556:. An "efficient and loyal servant", in historian Hoyt Williams's words, he was "a jack of all trades, arranged audiences, transcribed documents, visited the jails, and conferred with the Dictator on most routine matters. Toward the end of life, and presumably with his knowledge, Patiño began signing some official documents that did not bear his master's signature." Much of the book consists of dialogue between the Supreme and his secretary, which Policarpo records as he writes what is dictated to him. In Roberto González EchevarrĂa's words, "Patiño is the quintessential writer." There is, however, some debate about how powerful Patiño actually was. Initially possessing a more powerful role, the Supreme's "personal control over virtually the entirety of " led to Patiño quickly being demoted from "Government Secretary and scribe" to simply a record keeper. There is evidence, however, that Patiño wielded considerable influence with the Supreme, as "in 1835 Patiño denounced a slave for attempting to induce an abortion in his daughter and to poison him. A close investigation... turned up the daughter had requested the abortion and Patiño had lied, he was not jailed, and retained his powerful position.”
305:. Roa Bastos's novel can be perceived as in part a thinly disguised attack on Stroessner, who ruled Paraguay even longer than Francia. He came to power after the 1947 Civil War, which had destroyed all parties of the centre and the left and drove more than a third of Paraguay's population into exile. He assumed presidency after a series of coups in 1954. He gained complete control of the military, eliminated potential rivals, and closely monitored and participated in allocations of national resources. As Deiner argues, "The novel’s El Supremo (Francia) and Stroessner in the twentieth century used similar methods for dominating national politics. Neither tolerated effective opposition. Both rulers were extremely suspicious of any potential opponents, quickly acting to imprison and torture anyone suspected. Both were ruthless in their intolerance of dissent." As Rowe and Whitfield describe Stroessner's rule, "he inherited all Francia's despotism, but none of his populism he rule over a country where human and civil rights are honored only in their breach."
540:("Great Lord" in GuaranĂ), or "the Supreme", is the book's titular character and also undoubtedly its main focus. Most of the book is dedicated to his dictates to his secretary, Patiño. The Supreme is a domineering man, frequently belittling his closest confidant. He is also an infirm man, as the book is set a short time before his death on September 20, 1840. Roa Bastos's portrayal of him walks the line between praise and condemnation. While other authors of dictator novels clearly present their dictators as villains, Roa Bastos makes it unclear as to whether he is defending him or not. As Roberto Gonzalez Echevarria writes, the Supreme is "constant about writing. stems from the fact that he has found and used the power implicit in language itself. The Supreme defines power as being able to do through others what we are unable to do ourselves: language, being separate from what it designates, is the very embodiment of power."
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insatiable desire for power and control—he has even chained a huge meteorite to his desk, as punishment for being a cosmic runaway—and that he also sees himself as two separate beings: as a conniving, paranoiac "I", beset by the average ego's fears and doubts, and as the "Supreme", a monstrously powerful presence that even
Francia himself must refer to in the third person." The Supreme was personally involved in the affairs of the state to such extent, that it was reported by contemporary press that " personally trained his cavalry in the use of the saber, ascertained the exact number of nails in Fort Orange, awarded 102 pesos to a Frenchman whose anchor had been melted down by the state... lowered the price of salt in the capital, donated state yerba to the people of Saladillo, and denied permission for to marry in Villa Rica." It was common for him to attend to such specific details in a single evening.
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history. I make it. I can remake it as I please, adjusting, stressing, enriching its meaning and truth." Yet in the
Compiler's notes and retelling of events, the novel is presented as a genuine version of history, one that contradicts and questions the Supreme's. In their collectivity, they deny the illusion of absolute power, whether the power is that of Francia the dictator or Roa Bastos the writer. This ambiguity between myth and fact is elaborated on at the end of the novel in the fictional debate over the Supreme's remains; it questions the nature of national political myth, and how heroes and villains are created in it and where the Supreme falls into those categories after being portrayed as both by Roa Bastos. As Deiner poses the question raised by the novel, "Is he to be portrayed as a valiant leader who held the country together in the face of enormous external aggression, or as a
213:, who was also known as "Dr. Francia." The book's title derives from the fact that Francia referred to himself as "El Supremo" or "the Supreme." The first in a long line of dictators, the Supreme was a severe, calculating despot. The central themes of the novel are power and language and the relation between the two. The Supreme believes himself to be above all power and history: "I don't write history. I make it. I can remake it as I please, adjusting, stressing, enriching its meaning and truth." Yet this assertion is constantly challenged by the very fact that while he achieves power by means of writing and dictating, these very same methods can be used by others to dispute his authority. Not even his own identity, represented by the personal pronoun
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suggested both because he outlived Dr. Francia, and also because the pen ostensibly used to write the book was given to the author by Patiño's descendant. Therefore, "the editor, who arranges the various texts and annotates them, who thereby exercises final authority over Dr. Francia's versions of himself, is the heir of
Policarpo Patiño." The power relationship between the Supreme and his secretary is a microcosm of the book as a whole, with Dr. Francia dominating Patiño completely, even though the latter is intimately associated with the dictator having power at all, given the power he derives from writing.
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circular, which is ostensibly the main project Patiño and Dr. Francia are working on. In addition to these different layers of narrative, there are also three possible authors: Roa Bastos, the author-compiler, and the "implied author". The latter refers to the "behavior, attitudes, and backgrounds necessary for a proper understanding of the text." The multitude of possibilities regarding the author and the shift between types of narratives, combined with an absence of quotation marks, contribute to this book being described as "undoubtedly, most complicated work to date."
