4077: 4067: 4061: 4051: 4045: 4038: 4032: 4017: 4011: 4000: 3994: 3987: 3981: 3970: 3964: 3963: 3955: 3949: 3942: 3936: 3933: 3927: 3924: 3918: 3915: 3909: 3902: 3896: 3886: 3880: 3877: 3871: 3861: 3855: 3841: 3835: 3828: 3822: 3815: 3809: 3802: 3796: 3785: 3779: 3772: 3766: 3759: 3753: 3746: 3740: 3733: 3727: 3720:Before the Bible 3708: 3702: 3695: 3689: 3681: 3675: 3667: 3661: 3650: 3644: 3638: 3632: 3621: 3615: 3607: 3601: 3594: 3588: 3575:(1659–1695) and 3563: 3557: 3542: 3536: 3524: 3518: 3508:(circa 95–165), 3503: 3497: 3490: 3484: 3483: 3473: 3467: 3452: 3446: 3438: 3432: 3425: 3419: 3412: 3406: 3379: 3373: 3366: 3360: 3359:(1962) at 66–67. 3353: 3347: 3325: 3319: 3312: 3306: 3292: 3286: 3279: 3273: 3250: 3244: 3232: 3226: 3215: 3209: 3194: 3188: 3181: 3175: 3160: 3154: 3123: 3117: 3110: 3104: 3097: 3091: 3084: 3078: 3074: 3068: 3053: 3047: 3040: 3034: 3017: 3011: 2994: 2988: 2980: 2974: 2967: 2961: 2954: 2948: 2947: 2939: 2933: 2915: 2909: 2906: 2900: 2897: 2891: 2888: 2882: 2881: 2863: 2857: 2856: 2855: 2853: 2842:"Roman Carthage" 2838: 2455:Fall of Carthage 2403:Platonic Academy 2399:Greek philosophy 2352:Scipio Africanus 2298:Scipio Africanus 2182:Second Punic War 2176:Second Punic War 2099:Battle of Himera 1944:Second Punic War 1878: 1871: 1867: 1864: 1858: 1827: 1819: 1545:battle of Cabala 1468: 1465: 1299:Battle of Alalia 1180:Battle of Himera 1034:in carrying the 570:cultural context 403:coming from the 328:Balearic Islands 313:Balearic Islands 231:and others from 153:Northwest Africa 113: 106: 102: 99: 93: 91: 50: 26: 18: 5884: 5883: 5879: 5878: 5877: 5875: 5874: 5873: 5864:Ancient Tunisia 5844: 5843: 5833:Perseus Project 5823:Wayback Machine 5788: 5787: 5786: 5766: 5765: 5761: 5754: 5744: 5725: 5706: 5687: 5668: 5649: 5633: 5631:Further reading 5628: 5619: 5615: 5610: 5606: 5596: 5594: 5593:on 29 June 2006 5583: 5579: 5566: 5565: 5561: 5553:David Lambert, 5552: 5548: 5538: 5536: 5527: 5526: 5522: 5512: 5510: 5501: 5500: 5496: 5486: 5484: 5479: 5478: 5474: 5464: 5462: 5453: 5452: 5448: 5437: 5436: 5432: 5425: 5409: 5405: 5396: 5395: 5391: 5386: 5382: 5373: 5369: 5360: 5356: 5339: 5335: 5319: 5315: 5306: 5302: 5293: 5289: 5271: 5267: 5258: 5254: 5233: 5229: 5220: 5216: 5208:Michael Grant, 5207: 5203: 5194: 5190: 5161: 5157: 5148: 5144: 5132: 5128: 5113:Bioi Paralleloi 5101: 5097: 5088: 5084: 5071: 5067: 5056:Ab urbe condita 5049: 5045: 5035:History of Rome 5028: 5024: 5007: 5003: 4994: 4990: 4979:Ab urbe condita 4972: 4968: 4950: 4946: 4937: 4933: 4916: 4912: 4894: 4890: 4879:Ab urbe condita 4872: 4868: 4855: 4851: 4842: 4838: 4825: 4821: 4795: 4791: 4782: 4778: 4769: 4765: 4756: 4752: 4745:History of Rome 4740:Theodor Mommsen 4738: 4734: 4725: 4721: 4708: 4704: 4695: 4691: 4673: 4669: 4657: 4653: 4641: 4637: 4628:Life of Pyrrhus 4625: 4621: 4616: 4612: 4607: 4603: 4591: 4587: 4582: 4578: 4573: 4569: 4557: 4553: 4541: 4537: 4522:Lancel, Serge, 4521: 4517: 4512: 4508: 4503: 4499: 4494: 4490: 4485: 4481: 4469: 4465: 4460: 4456: 4444: 4440: 4435: 4431: 4426: 4422: 4410: 4406: 4394: 4390: 4386:History of Nora 4382: 4378: 4373: 4369: 4364: 4360: 4348: 4344: 4332: 4328: 4323: 4319: 4304:Lancel, Serge, 4303: 4299: 4290: 4286: 4277: 4273: 4264: 4260: 4251: 4247: 4238: 4234: 4217: 4213: 4200: 4196: 4187: 4183: 4174: 4170: 4161: 4157: 4148: 4144: 4131: 4127: 4110: 4106: 4097: 4093: 4084: 4080: 4068: 4064: 4052: 4048: 4039: 4035: 4018: 4014: 4001: 3997: 3991:The Phoenicians 3988: 3984: 3971: 3967: 3958:Lancel (1968). 