Indo-European languages

3649: 3961:

verb system) have been interpreted alternately as archaic debris or as innovations due to prolonged isolation. Points proffered in favour of the Indo-Hittite hypothesis are the (non-universal) Indo-European agricultural terminology in Anatolia and the preservation of laryngeals. However, in general this hypothesis is considered to attribute too much weight to the Anatolian evidence. According to another view, the Anatolian subgroup left the Indo-European parent language comparatively late, approximately at the same time as Indo-Iranian and later than the Greek or Armenian divisions. A third view, especially prevalent in the so-called French school of Indo-European studies, holds that extant similarities in non-

10824: 269: 2820: 10799: 4271: 466: 3981: 4071: 3695:" is considered an appropriate representation of the genealogical history of a language family if communities do not remain in contact after their languages have started to diverge. In this case, subgroups defined by shared innovations form a nested pattern. The tree model is not appropriate in cases where languages remain in contact as they diversify; in such cases subgroups may overlap, and the " 2755:] language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no 12828:, pp. 629–36. The result is a partly new chain of separation for the main Indo-European branches, which fits well to the grammatical facts, as well as to the geographical distribution of these branches. In particular it clearly demonstrates that the Anatolian languages did not part as first ones and thereby refutes the Indo-Hittite hypothesis. 3953:(a verb form denoting action without reference to duration or completion) having the perfect active particle -s fixed to the stem, link this group closer to Anatolian languages and Tocharian. Shared features with Balto-Slavic languages, on the other hand (especially present and preterit formations), might be due to later contacts. 10940:, each with 100 million speakers or more. Additionally, hundreds of millions of persons worldwide study Indo-European languages as secondary or tertiary languages, including in cultures which have completely different language families and historical backgrounds—there are around 600 million learners of English alone. 11051:, Indo-European peoples controlled almost the entirety of this area: the Celts western and central Europe, the Romans southern Europe, the Germanic peoples northern Europe, the Slavs eastern Europe, the Iranian peoples most of western and central Asia and parts of eastern Europe, and the Indo-Aryan peoples in the 12941: 11125:

Due to colonization and the modern dominance of Indo-European languages in the fields of politics, global science, technology, education, finance, and sports, even many modern countries whose populations largely speak non-Indo-European languages have Indo-European languages as official languages, and

11249:

The sentence goes on to say, equally correctly as it turned out: "...here is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothic and the Celtic, though blended with a very different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanscrit; and the old Persian might be added to the

3960:

hypothesis proposes that the Indo-European language family consists of two main branches: one represented by the Anatolian languages and another branch encompassing all other Indo-European languages. Features that separate Anatolian from all other branches of Indo-European (such as the gender or the

3668:

among various languages, suggesting a common ancestor that split off from other Indo-European groups. For example, what makes the Germanic languages a branch of Indo-European is that much of their structure and phonology can be stated in rules that apply to all of them. Many of their common features

4035:

remained distinct and were fricativized, while the labiovelars merged with the 'plain velars'. In the centum languages, the palatovelars merged with the plain velars, while the labiovelars remained distinct. The results of these alternative developments are exemplified by the words for "hundred" in

3676:

In the 21st century, several attempts have been made to model the phylogeny of Indo-European languages using Bayesian methodologies similar to those applied to problems in biological phylogeny. Although there are differences in absolute timing between the various analyses, there is much commonality

11690:

So while linguists may debate about the ties between Albanian and older languages of the Balkans, and while most Albanians may take the genealogical connection to Illyrian as incontrovertible, the fact remains that there is simply insufficient evidence to connect Illyrian, Thracian, or Dacian with

11386:: Представимъ долготу времени, которою сіи языки раздѣлились. ... Польской и россійской языкъ коль давно раздѣлились! Подумай же, когда курляндской! Подумай же, когда латинской, греч., нѣм., росс. О глубокая древность! Kurlandic! Think when Latin, Greek, German, and Russian! Oh, great antiquity!] 4056:

intersects a number of other isoglosses that mark distinctions between features in the early IE branches. It may be that the centum branches in fact reflect the original state of affairs in PIE, and only the satem branches shared a set of innovations, which affected all but the peripheral areas of

3753:

suggests that early IE had featured limited contact between distinct lineages, with only the Germanic subfamily exhibiting a less treelike behaviour as it acquired some characteristics from neighbours early in its evolution. The internal diversification of especially West Germanic is cited to have

3965:

languages in general—including Anatolian—might be due to their peripheral location in the Indo-European language-area and to early separation, rather than indicating a special ancestral relationship. Hans J. Holm, based on lexical calculations, arrives at a picture roughly replicating the general

4123:

From the very beginning of Indo-European studies, there have been attempts to link the Indo-European languages genealogically to other languages and language families. However, these theories remain highly controversial, and most specialists in Indo-European linguistics are skeptical or agnostic

3948:

at the beginnings of words, as well as terms for "woman" and "sheep". Greek and Indo-Iranian share innovations mainly in verbal morphology and patterns of nominal derivation. Relations have also been proposed between Phrygian and Greek, and between Thracian and Armenian. Some fundamental shared

5051:

from the remainder. It possesses some highly archaic features found only fragmentarily, if at all, in other languages. At the same time, however, it appears to have undergone many early phonological and grammatical changes which, combined with the ambiguities of its writing system, hinder its

3718:

innovation (and cannot readily be regarded as "areal", either, because English and continental West Germanic were not a linguistic area). In a similar vein, there are many similar innovations in Germanic and Balto-Slavic that are far more likely areal features than traceable to a common

12969: 4863:

becomes fully extinct while Scythian languages are overwhelmingly replaced. Slavic languages spread over wide areas in central, eastern and southeastern Europe, largely replacing Romance in the Balkans (with the exception of Romanian) and whatever was left of the

4385:

The diversification of the parent language into the attested branches of daughter languages is historically unattested. The timeline of the evolution of the various daughter languages, on the other hand, is mostly undisputed, quite regardless of the question of

12783: 5993:—particularly in the existence of voiced aspirated stops without a corresponding series of voiceless aspirated stops. None of the various daughter-language families continue it unchanged, with numerous "solutions" to the apparently unstable PIE situation: 4931:, some languages have been of particular importance. These generally include the ancient Indo-European languages that are both well-attested and documented at an early date, although some languages from later periods are important if they are particularly 2504:. The analysis of the family relationships between the Indo-European languages, and the reconstruction of their common source, was central to the development of the methodology of historical linguistics as an academic discipline in the 19th century. 3626:: an ancient language spoken by the Sicels (Greek Sikeloi, Latin Siculi), one of the three indigenous (i.e. pre-Greek and pre-Punic) tribes of Sicily. Proposed relationship to Latin or proto-Illyrian (Pre-Indo-European) at an earlier stage. 3604:: not conclusively deciphered, often considered to be related to Albanian as the available fragmentary linguistic evidence shows common characteristic innovations and a number of significant lexical correspondences between the two languages 11046:

Despite being unaware of their common linguistic origin, diverse groups of Indo-European speakers continued to culturally dominate and often replace the indigenous languages of the western two-thirds of Eurasia. By the beginning of the

3699:" is a more accurate representation. Most approaches to Indo-European subgrouping to date have assumed that the tree model is by-and-large valid for Indo-European; however, there is also a long tradition of wave-model approaches. 2424:

and other related archaeological cultures during the 4th millennium BC to early 3rd millennium BC. By the time the first written records appeared, Indo-European had already evolved into numerous languages spoken across much of

5011:) is the oldest recorded form, but its value is lessened by the limited material, restricted subject matter, and highly ambiguous writing system. More important is Ancient Greek, documented extensively beginning with the two 11795:

Haber, Marc; Mezzavilla, Massimo; Xue, Yali; Comas, David; Gasparini, Paolo; Zalloua, Pierre; Tyler-Smith, Chris (2015). "Genetic evidence for an origin of the Armenians from Bronze Age mixing of multiple populations".

4051:

Rather than being a genealogical separation, the centum–satem division is commonly seen as resulting from innovative changes that spread across PIE dialect-branches over a particular geographical area; the centum–satem

10746:) "to bear" is still used but only in specific contexts and is most common in such compounds as αναφέρω, διαφέρω, εισφέρω, εκφέρω, καταφέρω, προφέρω, προαναφέρω, προσφέρω etc. The form that is (very) common today is 11618:

supports the thesis that the Illyrian language belongs to the Northwestern group, that the Albanian language is descended from Illyrian, and that Albanian is related to Messapic which is an earlier Illyrian dialect

2312:

in the modern period and are now spoken across several continents. The Indo-European family is divided into several branches or sub-families, of which there are eight groups with languages still alive today:

13772:

Revisiting Dispersions Celtic and Germanic ca. 400 BC – ca. 400 AD Proceedings of the International Interdisciplinary Conference held at Dolenjski muzej, Novo mesto, Slovenia; October 12th – 14th, 2018

4031:

did propose a similar type of division in 1886. In the satem languages, which include the Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian branches, as well as (in most respects) Albanian and Armenian, the reconstructed

13543:. Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft. Vol. IV: Indo-European Languages other than Latin and Greek. Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck. pp. 2145–2171. 12177:

Most scholars now believe that the Sicans and Sicels, as well as the inhabitants of southern Italy, were basically of Illyrian stock superimposed on an aboriginal 'Mediterranean' population.

5896:) reflect the plain velar stops differently from the other two series, and there is even a certain amount of dispute whether this series existed at all in PIE. The major distinction between 2741:, though his classification contained some inaccuracies and omissions. In one of the most famous quotations in linguistics, Jones made the following prescient statement in a lecture to the 2635:

noted the similarity among certain Asian and European languages and theorized that they were derived from a primitive common language that he called Scythian. He included in his hypothesis

2863: 10584:

While similarities are still visible between the modern descendants and relatives of these ancient languages, the differences have increased over time. Some IE languages have moved from

17524: 3869: 10642:, the continuation of the Sanskrit verb, can have a variety of meanings, but the most common is "to fill". The forms given in the table, although etymologically derived from the 9618:

and its reflexes in various early attested IE languages and their modern descendants or relatives, showing that all languages had in the early stage an inflectional verb system.

12776:

The supposed autochthony of Hittites, the Indo-Hittite hypothesis and migration of agricultural "Indo-European" societies became intrinsically linked together by Colin Renfrew (

3527:

of Southern Siberia. Extant in two dialects (Turfanian and Kuchean, or Tocharian A and B), attested from roughly the 6th to the 9th century AD. Marginalized by the Old Turkic

4057:

the PIE dialect continuum. Kortlandt proposes that the ancestors of Balts and Slavs took part in satemization before being drawn later into the western Indo-European sphere.

6154:

The following table shows the basic outcomes of PIE consonants in some of the most important daughter languages for the purposes of reconstruction. For a fuller table, see

10943:

The success of the language family, including the large number of speakers and the vast portions of the Earth that they inhabit, is due to several factors. The ancient

13330:. Proceedings of the 31st Annual Conference of the German Classification Society (GfKl), University of Freiburg, 7–9 March 2007. Heidelberg / Berlin: Springer-Verlag. 11774:

Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and Proto-Culture. Part I: The Text. Part II: Bibliography, Indexes

3535:

In addition to the classical ten branches listed above, several extinct and little-known languages and language-groups have existed or are proposed to have existed:

13725:

Talking Neolithic: Proceedings of the Workshop on Indo-European Origins held at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, December 2–3, 2013

10615:. Apart from the first person, the forms given in the table above are dialectical or obsolete. The second and third person forms are typically instead conjugated 3568:, one of the three indigenous (i.e. pre-Greek and pre-Punic) tribes of Sicily. Indo-European affiliation widely accepted, possibly related to Italic or Anatolian. 10699:

is irregular, and not a good representative of a normal thematic verb. In most Romance languages such as Portuguese, other verbs now mean "to carry" (e.g. Pt.

12066:

Trumper, John (2018). "Some Celto-Albanian isoglosses and their implications". In Grimaldi, Mirko; Lai, Rosangela; Franco, Ludovico; Baldi, Benedetta (eds.).

2879:

may be considered the beginning of "modern" Indo-European studies. The generation of Indo-Europeanists active in the last third of the 20th century (such as

11521:

The Last Man Who Knew Everything: Thomas Young, the Anonymous Genius who Proved Newton Wrong and Deciphered the Rosetta Stone, among Other Surprising Feats

3894:

or Graeco-Armeno-Aryan, and Balto-Slavo-Germanic. However, unlike the ten traditional branches, these are all controversial to a greater or lesser degree.

3862: 11399:

Proceedings of the Eighteenth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society: General Session and Parasession on The Place of Morphology in a Grammar

11102:, as well as the continued replacement and assimilation of surrounding non-Indo-European languages and peoples due to increased state centralization and 3644:: shares several similarities with Latin and the Italic languages, but also has some affinities with other IE languages, especially Germanic and Celtic. 3677:

between them, including the result that the first known language groups to diverge were the Anatolian and Tocharian language families, in that order.

14222: 12922: 12754: 13460: 11565:Über das Conjugationssystem der Sanskritsprache : in Vergleichung mit jenem der griechischen, lateinischen, persischen und germanischen Sprache 3706:. It has been asserted, for example, that many of the more striking features shared by Italic languages (Latin, Oscan, Umbrian, etc.) might well be 12417:

Blažek, Václav (2007). "From August Schleicher to Sergei Starostin: on the development of the tree-diagram models of the Indo-European languages".

2710:), and others, noting that related languages (including Latin, Greek, German, and Russian) must have separated in antiquity from common ancestors. 12867:

Kallio, Petri; Koivulehto, Jorma (2018). "More remote relationships of Proto-Indo-European". In Jared Klein; Brian Joseph; Matthias Fritz (eds.).

5977:) reflect both "palatal" and "plain velar" stops as plain velars, while the labiovelars continue unchanged, often with later reduction into plain 5047:–1200 BC). This is the earliest-recorded of all Indo-European languages, and highly divergent from the others due to the early separation of the 4976:

schools) for c. 2,000 years before ever being written down. The oldest documents are all in poetic form; oldest and most important of all is the

3855: 11855: 16722: 2251: 11703: 13866:

Remys, Edmund (17 December 2007). "General distinguishing features of various Indo-European languages and their relationship to Lithuanian".

10893: 2215: 16857: 11429: 5989:

The three-way PIE distinction between voiceless, voiced and voiced aspirated stops is considered extremely unusual from the perspective of

17574: 14824: 1413: 3014:, believed by most Indo-Europeanists to form a phylogenetic unit, while a minority ascribes similarities to prolonged language-contact. 11379: 10673:

German is not directly descended from Gothic, but the Gothic forms are a close approximation of what the early West Germanic forms of

14048: 11734: 9635: 3664:. Membership in the various branches, groups, and subgroups of Indo-European is also genealogical, but here the defining factors are 3546:

cultural area. Speculated to be connected to Italic or Venetic, and to have certain phonological features in common with Lusitanian.

2911:, elements de Saussure reconstructed to account for vowel length alternations in Indo-European languages. This led to the so-called 17514: 12383: 4088: 5305:–800 ), underwent large phonetic shifts and mergers in the proto-language, and has an almost entirely reworked declension system. 2678:

visited Vienna in 1665–1666 as part of a diplomatic mission and noted a few similarities between words in German and in Persian.

4027:

The division of the Indo-European languages into satem and centum groups was put forward by Peter von Bradke in 1890, although

3648: 2759:

could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists.

2507:

The Indo-European language family is not considered by the current academic consensus in the field of linguistics to have any

14215: 14028: 13948: 13926: 13780: 13759: 13733: 13672: 13580: 13492: 13335: 13297: 13184: 13163: 12611: 12402: 12170: 11883: 11781: 11676: 11649: 11530: 11324: 11299: 5786:

also turned some of the voiceless fricatives resulting from the sound shift into voiced fricatives or stops. This is why the

2222: 2194: 3110:, attested from the 14th century AD; although attested relatively recently, they retain many archaic features attributed to 2375:—by far the highest of any language family. There are about 445 living Indo-European languages, according to an estimate by 16237: 15818: 10596:

of periphrastic forms are in parentheses when they appear. Some of these verbs have undergone a change in meaning as well.

4331:, in which the grammatical relationships between words were signaled through inflectional morphemes (usually endings). The 2929:

The various subgroups of the Indo-European language family include ten major branches, listed below in alphabetical order:

2485:

can be reconstructed from later evidence in the daughter cultures. The Indo-European family is significant to the field of

1073: 17: 16347: 11637: 4320:. From the 1960s, knowledge of Anatolian became certain enough to establish its relationship to PIE. Using the method of 2745:

in 1786, conjecturing the existence of an earlier ancestor language, which he called "a common source" but did not name:

2179: 14110:, an online collection of introductory videos to Ancient Indo-European languages produced by the University of Göttingen 4032: 15319: 13449: 13246: 13234: 12733: 11157: 4022: Pink: languages with instrumental, dative and ablative plural endings (and some others) in *-m- rather than *-bh- 2508: 2352:

Today, the individual Indo-European languages with the most native speakers are English, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian,

2244: 2201: 1132: 12803: 4968:–500 BC). This language is unique in that its source documents were all composed orally, and were passed down through 16504: 13887: 13827: 13712: 13548: 13470: 13278: 12113: 12077: 12006: 5346:

As the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) language broke up, its sound system diverged as well, changing according to various

4110: 3306: 465: 11397: 2453:. The oldest records are isolated Hittite words and names—interspersed in texts that are otherwise in the unrelated 17719: 17597: 16850: 16480: 15719: 14208: 13988: 12490:"Perfect Phylogenetic Networks: A New Methodology for Reconstructing the Evolutionary History of Natural Languages" 12419: 12332: 11090:, a group to which the Proto-Indo-Europeans had once belonged, Indo-European expansion reached another peak in the 10889: 5278:

Other secondary sources, of lesser value due to extensive phonological changes and relatively limited attestation:

2208: 972: 4048:)—the initial palatovelar developed into a fricative in the former, but became an ordinary velar in the latter. 2682:

and others made observations of the same type. Coeurdoux made a thorough comparison of Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek

2561:

to his brother (not published until the 20th century) in which he noted similarities between Indian languages and

15638: 15574: 14817: 14235: 14141: 13964: 11769: 11219: 483: 17439: 17427: 13174: 11122:, leading to an explosion in the number of Indo-European speakers as well as the territories inhabited by them. 16251: 15493: 13978: 13856: 13206: 12586: 12035: 11127: 11126:

the majority of the global population speaks at least one Indo-European language. The overwhelming majority of

10987:, led to these peoples' branches of the language family already taking a dominant foothold in virtually all of 5420:.) All daughter languages have reduced the number of distinctions among these sounds, often in divergent ways. 4092: 3702:

In addition to genealogical changes, many of the early changes in Indo-European languages can be attributed to

2064: 1839: 1243: 35: 16002: 6020:

probably passed through the same stage, but reflects the voiced aspirates as voiceless fricatives, especially

17654: 17644: 17639: 17504: 17332: 17116: 17111: 16717: 16364: 15499: 15324: 15110: 15104: 15028: 14124:. Leiden, Netherlands: Department of Comparative Indo-European Linguistics, Leiden University. Archived from 14052: 13802: 11350: 5931: 5417: 4947:) that were either unwritten or corrupted in the process of transmission down to the earliest extant written 4212: 4148: 2835:

On the conjugational system of the Sanskrit language compared with that of Greek, Latin, Persian and Germanic

2482: 2237: 1809: 1078: 1015: 816: 702: 2580:

in 1540, who travelled to the Indian subcontinent. Writing in 1585, he noted some word similarities between

17659: 17629: 17484: 16727: 16712: 16411: 15712: 15699: 15470: 15431: 14657: 14427: 13156:

The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World

11229: 10788: 9628: 4928: 4265: 3661: 3111: 3025: 3005: 2401: 2389: 2385: 1497: 1000: 811: 806: 801: 696: 83: 13379: 12926: 6091: 2796:), specifying the family's southeasternmost and northwesternmost branches. This first appeared in French ( 17607: 17509: 16948: 16843: 16707: 16701: 16486: 15759: 15677: 15650: 15354: 15344: 14738: 14685: 14121: 13998: 13201:. Translated by Vertalers, Uva; Gabriner, Paul (1st ed.). Amsterdam / Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 11004: 10960: 4914:

in North America, Sub-Saharan Africa, East Asia and Australia; to a lesser extent Dutch and German), and

3901:

to be even better established than Balto-Slavic. The main lines of evidence included the genitive suffix

3707: 3595: 3583: 3288: 2714: 2671:. However, Van Boxhorn's suggestions did not become widely known and did not stimulate further research. 2478: 1814: 1309: 1010: 889: 875: 856: 17724: 17276: 16273: 15934: 15731: 15529: 15389: 15359: 15349: 15339: 15045: 14810: 11998: 11905: 11135: 9587: 9565: 9543: 6001:

preserve the three series unchanged but have evolved a fourth series of voiceless aspirated consonants.

5402: 4274:

Scheme of Indo-European language dispersals from c. 4000 to 1000 BCE according to the widely held

4216: 3975: 2632: 1152: 1110: 710: 14285: 10892:

across all inhabited continents, the largest number by far for any recognised language family. Of the

10765:

The dual forms are archaic in standard Lithuanian, and are only presently used in some dialects (e.g.

17674: 17669: 17664: 17532: 17454: 17449: 17105: 17091: 16866: 16685: 16492: 16468: 16443: 16416: 16399: 15409: 15364: 15334: 15307: 14878: 14833: 14745: 14515: 11068: 11020: 9685: 4170: 3812: 2742: 2524: 2409: 1854: 1819: 1492: 796: 11483: 10772:

Among modern Slavic languages, only Slovene continues to have a dual number in the standard variety.

5440:

languages, the "plain velar" and "palatal" stops merged, reducing the number of stops from 15 to 12.

2813: 268: 17499: 17444: 17215: 17045: 16934: 16732: 16539: 16176: 16164: 15996: 15058: 15051: 14867: 14777: 14671: 14458: 14433: 12511: 12293:"Phylogenetic and areal models of Indo-European relatedness: The role of contact in reconstruction" 12162: 11711: 11578:

Kurylowicz, Jerzy (1927). "ə indo-européen et ḫ hittite". In Taszycki, W.; Doroszewski, W. (eds.).

11224: 11169: 11080: 10944: 10782: 6155: 5341: 4779: 4653: 4589: 4459: 4380: 4235:

that encompasses almost all of the world's natural languages with the exception of those native to

3696: 3539: 2924: 2769: 2717:

first lectured on the striking similarities among three of the oldest languages known in his time:

2679: 2554: 2371:

In total, 46% of the world's population (3.2 billion people) speaks an Indo-European language as a

2114: 2004: 1824: 1355: 1187: 1138: 1034: 836: 791: 786: 706: 347: 13058: 11873: 6008:

probably passed through the same stage, subsequently changing the aspirated stops into fricatives.

2624:"nine"). However, neither Stephens' nor Sassetti's observations led to further scholarly inquiry. 17313: 17208: 17158: 17128: 16927: 15737: 15662: 15015: 14715: 14678: 14664: 14463: 14452: 13509:

A Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European, Sanskrit, Greek and Latin languages

13325: 12606:. Proceedings of the 23rd annual UCLA Indo-European Conference. Bremen: Hempen. pp. 151–73. 11151: 5447:

changed the realization of all stop consonants, with each consonant shifting to a different one:

4932: 4907: 4321: 4196: 4081: 4002: 3670: 2993: 2937: 2846: 2683: 2009: 1736: 846: 841: 831: 351: 13515: 13086: 12680:

Indoiranisch-griechische Gemeinsamkeiten der Nominalbildung und deren indogermanische Grundlagen

11440: 10823: 4727:. The Magadhan power and influence rises in ancient India, especially with the conquests of the 3735:, unique to these two groups among IE languages, which is in agreement with the wave model. The 2915:, a major step forward in Indo-European linguistics and a confirmation of de Saussure's theory. 17469: 17464: 17229: 17201: 17192: 17151: 16751: 16599: 16394: 16170: 16123: 15753: 15670: 15329: 15313: 15121: 15022: 14885: 14861: 14768: 14752: 14528: 14473: 14399: 14345: 13436:(2001). "The Anatolian origins of Proto-Indo-European and the autochthony of the Hittites". In 12506: 11396:

Poser, William J.; Campbell, Lyle (1992). "Indo-European Practice and Historical Methodology".

11179: 9803: 9778: 6035: 5919: 5915: 4865: 4828: 4665: 4649: 4542: 4478: 4425: 3782: 3498: 3277: 3011: 2949: 2941: 2486: 2368:

each with over 100 million native speakers; many others are small and in danger of extinction.

2338: 2322: 1999: 1971: 1755: 1657: 1423: 1269: 893: 731: 623: 562: 517: 457: 449: 159: 127: 30:"Indo-European" redirects here. For Eurasian people living in or connected with Indonesia, see 16389: 13983: 13507: 12983: 10668:

ma͠i bʰartā hū̃, tū bʰartā hai, vah bʰartā hai, ham bʰarte ha͠i, tum bʰarte ho, ve bʰarte ha͠i

2907:ḫ. Kuryłowicz's discovery supported Ferdinand de Saussure's 1879 proposal of the existence of 17621: 17494: 17474: 17222: 17017: 16955: 16797: 16695: 16384: 16187: 15977: 15966: 15928: 15535: 15509: 15414: 15404: 15087: 15003: 14854: 14761: 14708: 14699: 14692: 14404: 14394: 14375: 14369: 13687: 12987: 12979: 12963: 12959: 12955: 12951: 12581:

Watkins, Calvert (1966). "Italo-Celtic revisited". In Birnbaum, Henrik; Puhvel, Jaan (eds.).

