2399:. In epidemics, there are often extensive interactions within hubs or groups of infected individuals and other interactions within discrete hubs of susceptible individuals. Despite the low interaction between discrete hubs, the disease can jump and spread in a susceptible hub via a single or few interactions with an infected hub. Thus, infection rates in small-world networks can be reduced somewhat if interactions between individuals within infected hubs are eliminated (Figure 1). However, infection rates can be drastically reduced if the main focus is on the prevention of transmission jumps between hubs. The use of needle exchange programs in areas with a high density of drug users with HIV is an example of the successful implementation of this treatment method. Another example is the use of ring culling or vaccination of potentially susceptible livestock in adjacent farms to prevent the spread of the
2745:
1491:. Immunoassays can use the basic antibody – antigen binding as the basis to produce an electro-magnetic or particle radiation signal, which can be detected by some form of instrumentation. Signal of unknowns can be compared to that of standards allowing quantitation of the target antigen. To aid in the diagnosis of infectious diseases, immunoassays can detect or measure antigens from either infectious agents or proteins generated by an infected organism in response to a foreign agent. For example, immunoassay A may detect the presence of a surface protein from a virus particle. Immunoassay B on the other hand may detect or measure antibodies produced by an organism's immune system that are made to neutralize and allow the destruction of the virus.
2825:
1192:
1723:
1515:(PCR) method will become nearly ubiquitous gold standards of diagnostics of the near future, for several reasons. First, the catalog of infectious agents has grown to the point that virtually all of the significant infectious agents of the human population have been identified. Second, an infectious agent must grow within the human body to cause disease; essentially it must amplify its own nucleic acids in order to cause a disease. This amplification of nucleic acid in infected tissue offers an opportunity to detect the infectious agent by using PCR. Third, the essential tools for directing PCR,
2210:) of those affected. However, this specialized connotation of the word "contagious" and "contagious disease" (easy transmissibility) is not always respected in popular use. Infectious diseases are commonly transmitted from person to person through direct contact. The types of contact are through person to person and droplet spread. Indirect contact such as airborne transmission, contaminated objects, food and drinking water, animal person contact, animal reservoirs, insect bites, and environmental reservoirs are another way infectious diseases are transmitted.
1714:. An ever-wider array of infectious agents can cause serious harm to individuals with immunosuppression, so clinical screening must often be broader. Additionally, the expression of symptoms is often atypical, making a clinical diagnosis based on presentation more difficult. Thirdly, diagnostic methods that rely on the detection of antibodies are more likely to fail. A rapid, sensitive, specific, and untargeted test for all known human pathogens that detects the presence of the organism's DNA rather than antibodies is therefore highly desirable.
1504:
2174:, or the study and analysis of who, why and where disease occurs, and what determines whether various populations have a disease, is another important tool used to understand infectious disease. Epidemiologists may determine differences among groups within a population, such as whether certain age groups have a greater or lesser rate of infection; whether groups living in different neighborhoods are more likely to be infected; and by other factors, such as gender and race. Researchers also may assess whether a disease
622:
3945:
1772:. Molecular diagnostics are now commonly used to identify HIV in healthy people long before the onset of illness and have been used to demonstrate the existence of people who are genetically resistant to HIV infection. Thus, while there still is no cure for AIDS, there is great therapeutic and predictive benefit to identifying the virus and monitoring the virus levels within the blood of infected individuals, both for the patient and for the community at large.
3344:
12036:
716:
12066:
1231:), and the environment that supports its growth. Other ingredients are often added to the plate to aid in identification. Plates may contain substances that permit the growth of some bacteria and not others, or that change color in response to certain bacteria and not others. Bacteriological plates such as these are commonly used in the clinical identification of infectious bacterium. Microbial culture may also be used in the identification of
3930:
explanations for at least some of the associations although some of these explanations may in turn ultimately be due to pathogen load. Thus, polygyny may also be due to a lower male: female ratio in these areas but this may ultimately be due to male infants having increased mortality from infectious diseases. Another example is that poor socioeconomic factors may ultimately in part be due to high pathogen load preventing economic development.
598:
12076:
1557:
2450:
12056:
2301:
12046:
13993:
13981:
2206:). Thus, a contagious disease is a subset of infectious disease that is especially infective or easily transmitted. Other types of infectious, transmissible, or communicable diseases with more specialized routes of infection, such as vector transmission or sexual transmission, are usually not regarded as "contagious", and often do not require medical isolation (sometimes loosely called
860:
613:. The chain of events involves several steps – which include the infectious agent, reservoir, entering a susceptible host, exit and transmission to new hosts. Each of the links must be present in a chronological order for an infection to develop. Understanding these steps helps health care workers target the infection and prevent it from occurring in the first place.
2107:. The second is an iatrogenic infection. This type of infection is one that is transmitted from a health care worker to a patient. A nosocomial infection is also one that occurs in a health care setting. Nosocomial infections are those that are acquired during a hospital stay. Lastly, a community-acquired infection is one in which the infection is acquired from a whole community.
55:
791:'s "Rational Clinical Examination Series" quantified the importance of increased pain as an indicator of infection. The review showed that the most useful finding is an increase in the level of pain makes infection much more likely, but the absence of pain (negative likelihood ratio range, 0.64–0.88) does not rule out infection (summary LR 0.64–0.88).
3921:
transmission, or a high pathogen load preventing the creation of large settlements and armies that enforce a common culture. Higher pathogen load is also associated with more restricted sexual behavior, which may reduce pathogen transmission. It also associated with higher preferences for health and attractiveness in mates. Higher
787:. Because it is normal to have bacterial colonization, it is difficult to know which chronic wounds can be classified as infected and how much risk of progression exists. Despite the huge number of wounds seen in clinical practice, there are limited quality data for evaluated symptoms and signs. A review of chronic wounds in the
3965:, scientists who study occurrences of injuries and illness in extinct life forms. Signs of infection have been discovered in the bones of carnivorous dinosaurs. When present, however, these infections seem to tend to be confined to only small regions of the body. A skull attributed to the early carnivorous dinosaur
2388:) kills its victims very slowly by attacking their immune system. As a result, many of its victims transmit the virus to other individuals before even realizing that they are carrying the disease. Also, the relatively low virulence allows its victims to travel long distances, increasing the likelihood of an
1941:(the severity of the disease they cause) is, in part, a necessary consequence of their need to reproduce and spread. Many of the most common primary pathogens of humans only infect humans, however, many serious diseases are caused by organisms acquired from the environment or that infect non-human hosts.
654:, nose, eyes, genitalia, anus, or the microbe can enter through open wounds. While a few organisms can grow at the initial site of entry, many migrate and cause systemic infection in different organs. Some pathogens grow within the host cells (intracellular) whereas others grow freely in bodily fluids.
2699:
show that people dramatically differ in their susceptibility to infection. This may be because of general health, age, or their immune status, e.g. when they have been infected previously. However, it also has become clear that there are genetic factor which determine susceptibility to infection. For
1918:
and the defenses of the hosts they infect. The appearance and severity of disease resulting from any pathogen depend upon the ability of that pathogen to damage the host as well as the ability of the host to resist the pathogen. However, a host's immune system can also cause damage to the host itself
1526:
Thus, the technological ability to detect any infectious agent rapidly and specifically are currently available. The only remaining blockades to the use of PCR as a standard tool of diagnosis are in its cost and application, neither of which is insurmountable. The diagnosis of a few diseases will not
566:
The classic symptoms of a bacterial infection are localized redness, heat, swelling and pain. One of the hallmarks of a bacterial infection is local pain, pain that is in a specific part of the body. For example, if a cut occurs and is infected with bacteria, pain occurs at the site of the infection.
2374:
virus, for example, incapacitate those infected extremely quickly and kill them soon after. As a result, those affected by this disease do not have the opportunity to travel very far from the initial infection zone. Also, this virus must spread through skin lesions or permeable membranes such as the
1469:
methods are highly sensitive, specific and often extremely rapid tests used to identify microorganisms. These tests are based upon the ability of an antibody to bind specifically to an antigen. The antigen, usually a protein or carbohydrate made by an infectious agent, is bound by the antibody. This
633:
Infection begins when an organism successfully enters the body, grows and multiplies. This is referred to as colonization. Most humans are not easily infected. Those with compromised or weakened immune systems have an increased susceptibility to chronic or persistent infections. Individuals who have
3624:
theorized: "Leprosy, fever, consumption, diseases of the eye, and other infectious diseases spread from one person to another by sexual union, physical contact, eating together, sleeping together, sitting together, and the use of same clothes, garlands and pastes." This book has been dated to about
1734:
for a specific identification of an infectious agent only when such identification can aid in the treatment or prevention of the disease, or to advance knowledge of the course of an illness prior to the development of effective therapeutic or preventative measures. For example, in the early 1980s,
1666:
sequencing-based diagnostic tests are currently being developed for clinical use and show promise as a sensitive, specific, and rapid way to diagnose infection using a single all-encompassing test. This test is similar to current PCR tests; however, an untargeted whole genome amplification is used
1494:
Instrumentation can be used to read extremely small signals created by secondary reactions linked to the antibody – antigen binding. Instrumentation can control sampling, reagent use, reaction times, signal detection, calculation of results, and data management to yield a cost-effective automated
1108:
and physical examination. More detailed identification techniques involve the culture of infectious agents isolated from a patient. Culture allows identification of infectious organisms by examining their microscopic features, by detecting the presence of substances produced by pathogens, and by
841:
Persistent infections occur because the body is unable to clear the organism after the initial infection. Persistent infections are characterized by the continual presence of the infectious organism, often as latent infection with occasional recurrent relapses of active infection. There are some
2564:
The organism that is the target of an infecting action of a specific infectious agent is called the host. The host harbouring an agent that is in a mature or sexually active stage phase is called the definitive host. The intermediate host comes in contact during the larvae stage. A host can be
2360:
when given as prevention rather as treatment of infection. However, long term use of antibiotics leads to resistance of bacteria. While humans do not become immune to antibiotics, the bacteria does. Thus, avoiding using antibiotics longer than necessary helps preventing bacteria from forming
3920:
Several studies have reported associations between pathogen load in an area and human behavior. Higher pathogen load is associated with decreased size of ethnic and religious groups in an area. This may be due high pathogen load favoring avoidance of other groups, which may reduce pathogen
3556:. Ships and other cargo carriers often harbor unintended "passengers", that can spread diseases to faraway destinations. While with international jet-airplane travel, people infected with a disease can carry it to distant lands, or home to their families, before their first symptoms appear.
3929:
which may be due to higher pathogen load, making selecting males with a high genetic resistance increasingly important. Higher pathogen load is also associated with more collectivism and less individualism, which may limit contacts with outside groups and infections. There are alternative
1100:
are diagnosed by their clinical presentation and treated without knowledge of the specific causative agent. Conclusions about the cause of the disease are based upon the likelihood that a patient came in contact with a particular agent, the presence of a microbe in a community, and other
3971:
exhibits pit-like wounds surrounded by swollen and porous bone. The unusual texture of the bone around the wounds suggests they were affected by a short-lived, non-lethal infection. Scientists who studied the skull speculated that the bite marks were received in a fight with another
2686:
is the concept that healthcare providers should treat an infection with an antimicrobial that specifically works well for the target pathogen for the shortest amount of time and to only treat when there is a known or highly suspected pathogen that will respond to the medication.
1335:
is then used to detect fluorescently labeled antibodies bound to internalized antigens within clinical samples or cultured cells. This technique is especially useful in the diagnosis of viral diseases, where the light microscope is incapable of identifying a virus directly.
1653:
Given the wide range of bacterial, viral, fungal, protozoal, and helminthic pathogens that cause debilitating and life-threatening illnesses, the ability to quickly identify the cause of infection is important yet often challenging. For example, more than half of cases of
842:
viruses that can maintain a persistent infection by infecting different cells of the body. Some viruses once acquired never leave the body. A typical example is the herpes virus, which tends to hide in nerves and become reactivated when specific circumstances arise.