3956: 3952: 3943: 3939: 3934: 3930: 3926:Justin, 17.5.14 3925: 3921: 3916: 3912: 3903: 3899: 3887: 3883: 3878: 3874: 3862: 3858: 3843:Lancel, Serge, 3842: 3838: 3829: 3825: 3816: 3812: 3803: 3799: 3786: 3782: 3773: 3769: 3763:The Phoenicians 3760: 3756: 3748:Raphael Patai, 3747: 3743: 3734: 3730: 3724:Homer's History 3716:Cyrus H. Gordon 3709: 3705: 3696: 3692: 3682: 3678: 3668: 3664: 3651: 3647: 3639: 3635: 3622: 3618: 3608: 3604: 3595: 3591: 3568:Dido and Aeneas 3564: 3560: 3543: 3539: 3525: 3521: 3504: 3500: 3491: 3487: 3474: 3470: 3453: 3449: 3439: 3435: 3426: 3422: 3413: 3409: 3380: 3376: 3367: 3363: 3357:The Phoenicians 3354: 3350: 3326: 3322: 3313: 3309: 3293: 3289: 3280: 3276: 3251: 3247: 3233: 3229: 3219:The Phoenicians 3217:Donald Harden, 3216: 3212: 3195: 3191: 3182: 3178: 3161: 3157: 3125:Etymologically 3124: 3120: 3111: 3107: 3098: 3094: 3085: 3081: 3075: 3071: 3054: 3050: 3041: 3037: 3019:Raphael Patai, 3018: 3014: 2995: 2991: 2981: 2977: 2968: 2964: 2955: 2951: 2940: 2936: 2916: 2912: 2907: 2903: 2898: 2894: 2889: 2885: 2878: 2864: 2860: 2851: 2849: 2840: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2823:Asterius Chapel 2818:Carthage tophet 2814: 2781:Silius Italicus 2777:Cornelius Nepos 2737:Carthage tophet 2718: 2698:Carthage Palace 2675: 2669: 2667:Modern Carthage 2476: 2470: 2457: 2445:Africa Province 2427:Third Punic War 2423: 2421:Third Punic War 2263:Hasdrubal Gisco 2178: 1989:A Carthaginian 1955: 1953:First Punic War 1950: 1948:Third Punic War 1936:First Punic War 1928: 1879: 1868: 1862: 1859: 1844: 1828: 1817: 1811: 1721:decorated with 1711: 1705: 1669: 1656:Ptolemaic Egypt 1591: 1496: 1466: 1456: 1433:Battle of Cumae 1377: 1371: 1323:Battle of Cumae 1239: 1219: 1052: 929:Hasdrubal Barca 884: 845:Spartan Kingdom 822:in Tunisia and 768:Puig des Molins 756: 689: 618:GDR strong wall 513:The Roman poet 496:Pompeius Trogus 390: 372: 202: 183:, known as the 135:J. M. W. Turner 114: 103: 97: 94: 51: 49: 39: 27: 12: 11: 5: 5882: 5872: 5871: 5866: 5861: 5859:Ancient Africa 5856: 5842: 5841: 5840: 5839: 5810: 5801: 5795: 5785: 5784: 5779: 5774: 5768: 5767: 5756: 5755: 5753: 5752:External links 5750: 5749: 5748: 5742: 5736:. Allen Lane. 5729: 5723: 5710: 5704: 5691: 5685: 5672: 5666: 5653: 5647: 5632: 5629: 5627: 5626: 5613: 5604: 5577: 5559: 5546: 5520: 5494: 5472: 5446: 5430: 5423: 5403: 5389: 5380: 5367: 5354: 5333: 5313: 5300: 5287: 5265: 5252: 5242:translated by 5227: 5214: 5201: 5188: 5155: 5142: 5126: 5120:, revised, as 5095: 5082: 5065: 5043: 5022: 5001: 4988: 4966: 4944: 4931: 4910: 4888: 4866: 4849: 4836: 4819: 4789: 4776: 4763: 4750: 4732: 4719: 4702: 4689: 4667: 4651: 4635: 4619: 4610: 4601: 4585: 4576: 4567: 4551: 4535: 4515: 4506: 4497: 4488: 4479: 4463: 4454: 4438: 4429: 4420: 4404: 4388: 4376: 4367: 4358: 4342: 4326: 4317: 4297: 4291:E. W. Bovill, 4284: 4278:Serge Lancel, 4271: 4258: 4245: 4232: 4211: 4194: 4181: 4168: 4155: 4142: 4125: 4104: 4091: 4078: 4062: 4046: 4033: 4012: 3995: 3989:Glenn Markoe, 3982: 3965: 3950: 3937: 3928: 3919: 3910: 3897: 3881: 3872: 3856: 3836: 3823: 3810: 3797: 3780: 3767: 3754: 3741: 3728: 3703: 3690: 3676: 3662: 3645: 3633: 3616: 3602: 3589: 3581:Hector Berlioz 3558: 3537: 3519: 3498: 3485: 3468: 3447: 3433: 3420: 3407: 3374: 3361: 3348: 3320: 3307: 3287: 3274: 3245: 3227: 3210: 3189: 3176: 3174:(1934) at 305. 