12292: 11360: 11184: 11174: 11111: 10948: 9875: 5897: 5166:). Documentation is sparse, but nonetheless quite important due to its highly archaic nature. 4522: 4387: 4174: 4131: 3843: 3657: 3494: 3462: 3131: 2872: 2842: 2494: 2146: 1975: 883: 879: 864: 860: 306: 16498: 16223: 4902:

results in the spread of Indo-European languages to every habitable continent, most notably

17602: 17592: 17582: 17432: 17286: 17099: 16983: 16772: 16529: 16337: 16310: 16293: 16261: 16159: 15873: 15798: 15725: 15504: 15481: 15453: 15384: 15295: 15076: 14731: 14722: 14487: 12236: 12027: 11805: 11765: 11372: 11189: 11164: 10956: 9815: 6163: 5444: 4368: 4352: 4317: 4180: 4162: 3629: 3428: 3294: 3259: 3139: 3077: 2892: 2534: 2474: 2092: 2057: 1370: 1053: 1005: 942: 912: 870: 850: 714: 568: 384: 16657: 14056: 13568: 13522: 12256: 11741: 5102:), along with the combined witness of the other old Germanic languages: most importantly, 3940:

Evidence for a relationship between Greek and Armenian includes the regular change of the

1238: 8: 17649: 17422: 17407: 17342: 17144: 17066: 16976: 16969: 16920: 16878: 16549: 16453: 16353: 16342: 16304: 16283: 16181: 16140: 15915: 15897: 15891: 15866: 15859: 15852: 15765: 15748: 15487: 15153: 15140: 15034: 14984: 14841: 14540: 14497: 14245: 13660: 13216: 13194: 12489: 12333:"Ancestry-constrained phylogenetic analysis supports the Indo-European steppe hypothesis" 12143: 11204: 11095: 11091: 11064: 11059:

inhabiting the Indo-European frontier in western China. By the medieval period, only the

11052: 10925: 10905: 10850: 10249: 10229: 10219: 9228: 9223: 8625: 7646: 6240: 6184: 6179: 6039: 5998: 5990: 5970: 5889: 5777: 5217: 5187: 5170: 5048: 4936: 4895: 4860: 4704: 4601: 4453: 4446: 4413: 4406: 4340: 4166: 4158: 3589: 3520: 3458: 3346: 3115: 3097: 3061: 3029: 2997: 2959: 2542: 2530: 2442: 2353: 2293: 2281: 2273: 1365: 1360: 1256: 1180: 1145: 1068: 1058: 917: 618: 613: 582: 393: 329: 211: 171: 114: 14107: 13635: 13608: 12686:] (in German). Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck. 12684:

Indo-Iranian-Greek similarities in nominal formation and their Indo-European foundations

12240: 12069:

Structuring Variation in Romance Linguistics and Beyond: In Honour of Leonardo M. Savoia

9895: 5930:) reflect both "plain velar" and labiovelar stops as plain velars, often with secondary 4692:

across the northern Indian subcontinent, as well as migration of Indo-Aryan speakers to

2896: 2404:, has been the object of many competing hypotheses; the academic consensus supports the 17383: 17337: 17252: 17247: 17242: 16463: 16458: 16448: 16431: 16426: 16421: 16405: 16374: 16369: 16322: 16316: 16267: 16212: 16135: 16019: 15983: 15944: 15886: 15693: 15688: 15399: 15158: 15127: 15093: 15081: 15040: 14915: 14443: 14073: 13901: 13833: 13795: 13648: 13412: 13322:"The Distribution of Data in Word Lists and its Impact on the Subgrouping of Languages" 13267: 13039: 13031: 12657: 12640: 12524: 12497: 12357: 12340: 12265: 12224: 11943: 11276: 11209: 11115: 10972: 10863: 10812: Countries where Indo-European language family is official but not majority native 10766: 10651: 10643: 10627: 10585: 9865: 9808: 9798: 9793: 9773: 9583: 9561: 9539: 6147: 6049: 5974: 5954: 5308: 5295: 4809: 4716: 4621: 4530: 4498: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4348: 4332: 4328: 4313: 4236: 4223:

Nostratic and Eurasiatic, in turn, have been included in even wider groupings, such as

4204: 3660:

relationships, meaning that all members are presumed descendants of a common ancestor,

3577: 3571: 3549: 3402: 3267: 3255: 3241: 3225: 3177: 3093: 3089: 3057: 3033: 2945: 2334: 2330: 2071: 2022: 1956: 1940: 1565: 1218: 957: 643: 548: 543: 361: 343: 333: 204: 146: 137: 16560: 16523: 12600:

Weiss, Michael (2012). Jamison, Stephanie W.; Melchert, H. Craig; Vine, Brent (eds.).

4735:. Germanic speakers start migrating southwards to occupy formerly Celtic territories. 259: 17587: 17564: 17559: 17537: 17479: 17257: 17180: 17073: 16474: 16379: 16359: 16298: 16278: 15989: 15950: 15921: 15909: 15846: 15792: 15770: 15743: 15683: 15656: 15475: 15436: 15426: 15394: 15267: 15193: 15175: 15169: 15071: 14989: 14903: 14637: 14630: 14623: 14602: 14577: 14572: 14520: 14492: 14323: 14148:(Fourth ed.). Internet Archive: Wayback Machine. 22 August 2008 . Archived from 13944: 13922: 13905: 13893: 13883: 13852: 13838: 13823: 13776: 13755: 13748: 13729: 13708: 13682: 13668: 13652: 13640: 13576: 13554: 13544: 13502: 13488: 13480: 13466: 13445: 13416: 13331: 13324:. In Preisach, Christine; Burkhardt, Hans; Schmidt-Thieme, Lars; et al. (eds.). 13293: 13274: 13242: 13230: 13202: 13180: 13159: 13043: 13023: 12729: 12607: 12398: 12361: 12270: 12166: 12109: 12073: 12031: 12002: 11947: 11879: 11817: 11777: 11672: 11645: 11526: 11519: 11499: 11461: 11457: 11320: 11295: 11199: 11107: 11060: 11008: 10832: 10259: 10239: 9880: 9820: 6053: 6043: 5927: 5923: 5633:. Examples, comparing English with Latin, where the sounds largely remain unshifted: 5428: 5374: 5366: 5351: 5321: 5092: 4943:

normally employed, which makes it possible to reconstruct a number of features (e.g.

4884: 4856: 4816: 4759: 4736: 4685: 4677: 4669: 4637: 4550: 4534: 4506: 4490: 4286:

3 (black) Yamnaya culture expansion (Pontic-Caspian steppe, Danube Valley) (late PIE)

4275: 4228: 4127:

Proposals linking the Indo-European languages with a single language family include:

3736: 3635: 3613: 3607: 3601: 3524: 3510: 3502: 3452: 3440: 3416: 3378: 3374: 3366: 3326: 3201: 3143: 3135: 3073: 3053: 2989: 2979: 2953: 2933: 2904: 2850: 2819: 2801: 2707: 2687: 2640: 2538: 2501: 2497: 2458: 2454: 2405: 2318: 2314: 2085: 2051: 2043: 1987: 1981: 1963: 1934: 1913: 1899: 1891: 1661: 1522: 1462: 1444: 1385: 1380: 1375: 1342: 1337: 1166: 1029: 678: 671: 664: 650: 636: 596: 575: 512: 504: 406: 375: 293: 283: 225: 218: 196: 150: 122: 105: 101: 16565: 16554: 16534: 14872: 13487:(in German). Weimar: Böhlau (reprinted by Minerva GmbH, Wissenschaftlicher Verlag). 4824: 17549: 17542: 17489: 17417: 17412: 17369: 17362: 17292: 17236: 17174: 17080: 17052: 17038: 17024: 16941: 16913: 16901: 16894: 16782: 16642: 16632: 16627: 16581: 16575: 16544: 16437: 16332: 16256: 16194: 16146: 16081: 16074: 16067: 16060: 16053: 16042: 16026: 15961: 15956: 15939: 15880: 15774: 15706: 15617: 15584: 15552: 15448: 15420: 15369: 15290: 15274: 15260: 15242: 15235: 15221: 15181: 15163: 15147: 15133: 14955: 14938: 14555: 14507: 14418: 14386: 14354: 14330: 14259: 13875: 13815: 13630: 13620: 13402: 13394: 13359: 13015: 12649: 12516: 12349: 12304: 12260: 12252: 12244: 12139: 12095: 11933: 11813: 11809: 11465: 11403: 11131: 11099: 11072: 11036: 10980: 10937: 10933: 10921: 10913: 10909: 10901: 10872: 10841: 10647: 10254: 10224: 9850: 9830: 9825: 9788: 9783: 8315: 6246: 6031: 6017: 6005: 5978: 5962: 5958: 5424: 5378: 5238: 5156: 5037: 4915: 4911: 4903: 4888: 4880: 4844: 4832: 4827:

spanning Scandinavia, the British Isles and Iceland. Phrygian becomes extinct. The

4805: 4775: 4771: 4657: 4581: 4573: 4566: 4562: 4514: 4232: 4224: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4140: 4135: 3941: 3703: 3641: 3561: 3528: 3490: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3444: 3432: 3420: 3394: 3382: 3370: 3358: 3314: 3298: 3263: 3249: 3221: 3197: 3155: 3127: 3119: 3107: 3085: 3081: 3069: 3037: 3017: 2912: 2884: 2876: 2738: 2734: 2703: 2699: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2652: 2573: 2550: 2490: 2446: 2361: 2357: 2346: 2342: 2326: 2305: 2297: 2285: 2079: 2029: 1846: 1652: 1540: 1480: 1457: 1400: 1395: 1332: 1319: 1314: 1304: 977: 590: 538: 530: 523: 402: 325: 316: 302: 189: 164: 132: 16622: 16570: 15562: 14032: 12792:, Houwink ten Cate, H.J.; Melchert, H. Craig & van den Hout, Theo P.J. p. 586 12603:

Italo-Celtica: linguistic and cultural points of contact between Italic and Celtic

12528: 9439: 9421: 3984:

Some significant isoglosses in Indo-European daughter languages at around 500 BC.

2675: 2437:. Written evidence of Indo-European appeared during the Bronze Age in the form of 17376: 17327: 17281: 17164: 17059: 17031: 16990: 16907: 16777: 16652: 16637: 16606: 16327: 16288: 16153: 16099: 15971: 15833: 15599: 15594: 15459: 15374: 15255: 15248: 15228: 15210: 15115: 15098: 14897: 14616: 14588: 14316: 14309: 14302: 14295: 14273: 14266: 14200: 14100: 13936: 13790: 13698: 13592:Über Methode und Ergebnisse der arischen (indogermanischen) Alterthumswissenshaft 13226: 13220: 12103: 12067: 11633: 11383: 11194: 11106:. These trends compounded throughout the modern period due to the general global 11087: 11076: 11040: 10964: 10929: 10917: 10859: 10659: 10655: 10244: 9870: 9290: 9248: 7969: 7099: 6204: 6150:(dissimilation of aspirates) independently in Proto-Greek and Proto-Indo-Iranian. 6137: 5982: 5893: 5838: 5783: 5577:

Each original consonant shifted one position to the right. For example, original

5386: 5213: 5209: 5205: 5114: 5088: 5064: 5001: 4927:

In reconstructing the history of the Indo-European languages and the form of the

4673: 4609: 4546: 4248: 4208: 3934: 3898: 3887: 3817: 3807: 3797: 3787: 3686: 3555: 3514: 3470: 3390: 3386: 3217: 3205: 3189: 3163: 3159: 3049: 3041: 2880: 2776:

in 1813, deriving it from the geographical extremes of the language family: from

2730: 2695: 2656: 2473:

dating to the 20th century BC. Although no older written records of the original

2450: 2438: 2421: 2417: 2365: 2289: 2277: 2269: 2160: 2129: 2124: 2119: 2100: 2036: 2015: 1993: 1578: 1467: 1390: 1299: 1232: 1173: 1039: 771: 756: 746: 741: 657: 629: 418: 182: 142: 67: 61: 13879: 13770: 13723: 13702: 11922:"Two IE phylogenies, three PIE migrations, and four kinds of steppe pastoralism" 11567:. Documenta Semiotica : Serie 1, Linguistik (2 ed.). Hildesheim: Olms. 11317:

The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World

2764:

Sir William Jones, Third Anniversary Discourse delivered 2 February 1786, ELIOHS

17554: 17322: 16835: 16787: 16647: 16616: 16587: 16218: 16104: 16087: 16037: 16032: 15903: 15840: 15610: 15604: 15524: 15519: 15465: 15442: 15187: 15009: 14966: 14949: 14943: 14921: 14909: 14793: 14648: 14582: 13513:. Part I and Part II. Translated by Bendall, Herbert. London: Trübner & Co. 13019: 12288: 10881: 10735: 10601: 10234: 9845: 9529: 9233: 6189: 6141: 6083: 6070: 6011: 5966: 5382: 5358: 5174: 4969: 4958: 4801: 4751: 4732: 4593: 4200: 4144: 3715: 3623: 3334: 3330: 3213: 3209: 3181: 3167: 3151: 3101: 3065: 3045: 2963: 2777: 2722: 2644: 2636: 2562: 2372: 2301: 1905: 1772: 1647: 1205: 1159: 1127: 1063: 554: 365: 13539:

Szemerényi, Oswald John Louis (1991). Considine, P.; Hooker, James T. (eds.).

12309: 5780:(or perhaps the sound shift directly generated fricatives in these positions). 3656:

Membership of languages in the Indo-European language family is determined by

2384:

All Indo-European languages are descended from a single prehistoric language,

17713: 16671: 16611: 16593: 16109: 16093: 16047: 15804: 15624: 15589: 15579: 15557: 15514: 15379: 14960: 14892: 14363: 14166: 13897: 13743: 13558: 13433: 13398: 13253: 13027: 12721: 12675: 11938: 11921: 11503: 10798: 9840: 9603: 6230: 5370: 5012: 4990: 4906:(North, Central and South America, North and Sub-Saharan Africa, West Asia), 4840: 4784: 4744: 4708: 4605: 4577: 4538: 4518: 4028: 3792: 3543: 3448: 3362: 3171: 2983: 2868: 2858: 2165: 1629: 1545: 1262: 1120: 982: 736: 14802: 13315:] (in Albanian). Akademia e Shkencave dhe e Arteve e Kosovës, Prishtinë. 12248: 5773:

Various further changes affected consonants in the middle or end of a word:

3882:

Specialists have postulated the existence of higher-order subgroups such as

952: 17459: 17267: 17001: 15568: 14084: 13644: 13437: 12831: 12485: 12274: 12130:

Friedman, Victor A. (2011). "The Balkan Languages and Balkan Linguistics".

12099: 11593: 11407: 11016: 10976: 10214: 9885: 8735: 6112: 5264: 4944: 4940: 4767: 4763: 4755: 4728: 4558: 4554: 4398: 4394: 4290:

4B-C (blue & dark blue): Bell Beaker; adopted by Indo-European speakers

4270: 3980: 3957: 3891: 3883: 3838: 3833: 3802: 3748: 3744: 3021: 2628: 2434: 2381:, with over two-thirds (313) of them belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch. 1784: 1622: 1096: 967: 766: 761: 751: 77: 14149: 13819: 13609:"Indo-European Loanwords and Exchange in Bronze Age Central and East Asia" 13114: 12520: 12353: 10281: 9906: 3897:

The Italo-Celtic subgroup was at one point uncontroversial, considered by

3739:

even features areal convergence among members of very different branches.

245: 13914: 11601: 11377:, published 1755). In: Complete Edition, Moscow, 1952, vol. 7, pp. 652–59 11214: 11103: 11012: 10616: 10589: 9600: 6127: 6057: 5946:(usually but not always distinct from the secondarily palatalized stops). 5935: 5251: 5145: 5103: 4899: 4848: 4836: 4720: 4494: 3714:

in the West Germanic languages greatly postdate any possible notion of a

3424: 3193: 2781: 2309: 1760: 1746: 1710: 1418: 31: 13625: 13035: 12225:"Mapping the Origins and Expansion of the Indo-European Language Family" 11900: 5776:

The voiced stops resulting from the sound shift were softened to voiced

3909:; the change of /p/ to /kʷ/ before another /kʷ/ in the same word (as in 3188:

inscriptions from around the 2nd century AD, earliest coherent texts in

947: 17634: 17353: 17303: 17169: 15215: 13119: 13091: 13063: 13002: 11056: 11048: 10996: 10758:(used for the subjunctive voice and also for the future tense) is also 5617:

in English). This is the original source of the English sounds written

4948: 4852: 4820: 4324:, an earlier stage, called Pre-Proto-Indo-European, has been proposed. 4240: 4095: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 3720: 3711: 3692: 3580:: evidence too scant and uncertain to determine anything with certainty 3342: 3237: 2888: 2830: 2823: 2430: 2397: 2377: 1723: 1637: 1515: 1280: 12742: 12661: 11964:, II, 1948 p. 43 sq. et III 1949, p. 45 sq., M.Almagro dans 11134:

continuing to lead the group; English in general has in many respects

10806: Countries where Indo-European language family is majority native 2466: 14185: 13485:

Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen

13407: 12394: 11615: 11000: 10992: 9860: 9243: 6199: 5362: 5347: 5282: 5125: 5075: 4797: 4789: 4740: 4724: 4693: 4645: 4629: 4244: 3731:

in the case of Baltic and Slavic) before the PIE syllabic resonants *

3710:. More certainly, very similar-looking alterations in the systems of 3617: 3466: 3398: 3245: 3229: 3147: 2756: 2393: 1926: 1703: 1695: 1688: 1681: 1667: 1535: 253: 239: 235: 14072:

Lewis, M. Paul, ed. (2009). "Language Family Trees: Indo-European".

13258:

Grundriss der Vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen

9614: 4843:

of significant areas where Indo-European languages were spoken, but

4070: 14012: 13812:

The Indo-European Language Family : A Phylogenetic Perspective

13345:

Kortlandt, Frederik (1988). "The Thraco-Armenian consonant shift".

12726:

Archaeology & Language. The Puzzle of the Indo-European Origins

12653: 12601: 12108:. Routledge Handbooks in Linguistics. Routledge. pp. 385–403. 11666: 11024: 10828: 10818: Countries where Indo-European language family is not official 9481: 9463: 9218: 6225: 6174: 5943: 4697: 4689: 4681: 4661: 4641: 4625: 4613: 4510: 4502: 4401:

propose the following evolutionary tree of Indo-European branches:

4336: 4053: 3565: 3406: 3338: 3302: 2975: 2967: 2726: 2691: 2686:

in the late 1760s to suggest a relationship among them. Meanwhile,

2581: 2577: 2470: 1869: 1860: 1751: 1552: 1527: 1431: 922: 498: 279: 97: 13541:

Scripta Minora: Selected Essays in Indo-European, Greek, and Latin

12925:. Linguistics Research Center, University of Texas. Archived from 11856:"Tablet Discovery Pushes Earliest European Writing Back 150 Years" 5201:

Other secondary sources, of lesser value due to poor attestation:

4393:

Using a mathematical analysis borrowed from evolutionary biology,

16870: 14481: 11498:. Vol. III. John Stockdale and John Walker. pp. 24–46. 11119: 10988: 10952: 10593: 9599:

The following table presents a comparison of conjugations of the

9560:) as well as before an aspirated consonant in the next syllable ( 5234: 5023: 4977: 4869: 4617: 4526: 3410: 3318: 3310: 3233: 2462: 2413: 1919: 1883: 1876: 1674: 1294: 927: 17311: 13722:

Kroonen, Guus; Mallory, James P.; Comrie, Bernard, eds. (2018).

13260:(in German). Vol. Erster Band. Strassburg: Karl J. Trübner. 13149:. Vol. 22 (15th ed.). Chicago: Helen Hemingway Benton. 12869:

Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics

11642:

Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics

5063:, attested in a huge amount of poetic and prose material in the 4939:). Early poetry is of special significance because of the rigid 4868:

with the exception of Albanian. Pannonian Basin is taken by the

2845:

as an academic discipline. The classical phase of Indo-European

273:

Present-day distribution of Indo-European languages in Eurasia:

16962: 16811:

Families with question marks (?) are disputed or controversial.

16792: 16690: 14609: 14186:"Lexicon of Early Indo-European Loanwords Preserved in Finnish" 14085:"Thesaurus Indogermanischer Text- und Sprachmaterialien: TITUS" 12384:"Trees, Waves and Linkages: Models of Language Diversification" 11028: 9582:

as well as before an aspirated consonant in the next syllable (

5437: 4973: 4793: 4633: 4608:

as the Indo-Aryan tongue reaches eastwards, giving rise to the

4585: 4344: 3950: 3436: 2971: 2804:; in most languages this term is now dated or less common than 2690:

compared different language groups, including Slavic, Baltic ("

2546: 2426: 1642: 1596: 1115: 932: 13525:(1957). "The Problem of Balto-Slav Unity: A Critical Survey". 11668:

Slavic–Albanian Language Contact, Convergence, and Coexistence

11439:. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 52–74. Archived from 11402:. Vol. 18. Berkeley Linguistics Society. pp. 227–8. 10959:

themselves, and that of their daughter cultures including the

5906:

languages corresponds to the outcome of the PIE plain velars:

4792:

in Central Asia leading to China, due to the proliferation of

4316:

common ancestor of the Indo-European languages, spoken by the

3592:: possibly related to (or part of) Celtic, Ligurian, or Italic 2992:, attested from the early 5th century AD. It evolved from the 14595: 14125: 11469: 11032: 10984: 10968: 10631: 9855: 9238: 6235: 6194: 6100: 6025: 5431:, the following are some of the major changes that happened: 5230: 5060: 5017: 4873: 4712: 4597: 4161:, comprising all or some of the Eurasiatic languages and the 3962: 3620:. Very likely, but not certainly, a sister group to Hellenic. 3506: 3350: 3322: 3309:

words. Epigraphically from the 3rd century BC in the form of

3271: 3196:

manuscript tradition from about the 8th century AD. Includes

3185: 2826:

was a pioneer in the field of comparative linguistic studies.

2718: 2648: 2566: 1741: 1615: 1609: 1591: 962: 937: 13701:(1997). Robbins Dexter, Miriam; Jones-Bley, Karlene (eds.). 13222:

Comparative Indo-European linguistics : An Introduction

12212:] (in German). Bern: Francke. pp. 708–709, 882–884. 11039:(such as Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian etc.) remain, as does 4891:. Modern dialects of Indo-European languages start emerging. 3966:

scholarly opinion and refuting the Indo-Hittite hypothesis.

12880: 12878: 11982:. Paris: Bibliothèques scientifiques Payot. pp. 84–85. 11596:(2005). "Theodor of Shkodra (1210) and Other Early Texts". 10754:) meaning "to bring". Additionally, the perfective form of 10635: 5942:). The "palatal" stops are palatalized and often appear as 4367:

system is complex and, like the noun, exhibits a system of

3354: 2133: 13229:(2nd ed.). Amsterdam / Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 11640:. In Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias (eds.). 11098:

and European expansionism throughout the globe during the

6078:

Among the other notable changes affecting consonants are:

5357:

PIE is normally reconstructed with a complex system of 15

3497:), attested from the 7th century BC. Includes the ancient 421:

is common (more visible upon full enlargement of the map).

13797:

Esquisse d'une grammaire comparée de l'arménien classique

13704:

The Kurgan Culture and The Indo-Europeanization of Europe

11496:

The Works of Sir William Jones. With a Life of the Author

10888:

Today, Indo-European languages are spoken by billions of

10680:

would have looked like. The descendant of Proto-Germanic

10654:

in Hindustani is roughly compensated by the periphrastic

10621:

beireann tú, beireann sé/sí, beireann sibh, beireann siad

10611:

in the sense of bearing a child; its common meanings are

4922: 3150:

from the 7th century AD. Modern Celtic languages include

3146:

from the 4th or 5th century AD, earliest inscriptions in

2751: 2558: 14146:

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language

13321: 12875: 11340: 11338: 11336: 11003:, replacing many (but not all) of the previously-spoken 6014:

converted the voiced aspirates into voiceless aspirates.

5888:

None of the daughter-language families (except possibly

3924: 3419:

or Iranic, attested from roughly 1000 BC in the form of

2891:) developed a better understanding of morphology and of 13941:

The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots

13144: 12837: 12809: 12789: 12760: 12748: 11493: 4774:

marginalize the Celtic languages to the British Isles.

4668:

besides Greek are spoken in Southern Europe, including

4312:

The proposed Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) is the

3652:

Indo-European family tree in order of first attestation

2518: 436:

indicates this branch of the language family is extinct

14078:(Sixteenth ed.). Dallas, Tex.: SIL International. 13199:

Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction

12902: 12636:

The linguistic relationship between Armenian and Greek

12562: 5841:, an archaic Germanic language). Similarly, the words 4481:(2200 BC); split between Iranian and Old Indic 1800 BC 13442:

Greater Anatolia and the Indo-Hittite language family

12843: 12702: 11333: 11294:(new ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 37. 10711:

was borrowed and nativized only in compounds such as

10662:(etymologically from the Sanskrit present participle 4584:

are spoken in a huge area from present-day Poland to

3719:

proto-language, such as the uniform development of a

3542:: hypothetical language associated with the proposed 3270:

Greek from between 1450 and 1350 BC have been found.

2400:. The geographical location where it was spoken, the 14108:

glottothèque – Ancient Indo-European Grammars online

14011:

Dyen, Isidore; Kruskal, Joseph; Black, Paul (1997).

13919:

Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics

13846: 13721: 13567: 13087:"Ethnologue list of languages by number of speakers" 12690: 12550: 12223:

Bouckaert, Remco; Lemey, Philippe (24 August 2012).

11968:, XVI, 1950, p. 42 sq, P.Laviosa Zambotti, l.c. 11550: 11094:

with the dramatic increase in the population of the

9757: 9744: 9731: 9718: 9705: 9692: 9675: 9662: 9649: 9633: 9607: 9576: 9554: 9538:

Before an aspirated consonant in the next syllable (

9522: 9508: 9500: 9486: 9468: 9450: 9432: 9414: 9400: 9380: 9360: 9352: 9338: 9330: 9316: 9302: 9169: 9159: 9149: 9140: 9131: 9122: 9113: 9104: 9095: 9051: 9042: 9033: 9023: 9013: 9003: 8993: 8984: 8975: 8966: 8957: 8913: 8904: 8860: 8850: 8842: 8833: 8786: 8777: 8767: 8758: 8749: 8702: 8692: 8682: 8672: 8662: 8652: 8642: 8592: 8580: 8571: 8562: 8512: 8503: 8494: 8449: 8439: 8429: 8419: 8407: 8397: 8387: 8376: 8366: 8357: 8347: 8338: 8329: 8245: 8235: 8226: 8217: 8208: 8198: 8189: 8180: 8171: 8161: 8152: 8143: 8134: 8125: 8116: 8107: 8098: 8089: 8078: 8069: 8060: 8051: 8042: 8033: 8024: 8015: 8006: 7950: 7940: 7931: 7921: 7911: 7899: 7890: 7881: 7872: 7863: 7854: 7845: 7836: 7827: 7818: 7774: 7765: 7753: 7741: 7732: 7723: 7714: 7705: 7696: 7687: 7678: 7669: 7660: 7611: 7601: 7592: 7580: 7571: 7562: 7553: 7544: 7535: 7526: 7517: 7508: 7457: 7448: 7436: 7427: 7418: 7409: 7400: 7391: 7382: 7338: 7329: 7320: 7311: 7302: 7293: 7284: 7275: 7266: 7217: 7208: 7199: 7187: 7178: 7169: 7160: 7151: 7142: 7133: 7081: 7069: 7060: 7051: 7043: 7034: 7023: 7008: 6999: 6990: 6982: 6973: 6892: 6882: 6872: 6862: 6853: 6844: 6835: 6826: 6817: 6808: 6754: 6745: 6736: 6727: 6718: 6709: 6701: 6692: 6647: 6637: 6627: 6617: 6607: 6597: 6587: 6578: 6569: 6560: 6551: 6542: 6533: 6489: 6480: 6470: 6461: 6452: 6442: 6432: 6422: 6413: 6404: 6396: 6387: 6338: 6328: 6318: 6308: 6299: 6290: 6281: 6272: 6264: 6255: 5608: 5602: 5596: 5590: 5584: 5578: 5568: 5562: 5556: 5550: 5544: 5538: 5530: 5524: 5518: 5512: 5506: 5500: 5493: 5487: 5481: 5475: 5468: 5462: 5456: 5450: 5135:–1300 AD, with limited earlier sources dating to AD 433: 228: 221: 214: 207: 200: 192: 185: 174: 153: 117: 108: 13290:

Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction

12890: 11580:

Symbolae grammaticae in honorem Ioannis Rozwadowski

6046:

merge the voiced aspirated into plain voiced stops.