421:, which according to Pope, relied on superposition of different points of view, blurring time and linearity. He further notes, "linguistically self assured, it used the vernacular without apologies." Other notable characteristics of the Boom include the treatment of both "rural and urban settings," internationalism, an emphasis on both the historical and the political, as well as "questioning of regional as well as, or more than, national identity; awareness of hemisphereic as well as worldwide economic and ideological issues; polemicism; and timeliness."
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329:. Garth suggests that Macedonio and Roa Bastos are similar in use of metaphysical language and techniques used to reconstruct reality, as Dr. Francia does in his dictated creation of the Supreme, the ruler of all reality. Macedonio's writing utilized characters that did not fit the archetype of Western fiction, each only having meaning through their interaction with others in a collective and often never experiencing growth or development in order to construct atemporal spaces of
224:, who went on to rule the country even longer than Francia did. Many consider the book to be at least in part a thinly disguised attack on Stroessner who used methods similar to Francia's to achieve and maintain the effective control of the country, including the swift elimination of opposition, the employment of torture and intolerance of dissent. In its portrayal of Francia and criticism of Stroessner,
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them, besides the footnotes, indications in italics and within brackets such as "on the margin it is written," "there is a hole in the paper here," etc. So that while they do not compose a homogeneous text, held together by the rhetorical power of a narrative voice, and in fact are anything but homogeneous, these texts bear the presence of the editor in these discrete marks and indications.
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the distinctions between mythic and mythological. The novel can only accomplish this task within the metaphysical space of mythmaking. Whereas
Macedonio attacks the concept of the individual as subject while admitting the fact that to write makes oneself a subject, Roa Bastos recognizes this paradox and exploits it, utilizing it in concerns of political and social nature.
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incomprehensible to most readers, phrases from a spoken, not written language. The phrases are there in a sort of ghostly form, hanging in air, denying full participation in the novel to the reader, and thus causing the reader to empathize with real world
Paraguayan citizens who are denied political participation by their political rulers."
359:. The similarities can be seen in how both novels are written by exiles, in their thinly veiled attacks on their homeland's current dictator, and in their authors' shared use of 'pasquinade/hand-written message' devices to begin both novels. Francia's "Perpetual Circular" also contains several allusions to the Argentine gaucho
26:
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Finally, there is what
Francia writes himself in his "Private Notebook," which is mostly an account of his own life, attempts to write fiction, diatribes against Patiño and his kind, philosophical musings and ramblings, and other sundry exercises. All of these texts have been edited, for one finds in
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is mostly composed of real texts by or about
Francia. These range from personal memoirs by historical Paraguayan figures to passages from books written by Europeans in Paraguay at the time. They are arranged by a 'Compiler' whose footnotes tell the story of how the book was put together. The body of
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are also prevalent in the novel. Mainly, the debate over the nature of 'Good
Society' and how to achieve it are seen in the positions of the Supreme. He argues that it is the ruler's role, as well as his duty and obligation, to bring about the good society, and this can only be done by the imposition
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Although the novel is a dialogue between the
Supreme and his secretary, Patiño, there are in fact at least six different types of narration in the text: notebook entries, transcriptions of dialogues, a logbook, the "voice" of the Supreme's father, two documents, and the installments of the perpetual
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This is not the first fictional biographical work tied to Dr. Francia and his dictatorship. The
American novelist Edward Lucas White published his El Supremo in 1916. As his extensive "selected bibliography on the history of Paraguay during the days of 'El Supremo,' Jose Gaspar Rodriguez de Francia"
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The goal of the dictator novel is not to dissect and to analyze the rule of particular dictators with a focus on historical accuracy, but rather, to examine the more abstract nature of authority figures, and to question the idea of authority in general. To be considered a dictator novel, a book must
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that challenge reality. Roa Bastos borrows from these ideas yet situates them in existing political and social history to challenge perceived conceptions of the past's factuality. He dismantles national Paraguayan mythology which is so intimately intertwined with the life of Dr. Francia, elucidating
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elements (talking dogs and meteor rifles, for example) all serve to deconstruct the idea of absolute power, by creating an ambiguity between fact and myth, between Dr Francia and the Supreme, and between Roa Bastos and the Compiler. Francia places himself above all power and history: "I don't write
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the novel is composed of a polemical collection of versions of Paraguayan history. The first text is what the Supreme dictates to his assistant Patiño, about what is happening in the present. This includes the constant abuses Francia heaps upon Patiño and their attempts to discover the authors of a
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Moreover, readers are increasingly made aware of the marginal but insistent voice of the mysterious compiler. At the center of the book, it is revealed that the compiler is, in fact, in possession of the same pen used by the Supreme, a "memory-pen" that reproduces images as well as words, but that
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are symbolic of those of other Paraguayan leaders. Suggesting the book is connected to more recent leaders of Paraguay, Deiner writes "although ostensibly a fictionalized account of the life of El Supremo, the novel is also a thinly disguised attack on the politics and rule of Alfredo Stroessner,
647:: language, being separate from what it designates, is the very embodiment of power, for things act and mean through it without ceasing to be themselves. Dr. Francia has also realized that he cannot control language, particularly written language, that it has a life of its own that threatens him."