3155: 3118: 3105: 3092: 3079: 3069: 3065:The Civil Wars 3048: 3035: 3012: 2989: 2975: 2962: 2949: 2934: 2922:Colette Picard 2910: 2901: 2892: 2883: 2877:978-9004153882 2876: 2858: 2848:, 13 July 2024 2832: 2830: 2827: 2826: 2825: 2820: 2813: 2810: 2717: 2714: 2671:Main article: 2668: 2665: 2602:Vandal Kingdom 2571:Biblical canon 2506:Medjerda River 2474:Roman Carthage 2472:Main article: 2469: 2468:Roman Carthage 2466: 2456: 2453: 2441:Roman Republic 2422: 2419: 2411:Zeno of Citium 2376:Latin language 2294:Battle of Zama 2216:Hannibal Barca 2202:Hannibal Barca 2190:Hamilcar Barca 2177: 2174: 2170:Hamilcar Barca 2023:Roman Republic 1954: 1951: 1927: 1924: 1881: 1880: 1831: 1829: 1822: 1813:Main article: 1810: 1807: 1752:Roman Republic 1707:Main article: 1704: 1701: 1668: 1665: 1590: 1587: 1495: 1492: 1455: 1452: 1370: 1367: 1238: 1235: 1218: 1215: 1144:Roman Republic 1051: 1048: 935:(247-c.182 BC) 933:Hannibal Barca 905:Magonid family 883: 882:Reign of kings 880: 872:Roman Republic 849:Roman Republic 805:foreign policy 797:Roman Republic 755: 752: 688: 687:Colony of Tyre 685: 486:Books of Kings 371: 368: 201: 198: 189:Roman Carthage 181:Roman Republic 169:wider republic 116: 115: 30: 28: 21: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5881: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5855: 5852: 5851: 5849: 5838: 5834: 5830: 5829: 5828: 5824: 5820: 5817: 5816: 5815:Roman History 5811: 5808: 5807: 5802: 5799: 5796: 5793: 5790: 5789: 5783: 5780: 5778: 5775: 5773: 5770: 5769: 5764: 5759: 5745: 5739: 5735: 5730: 5726: 5724:0-520-22614-3 5720: 5716: 5711: 5707: 5705:1-57718-103-4 5701: 5697: 5692: 5688: 5682: 5678: 5673: 5669: 5667:9780415436441 5663: 5660:. Routledge. 5659: 5654: 5650: 5648:0-304-36642-0 5644: 5640: 5635: 5634: 5623: 5622:World History 5617: 5608: 5592: 5588: 5581: 5575: 5573: 5563: 5556: 5550: 5534: 5530: 5524: 5508: 5504: 5498: 5482: 5476: 5460: 5456: 5450: 5442: 5441: 5434: 5426: 5420: 5416: 5415: 5407: 5399: 5393: 5384: 5377: 5371: 5364: 5358: 5351: 5347: 5343: 5337: 5330: 5326: 5325:The Histories 5322: 5317: 5310: 5304: 5297: 5291: 5284: 5280: 5279: 5274: 5269: 5262: 5256: 5249: 5245: 5241: 5237: 5231: 5224: 5218: 5211: 5205: 5198: 5195:Tenny Frank, 5192: 5185: 5181: 5180:Vita Terentii 5177: 5173: 5169: 5165: 5159: 5152: 5146: 5139: 5135: 5130: 5123: 5119: 5115: 5114: 5109: 5105: 5099: 5092: 5086: 5079: 5075: 5069: 5062: 5058: 5057: 5052: 5047: 5040: 5036: 5032: 5026: 5019: 5015: 5011: 5005: 4998: 4992: 4985: 4981: 4980: 4975: 4970: 4963: 4959: 4958: 4957:The Histories 4953: 4948: 4941: 4935: 4928: 4924: 4920: 4914: 4907: 4903: 4902: 4901:The Histories 4897: 4892: 4885: 4881: 4880: 4875: 4870: 4863: 4859: 4853: 4846: 4840: 4833: 4832:The Histories 4829: 4823: 4816: 4815:The Histories 4812: 4811:The Histories 4808: 4804: 4803: 4802:The Histories 4798: 4793: 4786: 4780: 4773: 4767: 4760: 4754: 4747: 4746: 4741: 4736: 4729: 4723: 4716: 4712: 4706: 4699: 4693: 4686: 4682: 4681: 4680:The Histories 4676: 4671: 4665: 4661: 4655: 4649: 4645: 4639: 4633: 4629: 4623: 4614: 4605: 4599: 4598:1-85728-136-5 4595: 4589: 4580: 4571: 4565: 4564:1-57718-103-4 4561: 4555: 4549: 4548:0-8154-1005-0 4545: 4539: 4533: 4532:1-57718-103-4 4529: 4525: 4519: 4510: 4501: 4492: 4483: 4477: 4476:1-57718-103-4 4473: 4467: 4458: 4452: 4451:0-8154-1005-0 4448: 4442: 4433: 4424: 4418: 4417:1-57718-103-4 4414: 4408: 4402: 4401:1-57718-103-4 4398: 4392: 4385: 4380: 4371: 4362: 4356: 4355:0-8154-1005-0 4352: 4346: 4340: 4339:0-691-01477-9 4336: 4330: 4321: 4315: 4314:1-57718-103-4 4311: 4307: 4301: 4294: 4288: 4281: 4275: 4268: 4262: 4255: 4249: 4242: 4236: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4215: 4208: 4204: 4198: 4191: 4185: 4178: 4172: 4165: 4159: 4152: 4146: 4139: 4135: 4129: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4108: 4101: 4095: 4088: 4082: 4076: 4075:0-8154-1005-0 4072: 4066: 4060: 