4847:still develops under Islamic rule and extends into 4509:cultures emerge in Central Europe, introducing the 3937:, while Michael Weiss has argued for the subgroup. 14230: 14075:Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Online version 13847:Ramat, Paolo; Giacalone Ramat, Anna, eds. (1998). 13794: 13747: 13693:. Paris: Klincksieck – via Internet Archive. 13686: 13506: 13444:. Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of Man. 13266: 13113: 13085: 13057: 13001: 12921:Vijay, John; Slocum, Jonathan (10 November 2008). 12483: 12465: 11518: 5873:, although not spelled differently (compare Latin 4576:spread over Central and Western Europe, including 4485:From 1500 BC the following sequence may be given: 4431:Pre-Germanic and Pre-Balto-Slavic; proto-Germanic 3574:: possibly related to Albanian, Messapian, or both 3138:inscriptions date as early as the 6th century BC; 2529:During the 16th century, European visitors to the 14087:(in German). TITUS, University of Frankfurt. 2003 13594:(in German). Giessen: J. Ricker'che Buchhandlung. 13426:Die Gliederung des indogermanischen Sprachgebiets 11995:Language and Linguistic Contact in Ancient Sicily 10894:20 languages with the largest numbers of speakers 3333:. Includes a wide range of modern languages from 17711: 16865: 14101:"Indo-European Lexical Cognacy Database (IELex)" 14010: 13327:Data analysis, machine learning and applications 12866: 12391:The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics 11516: 10726: 10712: 2512: 13501: 12331:Chang, Will; Chundra, Cathcart (January 2015). 11830: 11468:in the Indo-European languages, while omitting 10827:Distribution of Indo-European languages in the 4441:David Anthony proposes the following sequence: 4010: Green: languages with PIE *-tt- > -ss- 3610:: extinct language once spoken north of Macedon 2511:with other language families, although several 14122:"Indo-European Etymological Dictionary (IEED)" 13768: 13689:Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque 12923:"Indo-European Languages: Balto-Slavic Family" 12222: 12094:Friedman, Victor A. (2020). "The Balkans". In 11430:"Archaeology and Language: methods and issues" 4060: 3933:. This evidence was prominently challenged by 16851: 14832: 14818: 14216: 14031:. LLOW Languages of the World. Archived from 13428:. Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag. 12862: 12860: 12858: 11980:Les Indo-Européens: Histoire, langues, mythes 11395: 9594: 6166:in selected Indo-European daughter languages 4715:throughout the Mediterranean and, during the 4037: 4016: Tan: languages with PIE *-tt- > -st- 3969: 3863: 2903:who in 1927 pointed out the existence of the 2245: 17695:Families with more than 30 languages are in 16821:Families with more than 30 languages are in 13999:Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture (1997) 13912: 13769:Markey, T. L.; Repanšek, Luka, eds. (2020). 12541: 12389:, in Bowern, Claire; Evans, Bethwyn (eds.), 12330: 11427: 10731:"to confer" (from Latin "con-" and "ferre"). 4355:, these form grammatically inflected words ( 4282:1 (black): Anatolian languages (archaic PIE) 3673:, the source of all the Germanic languages. 3669:are presumed innovations that took place in 3423:. Epigraphically from 520 BC in the form of 13659: 13003:"Aspect, Tense, and Mood in the Hindi Verb" 12920: 12763:, p. 667 George S. Lane, Douglas Q. Adams, 5385:) stops, and a three-way distinction among 4308:– : Armenian, expanding from western steppe 4227:, a language family separately proposed by 4043: 3918: 2982:texts from the 20th and 19th centuries BC, 2948:, or otherwise a totally unattested Balkan 16858: 16844: 14825: 14811: 14223: 14209: 14171:(in German) (5th ed.). Gerhard Köbler 13681: 13665:A Comparative Study of Santali and Bengali 13589: 13538: 13521: 13479: 13462:From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic 13145:AA.VV. (1981). "Indo-European languages". 12999: 12855: 12446:] (in French). Paris: Honoré Champion. 12206:Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch 12105:The Routledge Handbook of Language Contact 11834: 11665:Curtis, Matthew Cowan (30 November 2011). 11577: 11562: 11475: 10688:) survives in German only in the compound 5274:–1600); even more archaic than Lithuanian. 4604:. The Vedic civilization gives way to the 4421:Pre-Armenian and Pre-Greek (after 2500 BC) 4418:Pre-Italic and Pre-Celtic (before 2500 BC) 3870: 3856: 2252: 2238: 2216:Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch 13837: 13634: 13624: 13573:Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics 13406: 13357: 13344: 13307:Hamp, Eric (2007). Rexhep Ismajli (ed.). 12849: 12708: 12510: 12308: 12264: 11992: 11937: 11644:. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 1732–1749. 10776: 9392:Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels. 9300:- Between vowels, or between a vowel and 6162:Proto-Indo-European consonants and their 4284:2 (black): Afanasievo culture (early PIE) 4111:Learn how and when to remove this message 3680: 3564:: Poorly-attested language spoken by the 3531:and probably extinct by the 10th century. 3142:from the 2nd century BC; Primitive Irish 2952:that was closely related to Illyrian and 2284:. Some European languages of this family— 13697: 13380:"The Old Phrygian Areyastis-inscription" 13377: 13264: 13252: 12696: 12456: 12129: 12093: 11878:. Allied Publishers. 1988. p. 114. 11838: 11586: 11366: 11319:. Oxford University Press. p. 442. 10822: 10797: 5443:As in the other Germanic languages, the 4294:5C (red): Sintashta (proto-Indo-Iranian) 4269: 3979: 3757: 3647: 3632:: proposed, pre-Celtic, Iberian language 2818: 2812:remains the standard scientific term. A 14183: 13935: 13810:Olander, Thomas, ed. (September 2022). 13809: 13789: 13742: 13432: 13287: 13153: 12908: 12884: 12777: 12720: 12633: 12580: 12568: 12437: 12203: 12188: 12065: 12024:Encyclopedia of the languages of Europe 11977: 11971: 11919: 11735:"The Hittite Computer Analysis Project" 11632: 11626: 11314: 10793: 4800:rule make the last Anatolian languages 4796:merchants there. Greek settlements and 3291:(dated to the late 3rd millennium BC). 2713:The hypothesis reappeared in 1786 when 14: 17712: 14164: 13423: 13215: 13193: 13172: 13059:"Ethnologue list of language families" 12975: 12947: 12556: 12471: 12416: 12287: 12281: 12159:The ancient Greeks: a critical history 12044: 11842: 11664: 11494:Shore (Lord Teignmouth), John (1807). 11356: 11344: 4923:Important languages for reconstruction 4259: 3586:: possibly close to or part of Celtic. 3552:: possibly Iranic, Thracian, or Celtic 3321:is assumed to preserve intact records 3134:), attested since the 6th century BC; 2408:, which posits the homeland to be the 16839: 14806: 14204: 14071: 13865: 13606: 13571:; Jones, David; Jones, Irene (1999). 13458: 12896: 12794:The parent language, Laryngeal theory 12674: 12599: 12544:Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture 12542:Mallory, J. P.; Adams, D. Q. (1997). 12324: 12216: 12193:. Heidelberg: C. Winter. p. 341. 12072:. John Benjamins Publishing Company. 12050: 12021: 11732: 11592: 11481: 11289: 11277:"Ethnologue report for Indo-European" 7176: 4517:speakers into the Italian peninsula ( 3024:), attested from the 9th century AD ( 2936:, attested from the 13th century AD; 2867:, published in the 1880s. Brugmann's 2223:Indo-European Etymological Dictionary 2195:Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture 14103:. Uppsala University, Uppsala. 2021. 14049:"Indo-European Documentation Center" 13319: 13306: 13292:. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell. 12825: 12210:Indogermanic Etymological Dictionary 12156: 12144:10.1146/annurev-anthro-081309-145932 11986: 11898: 11620: 11598:Albanian Literature: A Short History 11488:Electronic Library of Historiography 10619:by adding a pronoun after the verb: 6024:(or sometimes plain voiced stops in 5813:sounds disappeared, while remaining 4093:adding citations to reliable sources 4064: 2525:Indo-European studies § History 2519:History of Indo-European linguistics 2345:; another nine subdivisions are now 417:Dotted/striped areas indicate where 13667:. Calcutta: K. P. Bagchi & Co. 4465:Pre-Italic and Pre-Celtic (3000 BC) 2837:and between 1833 and 1852 he wrote 2533:began to notice similarities among 2489:as it possesses the second-longest 2180:Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European 24: 13600: 13360:"The Spread of the Indo-Europeans" 12993: 12634:Greppin, James (1996). "Review of 11962:Revue Internationale d'Onomastique 11798:European Journal of Human Genetics 11704:"The peaks and troughs of Hittite" 11551:Szemerényi, Jones & Jones 1999 11482:Jones, William (2 February 1786). 11158:The Horse, the Wheel, and Language 5821:became voiced. For example, Latin 5091:(the most archaic well-documented 4648:. Separation of Proto-Italic into 4374: 4298:7A (purple): Indo-Aryans (Mittani) 3297:, attested from around 1400 BC in 2202:The Horse, the Wheel, and Language 25: 17736: 13958: 11993:Tribulato, Olga (December 2012). 11899:Mark, Joshua J. (28 April 2011). 11490:. Universita degli Studi Firenze, 11484:"The Third Anniversary Discourse" 10607:usually only carries the meaning 9289:- Following an unstressed vowel ( 5361:, including an unusual three-way 4525:followed by the redaction of the 4302:(dark yellow): proto-Balto-Slavic 4154:Other proposed families include: 4147:, which joins Indo-European with 3598:: proposed relationship to Greek. 3558:: possibly very close to Thracian 3274:texts date to the 8th century BC. 2918: 415: Non-Indo-European languages 179:Unclassified or poorly attested: 27:Language family native to Eurasia 14484:(unknown further classification) 13775:. JIES Monograph. Vol. 67. 13728:. JIES Monograph. Vol. 65. 13707:. JIES Monograph. Vol. 18. 13367:Journal of Indo-European Studies 13176:History of the Language Sciences 12484:Nakhleh, Luay; Ringe, Don & 12420:Journal of Indo-European Studies 12055:. Thames and Hudson. p. 54. 11926:Journal of Language Relationship 11691:any language, including Albanian 11007:of this extensive area. However 10947:and widespread dissemination of 5408:. (The correctness of the terms 5393:-type sounds) between "palatal" 5335: 4561:splits into ancestors of modern 4300:7B (purple): Indo-Aryans (India) 4069: 4033:Proto-Indo-European palatovelars 3929:); and the subjunctive morpheme 2970:, attested in isolated terms in 2814:number of other synonymous terms 2729:, to which he tentatively added 2209:Journal of Indo-European Studies 973:Bible translations into Armenian 464: 267: 14051:. Linguistics Research Center, 13750:In Search of the Indo-Europeans 13313:Comparative studies on Albanian 13106: 13078: 13050: 12914: 12819: 12770: 12714: 12668: 12627: 12593: 12574: 12535: 12477: 12450: 12431: 12410: 12375: 12197: 12182: 12150: 12123: 12087: 12059: 12022:Price, Glanville (April 2000). 12015: 11954: 11913: 11892: 11866: 11848: 11823: 11789: 11759: 11726: 11696: 11658: 11608: 11582:. Vol. 1. pp. 95–104. 11571: 11556: 11539: 11510: 11220:List of Indo-European languages 11043:, a pre-Indo-European isolate. 11011:remain dominant in much of the 4918:to Central Asia and North Asia. 4292:5A-B (red): Eastern Corded ware 4288:4A (black): Western Corded Ware 4080:needs additional citations for 2493:of any known family, after the 2274:overwhelming majority of Europe 484:List of Indo-European languages 13814:. Cambridge University Press. 13309:Studime krahasuese për shqipen 13158:. Princeton University Press. 12587:University of California Press 12583:Ancient Indo-European dialects 12257:11858/00-001M-0000-000F-EADF-A 11421: 11389: 11308: 11283: 11269: 11243: 11128:languages used on the Internet 11086:Despite medieval invasions by 11083:and the western half of Asia. 11081:indigenous languages of Europe 10750:φέρνω (modern transliteration 9350:Before or after an obstruent ( 4553:start migrating southwards to 4501:, and the (pre-) Proto-Celtic 2944:, traditionally thought to be 2871:reevaluation of the field and 2841:. This marks the beginning of 2475:Proto-Indo-European population 36:Indo-European (disambiguation) 13: 1: 14053:University of Texas at Austin 13805:– via Internet Archive. 13764:– via Internet Archive. 13754:. London: Thames and Hudson. 13569:Szemerényi, Oswald John Louis 13523:Szemerényi, Oswald John Louis 13358:Kortlandt, Frederik (1990) . 13288:Fortson, Benjamin W. (2004). 13273:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 13179:. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. 12381: 12132:Annual Review of Anthropology 11257: 11079:remained of the (relatively) 10742:φέρω (modern transliteration 10674: 9372:Before an original laryngeal. 9268:- At the beginning of a word. 6056:change all three series in a 5418:Proto-Indo-European phonology 5325: 5312: 5299: 5286: 5268: 5255: 5242: 5221: 5191: 5178: 5160: 5149: 5136: 5129: 5118: 5107: 5096: 5079: 5068: 5041: 5028: 5005: 4994: 4981: 4962: 4432: 4134:, joining Indo-European with 4001: Orange: languages with 3754:been radically non-treelike. 3523:, with proposed links to the 3281: 2392:, spoken sometime during the 1810:Proto-Indo-European mythology 1079:Paleolithic continuity theory 14004: 13989:Resources in other libraries 13516:Part II via Internet Archive 12838:Encyclopædia Britannica 1981 12810:Encyclopædia Britannica 1981 12790:Encyclopædia Britannica 1981 12761:Encyclopædia Britannica 1981 12749:Encyclopædia Britannica 1981 12440:Les dialectes indo-européens 12382:François, Alexandre (2014), 11710:. 2 May 2006. Archived from 11671:. ProQuest LLC. p. 18. 11600:. New York/Westport/London: 11456:Blench erroneously included 11262: 11230:Proto-Indo-European religion 10789:Proto-Indo-European numerals 9552:Before a (PIE) front vowel ( 9378:Before a (PIE) front vowel ( 9092: 8954: 8901: 8830: 8746: 8639: 8559: 8491: 8326: 8287: 8086: 8003: 7815: 7657: 7505: 7379: 7263: 7130: 7031: 6970: 6938: 6805: 6689: 6530: 6384: 6252: 6217: 4929:Proto-Indo-European language 4739:extend from Eastern Europe ( 4523:Migration of Aryans to India 4266:Proto-Indo-European language 4254: 3989: Blue: centum languages 3184:), earliest attestations in 3006:Proto-Indo-European language 2584:and Italian (these included 2572:Another account was made by 2545:languages. In 1583, English 2402:Proto-Indo-European homeland 2386:linguistically reconstructed 1498:Northern Black Polished Ware 697:Proto-Indo-European language 7: 14168:Indogermanisches Wörterbuch 14142:"Indo-European Roots Index" 14013:"Comparative Indo-European" 13880:10.1515/9783110192858.1.244 13868:Indogermanische Forschungen 13849:The Indo-European Languages 13613:Evolutionary Human Sciences 13575:. Oxford University Press. 13465:. Oxford University Press. 13225:. Revised and corrected by 13000:van Olphen, Herman (1975). 12546:. London: Fitzroy Dearborn. 12457:Bonfante, Giuliano (1931). 12297:Journal of Language Contact 11638:"The phonology of Albanian" 11373:M.V. Lomonosov (drafts for 11144: 11075:, and the language isolate 11005:pre-Indo-European languages 10692:, meaning "bear (a child)". 10240:Armenian (Eastern; Western) 4933:linguistically conservative 4723:), to Central Asia and the 4061:Proposed external relations 3751:model of language evolution 3638:: possibly including Dacian 3114:(PIE). Living examples are 3032:. Slavic languages include 1815:Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism 66:One of the world's primary 10: 17741: 17515:Chukotko-Kamchatkan–Amuric 13590:von Bradke, Peter (1890). 13533:. O. Harrassowitz: 97–123. 13154:Anthony, David W. (2007). 13137: 13020:10.1163/000000075791615397 12444:The Indo-European dialects 12191:Manuel de la langue vénète 11999:Cambridge University Press 11920:Anthony, David W. (2013). 11906:World History Encyclopedia 11437:A Companion To Archaeology 11435:. In John Bintliff (ed.). 10991:except for swathes of the 10786: 10780: 10646:, now have the meaning of 10592:systems. In addition, the 9758: 9745: 9732: 9719: 9706: 9693: 9676: 9663: 9650: 9634: 9608: 9595:Comparison of conjugations 9588:dissimilation of aspirates 9577: 9566:dissimilation of aspirates 9555: 9544:dissimilation of aspirates 9523: 9509: 9501: 9487: 9469: 9451: 9433: 9415: 9401: 9381: 9361: 9353: 9339: 9331: 9317: 9303: 9170: 9160: 9150: 9141: 9132: 9123: 9114: 9105: 9096: 9052: 9043: 9034: 9024: 9014: 9004: 8994: 8985: 8976: 8967: 8958: 8914: 8905: 8861: 8851: 8843: 8834: 8787: 8778: 8768: 8759: 8750: 8703: 8693: 8683: 8673: 8663: 8653: 8643: 8593: 8581: 8572: 8563: 8513: 8504: 8495: 8450: 8440: 8430: 8420: 8408: 8398: 8388: 8377: 8367: 8358: 8348: 8339: 8330: 8246: 8236: 8227: 8218: 8209: 8199: 8190: 8181: 8172: 8162: 8153: 8144: 8135: 8126: 8117: 8108: 8099: 8090: 8079: 8070: 8061: 8052: 8043: 8034: 8025: 8016: 8007: 7951: 7941: 7932: 7922: 7912: 7900: 7891: 7882: 7873: 7864: 7855: 7846: 7837: 7828: 7819: 7775: 7766: 7754: 7742: 7733: 7724: 7715: 7706: 7697: 7688: 7679: 7670: 7661: 7612: 7602: 7593: 7581: 7572: 7563: 7554: 7545: 7536: 7527: 7518: 7509: 7458: 7449: 7437: 7428: 7419: 7410: 7401: 7392: 7383: 7339: 7330: 7321: 7312: 7303: 7294: 7285: 7276: 7267: 7218: 7209: 7200: 7188: 7179: 7170: 7161: 7152: 7143: 7134: 7082: 7070: 7061: 7052: 7044: 7035: 7024: 7009: 7000: 6991: 6983: 6974: 6893: 6883: 6873: 6863: 6854: 6845: 6836: 6827: 6818: 6809: 6755: 6746: 6737: 6728: 6719: 6710: 6702: 6693: 6648: 6638: 6628: 6618: 6608: 6598: 6588: 6579: 6570: 6561: 6552: 6543: 6534: 6490: 6481: 6471: 6462: 6453: 6443: 6433: 6423: 6414: 6405: 6397: 6388: 6339: 6329: 6319: 6309: 6300: 6291: 6282: 6273: 6265: 6256: 6118:Development of prevocalic 5609: 5603: 5597: 5591: 5585: 5579: 5569: 5563: 5557: 5551: 5545: 5539: 5531: 5525: 5519: 5513: 5507: 5501: 5494: 5488: 5482: 5476: 5469: 5463: 5457: 5451: 5339: 5173:, with limited records in 4471:Pre-Balto-Slavic (2800 BC) 4378: 4263: 3995: Red: satem languages 3976:Centum and satem languages 3973: 3970:Satem and centum languages 3727:in the case of Germanic, * 3684: 3616:: language of the ancient 3325:dating from about the mid- 3266:); fragmentary records in 2922: 2901:Apophony in Indo-European, 2633:Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn 2522: 1111:Domestication of the horse 29: 17683: 17620: 17573: 17523: 17403: 17396: 17351: 17302: 17266: 17191: 17127: 17090: 17000: 16877: 16806: 16765: 16742: 16681: 16670: 16514: 16247: 16236: 16204: 16131: 16122: 16011: 15828: 15817: 15784: 15646: 15637: 15545: 15303: 15289: 15203: 14998: 14980: 14931: 14849: 14840: 14834:Primary language families 14787: 14647: 14565: 14538: 14506: 14472: 14442: 14417: 14385: 14353: 14344: 14283: 14254: 14243: 14114: 13984:Resources in your library 13921:(1 ed.). Routledge. 13607:Bjørn, Rasmus G. (2022). 13269:The Laws of Indo-European 12982:, Arm: 20, Alb: 25 & 12728:. London: Jonathan Cape. 12438:Meillet, Antoine (1908). 12310:10.1163/19552629-00602009 12051:Kruta, Venceslas (1991). 11978:Bernard, Sergent (1995). 11517:Robinson, Andrew (2007). 11141:of global communication. 9807: 9802: 9797: 9792: 9787: 9782: 9777: 9772: 9769: 9328:After a (PIE) obstruent ( 9167: 8973: 8911: 8858: 8784: 8699: 8669: 8590: 8569: 8437: 8417: 8405: 8385: 8345: 8336: 8327: 8224: 8187: 8150: 8096: 8087: 8076: 8049: 8013: 7938: 7909: 7897: 7879: 7861: 7685: 7533: 7434: 7336: 7309: 7273: 7206: 7197: 7185: 7079: 7058: 7021: 6997: 6880: 6860: 6842: 6815: 6806: 6752: 6725: 6699: 6625: 6605: 6585: 6576: 6567: 6411: 6279: 6211: 6208: 6203: 6198: 6193: 6188: 6183: 6178: 6173: 6170: 5802:rather than the expected 4596:in southern Scandinavia. 4513:. Migration of the Proto- 4280:– Center: Steppe cultures 4183:, a theory championed by 3905:; the superlative suffix 3509:and its descendants, the 3008:of the 3rd millennium BC. 2800:) in 1810 in the work of 2743:Asiatic Society of Bengal 2674:Ottoman Turkish traveler 1820:Historical Vedic religion 1097:Chalcolithic (Copper Age) 426: 266: 252: 234: 91: 73: 62:Linguistic classification 60: 50: 45: 15651:Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan 14165:Köbler, Gerhard (2014). 13801:(2nd ed.). Vienna: 13399:10.1515/kadmos-1988-0103 13173:Auroux, Sylvain (2000). 12204:Pokorny, Julius (1959). 12189:Lejeune, Michel (1974). 12163:Harvard University Press 11939:10.31826/jlr-2013-090105 11812::10.1038/ejhg.2015.206. 11236: 11225:Proto-Indo-European root 11170:Indo-European sound laws 11130:are Indo-European, with 10955:, including that of the 10945:Indo-European migrations 10900:, 10 are Indo-European: 10783:Indo-European vocabulary 10717:"to suffer" (from Latin 10658:construction, using the 10588:verb systems to largely 9574:Before or after a (PIE) 9430:Before or after a (PIE) 9412:Before or after a (PIE) 6156:Indo-European sound laws 5833:in the middle (but note 5342:Indo-European sound laws 4954:Most noticeable of all: 4780:eastern Iranian language 4549:. Hittite goes extinct. 