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The second text is the "Circular Perpetual" that Francia also dictates to Patiño. It is his version of the origins of Paraguayan history, particularly of how he came to power. These texts are highly annotated by the editor, for in them Francia "corrects" versions given by other historical figures,
602:, found nailed to the door of the Asunción Cathedral, that falsely announces Francia's death and burial arrangements. It is mostly Francia's vulgar rambling, including accusing meek Patiño of attempting to usurp him. The author of the pasquinade is never discovered in spite of their high scrutiny.
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were tempered by his aristocratic insistence on absolute rule. As John T. Deiner explains, he "created an army in which all citizens were required to serve. He confiscated property from the upper classes and used the state's coercive power to direct the working of that land by the army." He also
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But this linear detection narrative soon starts to unravel. The Supreme casts doubt even on the presumption that the declaration is indeed a forgery, or rather suggests that the forgery could itself be forged: "Suppose that I myself am an author of pasquinades." Moreover, the literary genre is
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As critic John King notes, "it is impossible to summarize this extraordinary novel in a few lines. It incorporates the latest developments in linguistic theory and practice, talks of the arbitrariness and unreliability of language that purports to describe reality, rereads and comments upon the
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The Supreme is also revealed to be power-crazed in other ways. Michiko Kakutani writes "Francia, it seems, wants to account for everything (his own history, as well as the history of his nation, which he personifies as its leader) as he pours out his story, it becomes clear that he possesses an
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of absolute order from above. The dictator's job is to bring about the Good Society, to impose the needed order, and the people's job is to obey the dictator, thereby enjoying the fruits of the good society. The result of such behavior by both the ruler and the ruled will be good for everyone.
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Despite his influence, Patiño is frequently the victim of the Supreme's abuse, even having his own death sentence dictated to him, although in the end he outlives his master. González EchevarrĂa questions whether Patiño " the last laugh? Did he achieve some sort of posthumous power?" This is
810:
About the 12-year delay between the book's initial publication in Spanish and its translation into English, Fuentes reports that Roa Bastos said: "The book has been published in almost all the principal languages of the world, including Japanese and Chinese. In Europe, it has only not been
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whose inhabitants have been turned to stone; and increasingly the dictator also ruminates on the past, particularly the events of Paraguay's foundation when he had to fend off the attention of Spaniards, Argentines, and Brazilians, all of whom threatened the nascent country's independence.
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established itself as the first Republic of South America. Dr. Francia was elected by the junta (or congress) to office and he established himself as dictator for life, until his death in 1840. He ruled with a despotic populism in which the ideals he had drawn from the philosophers of the
807:, is the kind of summa that absorbs everything that the writer has done before. This is Mr. Roa Bastos' dialogue with himself through history and through a monstrous historical figure whom he has to imagine and understand if he is ever to imagine and understand himself and his people."
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Paraguayans into the national political system, even though he is sympathetic toward them. But the common person, the Guarani speaker, remains unheard. Roa Bastos cleverly demonstrates this political isolation/marginalization by constantly introducing GuaranĂ phrases, phrases which are
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the majority of the people spoke GuaranĂ while Spanish was the dominant political language. Francia himself was known for his support of GuaranĂ and his "persecution of the Spanish-speaking elite". As Deiner argues, "El Supremo is aware of the difficulties of incorporating rural and
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As the novel continues, it becomes more and more caught up in digressions, such that the original narrative line is apparently forgotten. The Supreme and his secretary discuss an often bizarre series of topics: a meteor that is apparently chained to Francia's desk; a prison camp in
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who laid the basis for almost two centuries of exploitation of Paraguay’s peoples by its leaders?" The answer is not so much of importance to the novel, so much as the fact that the question itself exists, thereby confirming the power of writing over so called "absolute" power.
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The novel ends at the end of Francia's life, with him condemning Patiño to death for supposedly plotting against him, followed by Francia's death in a fire in 1840. As the characters and plot disintegrate, so apparently does the novel. The final line is another interpolation:
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Further complicating matters is the fact that the Supreme's "voice echoes back and forth in time—recalling his birth and his youth, only to jump ahead to the future, speaking beyond the grave about the flies that disturb his corpse, the bandits who dare to disturb his sleep."
261:'s fabulously successful creation." The book's handling of the themes of power and language was also praised. Still, the novel was not well received by Stroessner's government and Roa Bastos became "one of the three citizens forbidden to return" to Paraguay as a result.
579:'s theory of symbolism in literature which suggests that " inseparability of symbolism and interpretation. They are, for me, simply two aspects of a single phenomenon." This theory dovetails quite well with the multiple meanings associated with different objects in
425:
and brief Preface point out, White took great pains to make his historical novel quite realistic and historically accurate. The 1967 reprint has an additional brief 6-page Introduction to set the work in context. White's novel covers the period from 1816 to 1817.
509:" And yet, this is not quite the last word, as it is followed by a "Final Compiler's Note" that reflects on the compilation and the book as a whole. Here the novel seems to pass responsibility on to "the no less fictitious and autonomous reader."
472:: Dr Francia, the Supreme, and his secretary, Policarpo Patiño, discuss its meaning and possible provenance. Patiño is set the task of uncovering the perpetrator: "You are to start tracking down the handwriting of the pasquinade in all the files."
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The Stroessner government did not react kindly to this or others of Roa Bastos's writings. On a rare visit to Paraguay from France in 1982, he was denounced as a "Marxist subversive" and became "one of the three citizens forbidden to return."