4059:0-520-22614-3 4056: 4050: 4043: 4037: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4016: 4009: 4005: 3999: 3992: 3986: 3979: 3975: 3969: 3961: 3954: 3947: 3941: 3932: 3923: 3914: 3907: 3901: 3895: 3894:0-8154-1005-0 3891: 3885: 3876: 3870: 3869:1-57718-103-4 3866: 3860: 3854: 3853:1-57718-103-4 3850: 3846: 3840: 3833: 3827: 3820: 3814: 3807: 3801: 3794: 3790: 3784: 3777: 3771: 3764: 3758: 3751: 3745: 3738: 3732: 3725: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3707: 3700: 3694: 3687: 3680: 3673: 3672: 3666: 3659: 3655: 3649: 3642: 3637: 3630: 3626: 3620: 3613: 3606: 3599: 3593: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3573:Henry Purcell 3570: 3569: 3562: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3541: 3533: 3529: 3523: 3516: 3515: 3514:Roman History 3511: 3507: 3502: 3495: 3489: 3481: 3472: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3451: 3445:(1990) at 28. 3444: 3437: 3430: 3424: 3417: 3411: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3378: 3371: 3365: 3358: 3352: 3345: 3343: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3324: 3317: 3311: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3291: 3284: 3278: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3249: 3242: 3237: 3231: 3224: 3220: 3214: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3193: 3186: 3180: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3159: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3122: 3115: 3109: 3102: 3096: 3089: 3083: 3073: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3052: 3045: 3039: 3032: 3031: 3030:II Chronicles 3026: 3022: 3016: 3009: 3005: 3004: 2999: 2993: 2986: 2985: 2979: 2972: 2966: 2959: 2953: 2945: 2938: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2914: 2905: 2896: 2887: 2879: 2873: 2869: 2862: 2847: 2843: 2837: 2833: 2824: 2821: 2819: 2816: 2815: 2809: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2753: 2746: 2742: 2739:, now in the 2738: 2734: 2733:sign of Tanit 2730: 2727: 2724:Stele with a 2722: 2713: 2711: 2710:Sophie Bessis 2706: 2701: 2699: 2695: 2690: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2674: 2664: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2640: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2617: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2578: 2574: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2555: 2546: 2542: 2540: 2539: 2533: 2528: 2526: 2523:, in 308–311 2522: 2518: 2514: 2509: 2507: 2503: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2481: 2475: 2465: 2463: 2452: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2437: 2435: 2432: 2431:Numidian king 2428: 2418: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2391: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2360:Scipio circle 2357: 2356:Scipio Nasica 2353: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2335: 2333: 2328: 2323: 2318: 2313: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2270: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2247: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2173: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2158: 2156: 2152: 2147: 2145: 2141: 2136: 2134: 2128: 2126: 2122: 2117: 2115: 2110: 2108: 2102: 2100: 2095: 2090: 2088: 2084: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2047: 2045: 2039: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2024: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1987: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1971:laurel wreath 1968: 1964: 