4381:Indo-European migrations 4343:meaning. By addition of 2996:which, according to the 2940:evolved from an ancient 2925:Indo-European migrations 2909:coefficients sonantiques 2849:leads from this work to 2515:propose such relations. 2477:remain, some aspects of 1825:Ancient Iranian religion 1188:Novotitarovskaya culture 1035:Indo-European migrations 17720:Indo-European languages 17692:have no living members. 17575:East and Southeast Asia 16818:have no living members. 14232:Indo-European languages 14184:Schalin, Johan (2009). 13970:Indo-European languages 13424:Porzig, Walter (1954). 13347:Linguistique Balkanique 13265:Collinge, N.E. (1985). 13147:Encyclopædia Britannica 12814:Indo-Hittite hypothesis 12249:10.1126/science.1219669 11547:London Quarterly Review 11315:Mallory, J. P. (2006). 11292:Kingdom of the Hittites 11152:Grammatical conjugation 9837:Ancient representative 5056:Other primary sources: 4612:cultural sphere, where 4322:internal reconstruction 3925: 2994:Proto-Armenian language 2847:comparative linguistics 2749:The Sanscrit [ 2461:—found in texts of the 2308:—have expanded through 2266:Indo-European languages 1326:Northern/Eastern Steppe 16798:Unclassified languages 16752:list of sign languages 15720:Northeastern Tasmanian 14055:. 2009. Archived from 13320:Holm, Hans J. (2008). 12459:I dialetti indoeuropei 11808: 10.1101/015396. 11408:10.3765/bls.v18i1.1574 11290:Bryce, Trevor (2005). 11180:Indo-Semitic languages 10885: 10820: 10777:Comparison of cognates 10727: 10713: 10496:berum enkʿ; g'perenkʿ 10359:(er/sie/es) {ge}biert 10211:Modern representative 5369:) distinction between 5074:– AD 100) and limited 4866:Paleo-Balkan languages 4743:) to Northwest China ( 4666:Paleo-Balkan languages 4543:Mycenaean civilization 4468:Pre-Armenian (2800 BC) 4309: 4296:6 (magenta): Andronovo 4124:about such proposals. 4044: 4038: 4024: 3919: 3681:Tree versus wave model 3653: 3499:Osco-Umbrian languages 2950:Indo-European language 2875:'s development of the 2827: 2767: 2487:historical linguistics 2420:, associated with the 1797:Religion and mythology 1756:Medieval Scandinavians 1047:Alternative and fringe 34:. For other uses, see 16773:Constructed languages 13851:. London: Routledge. 13820:10.1017/9781108758666 13803:Mekhitarist Monastery 13378:Lubotsky, A. (1988). 12871:. pp. 2280–2291. 12765:The Tocharian problem 12521:10.1353/lan.2005.0078 12354:10.1353/lan.2015.0005 12028:John Wiley & Sons 11776:. Walter de Gruyter. 11766:Gamkrelidze, Tamaz V. 11428:Roger Blench (2004). 11382:1 August 2020 at the 11185:Indo-Uralic languages 11175:Indo-European studies 11112:European colonization 11027:region. Similarly in 10949:Indo-European culture 10826: 10801: 9640:'to carry, to bear') 9314:Before a (PIE) stop ( 9282:At the end of a word. 6130:, with later loss of 4600:and the beginning of 4535:beginning of Iron Age 4388:Indo-European origins 4363:). The reconstructed 4351:, and by addition of 4273: 4219:) and possibly others 3983: 3758:Proposed subgroupings 3651: 3028:), earliest texts in 2978:mentioned in Semitic 2942:Paleo-Balkan language 2873:Ferdinand de Saussure 2843:Indo-European studies 2822: 2816:have also been used. 2808:, although in German 2747: 2631:linguist and scholar 2576:, a merchant born in 2509:genetic relationships 2410:Pontic–Caspian steppe 2147:Indo-European studies 1510:Peoples and societies 15320:Binanderean–Goilalan 13943:. Houghton Mifflin. 13661:Chakrabarti, Byomkes 13217:Beekes, Robert S. P. 13195:Beekes, Robert S. P. 13008:Indo-Iranian Journal 12840:, pp. 588, 594. 12638:by James Clackson". 11831:Schleicher 1874–1877 11614:In his latest book, 11563:Franz Bopp (2010) . 11190:Eurasiatic languages 11165:Indo-European copula 10957:Proto-Indo-Europeans 10794:Present distribution 10666:) and an auxiliary: 10531:berum ekʿ; g'perekʿ 10443:They two (3rd dual) 10338:He/She/It (3rd sg.) 10071:They two (3rd dual) 9966:He/She/It (3rd sg.) 9714:They two (3rd dual) 9671:He/She/It (3rd sg.) 9612:of the English verb 9606:of the verbal root * 5999:Indo-Aryan languages 5445:Germanic sound shift 5052:usefulness somewhat. 4318:Proto-Indo-Europeans 4089:improve this article 3742:An extension to the 3429:Behistun inscription 3327:second millennium BC 3307:traces of Indo-Aryan 2772:first used the term 2557:wrote a letter from 1054:Anatolian hypothesis 1006:Proto-Indo-Europeans 913:Hittite inscriptions 458:Indo-European topics 18:Indo-European people 17333:Chukotko-Kamchatkan 17117:Northwest Caucasian 17112:Northeast Caucasian 16602:(Maku-Auari/Jukude) 16505:Tequiraca–Canichana 16348:Harákmbut–Katukinan 15111:Northwest Caucasian 15105:Northeast Caucasian 15029:Chukotko-Kamchatkan 14658:Proto-Indo-European 14152:on 17 February 2009 14059:on 3 September 2009 13626:10.1017/ehs.2022.16 13459:Ringe, Don (2006). 12798:Anatolian languages 12461:. Brescia: Paideia. 12397:, pp. 161–89, 12241:2012Sci...337..957B 12157:Fine, John (1985). 12001:. pp. 95–114. 11733:Güterbock, Hans G. 11553:, p. 12 footnote 6. 11205:Languages of Europe 11110:and the results of 11096:Indian subcontinent 11092:early modern period 11053:Indian subcontinent 11021:Caucasian languages 10660:habitual participle 10656:habitual indicative 10408:You two (2nd dual) 10036:You two (2nd dual) 9701:You two (2nd dual) 9629:Proto-Indo-European 9622: 6527:thri (old Persian) 6167: 6107:Loss of prevocalic 5991:linguistic typology 5218:Anatolian languages 5188:Old Church Slavonic 5049:Anatolian languages 4896:Early Modern period 4823:forms an Old Norse 4772:Germanic migrations 4705:Classical Antiquity 4602:Classical Antiquity 4474:Pre-Greek (2500 BC) 4306:9 (yellow):Iranians 4260:Proto-Indo-European 4213:Chukotko-Kamchatkan 4149:Northwest Caucasian 3949:features, like the 3770:phylogenetic clades 3662:Proto-Indo-European 3112:Proto-Indo-European 3030:Old Church Slavonic 2998:Armenian hypothesis 2986:from about 1650 BC. 2839:Comparative Grammar 2531:Indian subcontinent 2513:disputed hypotheses 2443:Anatolian languages 2390:Proto-Indo-European 2282:Indian subcontinent 2280:, and the northern 1310:Multi-cordoned ware 1181:Mikhaylovka culture 1069:Indigenous Aryanism 1059:Armenian hypothesis 918:Hieroglyphic Luwian 84:Proto-Indo-European 17598:Austronesian–Ongan 17397:Proposed groupings 16224:Tarascan/Purépecha 15713:Northern Tasmanian 15471:South Bougainville 15432:North Bougainville 14739:Proto-Indo-Iranian 14686:Proto-Balto-Slavic 14428:Continental Celtic 14128:on 7 February 2006 14035:on 10 October 2017 13683:Chantraine, Pierre 13503:Schleicher, August 13481:Schleicher, August 12780:, pp. 36–73). 12291:(1 January 2013). 11770:Ivanov, Vyacheslav 11747:on 2 December 2013 11714:on 3 February 2017 11210:Languages of India 11116:Western Hemisphere 10886: 10821: 10670:(masculine forms). 10652:present indicative 10650:. The loss of the 10648:future subjunctive 10644:present indicative 10566:berum en; g'peren 10557:(ānān) {mi}barand 10493:beirimid; beiream 10373:We two (1st dual) 10321:berum es; g'peres 10286:berum em; g'perem 10001:We two (1st dual) 9866:Classical Armenian 9621: 9604:present indicative 9480:Before or after a 6161: 5429:Germanic languages 5423:As an example, in 5352:daughter languages 5309:Classical Armenian 4810:Scythian languages 4717:Hellenistic period 4703:500 BC – 1 BC/AD: 4688:). Development of 4622:Siddhartha Gautama 4590:Pre-Proto-Germanic 4531:Vedic civilization 4499:pre-Proto-Germanic 4489:1500–1000 BC: The 4365:Indo-European verb 4329:inflected language 4310: 4237:sub-Saharan Africa 4025: 3666:shared innovations 3654: 3596:Ancient Macedonian 3323:via oral tradition 3289:Proto-Indo-Iranian 3192:, 4th century AD. 3144:Ogham inscriptions 2828: 890:Proto-Indo-Iranian 876:Proto-Balto-Slavic 857:Proto-Italo-Celtic 17725:Language families 17707: 17706: 17616: 17615: 17608:Sino-Austronesian 17392: 17391: 16867:Language families 16833: 16832: 16783:Language isolates 16761: 16760: 16666: 16665: 16232: 16231: 16118: 16117: 15813: 15812: 15760:Western Tasmanian 15678:Eastern Tasmanian 15633: 15632: 15355:East Geelvink Bay 15285: 15284: 14976: 14975: 14800: 14799: 14794:extinct languages 14413: 14412: 14340: 14339: 13965:Library resources 13950:978-0-618-08250-6 13928:978-1-57958-218-0 13913:Strazny, Philip; 13874:(2007): 244–276. 13782:978-0-9845353-7-8 13761:978-0-500-27616-7 13735:978-0-9983669-2-0 13674:978-81-7074-128-2 13582:978-0-19-823870-6 13494:978-3-8102-1071-5 13337:978-3-540-78239-1 13299:978-1-4051-0315-2 13186:978-3-11-016735-1 13165:978-0-691-05887-0 13062:(22nd ed.). 12887:, pp. 56–58. 12613:978-3-934106-99-4 12589:. pp. 29–50. 12404:978-0-415-52789-7 12235:(6097): 957–960. 12172:978-0-674-03314-6 11885:978-81-8424-568-4 11783:978-3-11-081503-0 11708:www.leidenuniv.nl 11678:978-1-267-58033-7 11651:978-3-11-054243-1 11532:978-0-13-134304-7 11326:978-0-19-928791-8 11301:978-0-19-928132-9 11200:Languages of Asia 11108:population growth 11009:Semitic languages 10582: 10581: 10522:(šomā) {mi}barid 9765: 9764: 9308:(on either side). 9275:- Between vowels. 9257: 9256: 6006:Iranian languages 5949:The "peripheral" 5589:, while original 5416:is disputed; see 5350:evidenced in the 5093:Germanic language 5078:from as early as 4883:: Attestation of 4872:from the western 4857:Turkic migrations 4855:. Due to further 4829:Islamic conquests 4817:Early Middle Ages 4758:; attestation of 4737:Scythian cultures 4638:Achaemenid Empire 4572:1000–500 BC: The 4545:gives way to the 4491:Nordic Bronze Age 4335:of PIE are basic 4276:Kurgan hypothesis 4229:Harold C. Fleming 4187:, comprising the 4177:language families 4121: 4120: 4113: 3880: 3879: 3737:Balkan sprachbund 3525:Afanasevo culture 3511:Romance languages 3287:, descended from 2905:Hittite consonant 2851:August Schleicher 2802:Conrad Malte-Brun 2715:Sir William Jones 2688:Mikhail Lomonosov 2502:Semitic languages 2498:Egyptian language 2455:Akkadian language 2406:Kurgan hypothesis 2262: 2261: 1523:Anatolian peoples 1493:Painted Grey Ware 1381:Nordic Bronze Age 1030:Kurgan hypothesis 983:Old Irish glosses 948:Gaulish epigraphy 443: 442: 68:language families 16:(Redirected from 17732: 17675:Proto-Euphratean 17401: 17400: 17309: 17308: 17277:Great Andamanese 16860: 16853: 16846: 16837: 16836: 16679: 16678: 16633:Huaorani/Waorani 16517:(extant in 2000) 16481:Esmeralda–Yaruro 16252:Andoque–Urequena 16245: 16244: 16129: 16128: 15935:Plateau Penutian 15826: 15825: 15801:(Northern Daly?) 15644: 15643: 15530:Northwest Papuan 15494:Trans–New Guinea 15360:East New Britain 15335:Central Solomons 15301: 15300: 15046:Great Andamanese 14996: 14995: 14847: 14846: 14827: 14820: 14813: 14804: 14803: 14746:Proto-Indo-Aryan 14351: 14350: 14252: 14251: 14225: 14218: 14211: 14202: 14201: 14197: 14195: 14193: 14180: 14178: 14176: 14161: 14159: 14157: 14137: 14135: 14133: 14104: 14096: 14094: 14092: 14079: 14068: 14066: 14064: 14044: 14042: 14040: 14024: 14022: 14020: 13954: 13937:Watkins, Calvert 13932: 13909: 13862: 13843: 13841: 13806: 13800: 13791:Meillet, Antoine 13786: 13765: 13753: 13739: 13718: 13699:Gimbutas, Marija 13694: 13692: 13678: 13656: 13638: 13628: 13595: 13586: 13562: 13534: 13514: 13512: 13498: 13476: 13455: 13429: 13420: 13410: 13384: 13374: 13364: 13354: 13341: 13316: 13303: 13284: 13272: 13261: 13240: 13212: 13190: 13169: 13150: 13131: 13130: 13128: 13126: 13117: 13110: 13104: 13103: 13101: 13099: 13094:. 3 October 2018 13089: 13082: 13076: 13075: 13073: 13071: 13061: 13054: 13048: 13047: 13005: 12997: 12991: 12973: 12967: 12945: 12939: 12938: 12936: 12934: 12918: 12912: 12906: 12900: 12894: 12888: 12882: 12873: 12872: 12864: 12853: 12847: 12841: 12835: 12829: 12823: 12817: 12807: 12801: 12787: 12781: 12774: 12768: 12758: 12752: 12746: 12740: 12739: 12718: 12712: 12706: 12700: 12694: 12688: 12687: 12672: 12666: 12665: 12631: 12625: 12624: 12622: 12620: 12597: 12591: 12590: 12578: 12572: 12566: 12560: 12554: 12548: 12547: 12539: 12533: 12532: 12514: 12494: 12481: 12475: 12469: 12463: 12462: 12454: 12448: 12447: 12435: 12429: 12428: 12414: 12408: 12407: 12388: 12379: 12373: 12372: 12370: 12368: 12337: 12328: 12322: 12321: 12319: 12317: 12312: 12285: 12279: 12278: 12268: 12220: 12214: 12213: 12201: 12195: 12194: 12186: 12180: 12179: 12154: 12148: 12147: 12127: 12121: 12119: 12096:Evangelia Adamou 12091: 12085: 12083: 12063: 12057: 12056: 12048: 12042: 12041: 12019: 12013: 12012: 11990: 11984: 11983: 11975: 11969: 11958: 11952: 11951: 11941: 11917: 11911: 11910: 11896: 11890: 11889: 11870: 11864: 11863: 11862:. 30 March 2011. 11852: 11846: 11827: 11821: 11793: 11787: 11763: 11757: 11756: 11754: 11752: 11746: 11740:. Archived from 11739: 11730: 11724: 11723: 11721: 11719: 11700: 11694: 11693: 11687: 11685: 11662: 11656: 11655: 11636:(11 June 2018). 11634:De Vaan, Michiel 11630: 11624: 11612: 11606: 11605: 11590: 11584: 11583: 11575: 11569: 11568: 11560: 11554: 11543: 11537: 11536: 11524: 11514: 11508: 11507: 11491: 11479: 11473: 11455: 11453: 11451: 11445: 11434: 11425: 11419: 11418: 11416: 11414: 11393: 11387: 11370: 11364: 11354: 11348: 11342: 11331: 11330: 11312: 11306: 11305: 11287: 11281: 11280: 11273: 11251: 11247: 11100:Age of Discovery 11073:Uralic languages 11037:Uralic languages 10981:Germanic peoples 10879: 10870: 10857: 10848: 10839: 10817: 10811: 10805: 10730: 10716: 10679: 10676: 10617:periphrastically 10569:(sie) {ge}bären 10554:(ye/vo) bʰarēm̥ 10499:(wir) {ge}bären 10356:berum ē; g'perē 10324:(du) {ge}bierst 10275:(man) {mi}baram 9767: 9766: 9761: 9760: 9748: 9747: 9735: 9734: 9722: 9721: 9709: 9708: 9696: 9695: 9679: 9678: 9666: 9665: 9653: 9652: 9639: 9638: 9623: 9620: 9611: 9610: 9586:, also known as 9580: 9579: 9564:, also known as 9558: 9557: 9542:, also known as 9526: 9525: 9512: 9511: 9504: 9503: 9490: 9489: 9472: 9471: 9454: 9453: 9436: 9435: 9418: 9417: 9404: 9403: 9384: 9383: 9364: 9363: 9356: 9355: 9342: 9341: 9334: 9333: 9320: 9319: 9306: 9305: 9173: 9172: 9163: 9162: 9153: 9152: 9144: 9143: 9135: 9134: 9126: 9125: 9117: 9116: 9108: 9107: 9099: 9098: 9055: 9054: 9046: 9045: 9037: 9036: 9027: 9026: 9017: 9016: 9007: 9006: 8997: 8996: 8988: 8987: 8979: 8978: 8970: 8969: 8961: 8960: 8917: 8916: 8908: 8907: 8864: 8863: 8854: 8853: 8846: 8845: 8837: 8836: 8790: 8789: 8781: 8780: 8771: 8770: 8762: 8761: 8753: 8752: 8706: 8705: 8696: 8695: 8686: 8685: 8676: 8675: 8666: 8665: 8656: 8655: 8646: 8645: 8596: 8595: 8584: 8583: 8575: 8574: 8566: 8565: 8516: 8515: 8507: 8506: 8498: 8497: 8453: 8452: 8443: 8442: 8433: 8432: 8423: 8422: 8411: 8410: 8401: 8400: 8391: 8390: 8380: 8379: 8370: 8369: 8361: 8360: 8351: 8350: 8342: 8341: 8333: 8332: 8249: 8248: 8239: 8238: 8230: 8229: 8221: 8220: 8212: 8211: 8202: 8201: 8193: 8192: 8184: 8183: 8175: 8174: 8165: 8164: 8156: 8155: 8147: 8146: 8138: 8137: 8129: 8128: 8120: 8119: 8111: 8110: 8102: 8101: 8093: 8092: 8082: 8081: 8073: 8072: 8064: 8063: 8055: 8054: 8046: 8045: 8037: 8036: 8028: 8027: 8019: 8018: 8010: 8009: 7954: 7953: 7944: 7943: 7935: 7934: 7925: 7924: 7915: 7914: 7903: 7902: 7894: 7893: 7885: 7884: 7876: 7875: 7867: 7866: 7858: 7857: 7849: 7848: 7840: 7839: 7831: 7830: 7822: 7821: 7778: 7777: 7769: 7768: 7757: 7756: 7745: 7744: 7736: 7735: 7727: 7726: 7718: 7717: 7709: 7708: 7700: 7699: 7691: 7690: 7682: 7681: 7673: 7672: 7664: 7663: 7615: 7614: 7605: 7604: 7596: 7595: 7584: 7583: 7575: 7574: 7566: 7565: 7557: 7556: 7548: 7547: 7539: 7538: 7530: 7529: 7521: 7520: 7512: 7511: 7461: 7460: 7452: 7451: 7440: 7439: 7431: 7430: 7422: 7421: 7413: 7412: 7404: 7403: 7395: 7394: 7386: 7385: 7342: 7341: 7333: 7332: 7324: 7323: 7315: 7314: 7306: 7305: 7297: 7296: 7288: 7287: 7279: 7278: 7270: 7269: 7221: 7220: 7212: 7211: 7203: 7202: 7191: 7190: 7182: 7181: 7173: 7172: 7164: 7163: 7155: 7154: 7146: 7145: 7137: 7136: 7085: 7084: 7073: 7072: 7064: 7063: 7055: 7054: 7047: 7046: 7038: 7037: 7027: 7026: 7012: 7011: 7003: 7002: 6994: 6993: 6986: 6985: 6977: 6976: 6896: 6895: 6886: 6885: 6876: 6875: 6866: 6865: 6857: 6856: 6848: 6847: 6839: 6838: 6830: 6829: 6821: 6820: 6812: 6811: 6758: 6757: 6749: 6748: 6740: 6739: 6731: 6730: 6722: 6721: 6713: 6712: 6705: 6704: 6696: 6695: 6651: 6650: 6641: 6640: 6631: 6630: 6621: 6620: 6611: 6610: 6601: 6600: 6591: 6590: 6582: 6581: 6573: 6572: 6564: 6563: 6555: 6554: 6546: 6545: 6537: 6536: 6493: 6492: 6484: 6483: 6474: 6473: 6465: 6464: 6456: 6455: 6446: 6445: 6436: 6435: 6426: 6425: 6417: 6416: 6408: 6407: 6400: 6399: 6391: 6390: 6342: 6341: 6332: 6331: 6322: 6321: 6312: 6311: 6303: 6302: 6294: 6293: 6285: 6284: 6276: 6275: 6268: 6267: 6259: 6258: 6168: 6160: 6093: 5983:velar consonants 5612: 5611: 5606: 5605: 5600: 5599: 5594: 5593: 5588: 5587: 5582: 5581: 5572: 5571: 5566: 5565: 5560: 5559: 5554: 5553: 5548: 5547: 5542: 5541: 5534: 5533: 5528: 5527: 5522: 5521: 5516: 5515: 5510: 5509: 5504: 5503: 5497: 5496: 5491: 5490: 5485: 5484: 5479: 5478: 5472: 5471: 5466: 5465: 5460: 5459: 5454: 5453: 5397:, "plain velar" 5387:velar consonants 5379:voiced aspirated 5330: 5327: 5317: 5314: 5304: 5301: 5291: 5288: 5273: 5270: 5260: 5257: 5247: 5244: 5226: 5223: 5196: 5193: 5183: 5180: 5165: 5162: 5154: 5151: 5141: 5138: 5134: 5131: 5123: 5120: 5112: 5109: 5101: 5098: 5084: 5081: 5073: 5070: 5046: 5043: 5033: 5030: 5010: 5007: 4999: 4996: 4986: 4983: 4967: 4964: 4881:Late Middle Ages 4833:Turkic expansion 4808:start replacing 4806:Turkic languages 4741:Pontic Scythians 4640:, replacing the 4582:Baltic languages 4574:Celtic languages 4551:Iranian speakers 4437: 4434: 4409:(before 3500 BC) 4233:Sergei Starostin 4185:Joseph Greenberg 4143:, postulated by 4116: 4109: 4105: 4102: 4096: 4073: 4065: 4047: 4041: 4021: 4015: 4009: 4000: 3994: 3988: 3942:second laryngeal 3928: 3922: 3872: 3865: 3858: 3762: 3761: 3704:language contact 3529:Uyghur Khaganate 3315:Edicts of Ashoka 3286: 3283: 3264:History of Greek 3026:possibly earlier 2913:laryngeal theory 2885:Jochem Schindler 2877:laryngeal theory 2765: 2680:Gaston Coeurdoux 2669:Baltic languages 2574:Filippo Sassetti 2491:recorded history 2459:Semitic language 2254: 2247: 2240: 2095: 2088: 2074: 2067: 2060: 2046: 2039: 2032: 2025: 2018: 1943: 1929: 1922: 1908: 1886: 1879: 1872: 1863: 1698: 1691: 1684: 1677: 1670: 1653:Germanic peoples 1643:Hellenic peoples 1632: 1625: 1618: 1541:Mycenaean Greeks 1530: 1458:Thraco-Cimmerian 1356:Globular Amphora 1333:Abashevo culture 1272: 1265: 1235: 1190: 1183: 1176: 1169: 1162: 1155: 1148: 1141: 978:Tocharian script 681: 674: 667: 660: 653: 646: 639: 632: 599: 585: 578: 571: 557: 533: 526: 507: 468: 445: 444: 435: 414: 400: 391: 382: 373: 359: 341: 323: 314: 300: 291: 277: 271: 262: 248: 230: 223: 216: 209: 202: 194: 187: 176: 155: 119: 110: 43: 42: 21: 17740: 17739: 17735: 17734: 17733: 17731: 17730: 17729: 17710: 17709: 17708: 17703: 17702: 17679: 17670:Paleo-Laplandic 17665:Pre-Finno-Ugric 17612: 17569: 17533:Greater Siangic 17519: 17505:Uralic–Yukaghir 17455:Ibero-Caucasian 17450:Elamo-Dravidian 17388: 17347: 17298: 17262: 17187: 17123: 17106:North Caucasian 17086: 16996: 16935:Paleo-Sardinian 16873: 16864: 16834: 16829: 16828: 16802: 16788:Mixed languages 16757: 16738: 16673: 16662: 16516: 16510: 16365:Katembri–Taruma 16239: 16228: 16200: 16114: 16007: 15820: 15809: 15780: 15629: 15541: 15500:Turama–Kikorian 15410:Lower Mamberamo 15365:East Strickland 15293: 15281: 15199: 14987: 14982: 14972: 14927: 14836: 14831: 14801: 14796: 14783: 14778:Proto-Tocharian 14672:Proto-Anatolian 14649:Proto-languages 14643: 14561: 14534: 14516:Latino-Faliscan 14502: 14468: 14438: 14409: 14381: 14336: 14279: 14239: 14229: 14191: 14189: 14188:. Johan Schalin 14174: 14172: 14155: 14153: 14140: 14131: 14129: 14120: 14117: 14099: 14090: 14088: 14083: 14062: 14060: 14047: 14038: 14036: 14029:"Indo-European" 14027: 14018: 14016: 14007: 13995: 13994: 13993: 13973: 13972: 13968: 13961: 13951: 13929: 13917:, eds. (2000). 13890: 13859: 13830: 13783: 13762: 13736: 13715: 13675: 13603: 13601:Further reading 13598: 13583: 13551: 13495: 13473: 13452: 13382: 13362: 13338: 13300: 13281: 13237: 13227:Michiel de Vaan 13209: 13187: 13166: 13140: 13135: 13134: 13124: 13122: 13112: 13111: 13107: 13097: 13095: 13084: 13083: 13079: 13069: 13067: 13056: 13055: 13051: 12998: 12994: 12974: 12970: 12946: 12942: 12932: 12930: 12919: 12915: 12907: 12903: 12895: 12891: 12883: 12876: 12865: 12856: 12848: 12844: 12836: 12832: 12824: 12820: 12808: 12804: 12796:; pp. 589, 593 12788: 12784: 12775: 12771: 12759: 12755: 12747: 12743: 12736: 12719: 12715: 12707: 12703: 12695: 12691: 12673: 12669: 12632: 12628: 12618: 12616: 12614: 12598: 12594: 12579: 12575: 12567: 12563: 12555: 12551: 12540: 12536: 12492: 12482: 12478: 12470: 12466: 12455: 12451: 12436: 12432: 12415: 12411: 12405: 12386: 12380: 12376: 12366: 12364: 12335: 12329: 12325: 12315: 12313: 12289:Drinka, Bridget 12286: 12282: 12221: 12217: 12202: 12198: 12187: 12183: 12173: 12155: 12151: 12128: 12124: 12116: 12092: 12088: 12080: 12064: 12060: 12049: 12045: 12038: 12030:. p. 136. 