1167:
The diagnosis is aided by the presenting symptoms in any individual with an infectious disease, yet it usually needs additional diagnostic techniques to confirm the suspicion. Some signs are specifically characteristic and indicative of a disease and are called
8531:
An
English translation of the Sushruta samhita, based on original Sanskrit text. Edited and published by Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna. With a full and comprehensive introd., translation of different readings, notes, comparative views, index, glossary and
1112:
Many infectious organisms are identified without culture and microscopy. This is especially true for viruses, which cannot grow in culture. For some suspected pathogens, doctors may conduct tests that examine a patient's blood or other body fluids for
1347:
attraction between negatively charged cellular molecules and the positive charge on the dye. A cell is normally transparent under a microscope, and using a stain increases the contrast of a cell with its background. Staining a cell with a dye such as
2565:
anything living and can attain to asexual and sexual reproduction. The clearance of the pathogens, either treatment-induced or spontaneous, it can be influenced by the genetic variants carried by the individual patients. For instance, for genotype 1
691:. Neither of these colonizations are considered infections. The difference between an infection and a colonization is often only a matter of circumstance. Non-pathogenic organisms can become pathogenic given specific conditions, and even the most
554:
In general, viral infections are systemic. This means they involve many different parts of the body or more than one body system at the same time; i.e. a runny nose, sinus congestion, cough, body aches etc. They can be local at times as in viral
3410:
killed an estimated 60 million
Europeans during the 18th century (approximately 400,000 per year). Up to 30% of those infected, including 80% of the children under 5 years of age, died from the disease, and one-third of the survivors went
7379:
Ge D, Fellay J, Thompson AJ, Simon JS, Shianna KV, Urban TJ, Heinzen EL, Qiu P, Bertelsen AH, Muir AJ, Sulkowski M, McHutchison JG, Goldstein DB (2009). "Genetic variation in IL28B predicts hepatitis C treatment-induced viral clearance".
1304:. Virtually all of the culture techniques discussed above rely, at some point, on microscopic examination for definitive identification of the infectious agent. Microscopy may be carried out with simple instruments, such as the compound
1480:, that is retrieved from a patient's throat with a cotton swab. Serological tests, if available, are usually the preferred route of identification, however the tests are costly to develop and the reagents used in the test often require
3329:. Children also make up a large percentage of lower respiratory and diarrheal deaths. In 2012, approximately 3.1 million people have died due to lower respiratory infections, making it the number 4 leading cause of death in the world.
907:, wherein foodstuffs or water become contaminated (by people not washing their hands before preparing food, or untreated sewage being released into a drinking water supply) and the people who eat and drink them become infected. Common
885:
For infecting organisms to survive and repeat the infection cycle in other hosts, they (or their progeny) must leave an existing reservoir and cause infection elsewhere. Infection transmission can take place via many potential routes:
522:
As bacterial and viral infections can both cause the same kinds of symptoms, it can be difficult to distinguish which is the cause of a specific infection. Distinguishing the two is important, since viral infections cannot be cured by
2650:
to one antibiotic. Antibiotics only work for bacteria and do not affect viruses. Antibiotics work by slowing down the multiplication of bacteria or killing the bacteria. The most common classes of antibiotics used in medicine include
2581:, it has been shown that genetic polymorphisms near the human IL28B gene, encoding interferon lambda 3, are associated with significant differences in the treatment-induced clearance of the virus. This finding, originally reported in
1751:
as to the route of transmission of the virus. By understanding how the disease was transmitted, resources could be targeted to the communities at greatest risk in campaigns aimed at reducing the number of new infections. The specific
3747:
did important work demonstrating the contagiousness of typhoid and cholera through contaminated water. Both are credited with decreasing epidemics of cholera in their towns by implementing measures to prevent contamination of water.
2379:
is not very contagious since its victims experience only internal hemorrhaging. As a result of the above features, the spread of Ebola is very rapid and usually stays within a relatively confined geographical area. In contrast, the
1743:, the course of the disease was closely followed by monitoring the composition of patient blood samples, even though the outcome would not offer the patient any further treatment options. In part, these studies on the appearance of
1257:
can be grown in animals, although serological and microscopic techniques make the use of live animals unnecessary. Viruses are also usually identified using alternatives to growth in culture or animals. Some viruses may be grown in
3392:
to the areas of
Central and South America by European explorers during the 15th and 16th centuries caused pandemics among the native inhabitants. Between 1518 and 1568 disease pandemics are said to have caused the population of
3542:. As countries make use of their rain forests, by building roads through forests and clearing areas for settlement or commercial ventures, people encounter insects and other animals harboring previously unknown microorganisms.
2071:(the root cause) is a secondary infection. Primary pathogens often cause primary infection and often cause secondary infection. Usually, opportunistic infections are viewed as secondary infections (because immunodeficiency or
2127:
be identifiable only in patients who have the disease, and not in healthy controls, and second, that patients who contract the infectious agent also develop the disease. These postulates were first used in the discovery that
3720:(1313–1374) hypothesised that infectious diseases were caused by "minute bodies" and described how they can be transmitted through garments, vessels and earrings. Ideas of contagion became more popular in Europe during the
1235:: the medium, in this case, being cells grown in culture that the virus can infect, and then alter or kill. In the case of viral identification, a region of dead cells results from viral growth, and is called a "plaque".
5944:
Van den Bruel A, Haj-Hassan T, Thompson M, Buntinx F, Mant D (March 2010). "Diagnostic value of clinical features at presentation to identify serious infection in children in developed countries: a systematic review".
2587:, showed that genotype 1 hepatitis C patients carrying certain genetic variant alleles near the IL28B gene are more possibly to achieve sustained virological response after the treatment than others. Later report from
2365:
One of the ways to prevent or slow down the transmission of infectious diseases is to recognize the different characteristics of various diseases. Some critical disease characteristics that should be evaluated include
509:
for much or even all of their course in a given host. In the latter case, the disease may only be defined as a "disease" (which by definition means an illness) in hosts who secondarily become ill after contact with an
1223:, a form of solid medium that supplies carbohydrates and proteins necessary for growth, along with copious amounts of water. A single bacterium will grow into a visible mound on the surface of the plate called a
9110:
9091:
7431:
Thomas DL, Thio CL, Martin MP, Qi Y, Ge D, O'Huigin C, Kidd J, Kidd K, Khakoo SI, Alexander G, Goedert JJ, Kirk GD, Donfield SM, Rosen HR, Tobler LH, Busch MP, McHutchison JG, Goldstein DB, Carrington M (2009).
3549:. The rapid growth of cities in many developing countries tends to concentrate large numbers of people into crowded areas with poor sanitation. These conditions foster transmission of contagious diseases.
1072:
is complex; with studies have shown that there were no clear relationship between the two. There is still a small number of evidence that partially suggests a link between virulence and transmissibility.
4955:
1227:, which may be separated from other colonies or melded together into a "lawn". The size, color, shape and form of a colony is characteristic of the bacterial species, its specific genetic makeup (its
1356:
allows a microscopist to describe its size, shape, internal and external components and its associations with other cells. The response of bacteria to different staining procedures is used in the
1215:
is provided for a specific agent. A sample taken from potentially diseased tissue or fluid is then tested for the presence of an infectious agent able to grow within that medium. Many pathogenic
2544:
Immune resistance to an infectious disease requires a critical level of either antigen-specific antibodies and/or T cells when the host encounters the pathogen. Some individuals develop natural
2324:, wearing gloves, and having a healthy lifestyle with a balanced diet and regular exercise. Cooking foods well and avoiding foods that have been left outside for a long time is also important.
1155:
The benefits of identification, however, are often greatly outweighed by the cost, as often there is no specific treatment, the cause is obvious, or the outcome of an infection is likely to be
1768:
origins of the virus, as well as a myriad of other hypothesis. The development of molecular diagnostic tools have enabled physicians and researchers to monitor the efficacy of treatment with
783:, and other advanced technologies have made more apparent to humans in recent decades is that microbial colonization is very common even in environments that humans think of as being nearly
5643:
Mordecai EA, Cohen JM, Evans MV, Gudapati P, Johnson LR, Lippi CA, Miazgowicz K, Murdock CC, Rohr JR, Ryan SJ, Savage V, Shocket MS, Stewart Ibarra A, Thomas MB, Weikel DP (27 April 2017).
5747:
3381:
of 1347 to 1352 killed 25 million in Europe over five years. The plague reduced the old world population from an estimated 450 million to between 350 and 375 million in the 14th century.
9029:
Horneck G., Eschweiler, U., Reitz, G., Wehner, J., Willimek, R., Strauch, K. (1995). "Biological responses to space: results of the experiment "Exobiological Unit" of ERA on EURECA I".
4359:"Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study"
2704:
infections may be asymptomatic, suggesting that many people are naturally protected from disease. Large genetic studies have defined risk factors for severe SARS-CoV-2 infections, and
2464:
Infection with most pathogens does not result in death of the host and the offending organism is ultimately cleared after the symptoms of the disease have waned. This process requires
4422:
Infectious disease is the subspecialty of internal medicine dealing with the diagnosis and treatment of communicable diseases of all types, in all organs, and in all ages of patients.
6921:
Hosainzadegan H, Khalilov R, Gholizadeh P (February 2020). "The necessity to revise Koch's postulates and its application to infectious and non-infectious diseases: a mini-review".
1312:. Samples obtained from patients may be viewed directly under the light microscope, and can often rapidly lead to identification. Microscopy is often also used in conjunction with
1183:
increases the risk of a serious infection by greater than 5 fold. Other important indicators include parental concern, clinical instinct, and temperature greater than 40 °C.
7724:
Klunk J, Vilgalys TP, Demeure CE, Cheng X, Shiratori M, Madej J, Beau R, Elli D, Patino MI, Redfern R, DeWitte SN, Gamble JA, Boldsen JL, Carmichael A, Varlik N (November 2022).
3695:, gave warnings about how contagion can contaminate water, food, and garments, and could spread through the water supply, and may have implied contagion to be unseen particles.
3528:. The construction of new villages and housing developments in rural areas force animals to live in dense populations, creating opportunities for microbes to mutate and emerge.
845:
Persistent infections cause millions of deaths globally each year. Chronic infections by parasites account for a high morbidity and mortality in many underdeveloped countries.
13669:
2733:. People who inherited two copies of a complete variant of the gene were twice as likely to have survived the plague as those who inherited two copies of a truncated variant.
2712:(IFN). Autoantibodies against type I IFNs were found in up to 13.7% of patients with life-threatening COVID-19, indicating that a complex interaction between genetics and the
901:. If an infected person coughs or sneezes on another person the microorganisms, suspended in warm, moist droplets, may enter the body through the nose, mouth or eye surfaces.
2139:
However, Koch's postulates cannot usually be tested in modern practice for ethical reasons. Proving them would require experimental infection of a healthy individual with a
6711:
2708:
from 659 patients with severe COVID-19 revealed genetic variants that appear to be associated with life-threatening disease. One gene identified in these studies is type I
2736:
Susceptibility also determined the epidemiology of infection, given that different populations have different genetic and environmental conditions that affect infections.
7036:"The effectiveness of hand hygiene procedures including hand-washing and alcohol-based hand sanitizers in reducing the risks of infections in home and community settings"
5408:
4406:
2541:
which offers a measure of protection to those otherwise vulnerable people when a large enough proportion of the population has acquired immunity from certain infections.
7797:
2421:
until the incubation period has passed and the disease manifests itself or the person remains healthy. Groups may undergo quarantine, or in the case of communities, a
1081:
Diagnosis of infectious disease sometimes involves identifying an infectious agent either directly or indirectly. In practice most minor infectious diseases such as
8846:
2320:
remains the most important defense against the spread of unwanted organisms. There are other forms of prevention such as avoiding the use of illicit drugs, using a
1140:) are used to produce images of internal abnormalities resulting from the growth of an infectious agent. The images are useful in detection of, for example, a bone
11053:
9336:
1919:
in an attempt to control the infection. Clinicians, therefore, classify infectious microorganisms or microbes according to the status of host defenses – either as
8950:
7086:
2190:, which is a global epidemic. If the cause of the infectious disease is unknown, epidemiology can be used to assist with tracking down the sources of infection.
4963:
3925:
and shorter or less parental care per child is another association that may be a compensation for the higher mortality rate. There is also an association with
457:, can also cause human disease, which conceptually are similar to infections, but invasion of a human or animal body by these macroparasites is usually termed
10220:
8343:
Peter Daszak, Andrew A. Cunningham, Alex D. Hyatt (27 January 2000). "Emerging
Infectious Diseases of Wildlife – Threats to Biodiversity and Human Health".
8402:
5304:
Hotez PJ, Bundy DA, Beegle K, Brooker S, Drake L, de Silva N, Montresor A, Engels D, Jukes M (2006), Jamison DT, Breman JG, Measham AR, Alleyne G (eds.),
1459:
together into a detectable matrix may also be characterized as a biochemical test for viral infection, although strictly speaking hemagglutinin is not an
571:
is more likely to be diagnosed as bacterial if the pain occurs in only one ear. A cut that produces pus and milky-colored liquid is most likely infected.