1959: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1940:Mercenary War 1937: 1933: 1923: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1877: 1874: 1866: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1842: 1841: 1837: 1832:This section 1830: 1826: 1821: 1820: 1816: 1806: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1795:Magna Graecia 1792: 1787: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1742: 1739:, now in the 1738: 1734: 1731: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1715: 1710: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1664: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1632: 1629: 1624: 1622: 1617: 1613: 1608: 1606: 1600: 1597: 1586: 1584: 1580: 1573:‘MMḤNT below. 1572: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1546: 1540: 1536: 1534: 1529: 1523: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1500: 1491: 1489: 1484: 1480: 1472: 1460: 1451: 1449: 1448:Sahara Desert 1445: 1440: 1438: 1434: 1429: 1424: 1422: 1418: 1413: 1409: 1406: 1405:Magna Graecia 1397: 1393: 1389: 1386: 1381: 1376: 1375:Sicilian Wars 1369:Sicilian Wars 1366: 1363: 1359: 1354: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1335:Magna Graecia 1332: 1326: 1324: 1320: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1302: 1300: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1276: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1253:(Spain); the 1252: 1248: 1243: 1234: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1214: 1210: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1195: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1174:(a colony of 1173: 1169: 1165: 1160: 1151: 1147: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1128: 1125: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1107: 1105: 1100: 1097:in Italy and 1096: 1091: 1087: 1084: 1076: 1072: 1071:laurel wreath 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1047: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1016: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 995:north of the 994: 990: 986: 982: 978: 974: 970: 966: 962: 958: 957:African coast 952: 950: 946: 942: 941:thalassocracy 934: 930: 925: 921: 919: 913: 911: 906: 902: 893: 888: 879: 877: 873: 868: 866: 861: 857: 852: 850: 846: 842: 841:Delian League 837: 832: 830: 825: 821: 817: 813: 808: 806: 802: 798: 794: 789: 785: 777: 773: 769: 765: 760: 751: 743: 739: 736: 730: 727: 721: 719: 710: 706: 702: 698: 693: 684: 682: 678: 674: 670: 666: 662: 658: 654: 651: 647: 643: 638: 635: 631: 627: 624:) (currently 623: 619: 615: 611: 607: 603: 598: 596: 595: 590: 586: 582: 578: 573: 571: 566: 561: 559: 555: 551: 546: 542: 538: 535:travels from 534: 531:, whose hero 530: 529: 524: 520: 516: 507: 503: 501: 497: 493: 489: 487: 483: 479: 475: 470: 468: 464: 460: 458: 454: 450: 446: 445:Wadi Majardah 442: 441:Hiram of Tyre 438: 434: 430: 426: 422: 418: 414: 410: 406: 402: 394: 388: 384: 380: 376: 367: 365: 361: 360:Tyrian purple 357: 353: 349: 343: 341: 337: 333: 329: 324: 322: 318: 314: 310: 306: 302: 298: 294: 290: 286: 282: 278: 273: 271: 267: 263: 258: 254: 250: 244: 242: 238: 234: 230: 226: 218: 214: 210: 206: 197: 195: 190: 186: 182: 178: 177:Mediterranean 174: 173:Mediterranean 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 142: 141: 136: 132: 124: 120: 112: 109: 101: 90: 87: 83: 80: 76: 73: 69: 66: 62: 59: – 58: 54: 53:Find sources: 47: 43: 37: 36: 31:This article 29: 25: 20: 19: 16: 5814: 5804: 5772:Online books 5762: 5733: 5714: 5695: 5676: 5657: 5638: 5621: 5616: 5607: 5595:. 