12020: 12016: 12009: 11991: 11987: 11976: 11972: 11959: 11955: 11918: 11914: 11897: 11893: 11886: 11872: 11871: 11867: 11854: 11853: 11849: 11835:Szemerényi 1957 11828: 11824: 11820: 26486470. 11816: 4820045. 11794: 11790: 11784: 11764: 11760: 11750: 11748: 11744: 11737: 11731: 11727: 11717: 11715: 11702: 11701: 11697: 11683: 11681: 11679: 11663: 11659: 11652: 11631: 11627: 11613: 11609: 11591: 11587: 11576: 11572: 11561: 11557: 11549:X/2 1813.; cf. 11544: 11540: 11533: 11515: 11511: 11480: 11476: 11449: 11447: 11443: 11432: 11426: 11422: 11412: 11410: 11394: 11390: 11384:Wayback Machine 11375:Russian Grammar 11371: 11367: 11355: 11351: 11347:, p. 1156. 11343: 11334: 11327: 11313: 11309: 11302: 11288: 11284: 11275: 11274: 11270: 11265: 11260: 11255: 11254: 11248: 11244: 11239: 11234: 11195:Language family 11147: 11088:Eurasian nomads 11023:in much of the 10965:Iranian peoples 10890:native speakers 10884: 10877: 10875: 10868: 10862: 10855: 10853: 10846: 10844: 10837: 10831: 10819: 10815: 10813: 10809: 10807: 10803: 10796: 10791: 10785: 10779: 10695:The Latin verb 10677: 10578:(ata/ato) bien 10548:They (3rd pl.) 10534:(ihr) {ge}bärt 10487:(mā) {mi}barim 10347:(ān) {mi}barad 10289:(ich) {ge}bäre 10272:(ma͠i) bʰarūm̥ 10176:They (3rd pl.) 9770:Major subgroup 9753:They (3rd pl.) 9631: 9597: 9584:Grassmann's law 9562:Grassmann's law 9540:Grassmann's law 9156: 9020: 9000: 8991: 8774: 8587: 8523: 8446: 8426: 8414: 8394: 8383: 8373: 8364: 8354: 8242: 8233: 8215: 8205: 8196: 8178: 8168: 8159: 8141: 8132: 8123: 8114: 8105: 8067: 8058: 8040: 8031: 8022: 7968: 7947: 7928: 7918: 7906: 7888: 7870: 7834: 7762: 7760: 7748: 7730: 7721: 7703: 7676: 7608: 7589: 7587: 7569: 7551: 7524: 7486: 7473: 7443: 7425: 7407: 7398: 7327: 7318: 7300: 7291: 7282: 7234: 7215: 7194: 7149: 7098: 7076: 7015: 6889: 6869: 6851: 6833: 6824: 6773: 6765: 6743: 6734: 6716: 6644: 6634: 6614: 6594: 6487: 6477: 6459: 6449: 6429: 6335: 6315: 6297: 6148:Grassmann's law 6134:between vowels. 5892:, particularly 5886: 5853:(compare Latin 5809:Most remaining 5561:(Later initial 5523:(Later initial 5359:stop consonants 5344: 5338: 5331:–current time). 5328: 5315: 5302: 5289: 5271: 5258: 5245: 5224: 5194: 5181: 5163: 5157:Younger Avestan 5152: 5139: 5132: 5121: 5115:Old High German 5110: 5099: 5082: 5071: 5044: 5031: 5008: 5002:Mycenaean Greek 4997: 4984: 4965: 4935:(most notably, 4925: 4750:1 BC – AD 500: 4733:Mauryan empires 4664:. A variety of 4656:, and possibly 4610:Greater Magadha 4547:Greek Dark Ages 4435: 4383: 4377: 4375:Diversification 4307: 4305: 4304:8 (grey): Greek 4303: 4301: 4299: 4297: 4295: 4293: 4291: 4289: 4287: 4285: 4283: 4281: 4279: 4268: 4262: 4257: 4249:Andaman Islands 4171:Elamo-Dravidian 4117: 4106: 4100: 4097: 4086: 4074: 4063: 4023: 4019: 4017: 4013: 4011: 4007: 4005: 3998: 3996: 3992: 3990: 3986: 3978: 3972: 3935:Calvert Watkins 3899:Antoine Meillet 3888:Graeco-Armenian 3876: 3818:Thraco-Illyrian 3813:Armeno-Phrygian 3808:Graeco-Phrygian 3798:Graeco-Armenian 3788:Graeco-Albanian 3769: 3760: 3689: 3687:Language change 3683: 3540:Ancient Belgian 3329:in the form of 3284: 3164:Scottish Gaelic 2927: 2921: 2895:in the wake of 2881:Calvert Watkins 2798:indo-germanique 2784:. A synonym is 2766: 2763: 2706:, "Hottentot" ( 2659:, later adding 2555:Thomas Stephens 2549:missionary and 2527: 2521: 2439:Mycenaean Greek 2422:Yamnaya culture 2418:southern Russia 2412:in what is now 2278:Iranian plateau 2270:language family 2258: 2229: 2228: 2161:Marija Gimbutas 2149: 2139: 2138: 2130:Winter solstice 2120:Horse sacrifice 2091: 2084: 2070: 2063: 2056: 2042: 2035: 2028: 2021: 2014: 1967: 1952: 1939: 1925: 1918: 1904: 1895: 1882: 1875: 1868: 1859: 1850: 1829: 1798: 1790: 1789: 1732: 1719: 1694: 1687: 1680: 1673: 1666: 1628: 1621: 1614: 1605: 1587: 1574: 1561: 1532: 1526: 1511: 1503: 1502: 1476: 1453: 1440: 1428: 1409: 1351: 1328: 1290: 1283: 1277: 1268: 1261: 1252: 1250:Northern Europe 1231: 1227: 1214: 1201: 1186: 1179: 1172: 1165: 1158: 1151: 1144: 1137: 1133:Steppe cultures 1106: 1099: 1092: 1084: 1083: 1074:Baltic homeland 1048: 1044: 1040:Eurasian nomads 1024: 1020: 996: 988: 987: 958:Runic epigraphy 953:Latin epigraphy 908: 900: 899: 837:Proto-Anatolian 821: 776: 772:Thraco-Illyrian 757:Graeco-Phrygian 747:Graeco-Armenian 742:Graeco-Albanian 721: 699: 686: 677: 670: 663: 656: 649: 642: 635: 628: 595: 581: 574: 567: 553: 529: 522: 503: 488: 480: 478: 439: 422: 419:multilingualism 416: 412: 410: 398: 396: 389: 387: 380: 378: 371: 369: 357: 355: 339: 337: 321: 319: 312: 310: 298: 296: 289: 287: 275: 258: 244: 224: 217: 210: 203: 195: 188: 143:Graeco-Phrygian 52: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 17738: 17728: 17727: 17722: 17705: 17704: 17701: 17700: 17693: 17685: 17684: 17681: 17680: 17678: 17677: 17672: 17667: 17662: 17657: 17652: 17647: 17642: 17637: 17632: 17626: 17624: 17618: 17617: 17614: 17613: 17611: 17610: 17605: 17600: 17595: 17590: 17585: 17579: 17577: 17571: 17570: 17568: 17567: 17562: 17557: 17552: 17547: 17546: 17545: 17540: 17529: 17527: 17521: 17520: 17518: 17517: 17512: 17507: 17502: 17500:Uralo-Siberian 17497: 17492: 17487: 17485:Serbi–Mongolic 17482: 17477: 17472: 17467: 17462: 17457: 17452: 17447: 17445:Dravido-Korean 17442: 17440:Dené–Yeniseian 17437: 17436: 17435: 17430: 17428:Dené–Caucasian 17425: 17415: 17410: 17404: 17398: 17394: 17393: 17390: 17389: 17387: 17386: 17381: 17373: 17366: 17358: 17356: 17349: 17348: 17346: 17345: 17340: 17335: 17330: 17325: 17319: 17317: 17306: 17300: 17299: 17297: 17296: 17289: 17284: 17279: 17273: 17271: 17264: 17263: 17261: 17260: 17255: 17250: 17245: 17240: 17233: 17226: 17219: 17212: 17205: 17197: 17195: 17189: 17188: 17186: 17185: 17177: 17172: 17167: 17162: 17155: 17148: 17141: 17133: 17131: 17125: 17124: 17122: 17121: 17120: 17119: 17114: 17102: 17096: 17094: 17088: 17087: 17085: 17084: 17077: 17070: 17063: 17056: 17049: 17046:Hurro-Urartian 17042: 17035: 17028: 17021: 17014: 17006: 17004: 16998: 16997: 16995: 16994: 16987: 16980: 16973: 16966: 16959: 16952: 16945: 16938: 16931: 16928:Paleo-Corsican 16924: 16917: 16910: 16905: 16898: 16891: 16883: 16881: 16875: 16874: 16863: 16862: 16855: 16848: 16840: 16831: 16830: 16827: 16826: 16819: 16812: 16808: 16807: 16804: 16803: 16801: 16800: 16795: 16790: 16785: 16780: 16775: 16769: 16767: 16763: 16762: 16759: 16758: 16756: 16755: 16746: 16744: 16740: 16739: 16737: 16736: 16730: 16725: 16720: 16715: 16713:Indo-Pakistani 16710: 16705: 16698: 16693: 16688: 16682: 16676: 16668: 16667: 16664: 16663: 16661: 16660: 16655: 16650: 16645: 16640: 16635: 16630: 16625: 16620: 16614: 16609: 16604: 16596: 16591: 16584: 16579: 16573: 16568: 16563: 16558: 16552: 16547: 16542: 16537: 16532: 16527: 16520: 16518: 16512: 16511: 16509: 16508: 16502: 16496: 16490: 16484: 16478: 16472: 16466: 16461: 16456: 16451: 16446: 16441: 16434: 16429: 16424: 16419: 16414: 16412:Piaroa–Saliban 16409: 16402: 16397: 16392: 16387: 16382: 16377: 16372: 16367: 16362: 16357: 16350: 16345: 16340: 16335: 16330: 16325: 16320: 16313: 16308: 16301: 16296: 16291: 16286: 16281: 16276: 16271: 16264: 16259: 16254: 16248: 16242: 16234: 16233: 16230: 16229: 16227: 16226: 16221: 16216: 16208: 16206: 16202: 16201: 16199: 16198: 16191: 16184: 16179: 16177:Tequistlatecan 16174: 16167: 16162: 16157: 16150: 16143: 16138: 16132: 16126: 16120: 16119: 16116: 16115: 16113: 16112: 16107: 16102: 16097: 16090: 16085: 16078: 16071: 16064: 16057: 16050: 16045: 16040: 16035: 16030: 16023: 16015: 16013: 16009: 16008: 16006: 16005: 16000: 15993: 15986: 15981: 15974: 15969: 15964: 15959: 15954: 15947: 15942: 15937: 15932: 15925: 15918: 15913: 15906: 15901: 15894: 15889: 15884: 15877: 15870: 15863: 15856: 15849: 15844: 15837: 15829: 15823: 15815: 15814: 15811: 15810: 15808: 15807: 15802: 15796: 15788: 15786: 15782: 15781: 15779: 15778: 15768: 15763: 15756: 15751: 15746: 15741: 15735: 15728: 15723: 15716: 15709: 15704: 15700:Marrku–Wurrugu 15696: 15691: 15686: 15681: 15674: 15667: 15659: 15654: 15647: 15641: 15635: 15634: 15631: 15630: 15628: 15627: 15622: 15614: 15608: 15602: 15597: 15592: 15587: 15582: 15577: 15572: 15566: 15560: 15555: 15549: 15547: 15543: 15542: 15540: 15539: 15533: 15527: 15522: 15517: 15512: 15507: 15502: 15497: 15490: 15485: 15478: 15473: 15468: 15463: 15456: 15451: 15446: 15439: 15434: 15429: 15424: 15417: 15412: 15407: 15402: 15397: 15392: 15387: 15382: 15377: 15372: 15367: 15362: 15357: 15352: 15347: 15342: 15337: 15332: 15327: 15322: 15317: 15310: 15304: 15298: 15287: 15286: 15283: 15282: 15280: 15279: 15271: 15264: 15258: 15253: 15245: 15240: 15232: 15225: 15218: 15213: 15207: 15205: 15201: 15200: 15198: 15197: 15191: 15185: 15179: 15173: 15167: 15161: 15156: 15151: 15144: 15137: 15130: 15125: 15118: 15113: 15108: 15101: 15096: 15091: 15084: 15079: 15074: 15069: 15062: 15059:Hurro-Urartian 15055: 15048: 15043: 15038: 15031: 15026: 15019: 15012: 15007: 14999: 14993: 14978: 14977: 14974: 14973: 14971: 14970: 14964: 14958: 14953: 14946: 14941: 14935: 14933: 14929: 14928: 14926: 14925: 14919: 14913: 14907: 14901: 14895: 14890: 14882: 14875: 14870: 14865: 14858: 14850: 14844: 14838: 14837: 14830: 14829: 14822: 14815: 14807: 14798: 14797: 14788: 14785: 14784: 14782: 14781: 14774: 14773: 14772: 14758: 14757: 14756: 14749: 14735: 14732:Proto-Hellenic 14728: 14727: 14726: 14716:Proto-Germanic 14712: 14705: 14704: 14703: 14696: 14682: 14679:Proto-Armenian 14675: 14668: 14665:Proto-Albanian 14661: 14653: 14651: 14645: 14644: 14642: 14641: 14634: 14627: 14620: 14613: 14606: 14599: 14592: 14585: 14580: 14575: 14569: 14567: 14563: 14562: 14560: 14559: 14552: 14546: 14544: 14536: 14535: 14533: 14532: 14525: 14524: 14523: 14512: 14510: 14504: 14503: 14501: 14500: 14495: 14490: 14485: 14478: 14476: 14470: 14469: 14467: 14466: 14461: 14459:North Germanic 14456: 14448: 14446: 14440: 14439: 14437: 14436: 14434:Insular Celtic 14431: 14423: 14421: 14415: 14414: 14411: 14410: 14408: 14407: 14402: 14397: 14391: 14389: 14383: 14382: 14380: 14379: 14372: 14367: 14364:Dnieper Baltic 14359: 14357: 14348: 14342: 14341: 14338: 14337: 14335: 14334: 14327: 14320: 14313: 14306: 14299: 14291: 14289: 14281: 14280: 14278: 14277: 14270: 14263: 14255: 14249: 14241: 14240: 14228: 14227: 14220: 14213: 14205: 14199: 14198: 14181: 14162: 14138: 14116: 14113: 14112: 14111: 14105: 14097: 14081: 14069: 14045: 14025: 14006: 14003: 14002: 14001: 13992: 13991: 13986: 13981: 13975: 13974: 13963: 13962: 13960: 13959:External links 13957: 13956: 13955: 13949: 13933: 13927: 13910: 13888: 13863: 13857: 13844: 13828: 13807: 13787: 13781: 13766: 13760: 13740: 13734: 13719: 13713: 13695: 13679: 13673: 13657: 13602: 13599: 13597: 13596: 13587: 13581: 13565: 13564: 13563: 13549: 13519: 13499: 13493: 13477: 13471: 13456: 13451:978-0941694773 13450: 13430: 13421: 13375: 13373:(1–2): 131–40. 13355: 13342: 13336: 13317: 13304: 13298: 13285: 13279: 13262: 13254:Brugmann, Karl 13250: 13247:978-9027211866 13236:978-9027285003 13235: 13213: 13207: 13191: 13185: 13170: 13164: 13151: 13141: 13139: 13136: 13133: 13132: 13105: 13077: 13049: 13014:(4): 284–301. 12992: 12968: 12940: 12929:on 4 June 2011 12913: 12911:, p. 100. 12901: 12889: 12874: 12854: 12850:Kortlandt 1990 12842: 12830: 12818: 12802: 12782: 12769: 12753: 12751:, p. 593. 12741: 12735:978-0224024952 12734: 12722:Renfrew, Colin 12713: 12709:Kortlandt 1988 12701: 12689: 12676:Euler, Wolfram 12667: 12654:10.2307/416105 12626: 12612: 12592: 12573: 12571:, p. 247. 12561: 12549: 12534: 12512:10.1.1.65.1791 12505:(2): 382–420. 12476: 12464: 12449: 12430: 12427:(1–2): 82–109. 12409: 12403: 12374: 12348:(1): 194–244. 12323: 12303:(2): 379–410. 12280: 12215: 12196: 12181: 12171: 12165:. p. 72. 12149: 12122: 12114: 12086: 12078: 12058: 12043: 12036: 12014: 12007: 11985: 11970: 11953: 11912: 11891: 11884: 11875:Indian History 11865: 11847: 11822: 11788: 11782: 11758: 11725: 11695: 11677: 11657: 11650: 11625: 11607: 11585: 11570: 11555: 11538: 11531: 11509: 11474: 11446:on 17 May 2006 11420: 11388: 11365: 11349: 11332: 11325: 11307: 11300: 11282: 11267: 11266: 11264: 11261: 11259: 11256: 11253: 11252: 11241: 11240: 11238: 11235: 11233: 11232: 11227: 11222: 11217: 11212: 11207: 11202: 11197: 11192: 11187: 11182: 11177: 11172: 11167: 11162: 11154: 11148: 11146: 11143: 10876: 10867: 10854: 10845: 10836: 10814: 10808: 10802: 10795: 10792: 10781:Main article: 10778: 10775: 10774: 10773: 10770: 10763: 10732: 10693: 10671: 10624: 10613:to catch, grab 10580: 10579: 10576: 10575:bérejo; berọ́ 10573: 10570: 10567: 10564: 10561: 10558: 10555: 10552: 10549: 10545: 10544: 10541: 10538: 10535: 10532: 10529: 10526: 10523: 10520: 10517: 10514: 10513:You (2nd pl.) 10510: 10509: 10506: 10503: 10500: 10497: 10494: 10491: 10488: 10485: 10484:(ham) bʰarēm̥ 10482: 10479: 10475: 10474: 10471: 10468: 10465: 10462: 10459: 10456: 10453: 10450: 10447: 10444: 10440: 10439: 10436: 10433: 10430: 10427: 10424: 10421: 10418: 10415: 10412: 10409: 10405: 10404: 10401: 10398: 10395: 10392: 10389: 10386: 10383: 10380: 10377: 10374: 10370: 10369: 10366: 10363: 10360: 10357: 10354: 10351: 10348: 10345: 10344:(ye/vo) bʰarē 10342: 10339: 10335: 10334: 10331: 10328: 10325: 10322: 10319: 10316: 10313: 10312:(tu) {mi}bari 10310: 10307: 10304: 10303:You (2nd sg.) 10300: 10299: 10296: 10293: 10290: 10287: 10284: 10279: 10276: 10273: 10270: 10267: 10263: 10262: 10257: 10252: 10247: 10242: 10237: 10232: 10227: 10222: 10217: 10212: 10208: 10207: 10204: 10201: 10198: 10195: 10192: 10189: 10186: 10183: 10180: 10177: 10173: 10172: 10169: 10166: 10163: 10160: 10157: 10154: 10151: 10148: 10145: 10142: 10141:You (2nd pl.) 10138: 10137: 10134: 10131: 10128: 10125: 10122: 10119: 10116: 10113: 10110: 10107: 10103: 10102: 10099: 10096: 10093: 10090: 10087: 10084: 10081: 10078: 10075: 10072: 10068: 10067: 10064: 10061: 10058: 10055: 10052: 10049: 10046: 10043: 10040: 10037: 10033: 10032: 10029: 10026: 10023: 10020: 10017: 10014: 10011: 10008: 10005: 10002: 9998: 9997: 9994: 9991: 9988: 9985: 9982: 9979: 9976: 9973: 9970: 9967: 9963: 9962: 9959: 9956: 9953: 9950: 9947: 9944: 9941: 9938: 9935: 9932: 9931:You (2nd sg.) 9928: 9927: 9924: 9921: 9918: 9915: 9912: 9909: 9904: 9901: 9898: 9893: 9889: 9888: 9883: 9881:Old Church Sl. 9878: 9873: 9868: 9863: 9858: 9853: 9848: 9846:Vedic Sanskrit 9843: 9838: 9834: 9833: 9828: 9823: 9818: 9812: 9811: 9806: 9801: 9796: 9791: 9786: 9781: 9776: 9771: 9763: 9762: 9754: 9750: 9749: 9741: 9740:You (2nd pl.) 9737: 9736: 9728: 9724: 9723: 9715: 9711: 9710: 9702: 9698: 9697: 9689: 9681: 9680: 9672: 9668: 9667: 9659: 9658:You (2nd sg.) 9655: 9654: 9646: 9642: 9641: 9626: 9596: 9593: 9592: 9591: 9569: 9547: 9533: 9530:Ruki sound law 9515: 9493: 9475: 9457: 9443: 9425: 9407: 9393: 9387: 9373: 9367: 9345: 9323: 9309: 9294: 9283: 9276: 9269: 9262: 9261: 9255: 9254: 9251: 9246: 9241: 9236: 9231: 9226: 9221: 9216: 9212: 9211: 9205: 9200: 9195: 9190: 9185: 9180: 9175: 9166: 9146: 9137: 9128: 9119: 9110: 9101: 9091: 9090: 9087: 9082: 9077: 9072: 9067: 9062: 9057: 9048: 9039: 9030: 9010: 8981: 8972: 8963: 8953: 8952: 8949: 8944: 8939: 8934: 8929: 8924: 8919: 8910: 8900: 8899: 8896: 8891: 8886: 8881: 8876: 8871: 8866: 8857: 8839: 8829: 8828: 8822: 8817: 8812: 8807: 8802: 8797: 8792: 8783: 8764: 8755: 8745: 8744: 8741: 8733: 8728: 8723: 8718: 8713: 8708: 8698: 8688: 8678: 8668: 8658: 8648: 8638: 8637: 8631: 8623: 8618: 8613: 8608: 8603: 8598: 8589: 8577: 8568: 8558: 8557: 8550: 8545: 8540: 8535: 8530: 8525: 8518: 8509: 8500: 8490: 8489: 8486: 8481: 8476: 8471: 8466: 8461: 8456: 8436: 8416: 8404: 8384: 8344: 8335: 8325: 8324: 8321: 8313: 8308: 8303: 8298: 8292: 8286: 8285: 8282: 8277: 8272: 8267: 8262: 8257: 8252: 8223: 8186: 8149: 8095: 8085: 8084: 8075: 8048: 8012: 8002: 8001: 7995: 7990: 7985: 7980: 7975: 7962: 7957: 7937: 7908: 7896: 7878: 7860: 7851: 7842: 7824: 7814: 7813: 7810: 7805: 7800: 7795: 7790: 7785: 7783:*dʰwer-, dʰur- 7780: 7771: 7750: 7738: 7711: 7693: 7684: 7666: 7656: 7655: 7652: 7644: 7639: 7634: 7629: 7623: 7618: 7598: 7577: 7559: 7541: 7532: 7514: 7504: 7503: 7500: 7495: 7490: 7480: 7475: 7468: 7463: 7454: 7445: 7433: 7415: 7388: 7378: 7377: 7374: 7369: 7364: 7359: 7354: 7349: 7344: 7335: 7308: 7272: 7262: 7261: 7255: 7253: 7248: 7243: 7238: 7228: 7223: 7205: 7196: 7184: 7175: 7166: 7157: 7139: 7129: 7128: 7125: 7120: 7115: 7110: 7105: 7092: 7087: 7078: 7066: 7057: 7040: 7030: 7029: 7020: 7005: 6996: 6979: 6969: 6968: 6965: 6960: 6958: 6953: 6948: 6943: 6937: 6936: 6933: 6924: 6919: 6914: 6909: 6904: 6899: 6879: 6859: 6841: 6814: 6804: 6803: 6797: 6792: 6787: 6782: 6777: 6767: 6760: 6751: 6724: 6698: 6688: 6687: 6684: 6679: 6674: 6669: 6664: 6659: 6654: 6624: 6604: 6584: 6575: 6566: 6557: 6548: 6539: 6529: 6528: 6525: 6520: 6515: 6510: 6505: 6500: 6495: 6467: 6439: 6419: 6410: 6393: 6383: 6382: 6375: 6370: 6365: 6360: 6355: 6350: 6345: 6325: 6305: 6287: 6278: 6261: 6251: 6250: 6244: 6238: 6233: 6228: 6223: 6220: 6216: 6215: 6213: 6210: 6207: 6202: 6197: 6192: 6187: 6182: 6177: 6172: 6152: 6151: 6145: 6142:Proto-Germanic 6135: 6116: 6105: 6084:Ruki sound law 6076: 6075: 6074:in Germanic)). 6047: 6029: 6015: 6009: 6002: 5987: 5986: 5947: 5932:palatalization 5910:The "central" 5885: 5884: 5883: 5882: 5869:have a voiced 5849:have a voiced 5807: 5781: 5771: 5770: 5769: 5747: 5743:"to take" vs. 5725: 5695: 5673: 5575: 5574: 5536: 5498: 5473: 5441: 5433: 5383:breathy voiced 5340:Main article: 5337: 5334: 5333: 5332: 5319: 5306: 5293: 5276: 5275: 5262: 5249: 5228: 5199: 5198: 5185: 5175:Old Lithuanian 5167: 5155:–1200 BC) and 5143: 5086: 5076:older material 5054: 5053: 5035: 5009: 1450 BC 4988: 4985: 1500 BC 4970:oral tradition 4959:Vedic Sanskrit 4924: 4921: 4920: 4919: 4892: 4877: 4835:result in the 4813: 4782:, becomes the 4752:Late Antiquity 4748: 4701: 4654:Latin-Faliscan 4636:, rise of the 4594:Proto-Germanic 4592:gives rise to 4570: 4529:; rise of the 4483: 4482: 4475: 4472: 4469: 4466: 4463: 4457: 4450: 4439: 4438: 4429: 4422: 4419: 4416: 4410: 4376: 4373: 4264:Main article: 4261: 4258: 4256: 4253: 4221: 4220: 4178: 4152: 4151: 4145:John Colarusso 4138: 4119: 4118: 4077: 4075: 4068: 4062: 4059: 4018: 4012: 4006: 3997: 3991: 3985: 3974:Main article: 3971: 3968: 3878: 3877: 3875: 3874: 3867: 3860: 3852: 3849: 3848: 3847: 3846: 3841: 3836: 3828: 3827: 3823: 3822: 3821: 3820: 3815: 3810: 3805: 3800: 3795: 3790: 3785: 3777: 3776: 3772: 3771: 3759: 3756: 3716:proto-language 3708:areal features 3682: 3679: 3671:Proto-Germanic 3646: 3645: 3639: 3633: 3627: 3621: 3611: 3605: 3599: 3593: 3587: 3581: 3575: 3569: 3559: 3553: 3547: 3533: 3532: 3518: 3488: 3487: 3486: 3456: 3414: 3335:Northern India 3331:Vedic Sanskrit 3285: 1400 BC 3275: 3253: 3182:Proto-Germanic 3175: 3125: 3124: 3123: 3105: 3066:Serbo-Croatian 3009: 2987: 2964:Late Antiquity 2957: 2938:Proto-Albanian 2920: 2919:Classification 2917: 2833:wrote in 1816 2810:indogermanisch 2778:Western Europe 2761: 2694:"), Iranian (" 2520: 2517: 2483:their religion 2433:, and part of 2373:first language 2272:native to the 2260: 2259: 2257: 2256: 2249: 2242: 2234: 2231: 2230: 2227: 2226: 2219: 2212: 2205: 2198: 2190: 2189: 2183: 2182: 2176: 2175: 2169: 2168: 2163: 2157: 2156: 2150: 2145: 2144: 2141: 2140: 2137: 2136: 2127: 2122: 2117: 2115:Fire sacrifice 2111: 2110: 2104: 2103: 2098: 2097: 2096: 2089: 2077: 2076: 2075: 2068: 2061: 2049: 2048: 2047: 2040: 2033: 2026: 2019: 2007: 2002: 1997: 1960: 1959: 1947: 1946: 1945: 1944: 1932: 1931: 1930: 1923: 1911: 1910: 1909: 1906:Zoroastrianism 1888: 1887: 1880: 1873: 1866: 1865: 1864: 1843: 1842: 1836: 1835: 1828: 1827: 1822: 1817: 1812: 1806: 1805: 1799: 1796: 1795: 1792: 1791: 1788: 1787: 1776: 1775: 1773:Medieval India 1764: 1763: 1758: 1749: 1744: 1739: 1727: 1726: 1714: 1713: 1707: 1706: 1701: 1700: 1699: 1692: 1685: 1678: 1671: 1655: 1650: 1648:Italic peoples 1645: 1640: 1635: 1634: 1633: 1626: 1619: 1600: 1599: 1594: 1582: 1581: 1569: 1568: 1556: 1555: 1549: 1548: 1543: 1538: 1533: 1519: 1518: 1512: 1509: 1508: 1505: 1504: 1501: 1500: 1495: 1484: 1483: 1471: 1470: 1465: 1460: 1448: 1447: 1435: 1434: 1427: 1426: 1424:Gandhara grave 1421: 1416: 1404: 1403: 1398: 1393: 1388: 1383: 1378: 1373: 1368: 1363: 1358: 1346: 1345: 1340: 1335: 1323: 1322: 1317: 1312: 1307: 1302: 1297: 1285: 1284: 1276: 1275: 1274: 1273: 1270:Middle Dnieper 1266: 1247: 1246: 1241: 1236: 1225:Eastern Europe 1222: 1221: 1209: 1208: 