4934:
660:
colonization refers to non-replicating microorganisms within the wound, while in infected wounds, replicating organisms exist and tissue is injured. All
9012:
3654:
and attempting to blend it with his own early contagion theory. He mentioned that people can transmit disease to others by breath, noted contagion with
12514:
2606:
can suppress the infection. Several broad types of anti-infective drugs exist, depending on the type of organism targeted; they include antibacterial (
708:, prevent the adhesion and colonization of pathogenic bacteria and thus have a symbiotic relationship with the host, preventing infection and speeding
13569:
7821:
2168:. It is less clear that a pure culture comes from an animal source serving as host than it is when derived from microbes derived from plate culture.
3856:(lung physician). The work of the infectious diseases specialist therefore entails working with both patients and general practitioners, as well as
3309:. While the number of deaths due to nearly every disease have decreased, deaths due to HIV/AIDS have increased fourfold. Childhood diseases include
3535:. The introduction of new crops attracts new crop pests and the microbes they carry to farming communities, exposing people to unfamiliar diseases.
2043:). Primary pathogens may also cause more severe disease in a host with depressed resistance than would normally occur in an immunosufficient host.
6082:"Trypanosoma cruzi, etiological agent of Chagas disease, is virulent to its triatomine vector Rhodnius prolixus in a temperature-dependent manner"
4336:
1699:
genomes are sequenced and aligned to the taxonomically classified pathogen genomes to generate an antimicrobial resistance profile – analogous to
2552:
of some agents although they have had little or no contact with the agent, these natural antibodies confer specific protection to adults and are
316:
7065:
5608:
Mideo N, Alizon S, Day T (September 2008). "Linking within- and between-host dynamics in the evolutionary epidemiology of infectious diseases".
5245:
Torgerson PR, Devleesschauwer B, Praet N, Speybroeck N, Willingham AL, Kasuga F, Rokni MB, Zhou XN, Fèvre EM, Sripa B, Gargouri N (2015-12-03).
12712:
10658:
7284:
5755:
2438:
2312:
Techniques like hand washing, wearing gowns, and wearing face masks can help prevent infections from being passed from one person to another.
12601:
6722:
6015:"Phosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor-2α promotes the extracellular survival of obligate intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii"
4572:
1543:. A significant proliferation of the infectious agent does not occur, this limits the ability of PCR to detect the presence of any bacteria.
6166:"Single Viruses on the Fluorescence Microscope: Imaging Molecular Mobility, Interactions and Structure Sheds New Light on Viral Replication"
2316:
was introduced in medicine and surgery in the late 19th century and greatly reduced the incidence of infections caused by surgery. Frequent
12752:
12747:
11046:
10212:
9329:
9208:
8256:
4166:
1539:). These diseases are fundamentally biological poisonings by relatively small numbers of infectious bacteria that produce extremely potent
8175:
8063:
5247:"World Health Organization Estimates of the Global and Regional Disease Burden of 11 Foodborne Parasitic Diseases, 2010: A Data Synthesis"
1443:
from infected tissue can also provide the basis of a biochemical diagnosis of an infectious disease. For example, humans can make neither
8116:
1368:
stain, are the standard approaches used to classify bacteria and to diagnosis of disease. The Gram stain identifies the bacterial groups
4240:
11565:
7870:
2634:) agents. Depending on the severity and the type of infection, the antibiotic may be given by mouth or by injection, or may be applied
3658:, and discussed the transmission of disease through water and dirt. The concept of invisible contagion was later discussed by several
1484:. Some serological methods are extremely costly, although when commonly used, such as with the "strep test", they can be inexpensive.
11906:
4307:
2091:, and community-acquired infection. A mixed infection is an infection that is caused by two or more pathogens. An example of this is
5359:
13676:
7793:
772:
2143:
produced as a pure culture. Conversely, even clearly infectious diseases do not always meet the infectious criteria; for example,
1339:
Other microscopic procedures may also aid in identifying infectious agents. Almost all cells readily stain with a number of basic
1262:
eggs. Another useful identification method is
Xenodiagnosis, or the use of a vector to support the growth of an infectious agent.
13149:
11505:
11063:
11039:
9322:
7999:
6708:
4011:
2744:
2533:. Knowledge of the protective antigens and specific acquired host immune factors is more complete for primary pathogens than for
1914:, relatively few cause disease in otherwise healthy individuals. Infectious disease results from the interplay between those few
1451:, and the presence of these enzymes are characteristic., of specific types of viral infections. The ability of the viral protein
222:
83:
29:
12933:
6756:
6700:
2591:
demonstrated that the same genetic variants are also associated with the natural clearance of the genotype 1 hepatitis C virus.
1888:
infections, symptoms take longer to develop than in acute infections but arise more quickly than those of chronic infections. A
1376:, both of which contain many significant human pathogens. The acid-fast staining procedure identifies the Actinomycetota genera
12762:
11240:
10993:
10980:
9594:
9350:
5561:"Spatial and temporal dynamics of epidemics of the rust fungus Uromyces valerianae on populations of its host Valeriana salina"
5400:
4410:
4181:
3829:
3659:
3446:
interactions. Diseases can emerge when existing parasites become pathogenic or when new pathogenic parasites enter a new host.
3418:
killed an estimated one-quarter of the adult population of Europe; by 1918 one in six deaths in France were still caused by TB.
1937:
Primary pathogens cause disease as a result of their presence or activity within the normal, healthy host, and their intrinsic
5538:
4688:
13620:
13548:
10265:
8286:
7894:
7278:
7156:
7131:
6678:
6632:
6489:
6148:
5997:
5317:
4613:
9607:
7546:
6455:
4442:
1470:
binding then sets off a chain of events that can be visibly obvious in various ways, dependent upon the test. For example, "
13154:
11805:
10782:
10240:
7179:
4480:
4015:
1868:) when they mean that some of the pathogens are present but that no clinically apparent infection (no disease) is present.
8240:
4070:
in ways "not observed on Earth" and in ways that "can lead to increases in growth and virulence". More recently, in 2017,
3642:(1025), which later became the most authoritative medical textbook in Europe up until the 16th century. In Book IV of the
2954:. The following table lists the top infectious disease by number of deaths in 2002. 1993 data is included for comparison.
13186:
12938:
12864:
12717:
12112:
9919:
8856:
6646:
5331:
4642:
1245:
In the absence of suitable plate culture techniques, some microbes require culture within live animals. Bacteria such as
12544:
8940:
4797:
1621:
1288:
bug, which takes a blood meal from a person suspected of having been infected. The bug is later inspected for growth of
13596:
12903:
12536:
12423:
11941:
11283:
10985:
8609:
8578:
4672:
4156:
4136:
3785:
9989:
4752:
4508:
1593:
1266:
is the most significant example, because it is difficult to directly demonstrate the presence of the causative agent,
13008:
10415:
10410:
8148:
7094:
6742:
5715:
5133:
5087:
4783:
3014:
1640:
1101:
epidemiological considerations. Given sufficient effort, all known infectious agents can be specifically identified.
1016:
10020:
5383:
723:
The variables involved in the outcome of a host becoming inoculated by a pathogen and the ultimate outcome include:
13637:
13575:
12545:
12391:
10954:
10494:
9901:
9517:
9201:
4047:
3692:
2600:
995:
831:
804:
can arise if the host's protective immune mechanisms are compromised and the organism inflicts damage on the host.
7308:
6339:"Erythrocyte Binding Preference of Human Pandemic Influenza Virus A and Its Effect on Antibody Response Detection"
3355:
With their potential for unpredictable and explosive impacts, infectious diseases have been major actors in human
13196:
13164:
13159:
12988:
11193:
10088:
5216:
4151:
3967:
1658:, a severe illness affecting the brain, remain undiagnosed,despite extensive testing using the standard of care (
1600:
5892:"Review: Chlamydia trachonmatis and Genital Mycoplasmias: Pathogens with an Impact on Human Reproductive Health"
2943:
An estimated 1,680 million people died of infectious diseases in the 20th century and about 10 million in 2010.
514:. An infection is not synonymous with an infectious disease, as some infections do not cause illness in a host.
482:
of an infection depend on the type of disease. Some signs of infection affect the whole body generally, such as
13254:
12859:
12059:
11931:
11365:
10829:
10427:
10146:
10124:
9555:
7946:
7841:
5645:"Detecting the impact of temperature on transmission of Zika, dengue, and chikungunya using mechanistic models"
3500:. Under disease invasion, when a parasite invades a new host species, it may become pathogenic in the new host.
2824:
1700:
1578:
954:
822:. Not all infectious agents cause disease in all hosts. For example, less than 5% of individuals infected with
8973:
6456:"Metagenomic Next Generation Sequencing: How Does It Work and Is It Coming to Your Clinical Microbiology Lab?"
4926:
3283:
Note: Other causes of death include maternal and perinatal conditions (5.2%), nutritional deficiencies (0.9%),
2395:
Another effective way to decrease the transmission rate of infectious diseases is to recognize the effects of
13052:
12757:
10797:
9495:
2828:
2574:
2570:
2005:
1474:" is often diagnosed within minutes, and is based on the appearance of antigens made by the causative agent,
835:
695:
organism requires certain circumstances to cause a compromising infection. Some colonizing bacteria, such as
33:
8972:
Dose K, Bieger-Dose A, Dillmann R, Gill M, Kerz O, Klein A, Meinert H, Nawroth T, Risi S, Stridde C (1995).
14013:
13889:
11911:
10824:
9977:
9740:
9455:
5041:
Reddy M, Gill SS, Wu W, et al. (Feb 2012). "Does this patient have an infection of a chronic wound?".
4206:
2381:
1607:
9649:
7818:
5431:
4986:"Staphylococcus aureus Infections: Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, Clinical Manifestations, and Management"
963:, diseases that are transmitted primarily by oral means may be caught through direct oral contact such as
11555:
10866:
10737:
10673:
10641:
10589:
9886:
9868:
9194:
9175:
Information concerning vaccine research clinical trials for
Emerging and re-Emerging Infectious Diseases.
6337:
Makkoch J, Prachayangprecha S, Payungporn S, Chieochansin T, Songserm T, Amonsin A, Poovorawan Y (2012).
4722:
4176:
4161:
4131:
4116:
4059:
3477:
2422:
2240:
2088:
1676:
1417:
643:
3616:
speculated that plagues were spread by "certain seeds of plague", which were present in the air. In the
13971:
13884:
13174:
12611:
12594:
11535:
10422:
9835:
9575:
8601:
8398:
8191:
Barquet N (15 October 1997). "Smallpox: The
Triumph over the Most Terrible of the Ministers of Death".
4328:
4121:
3752:
proved beyond doubt that certain diseases are caused by infectious agents, and developed a vaccine for
1672:
1668:
1574:
1516:
246:
22:
8797:
Nettle D (2009). "Ecological influences on human behavioural diversity: a review of recent findings".
5776:
Weaver JS, Omar IM, Mar WA, Klauser AS, Winegar BA, Mlady GW, McCurdy WE, Taljanovic MS (2022-03-05).
1707:
and allow for the optimization of treatment using the most effective drugs for a patient's infection.
1589:
664:
are colonized to some degree by extrinsic organisms, and the vast majority of these exist in either a
217:. Infectious diseases resulted in 9.2 million deaths in 2013 (about 17% of all deaths). The branch of
13930:
13224:
11964:
11250:
10926:
10916:
10611:
10547:
10270:
10235:
10038:
10015:
9801:
9614:
9172:
8684:
Beretta M (2003). "The revival of
Lucretian atomism and contagious diseases during the renaissance".