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Rose, 5217: 5209: 5204: 5196: 5191: 5183: 5179: 5171: 5167: 5162:In his name 5158: 5150: 5145: 5137: 5129: 5121: 5111: 5110:(c.46–120), 5098: 5090: 5085: 5077: 5073: 5068: 5060: 5054: 5046: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5025: 5017: 5013: 5009: 5004: 4996: 4991: 4983: 4977: 4969: 4961: 4955: 4947: 4939: 4934: 4926: 4913: 4905: 4899: 4891: 4883: 4877: 4869: 4857: 4852: 4844: 4839: 4831: 4822: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4800: 4792: 4784: 4779: 4771: 4766: 4758: 4753: 4744: 4735: 4727: 4722: 4714: 4705: 4697: 4692: 4684: 4678: 4670: 4659: 4654: 4643: 4638: 4627: 4622: 4613: 4604: 4588: 4579: 4570: 4554: 4538: 4523: 4518: 4509: 4500: 4491: 4482: 4466: 4457: 4441: 4432: 4423: 4407: 4391: 4379: 4370: 4361: 4345: 4329: 4320: 4305: 4300: 4292: 4287: 4279: 4274: 4266: 4261: 4253: 4248: 4240: 4235: 4219: 4214: 4206: 4197: 4189: 4184: 4176: 4171: 4163: 4158: 4150: 4145: 4137: 4128: 4116: 4107: 4099: 4094: 4086: 4081: 4065: 4049: 4041: 4036: 4028: 4020: 4015: 4007: 4003: 3998: 3990: 3985: 3977: 3973: 3968: 3959: 3953: 3945: 3944:Warmington, 3940: 3931: 3922: 3913: 3905: 3904:Warmington, 3900: 3884: 3875: 3859: 3844: 3839: 3831: 3826: 3818: 3817:Warmington, 3813: 3805: 3800: 3789:The Iberians 3788: 3783: 3775: 3770: 3762: 3757: 3749: 3744: 3736: 3731: 3723: 3719: 3711: 3706: 3698: 3693: 3685: 3679: 3674:, 27: 3, 12. 3669: 3665: 3657: 3653: 3648: 3640: 3636: 3628: 3624: 3619: 3611: 3605: 3597: 3592: 3584: 3576: 3566: 3561: 3553: 3549: 3540: 3527: 3522: 3512: 3509: 3501: 3493: 3488: 3479: 3471: 3462: 3458: 3450: 3442: 3436: 3428: 3423: 3415: 3410: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3377: 3369: 3364: 3356: 3351: 3340: 3328: 3323: 3315: 3310: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3282: 3277: 3269: 3248: 3240: 3230: 3218: 3213: 3201: 3197: 3192: 3184: 3179: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3158: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3131:Semitic root 3126: 3121: 3113: 3108: 3100: 3099:Warmington, 3095: 3087: 3086:Warmington, 3082: 3072: 3064: 3056: 3051: 3038: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3015: 3010:in Hispania. 3001: 2997: 2992: 2982: 2978: 2970: 2965: 2957: 2952: 2943: 2937: 2929: 2925: 2913: 2904: 2895: 2886: 2867: 2861: 2850:, retrieved 2845: 2836: 2749: 2702: 2691: 2676: 2641: 2618: 2583: 2551: 2538:Apologeticus 2536: 2529: 2513:Roman Empire 2510: 2499: 2477: 2458: 2438: 2424: 2395:Cleitomachus 2392: 2387: 2359: 2349: 2330: 2314: 2271: 2248: 2228: 2208:into Italy. 2179: 2159: 2148: 2137: 2129: 2121:Roman Senate 2118: 2111: 2103: 2091: 2048: 2040: 2020: 1979:war elephant 1963:Carthaginian 1884: 1869: 1860: 1845:Please help 1833: 1788: 1745: 1697: 1693: 1670: 1633: 1625: 1609: 1601: 1592: 1576: 1549: 1541: 1537: 1524: 1497: 1476: 1441: 1425: 1414: 1410: 1401: 1385:Carthaginian 1355: 1327: 1303: 1280: 1220: 1211: 1196: 1156: 1129: 1108: 1092: 1088: 1082: 1080: 1017: 953: 938: 914: 897: 869: 856:Leptis Magna 853: 833: 809: 781: 748: 731: 722: 714: 677:Eratosthenes 672: 660: 639: 621: 617: 612:city of the 599: 592: 574: 569: 564: 562: 526: 521:as a tragic 512: 490: 471: 461: 436: 417:fall of Troy 398: 387:fall of Troy 344: 325: 274: 245: 236: 222: 213:funerary art 147:The city of 146: 138: 119: 104: 95: 85: 78: 71: 64: 52: 40:Please help 35:verification 32: 15: 5715:Phoenicians 5567:(in French) 5513:25 February 5118:John Dryden 5008:Abun-Nasr, 4954:(203–120), 4898:(203–120), 4799:(203–120), 4677:(203–120), 4308:, pp 92–94 4254:Phoenicians 4188:Warminton, 4117:The Odyssey 4031:, at 23–29. 