1196: 1195: 1194: 1193: 1192: 1191: 1184: 1170: 1163: 1156: 1153:Dnieper–Donets 1149: 1142: 1130: 1128:Kurgan culture 1125: 1124: 1123: 1113: 1101: 1100: 1093: 1090: 1089: 1086: 1085: 1082: 1081: 1076: 1071: 1066: 1064:Beech argument 1061: 1056: 1050: 1049: 1043: 1042: 1037: 1032: 1026: 1025: 1019: 1018: 1013: 1008: 1003: 997: 994: 993: 990: 989: 986: 985: 980: 975: 970: 965: 960: 955: 950: 945: 940: 935: 930: 925: 920: 915: 909: 906: 905: 902: 901: 898: 897: 887: 873: 868: 854: 847:Proto-Germanic 844: 842:Proto-Armenian 839: 834: 832:Proto-Albanian 828: 827: 820: 819: 814: 809: 804: 799: 794: 789: 783: 782: 775: 774: 769: 764: 759: 754: 749: 744: 739: 734: 728: 727: 720: 719: 718: 717: 693: 692: 685: 684: 683: 682: 675: 668: 661: 654: 647: 640: 633: 621: 616: 610: 609: 603: 602: 601: 600: 588: 587: 586: 579: 572: 560: 559: 558: 546: 541: 536: 535: 534: 527: 515: 510: 509: 508: 495: 494: 487: 486: 479: 474: 473: 470: 469: 461: 460: 454: 453: 441: 440: 438: 437: 430: 428: 424: 423: 411: 397: 388: 379: 370: 356: 338: 320: 311: 297: 288: 274: 272: 264: 263: 256: 250: 249: 242: 232: 231: 181: 180: 177: 168: 167: 162: 157: 140: 135: 130: 125: 120: 112: 93: 89: 88: 87: 86: 75: 74:Proto-language 71: 70: 64: 58: 57: 54: 48: 47: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 17737: 17726: 17723: 17721: 17718: 17717: 17715: 17698: 17694: 17691: 17687: 17686: 17682: 17676: 17673: 17671: 17668: 17666: 17663: 17661: 17658: 17656: 17653: 17651: 17648: 17646: 17643: 17641: 17638: 17636: 17633: 17631: 17628: 17627: 17625: 17623: 17619: 17609: 17606: 17604: 17601: 17599: 17596: 17594: 17591: 17589: 17586: 17584: 17581: 17580: 17578: 17576: 17572: 17566: 17563: 17561: 17558: 17556: 17553: 17551: 17548: 17544: 17541: 17539: 17536: 17535: 17534: 17531: 17530: 17528: 17526: 17522: 17516: 17513: 17511: 17510:Eskimo–Uralic 17508: 17506: 17503: 17501: 17498: 17496: 17493: 17491: 17488: 17486: 17483: 17481: 17478: 17476: 17473: 17471: 17468: 17466: 17463: 17461: 17458: 17456: 17453: 17451: 17448: 17446: 17443: 17441: 17438: 17434: 17431: 17429: 17426: 17424: 17421: 17420: 17419: 17416: 17414: 17411: 17409: 17406: 17405: 17402: 17399: 17395: 17385: 17382: 17379: 17378: 17374: 17372: 17371: 17367: 17365: 17364: 17360: 17359: 17357: 17355: 17350: 17344: 17341: 17339: 17336: 17334: 17331: 17329: 17326: 17324: 17321: 17320: 17318: 17315: 17314:Paleosiberian 17310: 17307: 17305: 17301: 17295: 17294: 17290: 17288: 17285: 17283: 17280: 17278: 17275: 17274: 17272: 17269: 17265: 17259: 17256: 17254: 17251: 17249: 17246: 17244: 17241: 17239: 17238: 17234: 17232: 17231: 17227: 17225: 17224: 17220: 17218: 17217: 17213: 17211: 17210: 17209:Austroasiatic 17206: 17204: 17203: 17199: 17198: 17196: 17194: 17190: 17183: 17182: 17178: 17176: 17173: 17171: 17168: 17166: 17163: 17161: 17160: 17159:Austroasiatic 17156: 17154: 17153: 17149: 17147: 17146: 17142: 17140: 17139: 17138:Indo-European 17135: 17134: 17132: 17130: 17126: 17118: 17115: 17113: 17110: 17109: 17108: 17107: 17103: 17101: 17098: 17097: 17095: 17093: 17089: 17083: 17082: 17078: 17076: 17075: 17071: 17069: 17068: 17064: 17062: 17061: 17057: 17055: 17054: 17050: 17048: 17047: 17043: 17041: 17040: 17036: 17034: 17033: 17029: 17027: 17026: 17022: 17020: 17019: 17015: 17013: 17012: 17011:Indo-European 17008: 17007: 17005: 17003: 16999: 16993: 16992: 16988: 16986: 16985: 16981: 16979: 16978: 16974: 16972: 16971: 16967: 16965: 16964: 16960: 16958: 16957: 16953: 16951: 16950: 16946: 16944: 16943: 16939: 16937: 16936: 16932: 16930: 16929: 16925: 16923: 16922: 16918: 16916: 16915: 16911: 16909: 16906: 16904: 16903: 16899: 16897: 16896: 16892: 16890: 16889: 16888:Indo-European 16885: 16884: 16882: 16880: 16876: 16872: 16868: 16861: 16856: 16854: 16849: 16847: 16842: 16841: 16838: 16824: 16820: 16817: 16813: 16810: 16809: 16805: 16799: 16796: 16794: 16791: 16789: 16786: 16784: 16781: 16779: 16776: 16774: 16771: 16770: 16768: 16764: 16754: 16753: 16748: 16747: 16745: 16741: 16734: 16731: 16729: 16726: 16724: 16723:Original Thai 16721: 16719: 16716: 16714: 16711: 16709: 16706: 16704: 16703: 16699: 16697: 16694: 16692: 16689: 16687: 16684: 16683: 16680: 16677: 16675: 16669: 16659: 16656: 16654: 16651: 16649: 16646: 16644: 16641: 16639: 16636: 16634: 16631: 16629: 16626: 16624: 16621: 16618: 16615: 16613: 16610: 16608: 16605: 16603: 16601: 16597: 16595: 16592: 16590: 16589: 16585: 16583: 16580: 16577: 16574: 16572: 16569: 16567: 16564: 16562: 16559: 16556: 16553: 16551: 16548: 16546: 16543: 16541: 16538: 16536: 16533: 16531: 16528: 16525: 16522: 16521: 16519: 16513: 16506: 16503: 16500: 16497: 16494: 16491: 16488: 16487:Hibito–Cholón 16485: 16482: 16479: 16476: 16473: 16470: 16467: 16465: 16462: 16460: 16457: 16455: 16452: 16450: 16447: 16445: 16442: 16440: 16439: 16435: 16433: 16430: 16428: 16425: 16423: 16420: 16418: 16415: 16413: 16410: 16408: 16407: 16403: 16401: 16398: 16396: 16393: 16391: 16388: 16386: 16383: 16381: 16378: 16376: 16373: 16371: 16368: 16366: 16363: 16361: 16358: 16356: 16355: 16351: 16349: 16346: 16344: 16341: 16339: 16336: 16334: 16331: 16329: 16326: 16324: 16321: 16319: 16318: 16314: 16312: 16309: 16307: 16306: 16302: 16300: 16297: 16295: 16292: 16290: 16287: 16285: 16282: 16280: 16277: 16275: 16272: 16270: 16269: 16265: 16263: 16260: 16258: 16255: 16253: 16250: 16249: 16246: 16243: 16241: 16235: 16225: 16222: 16220: 16217: 16215: 16214: 16210: 16209: 16207: 16203: 16197: 16196: 16192: 16190: 16189: 16185: 16183: 16180: 16178: 16175: 16173: 16172: 16168: 16166: 16163: 16161: 16158: 16156: 16155: 16151: 16149: 16148: 16144: 16142: 16139: 16137: 16134: 16133: 16130: 16127: 16125: 16121: 16111: 16108: 16106: 16103: 16101: 16098: 16096: 16095: 16091: 16089: 16086: 16084: 16083: 16079: 16077: 16076: 16072: 16070: 16069: 16065: 16063: 16062: 16058: 16056: 16055: 16051: 16049: 16046: 16044: 16041: 16039: 16036: 16034: 16031: 16029: 16028: 16024: 16022: 16021: 16017: 16016: 16014: 16010: 16004: 16003:Yuman–Cochimí 16001: 15999: 15998: 15994: 15992: 15991: 15987: 15985: 15982: 15980: 15979: 15975: 15973: 15970: 15968: 15965: 15963: 15960: 15958: 15955: 15953: 15952: 15948: 15946: 15943: 15941: 15938: 15936: 15933: 15931: 15930: 15926: 15924: 15923: 15919: 15917: 15914: 15912: 15911: 15907: 15905: 15902: 15900: 15899: 15895: 15893: 15890: 15888: 15885: 15883: 15882: 15878: 15876: 15875: 15871: 15869: 15868: 15864: 15862: 15861: 15857: 15855: 15854: 15850: 15848: 15845: 15843: 15842: 15838: 15836: 15835: 15831: 15830: 15827: 15824: 15822: 15816: 15806: 15803: 15800: 15797: 15795: 15794: 15790: 15789: 15787: 15783: 15776: 15772: 15769: 15767: 15764: 15762: 15761: 15757: 15755: 15752: 15750: 15747: 15745: 15742: 15739: 15738:Southern Daly 15736: 15734: 15733: 15729: 15727: 15724: 15722: 15721: 15717: 15715: 15714: 15710: 15708: 15705: 15702: 15701: 15697: 15695: 15692: 15690: 15687: 15685: 15682: 15680: 15679: 15675: 15673: 15672: 15668: 15665: 15664: 15663:Darwin Region 15660: 15658: 15655: 15652: 15649: 15648: 15645: 15642: 15640: 15636: 15626: 15623: 15621: 15619: 15615: 15612: 15609: 15606: 15603: 15601: 15598: 15596: 15593: 15591: 15588: 15586: 15583: 15581: 15578: 15576: 15573: 15570: 15567: 15564: 15561: 15559: 15556: 15554: 15551: 15550: 15548: 15544: 15537: 15534: 15531: 15528: 15526: 15523: 15521: 15518: 15516: 15513: 15511: 15508: 15506: 15503: 15501: 15498: 15496: 15495: 15491: 15489: 15486: 15484: 15483: 15479: 15477: 15474: 15472: 15469: 15467: 15464: 15462: 15461: 15457: 15455: 15452: 15450: 15447: 15445: 15444: 15440: 15438: 15435: 15433: 15430: 15428: 15425: 15423: 15422: 15418: 15416: 15413: 15411: 15408: 15406: 15403: 15401: 15398: 15396: 15393: 15391: 15388: 15386: 15383: 15381: 15378: 15376: 15373: 15371: 15368: 15366: 15363: 15361: 15358: 15356: 15353: 15351: 15348: 15346: 15345:Demta–Sentani 15343: 15341: 15338: 15336: 15333: 15331: 15328: 15326: 15323: 15321: 15318: 15316: 15315: 15311: 15309: 15306: 15305: 15302: 15299: 15297: 15292: 15288: 15278: 15276: 15272: 15270: 15269: 15265: 15262: 15259: 15257: 15254: 15252: 15250: 15246: 15244: 15241: 15239: 15237: 15233: 15231: 15230: 15226: 15224: 15223: 15219: 15217: 15214: 15212: 15209: 15208: 15206: 15202: 15195: 15192: 15189: 15186: 15183: 15180: 15177: 15174: 15171: 15168: 15165: 15162: 15160: 15157: 15155: 15152: 15150: 15149: 15145: 15143: 15142: 15138: 15136: 15135: 15131: 15129: 15126: 15124: 15123: 15119: 15117: 15114: 15112: 15109: 15107: 15106: 15102: 15100: 15097: 15095: 15092: 15090: 15089: 15085: 15083: 15080: 15078: 15075: 15073: 15070: 15068: 15067: 15066:Indo-European 15063: 15061: 15060: 15056: 15054: 15053: 15049: 15047: 15044: 15042: 15039: 15037: 15036: 15032: 15030: 15027: 15025: 15024: 15020: 15018: 15017: 15016:Austroasiatic 15013: 15011: 15008: 15006: 15005: 15001: 15000: 14997: 14994: 14991: 14986: 14979: 14968: 14965: 14962: 14959: 14957: 14954: 14952: 14951: 14947: 14945: 14942: 14940: 14937: 14936: 14934: 14930: 14923: 14920: 14917: 14914: 14911: 14908: 14905: 14902: 14899: 14896: 14894: 14891: 14888: 14887: 14883: 14881: 14880: 14876: 14874: 14871: 14869: 14866: 14864: 14863: 14859: 14857: 14856: 14852: 14851: 14848: 14845: 14843: 14839: 14835: 14828: 14823: 14821: 14816: 14814: 14809: 14808: 14805: 14795: 14791: 14786: 14780: 14779: 14775: 14771: 14770: 14769:Proto-Romance 14766: 14765: 14764: 14763: 14759: 14755: 14754: 14753:Proto-Iranian 14750: 14748: 14747: 14743: 14742: 14741: 14740: 14736: 14734: 14733: 14729: 14725: 14724: 14720: 14719: 14718: 14717: 14713: 14711: 14710: 14706: 14702: 14701: 14697: 14695: 14694: 14690: 14689: 14688: 14687: 14683: 14681: 14680: 14676: 14674: 14673: 14669: 14667: 14666: 14662: 14660: 14659: 14655: 14654: 14652: 14650: 14646: 14640: 14639: 14635: 14633: 14632: 14628: 14626: 14625: 14621: 14619: 14618: 14614: 14612: 14611: 14607: 14605: 14604: 14600: 14598: 14597: 14593: 14591: 14590: 14586: 14584: 14581: 14579: 14576: 14574: 14571: 14570: 14568: 14564: 14558: 14557: 14553: 14551: 14548: 14547: 14545: 14543: 14542: 14537: 14531: 14530: 14526: 14522: 14519: 14518: 14517: 14514: 14513: 14511: 14509: 14505: 14499: 14496: 14494: 14491: 14489: 14486: 14483: 14480: 14479: 14477: 14475: 14471: 14465: 14464:West Germanic 14462: 14460: 14457: 14455: 14454: 14453:East Germanic 14450: 14449: 14447: 14445: 14441: 14435: 14432: 14430: 14429: 14425: 14424: 14422: 14420: 14416: 14406: 14403: 14401: 14398: 14396: 14393: 14392: 14390: 14388: 14384: 14378: 14377: 14373: 14371: 14368: 14366: 14365: 14361: 14360: 14358: 14356: 14352: 14349: 14347: 14343: 14333: 14332: 14328: 14326: 14325: 14321: 14319: 14318: 14314: 14312: 14311: 14307: 14305: 14304: 14300: 14298: 14297: 14293: 14292: 14290: 14288: 14287: 14282: 14276: 14275: 14271: 14269: 14268: 14264: 14262: 14261: 14257: 14256: 14253: 14250: 14248: 14247: 14242: 14237: 14233: 14226: 14221: 14219: 14214: 14212: 14207: 14206: 14203: 14187: 14182: 14170: 14169: 14163: 14151: 14147: 14143: 14139: 14127: 14123: 14119: 14118: 14109: 14106: 14102: 14098: 14086: 14082: 14077: 14076: 14070: 14058: 14054: 14050: 14046: 14034: 14030: 14026: 14014: 14009: 14008: 14000: 13997: 13996: 13990: 13987: 13985: 13982: 13980: 13977: 13976: 13971: 13966: 13952: 13946: 13942: 13938: 13934: 13930: 13924: 13920: 13916: 13911: 13907: 13903: 13899: 13895: 13891: 13889:9783110192858 13885: 13881: 13877: 13873: 13869: 13864: 13860: 13854: 13850: 13845: 13840: 13835: 13831: 13829:9781108758666 13825: 13821: 13817: 13813: 13808: 13804: 13799: 13798: 13792: 13788: 13784: 13778: 13774: 13773: 13767: 13763: 13757: 13752: 13751: 13745: 13744:Mallory, J.P. 13741: 13737: 13731: 13727: 13726: 13720: 13716: 13714:0-941694-56-9 13710: 13706: 13705: 13700: 13696: 13691: 13690: 13684: 13680: 13676: 13670: 13666: 13662: 13658: 13654: 13650: 13646: 13642: 13637: 13632: 13627: 13622: 13618: 13614: 13610: 13605: 13604: 13593: 13588: 13584: 13578: 13574: 13570: 13566: 13560: 13556: 13552: 13550:9783851246117 13546: 13542: 13537:Reprinted in 13536: 13535: 13532: 13528: 13524: 13520: 13517: 13511: 13510: 13505:(1874–1877). 13504: 13500: 13496: 13490: 13486: 13482: 13478: 13474: 13472:0-19-928413-X 13468: 13464: 13463: 13457: 13453: 13447: 13443: 13439: 13435: 13431: 13427: 13422: 13418: 13414: 13409: 13404: 13400: 13396: 13392: 13388: 13381: 13376: 13372: 13368: 13361: 13356: 13352: 13348: 13343: 13339: 13333: 13329: 13328: 13323: 13318: 13314: 13310: 13305: 13301: 13295: 13291: 13286: 13282: 13280:9789027235305 13276: 13271: 13270: 13263: 13259: 13255: 13251: 13248: 13244: 13238: 13232: 13228: 13224: 13223: 13218: 13214: 13210: 13204: 13200: 13196: 13192: 13188: 13182: 13178: 13177: 13171: 13167: 13161: 13157: 13152: 13148: 13143: 13142: 13121: 13116: 13109: 13093: 13088: 13081: 13066:. 25 May 2019 13065: 13060: 13053: 13045: 13041: 13037: 13033: 13029: 13025: 13021: 13017: 13013: 13009: 13004: 12996: 12989: 12985: 12981: 12977: 12972: 12965: 12961: 12957: 12953: 12949: 12944: 12928: 12924: 12917: 12910: 12905: 12899:, p. 67. 12898: 12893: 12886: 12881: 12879: 12870: 12863: 12861: 12859: 12851: 12846: 12839: 12834: 12827: 12822: 12815: 12811: 12806: 12799: 12795: 12791: 12786: 12779: 12773: 12766: 12762: 12757: 12750: 12745: 12737: 12731: 12727: 12723: 12717: 12710: 12705: 12698: 12697:Lubotsky 1988 12693: 12685: 12681: 12677: 12671: 12663: 12659: 12655: 12651: 12648:(4): 804–07. 12647: 12643: 12642: 12637: 12630: 12615: 12609: 12605: 12604: 12596: 12588: 12584: 12577: 12570: 12565: 12559:, p. 39. 12558: 12553: 12545: 12538: 12530: 12526: 12522: 12518: 12513: 12508: 12504: 12500: 12499: 12491: 12487: 12486:Warnow, Tandy 12480: 12473: 12468: 12460: 12453: 12445: 12441: 12434: 12426: 12422: 12421: 12413: 12406: 12400: 12396: 12392: 12385: 12378: 12363: 12359: 12355: 12351: 12347: 12343: 12342: 12334: 12327: 12311: 12306: 12302: 12298: 12294: 12290: 12284: 12276: 12272: 12267: 12262: 12258: 12254: 12250: 12246: 12242: 12238: 12234: 12230: 12226: 12219: 12211: 12207: 12200: 12192: 12185: 12178: 12174: 12168: 12164: 12160: 12153: 12145: 12141: 12137: 12133: 12126: 12117: 12115:9781351109147 12111: 12107: 12106: 12101: 12097: 12090: 12081: 12079:9789027263179 12075: 12071: 12070: 12062: 12054: 12047: 12039: 12033: 12029: 12025: 12018: 12010: 12008:9781139248938 12004: 12000: 11997:. Cambridge: 11996: 11989: 11981: 11974: 11967: 11963: 11957: 11949: 11945: 11940: 11935: 11931: 11927: 11923: 11916: 11908: 11907: 11902: 11895: 11887: 11881: 11877: 11876: 11869: 11861: 11857: 11851: 11845:, p. 22. 11844: 11840: 11839:Collinge 1985 11836: 11833:, p. 8, 11832: 11826: 11819: 11815: 11811: 11807: 11803: 11799: 11792: 11785: 11779: 11775: 11771: 11767: 11762: 11743: 11736: 11729: 11713: 11709: 11705: 11699: 11692: 11680: 11674: 11670: 11669: 11661: 11653: 11647: 11643: 11639: 11635: 11629: 11622: 11617: 11611: 11603: 11599: 11595: 11594:Elsie, Robert 11589: 11581: 11574: 11566: 11559: 11552: 11548: 11542: 11534: 11528: 11523: 11522: 11513: 11505: 11501: 11497: 11489: 11485: 11478: 11471: 11467: 11463: 11459: 11442: 11438: 11431: 11424: 11409: 11405: 11401: 11400: 11392: 11385: 11381: 11378: 11376: 11369: 11362: 11358: 11353: 11346: 11341: 11339: 11337: 11328: 11322: 11318: 11311: 11303: 11297: 11293: 11286: 11279:. Ethnologue. 11278: 11272: 11268: 11250:same family." 11246: 11242: 11231: 11228: 11226: 11223: 11221: 11218: 11216: 11213: 11211: 11208: 11206: 11203: 11201: 11198: 11196: 11193: 11191: 11188: 11186: 11183: 11181: 11178: 11176: 11173: 11171: 11168: 11166: 11163: 11160: 11159: 11155: 11153: 11150: 11149: 11142: 11140: 11139: 11138:lingua franca 11133: 11129: 11123: 11121: 11117: 11113: 11109: 11105: 11101: 11097: 11093: 11089: 11084: 11082: 11078: 11074: 11070: 11066: 11062: 11058: 11054: 11050: 11044: 11042: 11038: 11034: 11030: 11026: 11022: 11018: 11014: 11010: 11006: 11002: 10998: 10994: 10990: 10986: 10982: 10978: 10974: 10970: 10966: 10962: 10958: 10954: 10950: 10946: 10941: 10939: 10935: 10931: 10927: 10923: 10919: 10915: 10911: 10907: 10903: 10899: 10896:according to 10895: 10891: 10883: 10874: 10865: 10861: 10852: 10843: 10834: 10830: 10825: 10800: 10790: 10784: 10771: 10768: 10764: 10761: 10757: 10753: 10749: 10745: 10741: 10737: 10733: 10729: 10724: 10720: 10715: 10710: 10706: 10702: 10698: 10694: 10691: 10687: 10683: 10678: 400 AD 10672: 10669: 10665: 10661: 10657: 10653: 10649: 10645: 10641: 10637: 10633: 10629: 10625: 10622: 10618: 10614: 10610: 10606: 10603: 10599: 10598: 10597: 10595: 10591: 10587: 10577: 10574: 10571: 10568: 10565: 10562: 10559: 10556: 10553: 10550: 10547: 10546: 10542: 10539: 10536: 10533: 10530: 10527: 10524: 10521: 10518: 10515: 10512: 10511: 10507: 10504: 10501: 10498: 10495: 10492: 10490:{con}ferimos 10489: 10486: 10483: 10480: 10478:We (1st pl.) 10477: 10476: 10472: 10469: 10466: 10463: 10460: 10457: 10454: 10451: 10448: 10445: 10442: 10441: 10437: 10434: 10431: 10428: 10425: 10422: 10419: 10416: 10413: 10410: 10407: 10406: 10402: 10399: 10396: 10393: 10390: 10387: 10384: 10381: 10378: 10375: 10372: 10371: 10368:(ai/ajo) bie 10367: 10364: 10361: 10358: 10355: 10352: 10349: 10346: 10343: 10340: 10337: 10336: 10332: 10329: 10326: 10323: 10320: 10317: 10314: 10311: 10308: 10305: 10302: 10301: 10297: 10294: 10291: 10288: 10285: 10283: 10280: 10277: 10274: 10271: 10268: 10265: 10264: 10261: 10258: 10256: 10253: 10251: 10248: 10246: 10243: 10241: 10238: 10236: 10233: 10231: 10228: 10226: 10223: 10221: 10218: 10216: 10213: 10210: 10209: 10205: 10202: 10199: 10196: 10193: 10190: 10187: 10184: 10181: 10178: 10175: 10174: 10170: 10167: 10164: 10161: 10158: 10155: 10152: 10149: 10146: 10143: 10140: 10139: 10135: 10132: 10129: 10126: 10123: 10120: 10117: 10114: 10111: 10108: 10106:We (1st pl.) 10105: 10104: 10100: 10097: 10094: 10091: 10088: 10085: 10082: 10079: 10076: 10073: 10070: 10069: 10065: 10062: 10059: 10056: 10053: 10050: 10047: 10044: 10041: 10038: 10035: 10034: 10030: 10027: 10024: 10021: 10018: 10015: 10012: 10009: 10006: 10003: 10000: 9999: 9995: 9992: 9989: 9986: 9983: 9980: 9977: 9974: 9971: 9968: 9965: 9964: 9960: 9957: 9954: 9951: 9948: 9945: 9942: 9939: 9936: 9933: 9930: 9929: 9925: 9922: 9919: 9917:baíra /bɛra/ 9916: 9913: 9910: 9908: 9905: 9902: 9899: 9897: 9894: 9891: 9890: 9887: 9884: 9882: 9879: 9877: 9874: 9872: 9869: 9867: 9864: 9862: 9859: 9857: 9854: 9852: 9849: 9847: 9844: 9842: 9841:Ancient Greek 9839: 9836: 9835: 9832: 9829: 9827: 9824: 9822: 9819: 9817: 9814: 9813: 9810: 9805: 9800: 9795: 9790: 9785: 9780: 9775: 9768: 9755: 9752: 9751: 9742: 9739: 9738: 9729: 9727:We (1st pl.) 9726: 9725: 9716: 9713: 9712: 9703: 9700: 9699: 9690: 9687: 9683: 9682: 9673: 9670: 9669: 9660: 9657: 9656: 9647: 9644: 9643: 9637: 9630: 9627: 9625: 9624: 9619: 9617: 9616: 9605: 9602: 9589: 9585: 9581: 9573: 9570: 9567: 9563: 9559: 9551: 9548: 9545: 9541: 9537: 9534: 9531: 9527: 9519: 9516: 9513: 9505: 9497: 9494: 9491: 9483: 9479: 9476: 9473: 9465: 9461: 9458: 9455: 9447: 9444: 9441: 9440:boukólos rule 9437: 9429: 9426: 9423: 9422:boukólos rule 9419: 9411: 9408: 9405: 9397: 9394: 9391: 9388: 9385: 9377: 9374: 9371: 9368: 9365: 9357: 9349: 9346: 9343: 9335: 9327: 9324: 9321: 9313: 9310: 9307: 9299: 9295: 9292: 9288: 9284: 9281: 9277: 9274: 9270: 9267: 9264: 9263: 9259: 9258: 9252: 9250: 9247: 9245: 9242: 9240: 9237: 9235: 9232: 9230: 9227: 9225: 9222: 9220: 9217: 9214: 9213: 9210: 9206: 9204: 9201: 9199: 9196: 9194: 9191: 9189: 9186: 9184: 9181: 9179: 9176: 9174: 9164: 9154: 9147: 9145: 9138: 9136: 9129: 9127: 9120: 9118: 9111: 9109: 9102: 9100: 9093: 9088: 9086: 9083: 9081: 9078: 9076: 9073: 9071: 9068: 9066: 9063: 9061: 9058: 9056: 9049: 9047: 9040: 9038: 9031: 9028: 9018: 9011: 9008: 8998: 8989: 8982: 8980: 8971: 8964: 8962: 8955: 8950: 8948: 8945: 8943: 8940: 8938: 8935: 8933: 8930: 8928: 8925: 8923: 8920: 8918: 8909: 8902: 8897: 8895: 8892: 8890: 8887: 8885: 8882: 8880: 8877: 8875: 8872: 8870: 8867: 8865: 8855: 8847: 8840: 8838: 8831: 8827: 8823: 8821: 8818: 8816: 8813: 8811: 8808: 8806: 8803: 8801: 8798: 8796: 8793: 8791: 8782: 8772: 8765: 8763: 8756: 8754: 8747: 8742: 8740: 8737: 8734: 8732: 8729: 8727: 8724: 8722: 8719: 8717: 8714: 8712: 8709: 8707: 8697: 8689: 8687: 8679: 8677: 8667: 8659: 8657: 8649: 8647: 8640: 8636: 8632: 8630: 8627: 8624: 8622: 8619: 8617: 8614: 8612: 8609: 8607: 8604: 8602: 8599: 8597: 8585: 8578: 8576: 8567: 8560: 8555: 8551: 8549: 8546: 8544: 8541: 8539: 8536: 8534: 8531: 8529: 8526: 8522: 8519: 8517: 8510: 8508: 8501: 8499: 8492: 8487: 8485: 8482: 8480: 8477: 8475: 8472: 8470: 8467: 8465: 8462: 8460: 8457: 8454: 8444: 8434: 8424: 8412: 8402: 8392: 8381: 8371: 8362: 8352: 8343: 8334: 8322: 8320: 8317: 8314: 8312: 8309: 8307: 8304: 8302: 8299: 8297: 8293: 8291: 8288: 8283: 8281: 8278: 8276: 8273: 8271: 8268: 8266: 8263: 8261: 8258: 8256: 8253: 8250: 