8386:
8060:
7789:
4171:
3513:
3348:
2947:
2683:
1704:
1512:
1145:
8442:"The seeds of disease: an explanation of contagion and infection from the Greeks to the Renaissance"
7258:
7035:
6882:"The history of tuberculosis: from the first historical records to the isolation of Koch's bacillus"
1191:
490:, night sweats, chills, aches and pains. Others are specific to individual body parts, such as skin
13920:
13843:
13179:
13144:
13139:
13134:
11756:
11678:
11673:
11593:
11353:
11213:
11122:
10744:
10606:
10481:
10335:
9450:
9440:
9125:
8851:
8204:
3629:
2672:
2426:
2260:
1981:
1692:
1684:
1357:
6719:
4564:
2723:
gene, encoding endoplasmic reticulum aminopeptidase 2, seem to increase the susceptibility to the
13662:
13625:
13558:
13539:
13335:
13307:
13269:
13264:
13244:
12767:
12498:
12105:
11736:
11710:
11127:
11117:
10931:
10849:
10715:
10245:
10043:
9750:
9688:
9522:
9490:
4201:
4146:
2679:
2230:
2158:
2060:
2000:). An opportunistic disease requires impairment of host defenses, which may occur as a result of
1976:
1964:
1950:
1925:
1722:
1659:
1567:
1332:
1272:
in a patient, which therefore makes it difficult to definitively make a diagnosis. In this case,
1208:
854:
639:
9602:
8260:
8168:
1979:, and they may also result from (otherwise innocuous) microbes acquired from other hosts (as in
1838:
any presence of a particular pathogen at all (no matter how little) but also is often used in a
13861:
13838:
13807:
13606:
13535:
12529:
11328:
11276:
10518:
10303:
10053:
9926:
9532:
9389:
9379:
9179:
4196:
4030:
3998:. The infections from both tyrannosaurs were received by being bitten during a fight, like the
3805:
3566:
2534:
2179:
1884:
infection, symptoms usually develop gradually over weeks or months and are slow to resolve. In
865:
661:
187:
8083:
1846:
infection (in other words, a case of infectious disease). This fact occasionally creates some
808:
can cause tissue damage by releasing a variety of toxins or destructive enzymes. For example,
14018:
13784:
13601:
13435:
13430:
12881:
12827:
12737:
12286:
12254:
11979:
11865:
11838:
11811:
11763:
11717:
11412:
10839:
10471:
10340:
9848:
9755:
9674:
8564:
7863:
7202:"The foot-and-mouth epidemic in Great Britain: pattern of spread and impact of interventions"
4232:
4186:
3740:
3729:
3638:
3509:
3481:
2647:
2619:
2407:
2245:
2084:
1955:
Opportunistic pathogens can cause an infectious disease in a host with depressed resistance (
1801:
1793:, whereas an infection that is active but does not produce noticeable symptoms may be called
1769:
1731:
1448:
1433:
1277:
1043:
929:
704:
264:
252:
206:
9619:
6479:
358:, a group of organisms causing infection of skin and other superficial structures in humans.
13925:
13871:
13484:
13425:
13216:
12854:
12732:
12683:
12650:
12584:
12456:
12451:
12408:
12358:
12249:
12228:
11999:
11959:
11826:
11640:
11635:
11615:
11550:
11402:
11245:
11183:
10921:
10814:
10760:
10688:
10678:
10370:
10225:
10098:
9705:
9314:
9038:
8988:
8893:
8352:
7737:
7445:
7389:
7213:
6026:
5572:
4111:
3911:
The disease might be dangerous to other patients, and the patient might have to be isolated
3825:
3761:
3736:
by being the first to observe microorganisms, allowing for easy visualization of bacteria.
3688:
3677:
2668:
2611:
2553:
2526:
2425:
may be imposed to prevent infection from spreading beyond the community, or in the case of
2396:
2116:
2097:
1396:
Biochemical tests used in the identification of infectious agents include the detection of
1247:
1029:
908:
560:
511:
179:
7567:
O'Brien DJ, Gould IM (August 2013). "Maximizing the impact of antimicrobial stewardship".
4261:
2529:
of the pathogen, by harboring an organism with a similar structure (crossreacting), or by
2202:
when they are easily transmitted by contact with an ill person or their secretions (e.g.,
1523:
of infectious agents, and with time those genomes will be known, if they are not already.
629:; there is pus (yellow) and resultant inflammation (redness and swelling around the nail).
8:
13953:
13894:
13825:
13758:
13407:
13373:
13259:
13082:
13025:
13020:
12966:
12797:
12665:
12637:
12589:
12413:
12381:
12223:
12191:
12079:
12021:
12004:
11663:
11380:
11112:
11107:
11082:
11008:
10998:
10964:
10569:
10007:
9843:
9654:
9243:
9114:
5351:
4211:
4191:
4101:
3725:
3572:
3439:
3371:
2643:
2370:, distance traveled by those affected, and level of contagiousness. The human strains of
2052:
1968:
1893:
1855:
1814:
1760:
or molecular identification, of HIV also enabled the development of hypotheses as to the
1309:
665:
584:
544:
241:
210:
194:
163:
93:
63:
13077:
12817:
9119:
9042:
8992:
8897:
8761:
8547:
8529:
8356:
7741:
7449:
7393:
7217:
6992:
6982:
6965:
6030:
5576:
2031:, or as a result of an infectious disease with immunosuppressive activity (such as with
1211:
to isolate a pathogen from the appropriate clinical specimen. In a microbial culture, a
567:
Bacterial throat pain is often characterized by more pain on one side of the throat. An
13740:
13440:
13274:
13015:
12976:
12961:
12837:
12822:
12807:
12727:
12645:
12441:
12433:
12418:
12386:
12366:
12274:
12098:
11969:
11926:
11916:
11705:
11658:
11625:
11620:
11370:
11348:
11092:
11087:
11077:
10732:
10727:
10636:
10616:
10250:
10093:
10058:
9912:
9878:
9428:
9296:
8916:
8879:
8782:
8737:
8712:
8661:
8626:
8474:
8441:
8328:
8303:
8216:
8108:
7995:
7766:
7725:
7706:
7644:
7611:
7592:
7515:
7490:
7466:
7433:
7413:
7356:
7331:
7270:
7239:
7060:
7005:
6946:
6898:
6881:
6857:
6832:
6808:
6781:
6596:
6563:
6539:
6506:
6431:
6398:
6371:
6338:
6314:
6281:
6200:
6165:
6116:
6081:
6057:
6014:
5970:
5918:
5891:
5867:
5834:
5810:
5777:
5726:
5707:
5695:
5671:
5644:
5590:
5530:
5483:
5281:
5246:
5193:
5160:
5144:
5125:
5113:
5018:
4985:
4903:
4878:
4854:
4819:
4546:
4383:
4358:
4299:
4262:"Trends in Epidemiology and Microbiology of Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock in Children"
3995:
3809:
3492:
that had been confined to a remote habitat has a wider distribution and possibly a new
2522:
2518:, and has the potential to be more devastating than direct damage caused by a microbe.
2473:
2255:
2199:
2145:
2068:
2028:
1876:
Different terms are used to describe how and where infections present over time. In an
1710:
Metagenomic sequencing could prove especially useful for diagnosis when the patient is
1680:
1614:
1253:
1097:
1093:
810:
673:
579:
479:
416:
9664:
9186:
6732:
6697:
6257:
6224:
5958:
4374:
3508:
human pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and rickettsia, and spread of
2460:. Over the course of her career as a cook, she infected 53 people, three of whom died.
1880:
infection, symptoms develop rapidly; its course can either be rapid or protracted. In
1327:(fluorescently labeled antibodies) can be directed to bind to and identify a specific
13812:
13730:
13699:
13563:
13530:
13363:
13204:
13094:
12983:
12844:
12669:
12632:
12522:
12478:
12065:
12039:
11921:
11891:
11870:
11833:
11816:
11731:
11695:
11685:
11580:
11500:
11444:
11407:
11392:
11333:
11300:
11269:
11219:
11143:
11097:
11018:
10959:
10819:
10772:
10574:
10076:
9745:
9735:
9725:
9527:
9510:
9374:
9267:
9136:
9054:
9050:
9004:
9000:
8921:
8814:
8742:
8693:
8666:
8648:
8605:
8574:
8510:
8479:
8461:
8368:
8282:
8208:
8043:
7771:
7753:
7710:
7698:
7690:
7649:
7631:
7584:
7520:
7471:
7405:
7361:
7274:
7231:
7152:
7127:
7010:
6997:
6950:
6938:
6903:
6862:
6813:
6748:
6738:
6674:
6638:
6628:
6601:
6583:
6544:
6526:
6485:
6436:
6418:
6376:
6358:
6319:
6301:
6262:
6244:
6240:
6205:
6187:
6144:
6121:
6103:
6062:
6044:
5993:
5962:
5923:
5872:
5854:
5815:
5797:
5711:
5696:"Principles of Infectious Diseases: Transmission, Diagnosis, Prevention, and Control"
5676:
5625:
5585:
5560:
5522:
5475:
5323:
5313:
5286:
5268:
5198:
5180:
5129:
5058:
5023:
5005:
4908:
4859:
4841:
4789:
4779:
4668:
4609:
4472:
4388:
4303:
4291:
4283:
4141:
4126:
4096:
4067:
3962:
3879:
3841:
3789:
3663:
3367:) is a disease that affects people over an extensive geographical area. For example:
3338:
2709:
2489:
2430:
2338:
2295:
2013:
1997:
1711:
1268:
1068:
974:
776:
757:
387:
375:
101:
78:
13509:
8941:"Alarming Study Indicates Why Certain Bacteria Are More Resistant to Drugs in Space"
8498:
8424:
8220:
7243:
5974:
5594:
5534:
5487:
4356:
826:
develop disease. On the other hand, some infectious agents are highly virulent. The
605:
There is a general chain of events that applies to infections, sometimes called the
13856:
13489:
13474:
13330:
13191:
13104:
12398:
12264:
12150:
12049:
11741:
11726:
11603:
11478:
11434:
11173:
11148:
11102:
11013:
10949:
10936:
10765:
10754:
10646:
10626:
10461:
10375:
10350:
10081:
10028:
9967:
9858:
9505:
9433:
9046:
8996:
8911:
8901:
8806:
8777:
8769:
8732:
8724:
8656:
8640:
8469:
8453:
8394:
8360:
8323:
8315:
8200:
8098:
8033:
7941:
7919:
7887:
7761:
7745:
7680:
7639:
7623:
7596:
7576:
7510:
7502:
7461:
7453:
7417:
7397:
7351:
7343:
7266:
7221:
7055:
7047:
6987:
6977:
6930:
6893:
6852:
6844:
6803:
6793:
6591:
6575:
6534:
6518:
6426:
6410:
6366:
6350:
6309:
6293:
6252:
6236:
6195:
6177:
6111:
6093:
6052:
6034:
5954:
5913:
5903:
5862:
5846:
5805:
5789:
5721:
5703:
5666:
5656:
5617:
5580:
5514:
5465:
5276:
5258:
5188:
5172:
5139:
5121:
5050:
5013:
4997:
4898:
4890:
4849:
4831:
4692:
4538:
4378:
4370:
4273:
3978:
3898:
3894:
3617:
3598:
3517:
3485:
3462:
3425:) killed 25–50 million people (about 2% of world population of 1.7 billion). Today
3261:
2724:
2583:
2510:
The immune system response to a microorganism often causes symptoms such as a high
2124:
2103:
1972:
1956:
1688:
1305:
1228:
1224:
1033:
935:
898:
339:
333:
323:
258:
124:
13030:
8835:, edited by Tanke, D. H., and Carpenter, K., Indiana University Press, pp. 337–63.
5502:
4542:
13985:
13771:
13745:
13494:
13292:
13099:
13057:
12943:
12923:
12893:
12876:
12802:
12792:
12722:
12661:
12657:
12606:
12466:
12446:
12069:
12014:
11875:
11860:
11843:
11783:
11778:
11722:
11700:
11397:
11343:
11323:
11031:
10881:
10876:
10720:
10668:
10476:
10453:
10298:
10275:
9659:
9624:
9500:
9445:
9130:
8906:
8595:
8364:
8244:
8179:
7982:
7978:
7825:
7580:
7538:
6966:"Differentiating Epidemic from Endemic or Sporadic Infectious Disease Occurrence"
6726:
6715:
6704:
6098:
5661:
5435:
5387:
5263:
4434:
3470:
3404:
epidemic occurred between 1556 and 1560, with an estimated mortality rate of 20%.
3062:
2729:
1989:
1726:
A temporary drive-in testing site for COVID-19 set up with tents in a parking lot
1456:
1404:
products characteristic of a particular infectious agent. Since bacteria ferment
1105:
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913:
874:
680:
647:
355:
277:
9629:
8773:
8233:
7173:
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13866:
13631:
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13249:
13209:
13089:
12910:
12849:
12488:
12483:
12403:
11901:
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10787:
10559:
10448:
10440:
10365:
10318:
10313:
10260:
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9765:
9760:
9720:
9669:
9634:
9472:
9408:
9141:
8810:
8728:
7974:
7958:
7749:
7120:
7051:
6934:
6848:
6729:(1996). Baron, Samuel MD. The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston.