3847:, pp 21–31 3577:Les Troyens 3418:at XVIII,6. 3318:at XVIII,5. 3299:Pumai-jaton 2803:fought the 2789:Dio Cassius 2735:, from the 2449:renaissance 2286:Berber king 2249:Meanwhile, 2151:a naval war 2079:city-states 1737:Ksour Essef 1733:breastplate 1723:low reliefs 1709:Pyrrhic War 1703:Pyrrhic War 1671:In 315 BC, 1567:Tetradrachm 1365:in 509 BC. 1286:Hasdrubal I 1271:the reverse 1024:Lusitanians 967:in western 778:(Barcelona) 401:Phoenicians 352:Phoenicians 307:, Corsica, 262:Sea Peoples 237:Phoenicians 209:Sarcophagus 98:August 2024 5848:Categories 5827:Livius.org 5624:: 1.7–1.60 5620:Polybius, 5539:28 October 5307:Scullard, 5149:Scullard, 5089:Scullard, 4664:Chapter 23 4658:Plutarch, 4642:Plutarch, 4626:Plutarch, 3395:pagus Muxi 3389:the tribe 2829:References 2805:Punic Wars 2799:, and the 2726:Phoenician 2610:Belisarius 2594:Bonifacius 2532:Tertullian 2306:Mauretania 2180:As to the 2140:Punic Wars 2119:While the 2107:Mamertines 2013:driven by 1932:Punic Wars 1926:Punic Wars 1900:Hadrumetum 1863:April 2016 1803:Punic Wars 1768:Agrigentum 1673:Agathocles 1467: 300 1290:Hamilcar I 1203:Agathocles 1005:Mauretania 892:Phoenician 669:Trojan War 642:Phoenician 340:Punic Wars 185:Punic Wars 161:Phoenician 68:newspapers 5813:Appian's 5487:3 January 5465:3 January 5176:Suetonius 4742:, in his 4648:22:4–22:6 4632:22:1–22:3 4526:, p 114, 4228:Alexander 4138:Histories 4134:Herodotus 4089:at 72–78. 3712:Gilgamesh 3403:Mauritani 3295:Pygmilion 3268:. Cross, 3254:Bathsheba 3162:Probably 3057:Bagradas. 3033:20:35–37. 3008:Tartessus 2846:Knowledge 2793:Herodotus 2705:peninsula 2644:Byzantine 2633:Heraclius 2627:, as was 2625:Exarchate 2621:Maurice's 2434:Masinissa 2407:scholarch 2346:(240–148) 2344:Masinissa 2322:oligarchy 2290:Masinissa 2267:Africanus 2255:Hasdrubal 2231:Trasimeno 2073:of Greek 1920:Cyrenaica 1908:Kerkouane 1834:does not 1784:Lilybaeum 1636:Philip II 1579:Lilybaeum 1520:Dionysius 1479:Selinunte 1396:palm tree 1383:A silver 1317:ships to 1314:Tartessos 1249:, modern 1192:Lilybaion 1104:Tartessos 1032:Tartessus 1009:Etruscans 989:Cartagena 983:. In the 981:Balearics 901:Aristotle 735:Etruscans 620:) (Latin 606:Tartessos 482:King Ahab 233:Phoenicia 200:Beginning 5854:Carthage 5819:Archived 5597:14 April 5348:nearby. 5342:Carthage 5321:Polybius 5296:Carthage 5294:Lancel, 5261:Carthage 5248:Poenulus 5236:Poenulus 5108:Plutarch 5074:Carthage 5072:Lancel, 5014:Carthage 4952:Polybius 4923:Tarentum 4896:Polybius 4858:Carthage 4797:Polybius 4785:Carthage 4675:Polybius 4252:Markoe, 4241:Carthage 4239:Lancel, 4218:Picard, 4207:Carthage 4190:Carthage 4177:Carthage 4175:Lancel, 4162:Picard, 4085:Picard, 4042:Periplus 3946:Carthage 3906:Carthage 3819:Carthage 3804:Picard, 3761:Harden, 3612:Carthage 3585:Carthage 3526:Virgil, 3480:Carthage 3443:Carthage 3427:Picard, 3414:Justin, 3391:Maxitani 3383:Carthage 3381:Lancel, 3370:Carthage 3355:Harden, 3314:Justin, 3283:Carthage 3262:Adonijah 3202:II Kings 3185:Carthage 3133:as does 3112:Picard, 3101:Carthage 3088:Carthage 2996:Picard, 2956:Picard, 2944:Carthage 2812:See also 2785:Plutarch 2769:Polybius 2614:Antonina 2590:Genseric 2559:Donatist 2380:Poenulus 2368:Polybius 2278:Numidian 2251:Hispania 2243:Tarentum 2222:bust at 2198:Saguntum 2194:Hispania 2186:Polybius 2144:Hannibal 2114:Hiero II 2075:Syracuse 2055:Soluntum 2051:Panormus 2011:quadriga 1999:janiform 1995:Bruttium 1895:Cape Bon 1791:Plutarch 1776:Leontini 1772:Syracuse 1762:and the 1727:Italiote 1691:itself. 