217:, is safe and can easily be usurped as is demonstrated by the incident of the pasquinade. Language, as powerful as it is, can never be controlled and can just as easily be used as an instrument of coercion as an instrument of resistance.
467:
This pronouncement, it turns out, is not an official declaration. It is an imitation or forgery, found "nailed to the door of the cathedral" in Paraguay's capital, AsunciĂłn. Immediately following, then, is a discussion of this
417:, a literary movement which began in the 1960s and 1970s, when the work of a group of relatively young Latin American novelists became widely circulated in Europe and throughout the world. The Boom novels were essentially
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have strong political themes that draw upon historical accounts, while critically examining the power held by an authoritarian figure, allowing the specific to explain the general. Although mostly associated with the
670:. As Roa Bastos claims, "this inevitably leads the Paraguayan writer to the necessity of creating a literature that goes beyond literature, of speaking against the word, or writing against writing." At the time of
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Order that on the occasion of my death my corpse be beheaded; my head placed on a pike for three days in the Plaza de la RepĂşblica, to which the people are to be summoned by the sounding of a full peal of bells...
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undone by the introduction of footnotes (which blur the line between fiction and fact), and the narrative transparency subverted by the fact that the novel asserts its own materiality with interpolations such as "
294:(1864–70), which crippled Paraguay, reduced its population by half, and forced many others into exile, creating a Paraguay that Roa Bastos described as "the land without men of the men without land."
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The book does, however, start by promising a linear narrative. It opens with the title words, set in a font designed to look like handwriting, heralding what appears to be an official order:
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in Latin American society. The dictator novel draws upon the relationship between power, writing, and dictatorship, and so is an allegory of the role of the Latin American writer in society.
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Chronology and logic are seemingly abandoned: at one point the dictator discusses the date of his own death; elsewhere he mentions events that will only happen long afterwards, such as the
639:—and the power inherent in all of its forms, a power that is often only present in the deconstruction of communication. González Echevarria argues that "Dr. Francia's fear of the
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in 1989. This is the most prestigious literary award in the Spanish-speaking world, and honors the lifetime achievement of an outstanding writer in the Spanish language.
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was published (in exile) in 1974." In summary, Deiner suggest that the novel "serves as the quintessential example of the personalist dictator model of Latin American
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of the 1960s and 1970s, "all fictional depictions of the Latin American 'strong-man', it must be noted have an important antecedent in Domingo Faustino Sarmiento's
799:, wrote of Roa Bastos: "He is his country's most eminent writer; his works are few, self-contained (very Paraguayan) and brilliantly written. Yet his masterpiece,
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claiming that it was, "an exceptional cultural phenomenon." Martin goes on to suggest that it was "more immediately and unanimously acclaimed than any novel since
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in 1974 was an exceptional cultural phenomenon." He goes on to note that Roa Bastos's novel "was more immediately and unanimously acclaimed than any novel since
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2119:, copyright renewed by Ethyl White in 1944 and republished, with an introduction by Wayne G. Broehl Jr., 1967 (E.P. Dutton & Co., Inc.), ISBN 978-1344611602.
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744:, and critics seemed to suspect that its strictly historical importance might be even greater than that of GarcĂa Márquez's fabulously successful creation."
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Like many other works of the Latin American boom, the book never became an international best-seller. It was, however, highly regarded by critics with
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643:, his abuse of his constant worry about writing all stem from the fact that he has found and used the power implicit in language itself.
484:". The effect of these notes is to remind readers that they are reading a book, and that this book is incomplete, damaged, and fallible.
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is now "partially broken, so that today it writes only with very thick strokes that tear the paper, effacing words as it writes them".
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upon its translation in 1986 that "he had read the book with an exhilaration similar to 'climbing Everest twice in one weekend.'"
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may often feel, the novel remains a prodigious meditation not only on history and power, but on the nature of language itself."
726:. Francia's was one of the earliest versions of this model, and Stroessner's was one of the last personalist dictator regimes."
507:(the remainder stuck together, illegible, the rest unable to be found, the worm-eaten letters of the Book hopelessly scattered).
301:, who ruled the country for thirty-five years (from 1954 to 1989) and was in power at the time at which Roa Bastos was writing
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isolated the country from the outside world, restricting foreign trade and mobility. Political opposition was not tolerated.
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819:." He also stated that "he was intrigued that Americans 'would start with the work of mine considered the most difficult.'"
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which first came out in Spanish in 1974 and finally reaches the English-reading public now, in a masterly translation by
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is a dense, complicated novel that requires considerable reader involvement. Critic Helene Weldt-Basson suggests that
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1941:"Big Daddy: The Dictator novel and the Liberation of Latin America. — The Feast of the Goat — book review"
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plays an important role in the novel, one that goes hand-in-hand with the complexity of the writing. She references
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1682:(1980), "The Dictatorship of Rhetoric / The Rhetoric of Dictatorship: Carpentier, GarcĂa Márquez, and Roa Bastos",
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as well as Spanish, only 5% only spoke Spanish, whereas 43% spoke only GuaranĂ which is essentially a language of
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Pope, Randolph D. (1996), "The Spanish American novel from 1950 to 1975", in González EchevarrĂa, Roberto (ed.),
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Outside Paraguay, Roa Bastos's works never became best-sellers like those of other members of the Boom such as
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Agosin, Marjorie (May 1990), "Inhabitants of Decayed Palaces: The Dictator in the Latin American Novel",
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The novel's format, its various multiple sources, its manipulation of linear time and its inclusion of
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Collisions With History: Latin American Fiction and Social Science from El Boom to the New World Order
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The Supreme defines power as being able to do through others what we are unable to do ourselves
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1535:"Roa Bastos and the Question of Cultural Translatability (Or How Does One Get to Paraguay?)"