8240: 8231: 8222: 8213: 8203: 8194: 8185: 8176: 8166: 8157: 8148: 8139: 8130: 8121: 8112: 8103: 8094: 8083: 8074: 8065: 8056: 8047: 8038: 8029: 8020: 8011: 8004: 8000: 7996: 7994: 7991: 7989: 7986: 7984: 7981: 7979: 7976: 7974: 7971: 7966: 7963: 7961: 7958: 7955: 7945: 7936: 7926: 7916: 7904: 7895: 7886: 7877: 7868: 7859: 7852: 7850: 7843: 7841: 7832: 7825: 7823: 7816: 7811: 7809: 7806: 7804: 7801: 7799: 7796: 7794: 7791: 7789: 7786: 7784: 7781: 7779: 7772: 7770: 7758: 7751: 7746: 7739: 7737: 7728: 7719: 7712: 7710: 7701: 7694: 7692: 7683: 7674: 7667: 7665: 7658: 7653: 7651: 7648: 7645: 7643: 7640: 7638: 7635: 7633: 7630: 7627: 7624: 7622: 7619: 7616: 7606: 7599: 7597: 7585: 7578: 7576: 7567: 7560: 7558: 7549: 7542: 7540: 7531: 7522: 7515: 7513: 7506: 7501: 7499: 7496: 7494: 7491: 7489: 7484: 7481: 7479: 7476: 7472: 7469: 7467: 7464: 7462: 7455: 7453: 7446: 7441: 7432: 7423: 7416: 7414: 7405: 7396: 7389: 7387: 7380: 7375: 7373: 7370: 7368: 7365: 7363: 7360: 7358: 7355: 7353: 7350: 7348: 7345: 7343: 7334: 7325: 7316: 7307: 7298: 7289: 7280: 7271: 7264: 7260: 7256: 7254: 7252: 7249: 7247: 7244: 7242: 7239: 7237: 7233: 7229: 7227: 7226:*ǵénu, *ǵnéu- 7224: 7222: 7213: 7204: 7192: 7183: 7174: 7167: 7165: 7158: 7156: 7147: 7140: 7138: 7131: 7126: 7124: 7121: 7119: 7116: 7114: 7111: 7109: 7106: 7104: 7101: 7096: 7093: 7091: 7088: 7086: 7074: 7067: 7065: 7056: 7048: 7041: 7039: 7032: 7028: 7018: 7013: 7006: 7004: 6995: 6987: 6980: 6978: 6971: 6966: 6964: 6961: 6959: 6957: 6954: 6952: 6949: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6939: 6934: 6932: 6928: 6925: 6923: 6920: 6918: 6915: 6913: 6910: 6908: 6905: 6903: 6900: 6897: 6887: 6877: 6867: 6858: 6849: 6840: 6831: 6822: 6813: 6802: 6798: 6796: 6793: 6791: 6788: 6786: 6783: 6781: 6778: 6776: 6772: 6768: 6764: 6761: 6759: 6750: 6741: 6732: 6723: 6714: 6706: 6697: 6690: 6685: 6683: 6680: 6678: 6675: 6673: 6670: 6668: 6665: 6663: 6660: 6658: 6655: 6652: 6642: 6632: 6622: 6612: 6602: 6592: 6583: 6574: 6565: 6558: 6556: 6549: 6547: 6540: 6538: 6531: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6514: 6511: 6509: 6506: 6504: 6501: 6499: 6496: 6494: 6485: 6475: 6468: 6466: 6457: 6447: 6440: 6437: 6427: 6420: 6418: 6409: 6401: 6394: 6392: 6385: 6380: 6376: 6374: 6371: 6369: 6366: 6364: 6361: 6359: 6356: 6354: 6351: 6349: 6348:*pṓds ~ *ped- 6346: 6343: 6333: 6326: 6323: 6313: 6306: 6304: 6295: 6288: 6286: 6277: 6269: 6262: 6260: 6253: 6248: 6245: 6242: 6239: 6237: 6234: 6232: 6229: 6227: 6224: 6221: 6218: 6214: 6206: 6201: 6196: 6191: 6186: 6181: 6176: 6169: 6165: 6159: 6157: 6149: 6146: 6143: 6139: 6136: 6133: 6129: 6125: 6121: 6117: 6114: 6110: 6106: 6103: 6102: 6097: 6089: 6085: 6081: 6080: 6079: 6073: 6072: 6067: 6063: 6059: 6055: 6051: 6048: 6045: 6041: 6037: 6033: 6030: 6027: 6023: 6019: 6016: 6013: 6010: 6007: 6003: 6000: 5996: 5995: 5994: 5992: 5984: 5980: 5976: 5972: 5968: 5964: 5960: 5956: 5952: 5948: 5945: 5941: 5937: 5933: 5929: 5925: 5921: 5917: 5913: 5909: 5908: 5907: 5905: 5904: 5900: 5895: 5891: 5880: 5876: 5872: 5868: 5864: 5860: 5856: 5852: 5848: 5844: 5840: 5836: 5832: 5828: 5824: 5820: 5816: 5812: 5808: 5805: 5801: 5797: 5793: 5789: 5785: 5782: 5779: 5775: 5774: 5772: 5768: 5764: 5760: 5756: 5752: 5748: 5746: 5742: 5738: 5734: 5730: 5726: 5724: 5720: 5716: 5712: 5708: 5704: 5700: 5696: 5694: 5690: 5686: 5682: 5678: 5674: 5672: 5668: 5664: 5660: 5656: 5652: 5648: 5644: 5640: 5636: 5635: 5634: 5632: 5628: 5624: 5620: 5616: 5601:and original 5537: 5499: 5474: 5449: 5448: 5446: 5442: 5439: 5435: 5434: 5432: 5430: 5427:, one of the 5426: 5421: 5419: 5415: 5411: 5407: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5392: 5388: 5384: 5380: 5376: 5372: 5368: 5364: 5360: 5355: 5353: 5349: 5343: 5336:Sound changes 5323: 5320: 5310: 5307: 5297: 5294: 5284: 5281: 5280: 5279: 5266: 5263: 5259: 500 BC 5253: 5250: 5240: 5236: 5232: 5229: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5204: 5203: 5202: 5189: 5186: 5176: 5172: 5168: 5164: 900 BC 5158: 5147: 5144: 5127: 5116: 5105: 5094: 5090: 5087: 5083: 600 BC 5077: 5072: 200 BC 5066: 5062: 5059: 5058: 5057: 5050: 5039: 5036: 5032: 750 BC 5026: 5025: 5020: 5019: 5014: 5013:Homeric poems 5003: 4992: 4991:Ancient Greek 4989: 4979: 4975: 4971: 4960: 4957: 4956: 4955: 4952: 4950: 4946: 4942: 4938: 4934: 4930: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4908:West Germanic 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4878: 4875: 4871: 4867: 4862: 4858: 4854: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4841:Turkification 4838: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4822: 4818: 4814: 4811: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4786: 4785:lingua franca 4781: 4777: 4773: 4770:and then the 4769: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4753: 4749: 4746: 4745:Ordos culture 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4706: 4702: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4632:composes the 4631: 4627: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4606:Mahajanapadas 4603: 4599: 4595: 4591: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4519:Bagnolo stele 4516: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4487: 4486: 4480: 4476: 4473: 4470: 4467: 4464: 4461: 4458: 4455: 4451: 4448: 4444: 4443: 4442: 4436: 500 BC 4430: 4427: 4423: 4420: 4417: 4415: 4411: 4408: 4404: 4403: 4402: 4400: 4396: 4391: 4389: 4382: 4372: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4325: 4323: 4319: 4315: 4314:reconstructed 4277: 4272: 4267: 4252: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4218: 4214: 4210: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4197:Paleosiberian 4195:and various ' 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4179: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4157: 4156: 4155: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4139: 4137: 4133: 4130: 4129: 4128: 4125: 4115: 4112: 4104: 4094: 4090: 4084: 4083: 4078:This section 4076: 4072: 4067: 4066: 4058: 4055: 4049: 4046: 4042:) and Latin ( 4040: 4034: 4030: 4029:Karl Brugmann 4004: 3982: 3977: 3967: 3964: 3959: 3954: 3952: 3947: 3943: 3938: 3936: 3932: 3927: 3921: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3895: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3873: 3868: 3866: 3861: 3859: 3854: 3853: 3851: 3850: 3845: 3842: 3840: 3837: 3835: 3832: 3831: 3830: 3829: 3825: 3824: 3819: 3816: 3814: 3811: 3809: 3806: 3804: 3801: 3799: 3796: 3794: 3793:Daco-Thracian 3791: 3789: 3786: 3784: 3781: 3780: 3779: 3778: 3774: 3773: 3768: 3767:Indo-European 3765:Hypothetical 3764: 3763: 3755: 3752: 3750: 3746: 3740: 3738: 3734: 3733:ṛ, *ḷ, *ṃ, *ṇ 3730: 3726: 3722: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3700: 3698: 3694: 3688: 3678: 3674: 3672: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3650: 3643: 3640: 3637: 3634: 3631: 3628: 3625: 3622: 3619: 3615: 3612: 3609: 3606: 3603: 3600: 3597: 3594: 3591: 3588: 3585: 3582: 3579: 3576: 3573: 3570: 3567: 3563: 3560: 3557: 3554: 3551: 3548: 3545: 3544:Nordwestblock 3541: 3538: 3537: 3536: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3519: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3505:, as well as 3504: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3489: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3457: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3415: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3393:, as well as 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3293: 3292: 3290: 3279: 3276: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3254: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3176: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3126: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3106: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3016: 3015: 3013: 3010: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2991: 2988: 2985: 2984:Hittite texts 2981: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2962:, extinct by 2961: 2958: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2932: 2931: 2930: 2926: 2916: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2869:neogrammarian 2866: 2865: 2860: 2859:Karl Brugmann 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2806:Indo-European 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2786:Indo-Germanic 2783: 2779: 2775: 2774:Indo-European 2771: 2760: 2758: 2754: 2753: 2746: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2711: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2676:Evliya Çelebi 2672: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2625: 2623: 2619: 2616:"eight", and 2615: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2570: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2526: 2516: 2514: 2510: 2505: 2503: 2499: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2479:their culture 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2382: 2380: 2379: 2374: 2369: 2367: 2364:, French and 2363: 2359: 2355: 2350: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2255: 2250: 2248: 2243: 2241: 2236: 2235: 2233: 2232: 2225: 2224: 2220: 2218: 2217: 2213: 2211: 2210: 2206: 2204: 2203: 2199: 2197: 2196: 2192: 2191: 2188: 2185: 2184: 2181: 2178: 2177: 2174: 2171: 2170: 2167: 2166:J. P. Mallory 2164: 2162: 2159: 2158: 2155: 2152: 2151: 2148: 2143: 2142: 2135: 2131: 2128: 2126: 2123: 2121: 2118: 2116: 2113: 2112: 2109: 2106: 2105: 2102: 2099: 2094: 2090: 2087: 2083: 2082: 2081: 2078: 2073: 2069: 2066: 2062: 2059: 2055: 2054: 2053: 2050: 2045: 2041: 2038: 2034: 2031: 2027: 2024: 2020: 2017: 2013: 2012: 2011: 2008: 2006: 2003: 2001: 1998: 1995: 1992: 1989: 1986: 1983: 1980: 1977: 1973: 1970: 1969: 1968: 1966: 1965: 1958: 1955: 1954: 1953: 1951: 1942: 1938: 1937: 1936: 1933: 1928: 1924: 1921: 1917: 1916: 1915: 1912: 1907: 1903: 1902: 1901: 1898: 1897: 1896: 1894: 1893: 1885: 1881: 1878: 1874: 1871: 1867: 1862: 1858: 1857: 1856: 1853: 1852: 1851: 1849: 1848: 1841: 1838: 1837: 1834: 1831: 1830: 1826: 1823: 1821: 1818: 1816: 1813: 1811: 1808: 1807: 1804: 1803:Reconstructed 1801: 1800: 1794: 1793: 1786: 1783: 1782: 1781: 1780: 1774: 1771: 1770: 1769: 1768: 1762: 1759: 1757: 1753: 1750: 1748: 1745: 1743: 1740: 1738: 1735: 1734: 1733: 1731: 1725: 1722: 1721: 1720: 1718: 1712: 1709: 1708: 1705: 1702: 1697: 1693: 1690: 1686: 1683: 1679: 1676: 1672: 1669: 1665: 1664: 1663: 1659: 1656: 1654: 1651: 1649: 1646: 1644: 1641: 1639: 1636: 1631: 1630:Insular Celts 1627: 1624: 1620: 1617: 1613: 1612: 1611: 1608: 1607: 1606: 1604: 1598: 1595: 1593: 1590: 1589: 1588: 1586: 1580: 1577: 1576: 1575: 1573: 1567: 1564: 1563: 1562: 1560: 1554: 1551: 1550: 1547: 1546:Indo-Iranians 1544: 1542: 1539: 1537: 1534: 1529: 1524: 1521: 1520: 1517: 1514: 1513: 1507: 1506: 1499: 1496: 1494: 1491: 1490: 1489: 1488: 1482: 1479: 1478: 1477: 1475: 1469: 1466: 1464: 1461: 1459: 1456: 1455: 1454: 1452: 1446: 1443: 1442: 1441: 1439: 1433: 1430: 1429: 1425: 1422: 1420: 1417: 1415: 1412: 1411: 1410: 1408: 1402: 1399: 1397: 1394: 1392: 1389: 1387: 1384: 1382: 1379: 1377: 1374: 1372: 1369: 1367: 1364: 1362: 1359: 1357: 1354: 1353: 1352: 1350: 1344: 1341: 1339: 1336: 1334: 1331: 1330: 1329: 1327: 1321: 1318: 1316: 1313: 1311: 1308: 1306: 1303: 1301: 1298: 1296: 1293: 1292: 1291: 1289: 1288:Pontic Steppe 1282: 1279: 1278: 1271: 1267: 1264: 1260: 1259: 1258: 1255: 1254: 1253: 1251: 1245: 1242: 1240: 1237: 1234: 1230: 1229: 1228: 1226: 1220: 1217: 1216: 1215: 1213: 1207: 1204: 1203: 1202: 1200: 1189: 1185: 1182: 1178: 1177: 1175: 1171: 1168: 1164: 1161: 1157: 1154: 1150: 1147: 1143: 1140: 1136: 1135: 1134: 1131: 1129: 1126: 1122: 1121:Kurgan stelae 1119: 1118: 1117: 1114: 1112: 1109: 1108: 1107: 1105: 1104:Pontic Steppe 1098: 1095: 1094: 1088: 1087: 1080: 1077: 1075: 1072: 1070: 1067: 1065: 1062: 1060: 1057: 1055: 1052: 1051: 1046: 1045: 1041: 1038: 1036: 1033: 1031: 1028: 1027: 1022: 1021: 1017: 1014: 1012: 1009: 1007: 1004: 1002: 999: 998: 992: 991: 984: 981: 979: 976: 974: 971: 969: 966: 964: 961: 959: 956: 954: 951: 949: 946: 944: 941: 939: 936: 934: 931: 929: 926: 924: 921: 919: 916: 914: 911: 910: 904: 903: 895: 894:Proto-Iranian 891: 888: 885: 881: 877: 874: 872: 869: 866: 862: 858: 855: 852: 848: 845: 843: 840: 838: 835: 833: 830: 829: 826: 823: 822: 818: 815: 813: 810: 808: 805: 803: 800: 798: 795: 793: 790: 788: 785: 784: 781: 778: 777: 773: 770: 768: 765: 763: 760: 758: 755: 753: 750: 748: 745: 743: 740: 738: 737:Daco-Thracian 735: 733: 730: 729: 726: 723: 722: 716: 712: 708: 704: 701: 700: 698: 695: 694: 691: 690:Reconstructed 688: 687: 680: 676: 673: 669: 666: 662: 659: 655: 652: 648: 645: 641: 638: 634: 631: 627: 626: 625: 622: 620: 617: 615: 612: 611: 608: 605: 604: 598: 594: 593: 592: 589: 584: 580: 577: 573: 570: 566: 565: 564: 561: 556: 552: 551: 550: 547: 545: 542: 540: 537: 532: 528: 525: 521: 520: 519: 516: 514: 511: 506: 502: 501: 500: 497: 496: 493: 490: 489: 485: 482: 481: 477: 472: 471: 467: 463: 462: 459: 456: 455: 451: 447: 446: 432: 431: 429: 425: 420: 408: 404: 395: 386: 377: 367: 363: 353: 349: 345: 335: 331: 327: 318: 308: 304: 295: 285: 281: 270: 265: 261: 257: 255: 251: 247: 243: 241: 237: 233: 227: 220: 213: 206: 198: 191: 184: 178: 173: 170: 169: 166: 163: 161: 158: 152: 148: 144: 141: 139: 136: 134: 131: 129: 126: 124: 121: 116: 113: 107: 103: 99: 96: 95: 94: 90: 85: 82: 81: 79: 76: 72: 69: 65: 63: 59: 55: 49: 46:Indo-European 44: 41: 37: 33: 19: 17696: 17689: 17688:Families in 17645:Pre-Goidelic 17640:Pre-Germanic 17470:Indo-Semitic 17465:Indo-Pacific 17460:Indo-Hittite 17375: 17368: 17361: 17291: 17268:Indian Ocean 17235: 17230:Austronesian 17228: 17221: 17214: 17207: 17202:Sino-Tibetan 17200: 17179: 17157: 17152:Sino-Tibetan 17150: 17143: 17137: 17136: 17104: 17079: 17072: 17065: 17058: 17051: 17044: 17037: 17030: 17023: 17016: 17010: 17009: 16989: 16982: 16975: 16968: 16961: 16956:North Picene 16954: 16947: 16940: 16933: 16926: 16919: 16912: 16900: 16893: 16887: 16886: 16822: 16815: 16814:Families in 16749: 16700: 16598: 16586: 16436: 16404: 16395:Pano-Tacanan 16352: 16315: 16303: 16274:Arutani–Sape 16266: 16211: 16193: 16186: 16171:Oto-Manguean 16169: 16152: 16145: 16092: 16080: 16073: 16066: 16059: 16052: 16025: 16018: 15995: 15988: 15976: 15949: 15927: 15920: 15908: 15896: 15879: 15872: 15865: 15858: 15851: 15839: 15832: 15791: 15758: 15754:Western Daly 15732:Pama–Nyungan 15730: 15718: 15711: 15698: 15676: 15671:Eastern Daly 15669: 15661: 15616: 15492: 15480: 15458: 15441: 15419: 15390:Kaure–Kosare 15350:Doso–Turumsa 15340:Chimbu–Wahgi 15330:Bulaka River 15314:Austronesian 15312: 15273: 15266: 15247: 15234: 15227: 15220: 15146: 15139: 15132: 15122:Sino-Tibetan 15120: 15103: 15086: 15065: 15064: 15057: 15050: 15033: 15023:Austronesian 15021: 15014: 15002: 14948: 14886:Nilo-Saharan 14884: 14877: 14862:Austronesian 14860: 14853: 14789: 14776: 14767: 14762:Proto-Italic 14760: 14751: 14744: 14737: 14730: 14721: 14714: 14709:Proto-Celtic 14707: 14700:Proto-Slavic 14698: 14693:Proto-Baltic 14691: 14684: 14677: 14670: 14663: 14656: 14636: 14629: 14622: 14615: 14608: 14601: 14594: 14587: 14554: 14549: 14539: 14529:Osco-Umbrian 14527: 14474:Indo-Iranian 14451: 14426: 14400:South Slavic 14374: 14362: 14346:Balto-Slavic 14329: 14322: 14315: 14308: 14301: 14294: 14284: 14272: 14265: 14258: 14244: 14231: 14190:. Retrieved 14173:. Retrieved 14167: 14154:. Retrieved 14150:the original 14145: 14130:. Retrieved 14126:the original 14089:. Retrieved 14074: 14061:. Retrieved 14057:the original 14037:. Retrieved 14033:the original 14017:. Retrieved 13979:Online books 13969: 13940: 13918: 13915:Trask, R. L. 13871: 13867: 13848: 13811: 13796: 13771: 13749: 13724: 13703: 13688: 13664: 13616: 13612: 13591: 13572: 13540: 13530: 13526: 13508: 13484: 13461: 13441: 13425: 13390: 13386: 13370: 13366: 13350: 13346: 13326: 13312: 13308: 13289: 13268: 13257: 13221: 13198: 13175: 13155: 13146: 13123:. Retrieved 13108: 13096:. Retrieved 13080: 13068:. Retrieved 13052: 13011: 13007: 12995: 12971: 12943: 12931:. Retrieved 12927:the original 12916: 12909:Anthony 2007 12904: 12892: 12885:Anthony 2007 12868: 12845: 12833: 12821: 12813: 12805: 12797: 12793: 12785: 12778:Renfrew 2001 12772: 12764: 12756: 12744: 12725: 12716: 12704: 12692: 12683: 12679: 12670: 12645: 12639: 12635: 12629: 12617:. Retrieved 12602: 12595: 12585:. Berkeley: 12582: 12576: 12569:Fortson 2004 12564: 12552: 12543: 12537: 12502: 12496: 12479: 12467: 12458: 12452: 12443: 12439: 12433: 12424: 12418: 12412: 12390: 12377: 12367:30 September 12365:. Retrieved 12345: 12339: 12326: 12316:30 September 12314:. Retrieved 12300: 12296: 12283: 12232: 12228: 12218: 12209: 12205: 12199: 12190: 12184: 12176: 12158: 12152: 12135: 12131: 12125: 12104: 12100:Yaron Matras 12089: 12084:pp. 283–286. 12068: 12061: 12052: 12046: 12023: 12017: 11994: 11988: 11979: 11973: 11965: 11961: 11960:F. Ribezzo, 11956: 11929: 11925: 11915: 11904: 11894: 11874: 11868: 11859: 11850: 11825: 11804:(6): 931–6. 11801: 11797: 11791: 11773: 11761: 11749:. Retrieved 11742:the original 11728: 11716:. Retrieved 11712:the original 11707: 11698: 11689: 11682:. Retrieved 11667: 11660: 11641: 11628: 11610: 11604:. p. 5. 11597: 11588: 11579: 11573: 11564: 11558: 11546: 11541: 11520: 11512: 11495: 11492:taken from: 11487: 11477: 11448:. Retrieved 11441:the original 11436: 11423: 11411:. Retrieved 11398: 11391: 11374: 11368: 11352: 11316: 11310: 11291: 11285: 11271: 11245: 11156: 11137: 11124: 11085: 11045: 11017:North Africa 10942: 10897: 10887: 10759: 10755: 10751: 10747: 10743: 10739: 10722: 10718: 10708: 10704: 10700: 10696: 10689: 10685: 10681: 10667: 10663: 10639: 10620: 10612: 10608: 10604: 10602:Modern Irish 10590:periphrastic 10583: 10519:(tum) bʰaro 10266:I (1st sg.) 10215:Modern Greek 9946:biri; berir 9911:biru; berim 9892:I (1st sg.) 9886:Old Albanian 9876:Old Prussian 9804:Balto-Slavic 9779:Indo-Iranian 9684:We two (1st 9645:I (1st sg.) 9613: 9598: 9575: 9571: 9553: 9549: 9535: 9521: 9517: 9507: 9499: 9495: 9485: 9477: 9467: 9459: 9449: 9445: 9431: 9427: 9413: 9409: 9399: 9395: 9389: 9379: 9375: 9369: 9359: 9351: 9347: 9337: 9329: 9325: 9315: 9311: 9301: 9297: 9291:Verner's law 9286: 9279: 9272: 9265: 9208: 9202: 9197: 9192: 9187: 9182: 9178:*h₂weh₁n̥to- 9177: 9168: 9158: 9148: 9139: 9133:w > h / Ø 9130: 9121: 9112: 9103: 9094: 9084: 9079: 9074: 9069: 9064: 9059: 9050: 9041: 9032: 9022: 9012: 9002: 8992: 8983: 8974: 8965: 8956: 8946: 8941: 8936: 8931: 8926: 8921: 8912: 8903: 8893: 8888: 8883: 8878: 8873: 8868: 8859: 8849: 8841: 8832: 8825: 8819: 8814: 8809: 8804: 8799: 8794: 8785: 8776: 8766: 8757: 8748: 8738: 8730: 8725: 8720: 8715: 8710: 8701: 8691: 8681: 8671: 8661: 8651: 8641: 8634: 8628: 8620: 8615: 8610: 8605: 8600: 8591: 8579: 8570: 8561: 8553: 8547: 8542: 8537: 8532: 8527: 8520: 8511: 8502: 8493: 8483: 8478: 8473: 8468: 8463: 8458: 8448: 8438: 8428: 8418: 8406: 8396: 8386: 8375: 8365: 8356: 8346: 8337: 8328: 8318: 8310: 8305: 8300: 8295: 8289: 8279: 8274: 8269: 8264: 8259: 8254: 8244: 8234: 8225: 8216: 8207: 8197: 8188: 8179: 8170: 8160: 8151: 8142: 8133: 8124: 8115: 8106: 8097: 8088: 8077: 8068: 8059: 8050: 8041: 8032: 8023: 8014: 8005: 7998: 7992: 7987: 7982: 7977: 7972: 7964: 7959: 7949: 7939: 7930: 7920: 7910: 7898: 7889: 7880: 7871: 7862: 7853: 7844: 7835: 7826: 7817: 7807: 7802: 7797: 7792: 7787: 7782: 7773: 7764: 7752: 7740: 7731: 7722: 7713: 7704: 7695: 7686: 7677: 7668: 7659: 7649: 7641: 7636: 7631: 7625: 7620: 7610: 7600: 7591: 7579: 7570: 7561: 7552: 7543: 7534: 7525: 7516: 7507: 7497: 7492: 7487: 7482: 7477: 7470: 7465: 7456: 7447: 7435: 7426: 7417: 7408: 7399: 7390: 7381: 7371: 7366: 7361: 7356: 7351: 7346: 7337: 7328: 7319: 7310: 7301: 7292: 7283: 7274: 7265: 7258: 7250: 7245: 7240: 7235: 7231: 7225: 7216: 7207: 7198: 7186: 7177: 7168: 7159: 7150: 7141: 7132: 7122: 7117: 7112: 7107: 7102: 7094: 7089: 7080: 7068: 7059: 7050: 7042: 7033: 7022: 7017: 7007: 6998: 6989: 6981: 6972: 6962: 6955: 6950: 6945: 6940: 6930: 6926: 6921: 6916: 6911: 6906: 6901: 6891: 6881: 6871: 6861: 6852: 6843: 6834: 6825: 6816: 6807: 6800: 6794: 6789: 6784: 6779: 6774: 6770: 6762: 6753: 6744: 6735: 6726: 6717: 6708: 6700: 6691: 6681: 6676: 6671: 6666: 6661: 6656: 6646: 6636: 6626: 6616: 6606: 6596: 6586: 6577: 6568: 6559: 6550: 6541: 6532: 6522: 6517: 6512: 6507: 6502: 6497: 6488: 6479: 6469: 6460: 6451: 6441: 6431: 6421: 6412: 6403: 6395: 6386: 6378: 6372: 6367: 6363:poús (podós) 6362: 6357: 6352: 6347: 6337: 6327: 6317: 6307: 6298: 6289: 6280: 6271: 6263: 6254: 6153: 6138:Verner's law 6131: 6123: 6119: 6113:Proto-Celtic 6108: 6099: 6095: 6087: 6077: 6069: 6065: 6061: 6036:Balto-Slavic 6021: 5988: 5950: 5939: 5920:Balto-Slavic 5916:Indo-Iranian 5911: 5902: 5898: 5887: 5878: 5874: 5870: 5866: 5862: 5858: 5854: 5850: 5846: 5842: 5834: 5830: 5826: 5822: 5818: 5814: 5810: 5803: 5799: 5795: 5791: 5787: 5784:Verner's law 5766: 5762: 5758: 5754: 5750: 5744: 5740: 5736: 5732: 5728: 5722: 5718: 5714: 5710: 5706: 5702: 5698: 5692: 5688: 5684: 5680: 5676: 5670: 5666: 5662: 5658: 5654: 5650: 5646: 5642: 5638: 5630: 5626: 5622: 5618: 5614: 5576: 5436:As in other 5422: 5413: 5409: 5405: 5398: 5394: 5390: 5356: 5345: 5277: 5265:Old Prussian 5200: 5055: 5022: 5016: 4953: 4945:vowel length 4941:poetic meter 4926: 4898:to present: 4783: 4768:Roman Empire 4764:Proto-Slavic 4756:Gupta period 4707:: spread of 4650:Osco-Umbrian 4559:Balto-Slavic 4555:Greater Iran 4484: 4479:Indo-Iranian 4460:Pre-Germanic 4440: 4426:Indo-Iranian 4399:Tandy Warnow 4395:Donald Ringe 4392: 4384: 4347:, they form 4326: 4311: 4222: 4217:Eskimo–Aleut 4199:' families ( 4153: 4126: 4122: 4107: 4098: 4087:Please help 4082:verification 4079: 4050: 4026: 3958:Indo-Hittite 3955: 3945: 3939: 3930: 3923:, Old Irish 3914: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3896: 3892:Graeco-Aryan 3884:Italo-Celtic 3881: 3839:Indo-Hittite 3834:Italo-Celtic 3803:Graeco-Aryan 3783:Paleo-Balkan 3766: 3743: 3741: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3701: 3690: 3675: 3665: 3658:genealogical 3655: 3534: 3495:Proto-Italic 3463:Kamkata-vari 3431:). Includes 3345:, including 3278:Indo-Iranian 3132:Proto-Celtic 3022:Proto-Slavic 3012:Balto-Slavic 3001: 3000:, developed 2980:Old Assyrian 2966:, spoken in 2928: 2908: 2900: 2862: 2854: 2838: 2834: 2829: 2809: 2805: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2773: 2770:Thomas Young 2768: 2750: 2748: 2712: 2684:conjugations 2673: 2626: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2571: 2528: 2506: 2435:Western Asia 2383: 2376: 2370: 2351: 2339:Indo-Iranian 2323:Balto-Slavic 2265: 2263: 2221: 2214: 2207: 2200: 2193: 2187:Publications 2186: 2172: 2153: 2107: 1990: 1984: 1978: 1972:Paleo-Balkan 1962: 1961: 1949: 1948: 1890: 1889: 1845: 1844: 1832: 1802: 1785:Greater Iran 1778: 1777: 1766: 1765: 1729: 1728: 1716: 1715: 1658:Paleo-Balkan 1623:Celtiberians 1602: 1601: 1584: 1583: 1571: 1570: 1558: 1557: 1486: 1485: 1473: 1472: 1450: 1449: 1437: 1436: 1406: 1405: 1348: 1347: 1325: 1324: 1287: 1286: 1249: 1248: 1224: 1223: 1211: 1210: 1198: 1197: 1139:Bug–Dniester 1103: 1102: 968:Gothic Bible 884:Proto-Baltic 880:Proto-Slavic 865:Proto-Italic 861:Proto-Celtic 824: 779: 767:Italo-Celtic 762:Indo-Hittite 752:Graeco-Aryan 725:Hypothetical 724: 689: 624:Paleo-Balkan 606: 563:Indo-Iranian 518:Balto-Slavic 491: 475: 199:(Albanoid?) 