6579:
6019:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
5621:
5306:"Helminth Infections: Soil-transmitted Helminth Infections and Schistosomiasis"
4744:
4464:
4035:
4019:
3939:
3922:
3865:
3801:
3702:
3576:
3493:
3458:
2660:
2631:
2615:
2549:
2400:
2327:
2235:
2001:
1911:
1503:
1373:
1353:
1319:
techniques, and can be made exquisitely specific when used in combination with
1263:
1180:
1059:
870:
815:
753:
697:
684:
556:
432:
401:
214:
202:
132:
8644:
8457:
6507:"Herpesviruses: latency and reactivation – viral strategies and host response"
6414:
6354:
5305:
4836:
4773:
4634:
14007:
13958:
13514:
13499:
13469:
13464:
13319:
13072:
13067:
12971:
12616:
12371:
12184:
11984:
11773:
11768:
11630:
11570:
11473:
11163:
11153:
10792:
10749:
10708:
10601:
10584:
10542:
10255:
9806:
9775:
9396:
9255:
8652:
8465:
8342:
8067:
7970:
7757:
7694:
7635:
7347:
6620:
6587:
6530:
6422:
6362:
6336:
6305:
6248:
6191:
6107:
6048:
5858:
5801:
5380:
5272:
5184:
5009:
4845:
4287:
4079:
4025:
3990:
3949:
3765:
3749:
3717:
3651:
3314:
2748:
Deaths due to infectious and parasitic diseases per million persons in 2012:
2713:
2656:
2627:
2623:
2538:
2465:
2457:
2291:
2009:
1959:) or if they have unusual access to the inside of the body (for example, via
1823:
1818:
1806:
1481:
1452:
1444:
1378:
1344:
1273:
1212:
1200:
1196:
1169:
878:
805:
745:
709:
635:
568:
539:
361:
171:
152:
97:
12871:
9642:
9104:
9100:
7685:
7668:
7226:
7201:
6039:
5793:
4278:
3976:. Other carnivorous dinosaurs with documented evidence of infection include
967:, or by indirect contact such as by sharing a drinking glass or a cigarette.
621:
13940:
13935:
13907:
13735:
13712:
13591:
13234:
13129:
13062:
13003:
12998:
12678:
12569:
12549:
12473:
12303:
12279:
12269:
12174:
12162:
12155:
11989:
11974:
11800:
11525:
11375:
11360:
11306:
11003:
10941:
10703:
10683:
10631:
10579:
10530:
10330:
10280:
9891:
9462:
9301:
9279:
9238:
9221:
9058:
9028:
9008:
8925:
8818:
8746:
8697:
8670:
8372:
8319:
8047:
7962:
7775:
7702:
7653:
7612:"Prevalence of Asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 Infection : A Narrative Review"
7588:
7524:
7475:
7434:"Genetic variation in IL28B and spontaneous clearance of hepatitis C virus"
7409:
7365:
7235:
7001:
6942:
6907:
6866:
6817:
6752:
6642:
6605:
6548:
6522:
6480:
Kayser, Fritz H, Kurt A Bienz, Johannes Eckert, Rolf M Zinkernagel (2005).
6440:
6380:
6323:
6266:
6209:
6125:
6080:
Elliot SL, Rodrigues Jd, Lorenzo MG, Martins-Filho OA, Guarneri AA (2015).
6066:
5966:
5927:
5876:
5819:
5680:
5629:
5526:
5479:
5327:
5290:
5202:
5076:
5062:
5027:
4912:
4863:
4793:
4500:
4476:
4392:
4295:
3887:
3837:
3833:
3773:
3760:
provided the study of infectious diseases with a scientific basis known as
3744:
3655:
3546:
3539:
3443:
3415:
3302:
3084:
2545:
2515:
2506:
or by T lymphocytes, which will kill a cell parasitized by a microorganism.
2497:
2481:
2429:, into a community. Public health authorities may implement other forms of
2411:
2357:
2347:
2317:
2267:
2223:
2171:
2133:
2129:
2092:
2024:
1960:
1655:
1488:
1471:
1405:
1242:
may also be grown in culture as a means of identifying a particular agent.
626:
506:
428:
366:
350:
304:
183:
8514:
8483:
8212:
8140:
8038:
8021:
5908:
2186:, with a fast arising, and unusually high number of cases in a region; or
1487:
Complex serological techniques have been developed into what are known as
13794:
13789:
13378:
13368:
13229:
13035:
12918:
12886:
12812:
12674:
12565:
12557:
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12327:
12208:
12203:
12179:
11848:
11793:
11690:
11545:
11520:
11338:
11207:
11201:
11158:
10896:
10698:
10621:
10596:
10345:
10325:
10230:
10190:
10114:
9485:
9480:
9401:
9384:
8831:
Molnar, R. E., 2001, "Theropod paleopathology: a literature survey": In:
8552:. Gerstein – University of Toronto. Oxford : At the Clarendon Press.
6798:
5850:
5054:
5001:
4357:
GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death
Collaborators (17 December 2014).
4106:
4055:
4043:
3757:
3721:
3699:
3532:
3450:
3422:
3378:
3239:
2639:
2566:
2530:
2469:
2453:
2418:
2334:
2279:
2120:
2040:
1905:
1753:
1663:
1507:
Nucleic acid testing conducted using an Abbott Laboratories ID Now device
1476:
1466:
1324:
1313:
1285:
651:
458:
344:
7457:
7401:
5454:"Digest: Little evidence exists for a virulence-transmission trade-off*"
3351:
in 1720 killed 100,000 people in the city and the surrounding provinces.
3343:
2115:
One manner of proving that a given disease is infectious, is to satisfy
1671:
for a specific infectious agent. This amplification step is followed by
1220:
1121:
that indicate presence of a specific pathogen that the doctor suspects.
559:
or "pink eye" and herpes. Only a few viral infections are painful, like
13654:
13504:
13479:
13169:
13119:
12493:
12336:
12332:
12308:
12237:
12218:
11936:
11821:
11788:
11560:
11510:
11495:
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11468:
11458:
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10525:
10513:
10360:
9972:
9944:
9770:
9730:
8112:
7966:
7506:
7304:
6297:
5503:"Virulence-driven trade-offs in disease transmission: A meta-analysis*"
5501:
Acevedo MA, Dillemuth FP, Flick AJ, Faldyn MJ, Elderd BD (April 2019).
5244:
4742:
4075:
3984:
3905:
3875:
The disease has not been definitively diagnosed after an initial workup
3861:
3797:
3793:
3769:
3733:
3706:
3601:, that diseases could spread from an infected person to others. In his
3580:
3318:
3195:
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2652:
2646:
antibiotics. Sometimes, multiple antibiotics are used in case there is
2607:
2353:
2275:
2207:
2150:
1967:
may be caused by microbes ordinarily in contact with the host, such as
1839:
1835:
1780:
1765:
1748:
1736:
1540:
1528:
1361:
1323:
based techniques. For example, the use of antibodies made artificially
1301:
1236:
1023:
1012:
765:
715:
688:
563:. The pain of viral infections is often described as itchy or burning.
524:
499:
435:
are sometimes termed infestations, but are sometimes called infections.
424:
382:
329:
310:
298:
292:
270:
198:
70:
9083:
8426:
History of the Peloponnesian War, done into English by Richard Crawley
6182:
5943:
5518:
5470:
5453:
5224:
4550:
2831:
for infectious and parasitic diseases per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004:
2055:
of an individual's current health problem, a secondary infection is a
1892:
infection is an initial site of infection from which organisms travel
13553:
13124:
12992:
12348:
12291:
12213:
12121:
12009:
11751:
11746:
11610:
11588:
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11178:
10906:
10385:
9418:
9413:
9289:
7931:
Diarrheal diseases are caused by many different organisms, including
7915:
7911:
7794:"Age-standardized DALYs per 100,000 by cause, and Member State, 2004"
7627:
3853:
3849:
3845:
3647:
3553:
3466:
3426:
3401:
3374:, from 541 to 542, killed between 50% and 60% of Europe's population.
3310:
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2664:
2578:
2503:
neutralization of viruses so that these organisms cannot enter cells,
2367:
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2203:
1938:
1847:
1757:
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1397:
1369:
1365:
1239:
1129:
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1086:
1008:
940:
924:
756:
species remain harmless on the skin, but, when present in a normally
735:
669:
597:
438:
412:
409:
8103:
5176:
5161:"Immunity and immunopathology to viruses: what decides the outcome?"
4894:
3832:
and in some cases the study of propagation pertains to the field of
2682:
infections the treatment may cause more side-effects than benefits.
1556:
28:"Infectious disease" redirects here. For the medical specialty, see
13395:
13388:
13383:
13353:
13109:
13045:
13040:
12503:
12298:
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12244:
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10308:
9853:
9423:
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9284:
9250:
9230:
8884:
8570:
7936:
7837:
6923:
European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases
6079:
4071:
4063:
4039:
3926:
3857:
3821:
3777:
3633:
3621:
3505:
3497:
3489:
3454:
3438:
In most cases, microorganisms live in harmony with their hosts via
3407:
3385:
3364:
3360:
3217:
2819:
2815:
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2477:
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2389:
2187:
2183:
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1536:
1425:
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1320:
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1216:
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1133:
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1055:
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978:
728:
692:
420:
405:
234:
218:
159:
128:
8880:"Spaceflight Promotes Biofilm Formation by Pseudomonas aeruginosa"
8847:"Space flight shown to alter ability of bacteria to cause disease"
8279:
Zoonoses: Infectious Diseases Transmissible from Animals to Humans
7034:
Bloomfield SF, Aiello AE, Cookson B, O'Boyle C, Larson EL (2007).
7033:
2308:, is an effective way to prevent the spread of infectious disease.
13114:
12553:
12376:
12341:
12321:
12198:
12135:
11994:
11454:
11422:
11315:
10693:
10564:
9817:
9272:
8945:
8503:
International Journal of Leprosy and Other Mycobacterial Diseases
8429:. Robarts - University of Toronto. London Dent. pp. 131–132.
7932:
6627:(4th ed.), University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston,
4984:
Tong SY, Davis JS, Eichenberger E, Holland TL, Fowler VG (2015).
3944:
3668:
3525:
3356:
3326:
3322:
3306:
3173:
3129:
3107:
2635:
2493:
2449:
2417:
In cases where infection is merely suspected, individuals may be
2313:
2305:
2219:
2056:
2036:
2032:
1985:
1696:
1532:
1527:
benefit from the development of PCR methods, such as some of the
1520:
1440:
1413:
1328:
1300:
Another principal tool in the diagnosis of infectious disease is
1141:
1114:
1051:
973:, Some diseases that are transmissible by direct contact include
919:
801:
784:
483:
393:
105:
67:
9155:
5988:
Murray PR (2021). "Laboratory Diagnosis of Bacterial Diseases".
4879:"Resident viruses and their interactions with the immune system"
13717:
13417:
13402:
12688:
10901:
10466:
10119:
9715:
9095:
6920:
6879:
6280:
Flint HJ, Scott KP, Duncan SH, Louis P, Forano E (2012-07-01).
6163:
5428:
4083:
3958:
3753:
3394:
3389:
2705:
2484:. Immunity mediated by these two factors may be manifested by:
2321:
2300:
2165:
2072:
2021:
2017:
1432:
are usually detected in these tests when bacteria are grown in
1349:
1259:
1172:
signs; but these are rare. Not all infections are symptomatic.
1156:
1000:
819:
677:
281:
175:
7726:"Evolution of immune genes is associated with the Black Death"
4714:
3496:. Parasites jumping from nonhuman to human hosts are known as
2182:, with a steady level of regular cases occurring in a region;
1104:
Diagnosis of infectious disease is nearly always initiated by
601:
Chain of infection; the chain of events that lead to infection
13412:
13297:
12898:
12832:
10130:
9260:
9166:
7838:"Could Ebola rank among the deadliest communicable diseases?"
6880:
Barberis I, Bragazzi NL, Galluzzo L, Martini M (March 2017).
4662:
3781:
3613:
2952:
International Classification of Disease (ICD) code categories
2720:
2511:
2376:
2371:
2249:
1851:
1687:
using large databases of thousands of pathogen and commensal
1429:
1421:
1409:
1232:
1149:
1125:
1004:
991:, transmission by an inanimate reservoir (food, water, soil).
827:
823:
780:
761:
657:
495:
487:
466:
167:
136:
109:
13992:
12090:
9344:
6164:
Parveen N, Borrenberghs D, Rocha S, Hendrix J (2018-05-10).