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On a more basic level, the novel also has political themes to it. As John Deiner writes, "
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The novel is also clearly influenced by earlier writing on dictatorship, predominantly
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various histories and travelers’ accounts of Paraguay, ranges across the breadth of
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The Cambridge History of Latin American Literature, Volume 2: The Twentieth Century
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The Voice of the Masters: Writing and Authority in Modern Latin American Literature
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Journeys through the Labyrinth: Latin American Fiction in the Twentieth Century
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King, John (1987), "Augusto Roa Bastos: An Introduction", in King, John (ed.),
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Structures of Power: Essays on Twentieth Century Spanish American-Fiction
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Oberhelman, Harley D. (September 1994), "Review of Helen Weldt-Basson's
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Augusto Roa Bastos's I the Supreme: A Dialogical Perspective
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Augusto Roa Bastos's I, the Supreme, a Dialogic Perspective
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1001:
840:
367:, both of whom were the object of Sarmiento's critique.
2117:
El Supremo: A Romance of the Great Dictator of Paraguay
1660:, Albany: State University of New York Press, pp.
1262:
1260:
1258:
1144:
1048:
949:
947:
877:
875:
766:
And in the English-speaking world, the British critic
623:
The novel revolves around a central theme of language—
1539:
Dissidences. Hispanic Journal of Theory and Criticism
1454:
1442:
1430:
1413:
1401:
1243:
1096:
1084:
998:
862:
860:
858:
662:
where, as of 1962, 52% spoke the indigenous language
449:, implicitly condemning Stroessner and debating with
1255:
986:
944:
916:
872:
317:
is influenced by twentieth-century Argentine writer
1893:
The Cambridge Companion to the Latin American Novel
1724:
1678:
1478:
1389:
1383:
1371:
1305:
1132:
1108:
1078:
1030:
974:
497:of the 1930s (in which Roa Bastos himself fought).
2094:
1060:
855:
606:not to mention those given by European travelers.
1896:, New York: Cambridge University Press, pp.
1120:
2236:
2173:
1656:, in Peavler, Terry J.; Standish, Peter (eds.),
734:Gerald Martin observes that "the publication of
552:Policarpo Patiño is the Supreme's secretary and
1601:(2), Hispanic Review, Vol. 63, No. 2: 246–248,
933:
931:
321:, as well as other avant garde artists such as
406:, a work written as a sociological treatise".
2159:
2056:
1785:
1317:
1293:
1278:
968:
938:
910:
898:
834:
2092:
1827:
1788:The Rise and Fall of the Paraguayan Republic
1575:: Politically Related Themes in the Novel",
1356:
1329:
1042:
928:
528:
478:(the rest of the sentence burned, illegible)
2166:
2152:
2101:, Columbia: University of Missouri Press,
2034:
1978:
1746:"Language Policy and Planning in Paraguay"
1344:
1237:
1225:
1213:
1201:
1189:
1177:
1165:
1153:
849:
25:
1695:
2122:
1840:(3), Hispania, Vol. 66, No. 3: 369–375,
1804:
1266:
1054:
516:
432:
1964:, Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press,
1889:
1868:Modern Latin American Fiction: A Survey
1625:
1551:
1532:
1484:
1102:
866:
460:I the Supreme Dictator of the Republic
313:Literary critic Todd Garth argues that
2237:
1914:
1631:"A Despot, Now and Forever. Review of
1588:
1570:
1499:
1448:
1436:
1424:
1407:
1249:
1090:
1007:
953:
922:
881:
2147:
1939:Moses, Michael Valdez (August 2002),
1938:
1790:, Austin: University of Texas Press,
1743:
1729:, Austin: University of Texas Press,
1725:González EchevarrĂa, Roberto (1985),
1651:
1395:
1066:
992:
980:
264:
2015:
1959:
1871:, London: Faber and Faber, pp.
1864:
1138:
1126:
1114:
2093:Weldt-Basson, Helene Carol (1993),
1981:Augusto Roa Bastos's I, the Supreme
1805:Kakutani, Michiko (April 2, 1986),
1753:Current Issues in Language Planning
1533:Buffery, Helena (August 30, 2005),
547:
13:
1830:El gran Burundún-Burundá ha muerto
14:
2301:
2123:Williams, Raymond Leslie (1998),
1468:(in Spanish), Government of Spain
1552:Caistor, Nick (April 28, 2005),
534:JosĂ© Gaspar RodrĂguez de Francia
522:JosĂ© Gaspar RodrĂguez de Francia
409:Many dictator novels, including
390:that challenges the role of the
211:JosĂ© Gaspar RodrĂguez de Francia
2126:The Modern Latin-American Novel
536:, also known as "Dr. Francia",
16:1974 book by Augusto Roa Bastos
1684:Latin American Research Review
1554:"Augusto Roa Bastos. Obituary"
1462:"Premio "Miguel de Cervantes""
1:
1577:MACLAS: Latin American Essays
1525:. Trans. Barbara E. Pierce. (
1493:
1386:, p. 217 Emphasis added.