1685:Hamilcar 1660:Seleucid 1648:Diadochi 1621:Timoleon 1596:Tarentum 1583:Drepanum 1516:Camarina 1428:Ducetius 1319:Cambyses 1267:Hercules 1263:Heracles 1261:(called 1207:Cape Bon 1199:Hamilcar 1172:Syracuse 1168:Hamilcar 1136:Campania 1115:Elymians 1111:Massalia 1067:Hannibal 1063:Tarentum 1059:Calabria 1028:Brittany 824:Sabratha 709:Heracles 705:Hercules 701:Hannibal 650:city-god 614:Iberians 602:Tarshish 478:Ithobaal 467:Hispania 453:Hannibal 429:Olympiad 311:and the 305:Sardinia 149:Carthage 5352:at 265. 4761:(2004). 4025:Minoans 3699:Odyssey 3671:Ezekiel 3641:Ezekiel 3631:at 137. 3532:Jupiter 3401:or the 3387:Epitome 3342:Epitome 3333:Timaeus 3266:Solomon 3223:Jezebel 3198:I Kings 3143:Elishat 3044:Ezekiel 3025:I Kings 2984:I Kings 2918:Gilbert 2852:17 July 2716:Sources 2683:Tunisia 2629:Ravenna 2606:Gelimer 2586:Vandals 2384:Plautus 2317:reforms 2310:Massyli 2302:Numidia 2125:Messana 2087:Rhegion 2059:Selinus 2036:Pyrrhus 2003:obverse 1975:obverse 1973:on the 1965:silver 1916:Morocco 1855:removed 1840:sources 1730:cuirass 1681:Akragas 1677:Messene 1563:Entella 1533:Messina 1508:Himilco 1488:Akragas 1444:Tunisia 1358:Dorieus 1351:Tharros 1347:Carales 1331:Sybaris 1259:Melkart 1255:obverse 1227:Western 1176:Corinth 1140:Tarquin 1132:Corsica 1124:Malchus 1119:Segesta 1075:trident 1020:Himilco 997:straits 979:in the 965:Palermo 945:Magonid 910:suffets 820:Thapsus 801:tribute 653:Melqart 594:Odyssey 577:Ezekiel 565:legends 545:Jupiter 523:heroine 474:Jezebel 385:of the 364:Mogador 289:Algeria 285:Morocco 281:Tunisia 239:by the 219:, Paris 157:Tunisia 82:scholar 5760:about 5740: 5721: 5702: 5683: 5664: 5645: 5421: 4828:Fabius 4596: 4562: 4546: 4530: 4474: 4449: 4415: 4399: 4353: 4337: 4312: 4073: 4057: 3892: 3867: 3851: 3554:Aeneid 3528:Aeneid 3506:Appian 3494:Aeneid 3463:Aeneid 3459:Aeneid 3455:Virgil 3337:Justin 3196:E.g., 3139:Elissa 3061:Appian 3059:E.g., 2987:10:22. 2874: 2801:Romans 2797:Sicily 2773:Appian 2637:Phocas 2569:, the 2517:Africa 2494:follis 2480:salted 2282:Syphax 2280:king, 2235:Cannae 2168:, and 2094:Xerxes 2083:Theron 2071:tyrant 2067:Zankle 2065:, and 2063:Himera 1991:shekel 1967:shekel 1946:, and 1912:Libyan 1891:Sicily 1774:, and 1756:Thurii 1605:Latium 1559:Sicily 1483:Himera 1388:shekel 1294:Alalia 1282:Mago I 1164:Persia 1159:Greeks 1044:Gambia 969:Sicily 918:Greeks 865:piracy 829:Cyrene 816:Syrtis 707:(i.e. 681:Virgil 665:Appian 630:Bronze 610:native 558:Eshmun 554:Adonis 533:Aeneas 528:Aeneid 515:Virgil 500:Cyprus 492:Dido's 425:Sicily 405:Levant 393:Guérin 381:tells 379:Aeneas 348:slaves 321:Sicily 301:Cyprus 293:Iberia 257:Byblos 255:, and 241:Greeks 217:Louvre 143:(1815) 84: 77: 70: 63: 55: 5350:Ibid. 5346:Tunis 4919:Capua 4862:Hanno 4709:Cf., 4121:Jerba 4113:Homer 4029:Ibid. 3629:Ibid. 3546:Ceres 3399:Mauri 3258:David 3206:Sidon 3135:David 3003:Ophir 2761:Roman 2757:Greek 2752:Punic 2679:Tunis 2660:Tunis 2652:Egypt 2502:Utica 2492:on a 2415:Stoic 2274:Utica 2239:Capua 2220:Capua 2032:Utica 1904:Utica 1780:Erice 1571:Punic 1528:Motya 1504:siege 1471:Tanit 1392:Tanit 1343:Sulci 1310:Gades 1251:Cádiz 1247:Gadir 1223:Libya 1099:Naxos 1095:Cumae 1001:Lixus 993:Gades 977:Ibiza 961:Libya 949:Utica 860:Gades 836:Mauri 793:Ibiza 788:Cumae 784:Naxos 772:Ibiza 764:Tanit 718:Utica 626:Cádiz 622:Gades 589:Homer 581:Sidon 550:Tanit 541:Byrsa 433:Utica 395:1815) 336:Sidon 317:Crete 309:Malta 297:Libya 270:Utica 266:Byrsa 253:Sidon 225:Sidon 194:Tunis 89:JSTOR 75:books 5738:ISBN 5719:ISBN 5700:ISBN 5681:ISBN 5662:ISBN 5643:ISBN 5599:2006 5541:2011 5515:2015 5489:2014 5467:2014 5419:ISBN 5168:Afer 5166:the 5104:Cato 5051:Livy 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Index