4983:
4745:"Understanding Emerging and Re-emerging Infectious Diseases"
3724:, particularly through the writing of the Italian physician
2488:
a direct effect upon a pathogen, such as antibody-initiated
672:
relationship with the host. An example of the former is the
12707:
11261:
9583:
8971:
6282:"Microbial degradation of complex carbohydrates in the gut"
5500:
4051:
3883:
3673:
3298:
3040:
2350:, which destroy microorganisms found on non-living objects.
2342:
2064:
2051:
While a primary infection can practically be viewed as the
1761:
1740:
1082:
982:
964:
859:
838:
invariably kills all animals and people that are infected.
788:
491:
454:
450:
446:
442:
7491:"Antibiotics and Bacterial Resistance in the 21st Century"
7171:
5778:"Magnetic resonance imaging of musculoskeletal infections"
5642:
4409:. Association of American Medical Colleges. Archived from
683:, and an example of the latter are the various species of
54:
8631:
7788:
7723:
4817:
3294:
3036:
2951:
2385:
1744:
1340:
1137:
286:
8527:
7199:
6619:
Boldogh I, Albrecht T, Porter DD (1996), Baron S (ed.),
6013:
Joyce BR, Queener SF, Wek RC, Sullivan WJ (2010-10-05).
3285:
noncommunicable conditions (58.8%), and injuries (9.1%).
1817:. Some viral infections can also be latent, examples of
9216:
9160:
6012:
5889:
5303:
3597:) was the first person to write, in his account of the
2727:, the disease caused by an infection with the bacteria
2063:
of that root cause. For example, an infection due to a
1809:. An infection that is inactive or dormant is called a
1420:
products is commonly used in bacterial identification.
8276:
6780:
Patil NK, Guo Y, Luan L, Sherwood ER (November 2017).
4529:
Brown PJ (1987). "Microparasites and Macroparasites".
3788:
and near-eradication of these diseases, respectively.
3709:
in the 14th century, the Arab physicians Ibn Khatima (
3504:
Several human activities have led to the emergence of
13969:
7539:"Antibiotics: List of Common Antibiotics & Types"
7378:
7087:""Generalized Infectious Cycle" Diagram Illustration"
6618:
6279:
6139:
Murray PR (2021). "Microscopy and In Vitro Culture".
4743:
National Institutes of Health (US), Study BS (2007),
3465:
to the parasites or the parasites may evolve greater
2456:(a.k.a. Typhoid Mary) was an asymptomatic carrier of
1747:
in specific communities permitted the advancement of
719:
This image depicts the steps of pathogenic infection.
73:
migrating through the mosquito midgut epithelial cell
9073:
7329:
6779:
5775:
2330:
used to prevent transmission of infections include:
1781:
Subclinical versus clinical (latent versus apparent)
1662:) and state-of-the-art clinical laboratory methods.
7172:Programs NR, Normand J, Vlahov D, Moses LE (1995).
6737:. University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston.
5558:
4818:Negut I, Grumezescu V, Grumezescu AM (2018-09-18).
4778:. University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston.
4259:
4078:and to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space.
3836:. Generally, infections are initially diagnosed by
3429:
kills about 250,000 to 500,000 worldwide each year.
2678:Not all infections require treatment, and for many
1581:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1179:, rapid breathing, poor peripheral perfusion, or a
16:
Invasion of an organism's body by pathogenic agents
11061:
9156:European Center for Disease Prevention and Control
8084:"Infectious Diseases and Human Population History"
7430:
7200:Ferguson NM, Donnelly CA, Anderson RM (May 2001).
7119:
5310:Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries
4635:"NIPA - Bacteria - Bacterial vs. Viral infections"
2577:(brand names Pegasys or PEG-Intron) combined with
1109:directly identifying an organism by its genotype.
13570:Cedillo v. Secretary of Health and Human Services
8825:
8422:
8257:"Influenza of 1918 (Spanish Flu) and the US Navy"
7666:
6782:"Targeting Immune Cell Checkpoints during Sepsis"
4927:"Bacterial Pathogenesis at Washington University"
3628:A basic form of contagion theory was proposed by
2270:where infection is the most common cause include
2164:– however the organism can be cultured in rabbit
1054:itself but that transmits infection by conveying
14005:
8022:"The perpetual challenge of infectious diseases"
7566:
7146:
6222:
5693:
5451:
3871:An infectious disease team may be alerted when:
1854:discussion; to get around this it is common for
1813:. An example of a latent bacterial infection is
9161:U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
8710:
6775:
6773:
6484:. Stuttgart: Georg Thieme Verlag. p. 398.
5745:
5559:Ericson L, Burdon JJ, Müller WJ (August 1999).
3293:The top three single agent/disease killers are
2476:against infectious diseases may be mediated by
2178:is sporadic, or just an occasional occurrence;
1899:
317:Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2
8871:
8496:
8205:10.7326/0003-4819-127-8_Part_1-199710150-00010
8173:National Center for Biotechnology Information.
7307:. Oxford Vaccine Group, University of Oxford.
5748:"Diagnosis of Infectious Disease - Infections"
5607:
4565:"Runny Nose: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment"
2959:Worldwide mortality due to infectious diseases
2716:is important for natural resistance to Covid.
2690:
768:, multiply without resistance and cause harm.
13670:
12530:
12106:
11277:
11223:
11047:
9696:
9330:
9202:
8932:
8838:
8790:
8535:. Gerstein – University of Toronto. Calcutta.
8281:(3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: ASM Press.
7910:Lower respiratory infections include various
7256:
7117:
5312:(2nd ed.), Washington (DC): World Bank,
5158:
4876:
4462:
4260:Sehgal M, Ladd HJ, Totapally B (2020-12-01).
3844:specialists. For example, an "uncomplicated"
2361:mutations that aide in antibiotic resistance.
1495:process for diagnosis of infectious disease.
814:releases a toxin that paralyzes muscles, and
741:the quantity or load of the initial inoculant
505:In certain cases, infectious diseases may be
221:that focuses on infections is referred to as
8081:
8061:"Infectious and Epidemic Disease in History"
7336:Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health
7263:Computational Modeling of Infectious Disease
7259:"Modeling the control of infectious disease"
6957:
6914:
6873:
6824:
6770:
6396:
5832:
5401:"Clinical Infectious Disease – Introduction"
4167:Mathematical modelling of infectious disease
3904:The disease has not responded to first line
2406:A general method to prevent transmission of
897:, and the resultant infection can be termed
731:and the access to host regions that it gains
531:Comparison of viral and bacterial infection
233:Infections are caused by infectious agents (
158:Infections can be caused by a wide range of
131:, their multiplication, and the reaction of
8844:
8238:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
8019:
7122:Six degrees: the science of a connected age
7027:
6786:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
5939:
5937:
5700:International Encyclopedia of Public Health
5040:
2083:Other types of infection consist of mixed,
2078:
789:Journal of the American Medical Association
13677:
13663:
12537:
12523:
12113:
12099:
11566:Reproductive endocrinology and infertility
11284:
11270:
11054:
11040:
9337:
9323:
9209:
9195:
8272:
8270:
7330:Barreto ML, Teixeira MG, Carmo EH (2006).
6886:Journal of Preventive Medicine and Hygiene
5835:"Cost-Effective Respiratory Virus Testing"
5356:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
4820:"Treatment Strategies for Infected Wounds"
4599:
4597:
4595:
4593:
4591:
4589:
4505:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
4439:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
2525:) may be acquired following a disease, by
1944:
1162:
53:
11907:Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery
8915:
8905:
8781:
8736:
8683:
8660:
8473:
8327:
8102:
8077:
8075:
8037:
8013:
7864:"The World Health Report (Annex Table 2)"
7765:
7684:
7643:
7609:
7514:
7465:
7355:
7225:
7059:
7009:
6991:
6981:
6897:
6856:
6807:
6797:
6595:
6538:
6430:
6370:
6313:
6256:
6199:
6181:
6115:
6097:
6056:
6038:
5917:
5907:
5866:
5809:
5725:
5694:Seventer JM, Hochberg NS (October 2016).
5670:
5660:
5584:
5469:
5390:fungusfocus.com – Retrieved on 2010-01-21
5280:
5262:
5192:
5143:
5017:
4902:
4853:
4835:
4382:
4277:
3800:, which Florey and Chain then developed.
3560:
2950:collects information on global deaths by
2500:and killing, as occurs for some bacteria,
2198:Infectious diseases are sometimes called
1988:) or from the environment as a result of
1641:Learn how and when to remove this message
1546:
170:. Hosts can fight infections using their
13684:
9022:
8796:
8549:Studies in the medicine of ancient India
8301:
7113:
7111:
6830:
6692:
6690:
6143:(9th ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier.
5992:(9th ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier.
5934:
4771:
4715:"Infection Cycle Symptoms and Treatment"
4663:Robert N. Golden, Fred Peterson (2009).
3943:
3342:
2823:
2743:
2448:
2299:
1721:
1502:
1498:
1190:
873:that transmits the pathogens that cause
858:
714:
620:
596:
135:tissues to the infectious agent and the
10411:Ear-Nose-Throat/Upper respiratory tract
9584:Access to water, sanitation and hygiene
8938:
8545:
8267:
8190:
7667:Beck DB, Aksentijevich I (2020-10-23).
7488:
7175:The Effects of Needle Exchange Programs
6392:
6390:
5883:
4629:
4627:
4625:
4603:
4586:
4407:"Infectious Disease, Internal Medicine"
4012:Effect of spaceflight on the human body
3421:The Influenza Pandemic of 1918 (or the
2559:
2248:(an infection that originates within a
2213:
1308:, or with instruments as complex as an
818:releases toxins that produce shock and
364:, including the human-pathogenic genus
30:Infectious diseases (medical specialty)
14006:
11241:Discovery of disease-causing pathogens
10994:Infectious disease (medical specialty)
10886:Antimicrobial resistance surveillance
8953:from the original on 14 September 2017
8624:
8528:Susruta, Bhishagratna KL (1907–1916).
8439:
8072:
7569:Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases
6668:
6504:
6138:
5987:
5890:Ljubin-Sternak S, Mestrovic T (2014).
5452:Hector TE, Booksmythe I (April 2019).
4751:, National Institutes of Health (US),
4350:
4182:Outline of infectious disease concepts
3915:
3824:of infectious diseases falls into the
3815:
2252:or in the closely surrounding tissues)
2046:
1871:
1717:
1360:of microbes as well. Two methods, the
13658:
12518:
12094:
11265:
11035:
9318:
9190:
9167:Infectious Disease Society of America
8974:"ERA-experiment "space biochemistry""
8965:
8878:Kim W, et al. (April 29, 2013).
8759:
8562:
8387:"Annals of medical history. v.1 1917"
7108:
7040:American Journal of Infection Control
6963:
6730:
6687:
6664:
6662:
5741:
5739:
5737:
5111:
4528:
3476:Human activity is involved with many
3397:to fall from 20 million to 3 million.
3332:
1756:diagnostic identification, and later
1207:Many diagnostic approaches depend on
517:
473:
469:(although they do not secrete toxins)
12045:
11806:Physical medicine and rehabilitation
10241:Compartmental models in epidemiology
9710:
8593:
6837:The Nursing Clinics of North America
6561:
6387:
4877:Duerkop BA, Hooper LV (2013-07-01).
4667:. Infobase Publishing. p. 181.
4622:
4016:Medical treatment during spaceflight
3732:(1632–1723) advanced the science of
3433:
2218:Infections can be classified by the
2110:
2016:chemicals (as might occur following
1932:
1579:adding citations to reliable sources
1550:
1408:in patterns characteristic of their
1391:
1186:
1028:, due to medical procedures such as
773:gas chromatography–mass spectrometry
12055:
8877:
8845:Caspermeyer J (23 September 2007).
8497:Rastogi N, Rastogi R (1985-01-01).
8277:Krauss H, Weber A, Appel M (2003).
7844:from the original on 27 August 2021
7669:"Susceptibility to severe COVID-19"
7495:Perspectives in Medicinal Chemistry
7297:
7151:. Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Books.
6983:10.1128/microbiolspec.AME-0007-2019
6568:Central European Journal of Urology
5833:Pinsky BA, Hayden RT (2019-08-26).
5746:Vazquez-Pertejo MT (October 2022).