741:One Hundred Years of Solitude
512:
363:, as well as to the dictator
341:and his influence on Western
308:
254:One Hundred Years of Solitude
2260:Novels by Augusto Roa Bastos
2115:White, Edward Lucas (1916),
1786:Hoyt Williams, John (1979),
1680:González EchevarrĂa, Roberto
729:
718:ruling Paraguay at the time
144:(Dalkey Archive Press, 2000)
7:
1960:Nunn, Frederick M. (2001),
618:
428:
10:
2306:
711:General Alfredo Stroessner
482:(edge of the folio burned)
2182:
2074:10.1080/01436598708419971
1765:10.1080/14664200108668019
1697:10.1017/S0023879100033239
1571:Deiner, John T. (1999), "
969:Rowe & Whitfield 1987
939:Rowe & Whitfield 1987
911:Rowe & Whitfield 1987
899:Rowe & Whitfield 1987
761:Miguel de Cervantes Prize
613:
529:Dr. Francia (the Supreme)
440:Cathedral as it is today.
388:Latin American literature
378:is a good example of the
174:
162:
148:
135:
119:
111:Published in English
109:
99:
89:
75:
67:
57:
46:
36:
24:
1384:González EchevarrĂa 1980
1372:González EchevarrĂa 1980
1306:González EchevarrĂa 1985
1079:González EchevarrĂa 1985
1031:González EchevarrĂa 1980
822:
683:
563:
370:
228:belongs to the genre of
2290:Spanish-language novels
2089:subscription required.)
2012:subscription required.)
1861:subscription required.)
1744:Gynan, Shaw N. (2001),
1721:subscription required.)
1652:Garth, Todd S. (1996),
1622:subscription required.)
1529:subscription required.)
31:First edition (Spanish)
2270:Novels set in Paraguay
1502:Human Rights Quarterly
753:Gabriel GarcĂa Márquez
525:
465:
447:Latin American history
441:
288:Francisco Solano LĂłpez
2265:Alfred A. Knopf books
2204:Vigilia del admirante
2062:Third World Quarterly
520:
458:
436:
230:novelas de dictadores
2280:Metafictional novels
2129:, New York: Twayne,
2053:. Trans. Helen Lane.
365:Juan Manuel de Rosas
361:Juan Facundo Quiroga
343:political philosophy
284:Carlos Antonio LĂłpez
276:French Enlightenment
182:PQ8259.R56 Y613 2000
2275:Biographical novels
2042:, New York: Knopf,
2036:Roa Bastos, Augusto
1466:Ministry of Culture
770:said about reading
415:Latin American Boom
400:Latin American Boom
319:Macedonio Fernández
238:Latin American Boom
47:Original title
21:
2176:Augusto Roa Bastos
1815:The New York Times
1639:The New York Times
1318:Hoyt Williams 1979
1294:Hoyt Williams 1979
1279:Hoyt Williams 1979
835:Hoyt Williams 1979
797:The New York Times
781:The New York Times
757:Mario Vargas Llosa
705:is a surprisingly
526:
442:
299:Alfredo Stroessner
265:Historical context
236:, and also to the
222:Alfredo Stroessner
207:Augusto Roa Bastos
201:written by exiled
41:Augusto Roa Bastos
19:
2285:Paraguayan novels
2250:Historical novels
2230:
2229:
2136:978-0-8057-1655-9
2108:978-0-8262-0888-0
2049:978-0-394-53535-7
2027:978-0-521-41035-9
1971:978-0-89680-219-3
1931:978-0-86091-952-0
1924:, London: Verso,
1907:978-1-85566-120-2
1882:978-0-571-14508-9
1797:978-0-292-77016-4
1736:978-0-292-78716-2
1671:978-0-7914-2839-9
1629:(April 6, 1986),
1357:Weldt-Basson 1993
1330:Weldt-Basson 1993
1192:, pp. 9, 10.