160:Indo-Iranian 128:Balto-Slavic 92:Subdivisions 78:Indo-Hittite 53:distribution 40: 17495:Ural-Altaic 17475:Indo-Uralic 17287:Sentinelese 17018:Afroasiatic 16984:Eteocypriot 16708:Germanosign 16612:Mura-Pirahã 16493:Lule–Vilela 16469:Bora-Witoto 16444:Uru–Chipaya 16417:Ticuna–Yuri 16400:Peba–Yaguan 16385:Nambikwaran 16188:Uto-Aztecan 16124:Mesoamerica 15978:Uto-Aztecan 15967:Tsimshianic 15929:Palaihnihan 15799:Malak-Malak 15536:Papuan Gulf 15510:West Papuan 15415:Lower Sepik 15405:Lakes Plain 15308:Arai–Samaia 15296:the Pacific 15004:Afroasiatic 14879:Niger–Congo 14855:Afroasiatic 14723:Proto-Norse 14550:Tocharian A 14405:West Slavic 14395:East Slavic 14376:West Baltic 14370:East Baltic 14132:14 December 14091:13 December 14063:14 December 14039:14 December 14019:13 December 14015:. wordgumbo 13434:Renfrew, C. 13241:Paperback: 12976:Beekes 2011 12948:Beekes 2011 12619:19 February 12557:Porzig 1954 12472:Porzig 1954 12138:: 275–291. 11860:Science 2.0 11843:Beekes 1995 11751:25 November 11718:25 November 11602:I.B. Tauris 11525:. Penguin. 11357:Beekes 2011 11345:Auroux 2000 11215:Linguistics 11136:become the 11104:nationalism 11055:, with the 11013:Middle East 10961:Indo-Aryans 10951:throughout 10560:{con}ferem 10525:{con}feris 10315:{con}feres 10309:(tū) bʰarē 6902:*kʷid, kʷod 6368:pēs (pedis) 6128:Proto-Greek 6071:Grimm's law 6060:(e.g. with 6058:chain shift 5953:languages ( 5936:front vowel 5914:languages ( 5825:ends up as 5794:ends up as 5661:"rain" vs. 5414:plain velar 5329: 1450 5272: 1350 5252:Old Persian 5241:languages ( 5225: 1400 5182: 1500 5153: 1700 5146:Old Avestan 5133: 1100 5124:–1000) and 5104:Old English 5045: 1700 4966: 1500 4949:manuscripts 4900:Colonialism 4894:1500–2000: 4879:1000–1500: 4849:Afghanistan 4837:Arabization 4721:Indo-Greeks 4495:Scandinavia 4339:carrying a 4175:Afroasiatic 4169:(or wider, 4132:Indo-Uralic 3917:> Latin 3844:Indo-Uralic 3712:long vowels 3630:Sorothaptic 3513:, such as 3425:Old Persian 3301:texts from 3280:, attested 3262:, see also 3260:Proto-Greek 3194:Old English 3140:Celtiberian 3078:Montenegrin 2782:North India 2600:"serpent", 2495:Afroasiatic 2469:in eastern 2310:colonialism 2065:Continental 2058:Anglo-Saxon 1761:Middle Ages 1711:Middle Ages 1566:Indo-Aryans 1559:Indo-Aryans 1366:Bell Beaker 1361:Corded ware 1257:Corded ware 1146:Sredny Stog 1091:Archaeology 871:Proto-Greek 851:Proto-Norse 32:Indo people 17714:Categories 17635:Pre-Celtic 17603:East Asian 17593:Austro-Tai 17583:Andamanese 17433:Eurasiatic 17354:North Asia 17304:North Asia 17216:Hmong–Mien 17170:Burushaski 17129:South Asia 17100:Kartvelian 17067:Philistine 16977:Eteocretan 16921:Tartessian 16702:Francosign 16550:Chiquitano 16530:Alacalufan 16338:Guaicuruan 16311:Chapacuran 16294:Cahuapanan 16262:Araucanian 16165:Mixe–Zoque 16160:Misumalpan 15874:Comecrudan 15726:Nyulnyulan 15505:Upper Yuat 15482:Torricelli 15454:Senu River 15385:Foja Range 15291:New Guinea 15216:Burushaski 15077:Kartvelian 15052:Hmong–Mien 14868:Khoe–Kwadi 14488:Indo-Aryan 14192:9 December 14156:9 December 13858:041506449X 13208:9027221510 13125:17 January 13120:Ethnologue 13092:Ethnologue 13064:Ethnologue 12897:Ringe 2006 12812:, p. 594, 12393:, London: 12037:0631220399 11413:7 December 11258:References 11057:Tocharians 11049:Common Era 10926:Portuguese 10906:Hindustani 10898:Ethnologue 10851:Portuguese 10787:See also: 10767:Samogitian 10734:In Modern 10703:< Lat. 10628:Hindustani 10543:(ju) bini 10528:beirthidh 10508:(ne) biem 10350:{con}fere 10298:(unë) bie 10278:{con}firo 10250:Lithuanian 10230:Portuguese 10220:Hindustani 10206:*berjanti 10042:bʰárathas 9816:Indo-Aryan 9707:bʰéreth₁es 9524:r, u, k, i 9488:r, l, m, n 9470:r, l, m, n 6922:quid, quod 6766:"raw meat" 6104:languages. 6096:r, u, k, i 6068:(known as 5778:fricatives 5651:pēs, pēdis 5403:labiovelar 5348:sound laws 5316: 400 5303: 500 5290: 700 5246: 600 5239:Old Italic 5237:and other 5216:and other 5195: 900 5171:Lithuanian 5140: 200 5122: 750 5111: 800 5100: 350 5000:–400 BC). 4998: 750 4937:Lithuanian 4853:Tajikistan 4821:Viking Age 4815:500–1000: 4379:See also: 4327:PIE is an 4247:, and the 4241:New Guinea 4181:Eurasiatic 4163:Kartvelian 3721:high vowel 3697:wave model 3693:tree model 3685:See also: 3590:Lusitanian 3461:(includes 3347:Hindustani 3343:Bangladesh 3337:, Eastern 3305:, showing 3295:Indo-Aryan 3238:Low German 3116:Lithuanian 3098:Belarusian 3062:Macedonian 2923:See also: 2897:Kuryłowicz 2889:Helmut Rix 2857:and up to 2855:Compendium 2831:Franz Bopp 2824:Franz Bopp 2757:philologer 2535:Indo-Aryan 2523:See also: 2465:colony of 2431:South Asia 2398:Bronze Age 2378:Ethnologue 2354:Hindustani 2294:Portuguese 2173:Institutes 2093:Lithuanian 1847:Indo-Aryan 1833:Historical 1767:Indo-Aryan 1724:Tocharians 1638:Cimmerians 1516:Bronze Age 1407:South Asia 1281:Bronze Age 1219:Afanasievo 1023:Mainstream 787:Vocabulary 707:Sound laws 569:Indo-Aryan 385:Indo-Aryan 212:Lusitanian 51:Geographic 17660:Pre-Vedic 17650:Pre-Greek 17622:Substrata 17525:Arunachal 17423:Nostratic 17408:Alarodian 17343:Yeniseian 17193:East Asia 17145:Dravidian 17002:West Asia 16970:Tyrsenian 16733:Tanzanian 16674:languages 16571:Hodï/Joti 16515:Isolates 16454:Yanomaman 16390:Otomákoan 16354:Jirajaran 16343:Guajiboan 16305:Catacaoan 16284:Barbacoan 16213:Cuitlatec 16182:Totonacan 16141:Jicaquean 16020:Chimariko 15916:Muskogean 15898:Kalapuyan 15892:Iroquoian 15867:Chumashan 15860:Chinookan 15853:Chimakuan 15771:Yangmanic 15766:Worrorran 15749:Wagaydyic 15639:Australia 15488:Trans-Fly 15154:Yeniseian 15141:Tyrsenian 15035:Dravidian 14792:indicate 14541:Tocharian 14498:Nuristani 14246:Anatolian 14005:Databases 13906:169996117 13898:0019-7262 13839:161016819 13653:248358873 13559:1816-3920 13438:Drews, R. 13417:162944161 13408:1887/2660 13115:"English" 13044:161530848 13028:0019-7246 12978:, p. 30, 12826:Holm 2008 12507:CiteSeerX 12395:Routledge 12362:143978664 12053:The Celts 11948:132712913 11901:"Mitanni" 11621:Hamp 2007 11616:Eric Hamp 11504:899731310 11263:Citations 11069:Caucasian 11065:Dravidian 11001:East Asia 10993:Near East 10684:(English 10586:synthetic 10333:(ti) bie 10182:bʰáranti 10179:phérousi 10171:*berjeju 10165:*beratei 10147:bʰáratha 10136:*berjame 10130:*beramai 10115:barāmahi 10112:bʰárāmas 10109:phéromen 10077:bʰáratas 10074:phéreton 10039:phéreton 10010:barāvahi 10007:bʰárāvas 9861:Old Irish 9506:or after 9462:Before a 9244:Old Irish 8922:*h₁reudʰ- 8726:(he)katón 8716:hund(red) 8255:*sneigʷʰ- 7090:*déḱm̥(t) 6941:*kʷekʷlom 6662:hund(red) 6212:Examples 6200:Old Irish 6098:) in the 6064:becoming 6040:Anatolian 5975:Tocharian 5971:Anatolian 5944:sibilants 5934:before a 5890:Anatolian 5861:), while 5837:"ten" in 5800:hund(red) 5790:in Latin 5737:hund(red) 5613:(written 5406:kʷ gʷ gʷh 5371:voiceless 5363:phonation 5296:Tocharian 5283:Old Irish 5248:–200 BC). 5227:–400 BC). 5126:Old Norse 5065:Classical 4861:Tocharian 4798:Byzantine 4790:Silk Road 4725:Hindukush 4694:Sri Lanka 4680:, and in 4646:Babylonia 4630:Zoroaster 4624:preaches 4616:preaches 4507:Hallstatt 4497:develops 4462:(3300 BC) 4456:(3700 BC) 4454:Tocharian 4449:(4200 BC) 4447:Anatolian 4428:(2000 BC) 4414:Tocharian 4407:Anatolian 4337:morphemes 4255:Evolution 4245:Australia 4167:Dravidian 4159:Nostratic 4101:June 2021 4036:Avestan ( 3618:Phrygians 3578:Liburnian 3550:Cimmerian 3521:Tocharian 3467:Vasi-vari 3459:Nuristani 3399:Sri Lanka 3268:Mycenaean 3246:Elfdalian 3242:Icelandic 3230:Afrikaans 3226:Norwegian 3148:Old Welsh 3094:Ukrainian 3090:Slovenian 3058:Kashubian 3034:Bulgarian 3004:from the 2960:Anatolian 2864:Grundriss 2692:Kurlandic 2627:In 1647, 2608:"seven", 2396:or early 2394:Neolithic 2108:Practices 1927:Yarsanism 1737:Albanians 1717:East Asia 1704:Scythians 1696:Phrygians 1689:Paeonians 1682:Illyrians 1668:Thracians 1585:East Asia 1536:Armenians 1463:Hallstatt 1445:Chernoles 1386:Terramare 1376:Trzciniec 1343:Sintashta 1338:Andronovo 1239:Cernavodă 1212:East Asia 1167:Khvalynsk 907:Philology 817:Particles 703:Phonology 644:Liburnian 619:Tocharian 614:Anatolian 583:Nuristani 476:Languages 394:Nuristani 330:Brittonic 254:Glottolog 236:ISO 639-2 205:Liburnian 172:Tocharian 115:Anatolian 56:Worldwide 17655:Vasconic 17630:Atlantic 17384:Eskaleut 17338:Yukaghir 17253:Koreanic 17248:Tungusic 17243:Mongolic 17181:Harappan 17092:Caucasus 17074:Sumerian 16949:Ligurian 16766:See also 16743:Isolates 16718:Japanese 16658:Yuracaré 16540:Candoshi 16499:Macro-Jê 16464:Zaparoan 16459:Zamucoan 16449:Witotoan 16432:Tucanoan 16427:Tiniguan 16422:Timotean 16406:Quechuan 16375:Matacoan 16370:Mascoian 16360:Jivaroan 16323:Chibchan 16317:Charruan 16268:Arawakan 16205:Isolates 16136:Chibchan 16012:Isolates 15984:Wakashan 15945:Salishan 15887:Eskaleut 15793:Giimbiyu 15785:Isolates 15694:Jarrakan 15689:Iwaidjan 15546:Isolates 15400:Kutubuan 15268:Sumerian 15204:Isolates 15159:Yukaghir 15128:Tungusic 15094:Mongolic 15082:Koreanic 15041:Eskaleut 14932:Isolates 14916:Ubangian 14638:Thracian 14631:Phrygian 14624:Paeonian 14603:Illyrian 14578:Armenian 14573:Albanian 14444:Germanic 14324:Pisidian 14175:29 March 13939:(2000). 13793:(1936). 13746:(1989). 13685:(1968). 13663:(1994). 13645:37599704 13636:10432883 13527:Kratylos 13483:(1861). 13393:: 9–26. 13256:(1886). 13219:(2011). 13197:(1995). 13036:24651488 12980:Toch: 19 12960:Hitt: 20 12933:7 August 12724:(1987). 12678:(1979). 12641:Language 12498:Language 12488:(2005). 12341:Language 12275:22923579 12120:p. 388}} 11932:: 1–22. 11829:Such as 11772:(1995). 11684:31 March 11462:Japanese 11458:Egyptian 11380:Archived 11145:See also 11031:and the 11025:Caucasus 10864:Germanic 10829:Americas 10728:conferir 10664:bʰarant- 10594:pronouns 10537:beriate 10516:férnete 10502:beriame 10481:férnume 10432:beriata 10397:beriava 10353:beiridh 10260:Albanian 10197:baírand 10185:barəṇti 10156:beirthe 10144:phérete 10124:beremkʿ 10118:ferimus 10057:baírats 9996:*berjet 9975:baraiti 9972:bʰárati 9937:bʰárasi 9934:phéreis 9900:bʰárāmi 9809:Albanian 9799:Germanic 9794:Armenian 9774:Hellenic 9759:bʰéronti 9733:bʰéromos 9720:bʰéretes 9694:bʰérowos 9601:thematic 9482:sonorant 9464:sonorant 9358:, etc.; 9336:, etc.; 9253:English 8937:eruthrós 8932:rudhirá- 8521:*h₂eusōs 8290:*gʷʰerm- 7988:(h)ānser 7621:*bʰéroh₂ 6672:he-katón 6164:reflexes 6090:becomes 6054:Armenian 6050:Germanic 6044:Albanian 5955:Germanic 5928:Armenian 5924:Albanian 5829:with no 5749:For PIE 5727:For PIE 5697:For PIE 5675:For PIE 5637:For PIE 5381:" (i.e. 5322:Albanian 5113:–1000), 5067:period ( 5021:and the 4885:Albanian 4831:and the 4760:Armenian 4698:Maldives 4696:and the 4690:Prakrits 4686:Phrygian 4682:Anatolia 4678:Illyrian 4670:Thracian 4662:Siculian 4642:Elamites 4626:Buddhism 4614:Mahavira 4511:Iron Age 4503:Urnfield 4345:suffixes 4205:Yukaghir 4054:isogloss 3915:*kʷenkʷe 3636:Thracian 3614:Phrygian 3608:Paionian 3602:Messapic 3584:Ligurian 3572:Illyrian 3566:Elymians 3503:Faliscan 3453:Ossetian 3407:Maldives 3379:Gujarati 3375:Kashmiri 3367:Assamese 3339:Pakistan 3303:Anatolia 3256:Hellenic 3178:Germanic 3136:Lepontic 3074:Croatian 3054:Silesian 2990:Armenian 2968:Anatolia 2954:Messapic 2946:Illyrian 2934:Albanian 2899:'s 1956 2853:'s 1861 2762:— 2727:Sanskrit 2708:Khoekhoe 2641:Albanian 2582:Sanskrit 2578:Florence 2553:scholar 2543:European 2471:Anatolia 2463:Assyrian 2441:and the 2335:Hellenic 2331:Germanic 2319:Armenian 2315:Albanian 2154:Scholars 2052:Germanic 2023:Scottish 1988:Thracian 1982:Illyrian 1976:Albanian 1964:European 1957:Armenian 1941:Ossetian 1935:Scythian 1920:Yazidism 1870:Buddhism 1861:Hinduism 1752:Norsemen 1662:Anatolia 1579:Iranians 1572:Iranians 1553:Iron Age 1528:Hittites 1481:Colchian 1474:Caucasus 1432:Iron Age 1401:Lusatian 1396:Urnfield 1320:Srubnaya 1315:Poltavka 1305:Catacomb 1244:Cucuteni 1199:Caucasus 1016:Religion 1001:Homeland 943:Behistun 923:Linear B 812:Numerals 807:Pronouns 732:Balkanic 679:Thracian 672:Phrygian 665:Paeonian 651:Messapic 637:Illyrian 549:Hellenic 544:Germanic 513:Armenian 505:Albanian 499:Albanoid 450:a series 448:Part of 362:Hellenic 344:Germanic 334:Goidelic 294:Armenian 284:Albanian 280:Albanoid 260:indo1319 226:Thracian 219:Paeonian 197:Illyrian 151:Phrygian 147:Hellenic 138:Germanic 123:Armenian 106:Messapic 102:Albanian 98:Albanoid 17690:italics 17588:Austric 17565:Kho-Bwa 17560:Hrusish 17538:Siangic 17480:Karasuk 17380: ? 17293:Kenaboi 17258:Japonic 17223:Kra–Dai 17184: ? 17175:Kusunda 17081:Elamite 17053:Kassite 17039:Kaskian 16942:Camunic 16914:Iberian 16871:Eurasia 16816:italics 16793:Pidgins 16778:Creoles 16728:Swedish 16696:Chinese 16643:Urarina 16628:Puinave 16582:Itonama 16576:Irantxe 16545:Chimane 16475:Chimuan 16380:Nadahup 16299:Cariban 16279:Aymaran 16240:America 16082:Waikuri 16075:Tonkawa 16068:Timucua 16061:Takelma 16054:Siuslaw 16043:Kutenai 16027:Esselen 15990:Wintuan 15951:Shastan 15922:Na-Dene 15910:Maiduan 15847:Caddoan 15821:America 15775:Wagiman 15773:(incl. 15744:Tangkic 15684:Garawan 15657:Bunuban 15618:Tambora 15585:Maybrat 15553:Abinomn 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933:Avesta 715:Ablaut 711:Accent 658:Mysian 630:Dacian 591:Italic 539:Celtic 531:Slavic 524:Baltic 492:Extant 413: 403:Italic 401: 399: 392: 390: 383: 381: 374: 372: 360: 358: 342: 340: 326:Celtic 324: 322: 317:Slavic 315: 313: 303:Baltic 301: 299: 292: 290: 278: 276: 183:Dacian 165:Italic 133:Celtic 17328:Nivkh 17282:Ongan 16648:Warao 16617:Nukak 16588:Kunza 16566:Guató 16555:Cofán 16535:Camsá 16328:Choco 16289:Boran 16238:South 16219:Huave 16154:Mayan 16105:Yuchi 16088:Washo 16038:Karuk 16033:Haida 15972:Utian 15904:Keres 15841:Alsea 15834:Algic 15819:North 15611:Taiap 15605:Sulka 15460:Sepik 15375:Engan 15116:Ongan 15099:Nivkh 14967:Shabo 14950:Jalaa 14944:Hadza 14898:Mande 14583:Greek 14286:Luwic 13902:S2CID 13834:S2CID 13649:S2CID 13413:S2CID 13383:(PDF) 13363:(PDF) 13311:[ 13040:S2CID 13032:JSTOR 12952:p. 30 12682:[ 12658:JSTOR 12525:S2CID 12493:(PDF) 12442:[ 12387:(PDF) 12358:S2CID 12336:(PDF) 12208:[ 11966:RSLig 11944:S2CID 11745:(PDF) 11738:(PDF) 11470:Hindi 11444:(PDF) 11433:(PDF) 11361:p. 12 11237:Notes 11033:Urals 10997:North 10985:Slavs 10969:Celts 10882:Dutch 10760:phero 10752:ferno 10740:phero 10736:Greek 10723:ferre 10709:ferre 10697:ferre 10632:Hindi 10365:bére 10327:beri 10235:Irish 9984:berē 9978:fert 9943:fers 9923:berǫ 9896:phérō 9856:Latin 9636:bʰer- 9609:bʰer- 9239:Latin 9234:Greek 9229:Lith. 9203:vėtra 9193:áenta 9089:yugh 9080:iugum 9075:zugón 9070:yugám 8951:sorx 8942:ruber 8874:light 8815:noct- 8810:núkt- 8805:nákt- 8800:night 8736:OPrus 8721:śatám 8611:mū́ṣ- 8606:mouse 8556:xtar 8548:aušra 8533:uṣā́ḥ 8488:haft 8474:heptá 8469:saptá 8464:seven 8323:garm 8316:Latv. 8284:barf 8275:nivis 8270:nípha 7993:žąsìs 7965:goose 7808:dùrys 7803:forēs 7654:bar- 7637:phérō 7632:bhar- 7498:gývas 7493:vīvus 7478:jīvá- 7471:quick 7376:yugh 7367:iugum 7362:zugón 7357:yugám 7241:jā́nu 7210:c / k 7118:decem 7100:Goth. 6967:carx 6946:wheel 6790:cruor 6785:kréas 6771:hrēaw 6667:śatám 6513:treĩs 6503:three 6373:pãdas 6243:etc. 6241:Lith. 6195:Latin 6190:Greek 6185:Lith. 6101:satem 6066:b p f 6026:Latin 6012:Greek 5967:Greek 5912:satem 5903:satem 5879:māter 5875:pater 5843:seven 5823:decem 5711:pēdis 5703:decem 5689:māter 5685:three 5667:pater 5377:and " 5231:Oscan 5095:, AD 5061:Latin 5018:Iliad 5015:(the 4874:Slavs 4825:koine 4778:, an 4713:Latin 4709:Greek 4598:Homer 4361:verbs 4357:nouns 4349:stems 4333:roots 4209:Nivkh 4039:satem 3963:satem 3913:> 3907:-m̥mo 3826:Other 3745:Ringe 3691:The " 3624:Sicel 3507:Latin 3351:Hindi 3214:Scots 3210:Dutch 3186:runic 3168:Irish 3152:Welsh 3102:Rusyn 3046:Czech 2723:Greek 2719:Latin 2696:Medic 2649:Latin 2645:Greek 2637:Dutch 2629:Dutch 2606:sette 2602:sapta 2598:serpe 2586:devaḥ 2567:Latin 2563:Greek 2302:Dutch 2072:Norse 2037:Welsh 2016:Irish 2005:Roman 2000:Greek 1855:Vedic 1747:Slavs 1742:Balts 1616:Gauls 1610:Celts 1592:Wusun 1487:India 1263:Baden 963:Ogham 938:Homer 825:Other 802:Nouns 797:Verbs 555:Greek 427:Notes 366:Greek 348:North 17697:bold 17555:Miju 17323:Ainu 16823:bold 16750:See 16686:Arab 16672:Sign 16623:Páez 16600:Maku 16594:Leco 16110:Zuni 16094:Yana 16048:Seri 15805:Tiwi 15625:Wiru 15590:Mpur 15580:Kuot 15563:Anêm 15558:Abun 15525:Yuat 15520:Yawa 15466:Skou 15443:Ramu 15294:and 15188:Miju 15010:Ainu 14990:Asia 14988:and 14961:Laal 14922:Kadu 14910:Ijaw 14873:Kx'a 14236:list 14194:2009 14177:2015 14158:2009 14134:2009 14093:2009 14065:2009 14041:2009 14021:2009 13945:ISBN 13923:ISBN 13894:ISSN 13884:ISBN 13853:ISBN 13824:ISBN 13777:ISBN 13756:ISBN 13730:ISBN 13709:ISBN 13669:ISBN 13641:PMID 13577:ISBN 13555:ISSN 13545:ISBN 13489:ISBN 13467:ISBN 13446:ISBN 13332:ISBN 13294:ISBN 13275:ISBN 13243:ISBN 13231:ISBN 13203:ISBN 13181:ISBN 13160:ISBN 13127:2017 13100:2021 13072:2019 13024:ISSN 12935:2010 12730:ISBN 12621:2018 12608:ISBN 12399:ISBN 12369:2020 12318:2020 12271:PMID 12167:ISBN 12110:ISBN 12074:ISBN 12032:ISBN 12003:ISBN 11880:ISBN 11818:PMID 11778:ISBN 11753:2013 11720:2013 11686:2017 11673:ISBN 11646:ISBN 11527:ISBN 11500:OCLC 11452:2010 11415:2022 11321:ISBN 11296:ISBN 11118:and 11035:the 11015:and 10999:and 10936:and 10744:fero 10721:and 10719:sub- 10686:bear 10636:Urdu 10634:and 10626:The 10605:beir 9907:ferō 9686:dual 9556:i, e 9510:r, u 9502:r, l 9434:o, u 9382:i, e 9304:r, l 9219:Skr. 9183:wind 9065:yoke 8898:ruz 8879:ruc- 8826:áštá 8743:sad 8629:myšĭ 8601:*mūs 8528:east 8296:warm 8260:snow 8091:*gʷʰ 7983:khḗn 7973:gans 7812:dar 7788:door 7650:berǫ 7642:ferō 7626:bear 7502:ze- 7483:bíos 7352:yoke 7251:genu 7246:gónu 7236:knee 7232:cnēo 7127:dah 7113:déka 7108:dáśa 6907:what 6874:gw/w 6799:xore 6686:sad 6523:trỹs 6518:trēs 6358:pád- 6353:foot 6236:Lat. 6226:Skr. 6222:Eng. 6175:Skr. 6082:The 6052:and 6004:The 5997:The 5973:and 5901:and 5865:and 5847:have 5845:and 5817:and 5767:when 5765:vs. 5759:what 5757:vs. 5755:quid 5745:have 5735:vs. 5723:what 5721:vs. 5719:quid 5715:foot 5713:vs. 5705:vs. 5691:vs. 5683:vs. 5681:trēs 5669:vs. 5663:flow 5655:foot 5653:vs. 5647:fish 5645:vs. 5629:and 5412:and 5401:and 5311:(AD 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