4665:The Truth About Illness and Disease
4463:Mada PK, Jamil RT, Alam MU (2019),
4074:were found to be more resistant to
4046:. On April 29, 2013, scientists in
2472:of the pathogen. Specific acquired
760:space, such as in the capsule of a
117:
13:
13597:Eradication of infectious diseases
13354:Androvax (androstenedione albumin)
12424:Fluorescence in situ hybridization
11942:Medical Scientist Training Program
8259:. 20 February 2006. Archived from
8234:Multidrug-Resistant "Tuberculosis"
7996:"WHO | The top 10 causes of death"
7332:"Infectious diseases epidemiology"
7311:from the original on 2 August 2019
7271:10.1016/b978-0-32-395389-4.00015-3
6759:from the original on June 29, 2009
6659:
6399:"Reference genes in real-time PCR"
5734:
5708:10.1016/B978-0-12-803678-5.00516-6
5381:Intestinal Parasites and Infection
4157:List of diseases caused by insects
4137:Eradication of infectious diseases
4082:have been observed to survive the
3784:, which would later result in the
3484:enabling a parasite to occupy new
2537:. There is also the phenomenon of
1199:plates growing colonies of common
748:status of the host being colonized
592:
527:whereas bacterial infections can.
378:, which are usually divided into:
178:hosts react to infections with an
14:
14030:
13187:Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
9069:
8711:Moorhead Robert (November 2002).
7178:. National Academies Press (US).
6460:American Society for Microbiology
5610:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
4749:NIH Curriculum Supplement Series
3848:will generally be treated by the
3776:developed effective vaccines for
3636:(known as Avicenna in Europe) in
2599:When infection attacks the body,
2193:
2123:), which require that first, the
1860:
1775:
1069:virulence versus transmissibility
1019:or one acquired during pregnancy.
999:, directly from the mother to an
486:, loss of appetite, weight loss,
197:used to treat infections include
13991:
13979:
13576:Alternative vaccination schedule
12546:Artificial induction of immunity
12392:Oral and maxillofacial pathology
12074:
12064:
12054:
12044:
12035:
12034:
10990:Economics of Infectious Diseases
9018:from the original on 2022-10-09.
8753:
8713:"William Budd and typhoid fever"
8704:
8677:
8618:
8587:
8556:
8539:
8521:
8490:
8433:
8416:
8379:
8336:
8295:
8249:
7900:from the original on 2022-10-09.
7876:from the original on 2022-10-09.
7610:Oran DP, Topol EJ (2020-09-01).
6707:materials included in the text:
6673:. New York: Norton. p. 39.
6241:10.1128/JCM.41.10.4497-4501.2003
6229:Journal of Clinical Microbiology
6223:Saubolle MA, Sussland D (2003).
6086:PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases
5839:Journal of Clinical Microbiology
5649:PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases
5586:10.1046/j.1365-2745.1999.00384.x
5362:from the original on 2 June 2023
5126:10.1016/B978-012699057-7/50008-4
4048:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
3933:
2437:or temporary restrictions (e.g.
2375:eye. Thus, the initial stage of
1555:
1015:. It can occur as a result of a
943:. Most of these pathogens cause
638:are particularly susceptible to
12075:
8939:Dvorsky G (13 September 2017).
8597:Law and Piety in Medieval Islam
8566:Encyclopedia of the Black Death
8405:from the original on 2023-11-17
8227:
8184:
8162:
8151:from the original on 2023-03-28
8133:
8122:from the original on 2016-03-03
8054:
8026:New England Journal of Medicine
8002:from the original on 2017-05-30
7988:
7951:
7925:
7904:
7880:
7856:
7830:
7811:
7800:from the original on 2021-08-28
7782:
7717:
7660:
7603:
7560:
7549:from the original on 2021-03-10
7531:
7482:
7424:
7372:
7323:
7287:from the original on 2023-03-05
7250:
7193:
7182:from the original on 2021-03-10
7165:
7140:
7079:
7068:from the original on 2020-06-19
7024:Higurea & Pietrangelo 2016
7018:
6649:from the original on 2020-04-14
6612:
6555:
6498:
6473:
6453:
6447:
6330:
6273:
6216:
6157:
6132:
6073:
6006:
5981:
5826:
5769:
5687:
5636:
5601:
5552:
5541:from the original on 2022-12-04
5494:
5445:
5422:
5411:from the original on 2017-04-20
5393:
5374:
5344:
5334:from the original on 2016-10-10
5297:
5238:
5217:"Chronic Infection Information"
5209:
5152:
5105:
5093:from the original on 2022-10-09
5069:
5034:
4977:
4948:
4937:from the original on 2016-12-03
4919:
4870:
4811:
4800:from the original on 2016-04-25
4765:
4755:from the original on 2023-06-26
4736:
4725:from the original on 2023-11-10
4707:
4681:
4656:
4645:from the original on 2023-11-10
4575:from the original on 2022-05-10
4557:
4511:from the original on 2019-12-25
4483:from the original on 2020-06-19
4465:"Cryptococcus (Cryptococcosis)"
4445:from the original on 2020-04-01
4339:from the original on 2022-01-22
4310:from the original on 2021-04-13
4243:from the original on 2018-07-19
4152:List of causes of death by rate
3968:Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis
3897:is of an uncommon nature (e.g.
3620:, the ancient Indian physician
3603:On the Different Types of Fever
2739:
2304:Washing one's hands, a form of
1566:needs additional citations for
1463:and has no metabolic function.
953:, with the result being called
848:
646:, generally occurs through the
616:
13408:Ovandrotone albumin (Fecundin)
11932:Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine
11366:Oral and maxillofacial surgery
10999:Infectious disease informatics
10830:Transmission-based precautions
8766:Bacterial Infections of Humans
8423:Thucydides, Crawley R (1914).
7947:Intestinal infectious diseases
7265:, Elsevier, pp. 173–215,
6833:"Emerging Infectious Diseases"
5752:Merck Manuals Consumer Version
5077:"Polio: Questions and Answers"
4604:Ryan KJ, Ray CG, eds. (2004).
4522:
4493:
4456:
4427:
4399:
4321:
4253:
4225:
4005:
2337:, which are applied to living
2075:was the predisposing factor).
1701:antibiotic sensitivity testing
971:Transmission by direct contact
955:sexually transmitted infection
911:transmitted pathogens include
326:, further subclassified into:
1:
12939:Group B streptococcal disease
12758:Vaccines for Children Program
12120:
10416:Chest/Lower respiratory tract
10191:Ocular (Eye) mucosal membrane
9552:Behavioral/lifestyle factors
8625:Majeed A (22 December 2005).
8604:. pp. 106, 114, 189–90.
8082:Dobson AP, Carter ER (1996).
7840:. CBC News. 20 October 2014.
7126:. London: William Heinemann.
6621:"Persistent Viral Infections"
6343:Annals of Laboratory Medicine
5959:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)62000-6
5159:Rouse BT, Sehrawat S (2010).
4990:Clinical Microbiology Reviews
4608:(4th ed.). McGraw Hill.
4543:10.1525/can.1987.2.1.02a00120
4375:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61682-2
4218:
4034:, a bacterium that can cause
3961:is a subject of interest for
3792:discovered the world's first
3710:
3681:
3612:), the Greco-Roman physician
3606:
3591:
3584:
2829:Disability-adjusted life year
2594:
2575:Pegylated interferon-alpha-2b
2571:Pegylated interferon-alpha-2a
2285:
2006:chronic granulomatous disease
1896:to another area of the body.
1295:
1219:are easily grown on nutrient
676:species, which colonizes the
342:); filamentous fungi such as
155:resulting from an infection.
13890:Obstetric labor complication
11912:Bachelor of Medical Sciences
11679:Neurosurgical anesthesiology
11291:
9978:Aerosol-generating procedure
9756:Silent/Subclinical infection
9456:Multidrug-resistant bacteria
9051:10.1016/0273-1177(95)00279-N
9001:10.1016/0273-1177(95)00280-R
8907:10.1371/journal.pone.0062437
8627:"How Islam changed medicine"
8365:10.1126/science.287.5452.443
8020:Fauci AS, Morens DM (2012).
7581:10.1097/QCO.0b013e3283631046
6564:"Colonization and infection"
6511:Journal of Oral Microbiology
6099:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003646
5662:10.1371/journal.pntd.0005568
5264:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001920
4606:Sherris Medical Microbiology
4207:Vaccine-preventable diseases
3478:emerging infectious diseases
3015:Lower respiratory infections
2719:Similarly, mutations in the
2382:human immunodeficiency virus
1910:Among the many varieties of
1900:Primary versus opportunistic
1511:Technologies based upon the
1175:In children the presence of
1076:
381:Unicellular organisms (e.g.
7:
10642:Vaccine-preventable disease
10590:Monoclonal antibody therapy
8774:10.1007/978-0-387-09843-2_1
8193:Annals of Internal Medicine
7616:Annals of Internal Medicine
6403:Journal of Applied Genetics
6397:Kozera B, Rapacz M (2013).
5782:Polish Journal of Radiology
4177:Neglected tropical diseases
4162:List of infectious diseases
4132:Hospital-acquired infection
4089:
4060:International Space Station
3994:and a tyrannosaur from the
3808:, the first broad spectrum
3672:("impure substances"). The
3461:can lead to hosts becoming
2691:Susceptibility to infection
2638:. Severe infections of the
2444:
2433:, such as school closings,
2241:Respiratory tract infection
1785:Symptomatic infections are
1735:prior to the appearance of
1677:third-generation sequencing
863:A southern house mosquito (
332:, including yeasts such as
280:and related agents such as
10:
14035:
13885:Complications of pregnancy
10783:Respiratory source control
8981:Advances in Space Research
8811:10.1016/j.tree.2009.05.013
8762:"Epidemiological Concepts"
8729:10.1177/014107680209501115
8602:Cambridge University Press
8499:"Leprosy in ancient India"
7957:Tropical diseases include
7750:10.1038/s41586-022-05349-x
7052:10.1016/j.ajic.2007.07.001
6935:10.1007/s10096-019-03681-1
6849:10.1016/j.cnur.2019.02.006
6696:This section incorporates
6580:10.5173/ceju.2014.01.art19
5622:10.1016/j.tree.2008.05.009
4435:"Types of Fungal Diseases"
4122:Epidemiological transition
4009:
3937:
3650:, outlining the classical
3564:
3471:immunopathological disease
3336:
2813:
2548:antibodies to the surface
2492:-dependent bacteriolysis,
2468:to kill or inactivate the
2441:) to control an epidemic.
2289:
2266:In addition, locations of
1948:
1903:
1821:are any of those from the
1695:genes within pathogen and
1673:next-generation sequencing
1124:Other techniques (such as
852:
796:
738:of the particular organism
727:the route of entry of the
642:. Entrance to the host at
247:Mycobacterium tuberculosis
182:response, often involving
27:
23:Infection (disambiguation)
20:
13949:
13931:Connective tissue disease
13916:
13903:
13880:
13852:
13834:
13821:
13803:
13780:
13767:
13754:
13726:
13708:
13690:
13615:
13584:
13523:
13455:
13346:
13318:
13285:
12954:
12785:
12778:
12697:
12625:
12577:
12432:
12357:
12128:
12030:
11952:
11890:
11651:
11579:
11534:
11443:
11314:
11299:
11251:Social history of viruses
11233:
11192:
11136:
11070:
10973:
10927:Global Health Initiatives
10917:Evolutionary epidemiology
10865:
10657:
10612:Post-exposure prophylaxis
10548:Antimicrobial stewardship
10506:
10493:
10398:
10289:
10271:Multiplicity of infection
10236:Basic reproduction number
10211:
10183:
10169:
10155:
10139:
10107:
10069:
10012:Percutaneous inoculation
9998:
9960:
9953:
9935:
9867:
9834:
9827:
9791:
9784:
9687:
9574:
9496:Host–pathogen interaction
9471:
9365:
9358:
9228:
9077:
8645:10.1136/bmj.331.7531.1486
8458:10.1017/s0025727300042241
8440:Nutton V (January 1983).
7945:to name a few. See also:
7824:17 September 2021 at the
7790:World Health Organization
7147:Preston, Richard (1995).
7091:science.education.nih.gov
6831:McArthur DB (June 2019).