1043:Keefe Ugalde 1983
724:political systems
351:Domingo Sarmiento
323:Jorge Luis Borges
186:
185:
142:978-1-56478-247-2
100:Publication place
2297:
2168:
2161:
2154:
2145:
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2139:
2111:
2100:
2084:
2052:
2030:
2007:
1974:
1955:
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1934:
1910:
1885:
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1034:
1028:
1011:
1005:
996:
990:
984:
978:
972:
966:
957:
951:
942:
935:
926:
920:
914:
908:
902:
896:
885:
879:
870:
864:
853:
847:
838:
832:
811:translated into
776:Michiko Kakutani
548:Policarpo Patiño
419:modernist novels
199:historical novel
178:
152:
91:Publication date
80:Historical novel
29:
22:
18:
2305:
2304:
2300:
2299:
2298:
2296:
2295:
2294:
2255:Dictator novels
2235:
2234:
2231:
2226:
2178:
2172:
2137:
2109:
2050:
2028:
1972:
1951:
1949:
1932:
1908:
1883:
1819:
1817:
1798:
1777:
1775:
1748:
1737:
1672:
1643:
1641:
1627:Fuentes, Carlos
1595:Hispanic Review
1562:
1560:
1543:
1541:
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1414:
1406:
1402:
1394:
1390:
1382:
1378:
1370:
1363:
1355:
1351:
1345:Oberhelman 1994
1343:
1336:
1328:
1324:
1316:
1312:
1304:
1300:
1292:
1285:
1277:
1273:
1265:
1256:
1248:
1244:
1238:Roa Bastos 1986
1236:
1232:
1226:Roa Bastos 1986
1224:
1220:
1214:Roa Bastos 1986
1212:
1208:
1202:Roa Bastos 1986
1200:
1196:
1190:Roa Bastos 1986
1188:
1184:
1178:Roa Bastos 1986
1176:
1172:
1166:Roa Bastos 1986
1164:
1160:
1154:Roa Bastos 1986
1152:
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1137:
1133:
1125:
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1113:
1109:
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1041:
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1029:
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999:
991:
987:
979:
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952:
945:
936:
929:
921:
917:
909:
905:
897:
888:
880:
873:
865:
856:
850:Roa Bastos 1986
848:
841:
833:
829:
825:
732:
707:political novel
686:
621:
616:
577:Tzvetan Todorov
566:
550:
531:
515:
461:
431:
373:
311:
267:
234:dictator novels
193:(orig. Spanish
167:
120:Media type
112:
92:
32:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2303:
2293:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2257:
2252:
2247:
2228:
2227:
2225:
2224:
2216:
2208:
2200:
2196:Yo, el Supremo
2192:
2188:Hijo de hombre
2183:
2180:
2179:
2171:
2170:
2163:
2156:
2148:
2142:
2141:
2135:
2120:
2113:
2107:
2090:
2068:(1): 229–245,
2054:
2048:
2040:I, the Supreme
2032:
2026:
2013:
1997:10.2307/344963
1991:(3): 450–451,
1976:
1970:
1957:
1936:
1930:
1916:Martin, Gerald
1912:
1906:
1887:
1881:
1862:
1846:10.2307/342310
1825:
1809:I, the Supreme
1802:
1796:
1783:
1741:
1735:
1722:
1676:
1670:
1649:
1633:I, the Supreme
1623:
1607:10.2307/474575
1586:
1573:I, The Supreme
1568:
1549:
1530:
1514:10.2307/762382
1508:(2): 328–335,
1495:
1492:
1490:
1489:
1477:
1453:
1451:, p. 107.
1441:
1439:, p. 116.
1429:
1427:, p. 115.
1412:
1410:, p. 112.
1400:
1388:
1376:
1374:, p. 216.
1361:
1359:, p. 219.
1349:
1347:, p. 450.
1334:
1322:
1310:
1298:
1283:
1271:
1254:
1252:, p. 247.
1242:
1240:, p. 435.
1230:
1228:, p. 424.
1218:
1216:, p. 198.
1206:
1194:
1182:
1170:
1158:
1143:
1141:, p. 297.
1131:
1119:
1117:, p. 231.
1107:
1095:
1093:, p. 266.
1083:
1071:
1059:
1057:, p. 100.
1047:
1045:, p. 369.
1035:
1033:, p. 217.
1012:
1010:, p. 108.
997:
995:, p. 104.
985:
973:
971:, p. 243.
958:
956:, p. 106.
943:
941:, p. 243.
927:
925:, p. 105.
915:
913:, p. 242.
903:
901:, p. 245.
886:
884:, p. 278.
871:
854:
852:, p. 194.
839:
826:
824:
821:
801:I the Supreme,
793:Carlos Fuentes
778:, writing for
731:
728:
685:
682:
620:
617:
615:
612:
565:
562:
549:
546:
530:
527:
514:
511:
430:
427:
413:belong to the
380:dictator novel
372:
369:
327:Julio Cortázar
310:
307:
292:Paraguayan War
266:
263:
259:GarcĂa Márquez
190:I, the Supreme
184:
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84:Dictator novel
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52:Yo el Supremo'
48:
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20:I the Supreme
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2104:
2099:
2098:
2091:
2088:
2083:
2079:
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2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2058:Rowe, William
2055:
2051:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2023:
2019:
2014:
2011:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1977:
1973:
1967:
1963:
1958:
1948:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1933:
1927:
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1812:
1810:
1803:
1799:
1793:
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1766:
1762:
1759:(1): 53–118,
1758:
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1457:
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1426:
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1409:
1404:
1398:, p. 82.
1397:
1392:
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1380:
1373:
1368:
1366:
1358:
1353:
1346:
1341:
1339:
1332:, p. 77.
1331:
1326:
1320:, p. 81.
1319:
1314:
1308:, p. 80.
1307:
1302:
1296:, p. 86.
1295:
1290:
1288:
1281:, p. 82.
1280:
1275:
1268:
1267:Kakutani 1986
1263:
1261:
1259:
1251:
1246:
1239:
1234:
1227:
1222:
1215:
1210:
1204:, p. 72.
1203:
1198:
1191:
1186:
1180:, p. 29.
1179:
1174:
1168:, p. 23.
1167:
1162:
1155:
1150:
1148:
1140:
1135:
1128:
1123:
1116:
1111:
1105:, p. 10.
1104:
1099:
1092:
1087:
1081:, p. 64.
1080:
1075:
1068:
1063:
1056:
1055:Williams 1998
1051:
1044:
1039:
1032:
1027:
1025:
1023:
1021:
1019:
1017:
1009:
1004:
1002:
994:
989:
983:, p. 89.
982:
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934:
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924:
919:
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895:
893:
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878:
876:
868:
863:
861:
859:
851:
846:
844:
837:, p. 99.
836:
831:
827:
820:
818:
814:
808:
806:
802:
798:
794:
791:Also in 1986
789:
787:
786:I The Supreme
783:
782:
777:
773:
772:I the Supreme
769:
768:Bernard Levin
764:
762:
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749:
745:
743:
742:
737:
736:I the Supreme
727:
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721:
720:I the Supreme
716:
715:I the Supreme
712:
708:
704:
703:I The Supreme
699:
696:
691:
681:
678:
673:
672:I the Supreme
669:
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661:
660:Latin America
657:
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611:
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603:
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581:I the Supreme
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541:
539:
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2017:
1988:
1984:
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1944:
1920:
1892:
1867:
1837:
1833:
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1814:
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1756:
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1638:
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1558:The Guardian
1557:
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1485:Caistor 2005
1480:
1470:, retrieved
1465:
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1301:
1274:
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1156:, p. 3.
1134:
1129:, p. 7.
1122:
1110:
1103:Kristal 2005
1098:
1086:
1074:
1069:, p. 2.
1062:
1050:
1038:
988:
976:
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867:Fuentes 1986
830:
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654:is the most
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337:Themes from
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2245:1974 novels
1807:"Review of
1449:Deiner 1999
1437:Deiner 1999
1425:Deiner 1999
1408:Deiner 1999
1250:Foster 1995
1091:Martin 1989
1008:Deiner 1999
954:Deiner 1999
923:Deiner 1999
882:Martin 1989
658:country in
538:KaraĂ-GuasĂş
244:) in 1986.
2239:Categories
2220:Contravida
2174:Novels by
1952:2008-01-21
1820:2008-03-27
1778:2008-04-16
1644:2008-03-27
1563:2008-03-16
1544:2008-03-06
1494:References
1472:2008-03-16
1396:Gynan 2001
1067:Moses 2002
993:Garth 1996
981:Garth 1996
805:Helen Lane
677:underclass
641:pasquinade
600:pasquinade
554:amanuensis
513:Characters
470:pasquinade
331:mythmaking
309:Influences
242:Helen Lane
203:Paraguayan
170:863/.64 21
62:Helen Lane
58:Translator
2212:El fiscal
1773:145103004
1714:253141792
1583:: 105–118
1139:King 1987
1127:Nunn 2001
1115:Pope 1996
730:Reception
656:bilingual
573:symbolism
495:Chaco War
129:Paperback
2038:(1986),
1985:Hispania
1918:(1989),
1834:Hispania
937:Qtd. in
817:Albanian
652:Paraguay
619:Language
438:AsunciĂłn
429:Synopsis
392:dictator
271:Paraguay
157:43370395
125:Hardback
104:Paraguay
68:Language
2082:3991856
1873:291–298
1706:2503004
813:Finnish
664:GuaranĂ
625:written
480:" and "
404:Facundo
356:Facundo
205:author
197:) is a
123:Print (
71:Spanish
2223:(1994)
2215:(1993)
2207:(1992)
2199:(1974)
2191:(1960)
2133:
2105:
2080:
2046:
2024:
2005:344963
2003:
1968:
1946:Reason
1928:
1904:
1879:
1854:342310
1852:
1794:
1771:
1733:
1712:
1704:
1668:
1662:89–105
1615:474575
1613:
1522:762382
1520:
795:, for
695:despot
629:spoken
614:Themes
490:Tevego
127:&
37:Author
2087:JSTOR
2078:JSTOR
2010:JSTOR
2001:JSTOR
1859:JSTOR
1850:JSTOR
1769:S2CID
1749:(PDF)
1719:JSTOR
1710:S2CID
1702:JSTOR
1620:JSTOR
1611:JSTOR
1527:JSTOR
1518:JSTOR
823:Notes
684:Power
633:truth
564:Style
384:genre
371:Genre
339:Plato
76:Genre
2131:ISBN
2103:ISBN
2044:ISBN
2022:ISBN
1966:ISBN
1926:ISBN
1902:ISBN
1898:1–19
1877:ISBN
1792:ISBN
1731:ISBN
1666:ISBN
815:and
637:myth
635:and
627:and
382:, a
325:and
151:OCLC
137:ISBN
115:1986
95:1974
2085:. (
2070:doi
2008:. (
1993:doi
1983:",
1857:. (
1842:doi
1832:",
1761:doi
1717:. (
1692:doi
1618:. (
1603:doi
1593:",
1510:doi
755:or
386:of
353:'s
232:or
2241::
2076:,
2064:,
1999:,
1989:77
1987:,
1943:,
1900:,
1875:,
1848:,
1838:66
1836:,
1813:,
1767:,
1755:,
1751:,
1708:,
1700:,
1688:15
1686:,
1664:,
1637:,
1609:,
1599:63
1597:,
1581:13
1579:,
1556:,
1537:,
1516:,
1506:12
1504:,
1464:,
1415:^
1364:^
1337:^
1286:^
1257:^
1146:^
1015:^
1000:^
961:^
946:^
930:^
889:^
874:^
857:^
842:^
631:,
583:.
82:,
2167:e
2160:t
2153:v
2140:.
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2072::
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2031:.
1995::
1975:.
1956:.
1935:.
1911:.
1886:.
1844::
1824:.
1811:"
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1763::
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1740:.
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1567:.
1548:.
1512::
1487:.
1269:.
869:.
505:"
215:I
131:)
50:'
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