6415:10.1007/s13353-013-0173-x
6355:10.3343/alm.2012.32.4.276
5165:Nature Reviews Immunology
4837:10.3390/molecules23092392
4691:. Rencare. Archived from
4471:, StatPearls Publishing,
4172:Multiplicity of infection
3957:Evidence of infection in
3687:–1336), while discussing
3524:Encroachment on wildlife
3514:globalization and disease
3349:Great Plague of Marseille
3280:
2948:World Health Organization
2684:Antimicrobial stewardship
2642:are usually treated with
2521:Resistance to infection (
1705:antimicrobial stewardship
1513:polymerase chain reaction
1331:present on a pathogen. A
1146:spongiform encephalopathy
1066:The relationship between
1040:Vector-borne transmission
836:Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease
771:An interesting fact that
89:
77:
61:
52:
47:
13921:Musculoskeletal disorder
13844:Gastrointestinal disease
12934:Clostridioides difficile
11866:Transplantation medicine
11757:Clinical neurophysiology
11674:Obstetric anesthesiology
11594:Interventional radiology
11354:Digestive system surgery
10745:Protective sequestration
10607:Pre-exposure prophylaxis
9898:Generational difference
9451:Horizontal gene transfer
9441:Antimicrobial resistance
9180:Microbes & Infection
8852:Arizona State University
8833:Mesozoic Vertebrate Life
7348:10.1136/jech.2003.011593
7257:von Csefalvay C (2023),
4639:www.antibiotics-info.org
4054:, reported that, during
3739:In the mid-19th century
3666:who referred to them as
2427:protective sequestration
2328:Antimicrobial substances
2261:Intra-amniotic infection
2079:Other types of infection
1693:antimicrobial resistance
1685:taxonomic classification
1358:taxonomic classification
1276:involves the use of the
640:opportunistic infections
423:(cestodes), and flukes (
228:
13197:Tick-borne encephalitis
12499:Microbiological culture
12129:Principles of pathology
11737:Intensive care medicine
11711:Mass gathering medicine
11556:Maternal–fetal medicine
10932:Microbial phylogenetics
10850:Wastewater surveillance
10371:Geographic distribution
10246:Critical community size
10044:Surgical site infection
9892:Iatrogenic/Medical care
9811:Microbial translocation
9807:Endogenous reactivation
9802:Normal flora overgrowth
9751:Opportunistic infection
9523:Opportunistic infection
9173:Vaccine Research Center
8760:Evans AS (2009-05-29).
8399:2027/mdp.39015016778261
7686:10.1126/science.abe7591
7489:Fair RJ, Tor Y (2014).
7227:10.1126/science.1061020
6505:Grinde B (2013-10-25).
6040:10.1073/pnas.1007610107
5794:10.5114/pjr.2022.113825
5352:"How Infections Spread"
5221:persistentinfection.net
4279:10.1542/hpeds.2020-0174
4202:Transmission (medicine)
4147:Isolation (health care)
3868:and other specialists.
3488:. When that happens, a
2994:All infectious diseases
2700:instance, up to 40% of
2535:opportunistic pathogens
2231:Urinary tract infection
1977:upper respiratory tract
1965:Opportunistic infection
1951:Opportunistic infection
1945:Opportunistic pathogens
1926:opportunistic pathogens
1819:latent viral infections
1660:microbiological culture
1519:, are derived from the
1436:liquid or solid media.
1333:fluorescence microscope
1209:microbiological culture
1163:Symptomatic diagnostics
905:Fecal-oral transmission
855:Transmission (medicine)
752:As an example, several
662:multicellular organisms
644:host–pathogen interface
431:). Diseases caused by
32:. For the journal, see
13862:Female genital disease
13839:Maxillofacial disorder
13808:Cardiovascular disease
13607:List of vaccine topics
12602:Mathematical modelling
11329:Cardiothoracic surgery
11004:Microbial bioterrorism
10627:efficacy/effectiveness
10035:Surgical intervention
9927:Breakthrough infection
9549:Genetic predisposition
9533:Susceptible individual
9380:Germ theory of disease
8320:10.3201/eid1907.AC1907
8302:Potter P (July 2013).
8243:March 9, 2010, at the
7118:Watts, Duncan (2003).
6964:Riley LW (July 2019).
6523:10.3402/jom.v5i0.22766
4775:Bacterial Pathogenesis
4197:Threshold host density
4031:Salmonella typhimurium
4028:experiment found that
3954:
3625:the sixth century BC.
3567:Germ theory of disease
3561:Germ theory of disease
3352:
2940:
2811:
2461:
2309:
1727:
1547:Metagenomic sequencing
1508:
1204:
1017:pre-existing infection
882:
866:Culex quinquefasciatus
720:
630:
602:
13785:Neurological disorder
13602:Vaccinate Your Family
13053:Japanese encephalitis
12462:Diagnostic immunology
12287:Programmed cell death
12255:Liquefactive necrosis
11980:Personalized medicine
11839:Reproductive medicine
11764:Occupational medicine
11718:Evolutionary medicine
10840:Universal precautions
9798:Endogenous overgrowth
9650:Poultry and livestock
8178:June 1, 2009, at the
8169:Smallpox and Vaccinia
8039:10.1056/NEJMra1108296
6970:Microbiology Spectrum
5429:Pathogens and vectors
5114:"Infectious Diseases"
4960:www.lifeextension.com
4531:Cultural Anthropology
4329:"Antiprotozoal Drugs"
4187:Sentinel surveillance
4066:seem to adapt to the
3947:
3858:laboratory scientists
3812:antibacterial drugs.
3730:Anton van Leeuwenhoek
3646:, Ibn Sina discussed
3639:The Canon of Medicine
3414:In the 19th century,
3346:
2827:
2747:
2554:passively transmitted
2527:asymptomatic carriage
2452:
2303:
2246:Odontogenic infection
2226:infected, including:
2095:, which is caused by
1982:Clostridium difficile
1770:anti-retroviral drugs
1739:for the treatment of
1725:
1681:alignment comparisons
1506:
1499:PCR-based diagnostics
1449:reverse transcriptase
1194:
1036:of infected material.
996:Vertical transmission
930:Entamoeba histolytica
862:
718:
705:Viridans streptococci
650:in orifices like the
624:
600:
265:Clostridium botulinum
253:Staphylococcus aureus
145:transmissible disease
13926:Soft tissue disorder
13872:Male genital disease
13685:Major Disease groups
13485:John Franklin Enders
12457:Medical microbiology
12452:Transfusion medicine
12409:Immunohistochemistry
12359:Anatomical pathology
12250:Coagulative necrosis
12000:Traditional medicine
11960:Alternative medicine
11827:Addiction psychiatry
11641:Transfusion medicine
11636:Medical microbiology
11551:Gynecologic oncology
11403:Reproductive surgery
11246:Smallpox eradication
11184:Israel Jacob Kligler
10942:Genomic reassortment
10922:Genetic epidemiology
10761:Health communication
10689:Flattening the curve
10679:Disease surveillance
10462:Systemic/Generalized
10226:Animal disease model
9706:Asymptomatic carrier
8859:on 14 September 2017
8263:on 20 February 2006.
8199:(8_Part_1): 635–42.
7967:lymphatic filariasis
7819:'20th Century Death'
6799:10.3390/ijms18112413
6734:Medical Microbiology
6709:Medical Microbiology
6625:Medical Microbiology
6482:Medical microbiology
6141:Medical Microbiology
5990:Medical Microbiology
5896:Journal of Pathogens
5851:10.1128/JCM.00373-19
5405:microbiologybook.org
5055:10.1001/jama.2012.98
5002:10.1128/CMR.00134-14
4772:Peterson JW (1996).
4112:Copenhagen Consensus
3678:Ibn al-Haj al-Abdari
3482:environmental change
3384:The introduction of
2560:Host genetic factors
2410:-borne pathogens is
2397:small-world networks
2214:By anatomic location
2098:Bacteroides fragilis
1996:wound infections or
1992:introduction (as in
1856:health professionals
1730:There is usually an
1575:improve this article
1280:of the Chagas agent
1248:Mycobacterium leprae
1050:that does not cause
989:Vehicle transmission
893:, also known as the
512:asymptomatic carrier
149:communicable disease
21:For other uses, see
14014:Infectious diseases
13954:Congenital disorder
13895:Postpartum disorder
13826:Respiratory disease
13759:Hematologic disease
12666:Virus-like particle
12590:Vaccine ingredients
12414:Electron microscopy
12382:Molecular pathology
12260:Gangrenous necrosis
12192:Cellular adaptation
12022:History of medicine
12005:Veterinary medicine
11812:Preventive medicine
11664:Adolescent medicine
11506:Infectious diseases
11071:Individual diseases
11064:infectious diseases
11009:Pandemic prevention
10965:Viral phylodynamics
10946:Re-emerging disease
10835:Travel restrictions
10039:Postoperative wound
10008:Blood-borne disease
9990:Respiratory droplet
9902:Vertical/Congenital
9887:Nosocomial/Hospital
9844:Spillover infection
9043:1995AdSpR..16h.105H
8993:1995AdSpR..16h.119D
8898:2013PLoSO...862437K
8686:Medicina Nei Secoli
8546:Hoernle AF (1907).
8357:2000Sci...287..443D
8141:"NCpedia | NCpedia"
7742:2022Natur.611..312K
7458:10.1038/nature08463
7450:2009Natur.461..798T
7402:10.1038/nature08309
7394:2009Natur.461..399G
7218:2001Sci...292.1155F
6031:2010PNAS..10717200J
6025:(40): 17200–17205.
5909:10.1155/2014/183167
5577:1999JEcol..87..649E
4333:The Free Dictionary
4266:Hospital Pediatrics
4237:The Free Dictionary
4212:Waterborne diseases
4192:Spillover infection
4102:Blood-borne disease
4042:when cultivated in
3916:Society and culture
3816:Medical specialists
3726:Girolamo Fracastoro
3538:The destruction of
3512:diseases, see also
3400:The first European
3372:Plague of Justinian
2961:
2927: 25,000–50,000
2919: 12,500–25,000
2200:contagious diseases
2119:(first proposed by
2047:Secondary infection
1969:pathogenic bacteria
1894:via the bloodstream
1872:Course of infection
1844:clinically apparent
1815:latent tuberculosis
1718:Indication of tests
1416:, the detection of
1310:electron microscope
1042:, transmitted by a
951:Sexual transmission
585:Pathogenic bacteria
545:Bacterial infection
532:
223:infectious diseases
162:, most prominently
123:is the invasion of
84:Infectious diseases
64:electron micrograph
13741:Metabolic disorder
13642:Never to phase III
13441:Hexavalent vaccine
13255:Epstein–Barr virus
13150:Oxford–AstraZeneca
12838:NmVac4-A/C/Y/W-135
12442:Clinical chemistry
12434:Clinical pathology
12419:Immunofluorescence
12387:Forensic pathology
12367:Surgical pathology
12275:Fibrinoid necrosis
11970:Molecular oncology
11927:Doctor of Medicine
11917:Master of Medicine
11834:Radiation oncology
11706:Emergency medicine
11659:Addiction medicine
11626:Clinical chemistry
11621:Clinical pathology
11413:Transplant surgery
11371:Orthopedic surgery
11349:Colorectal surgery
10955:Selection pressure
10251:Force of infection
9879:Contagious disease
9814:Endogenous seeding
9711:Chain of infection
9635:Injection drug use
9546:Vaccination status
9429:Case fatality rate
9347:infectious disease
9218:Infectious disease
8066:July 12, 2012, at
7817:David McCandless,
7507:10.4137/PMC.S14459
6725:2009-02-19 at the
6714:2009-07-01 at the
6703:2009-06-29 at the
6298:10.4161/gmic.19897
5565:Journal of Ecology
5434:2017-10-05 at the
5386:2010-10-28 at the
5358:. 1 January 2016.
5118:Molecular Medicine
3996:Kirtland Formation
3955:
3830:Infectious Disease
3353:
3333:Historic pandemics
3063:Diarrheal diseases
2957:
2941:
2812:
2695:Pandemics such as
2462:
2310:
2256:Vaginal infections
2146:Treponema pallidum
2069:penetrating trauma
2029:ionizing radiation
1998:compound fractures
1728:
1691:. Simultaneously,
1509:
1254:Treponema pallidum
1205:
1098:diarrheal diseases
1094:respiratory system
883:
811:Clostridium tetani
721:
674:anaerobic bacteria
631:
611:transmission chain
607:chain of infection
603:
580:Pathogenic viruses
530:
518:Bacterial or viral
480:signs and symptoms
474:Signs and symptoms
402:worms or helminths
143:, also known as a
141:infectious disease
35:Infectious Disease
13967:
13966:
13813:Lymphatic disease
13731:Endocrine disease
13700:Parasitic disease
13652:
13651:
13564:Vaccines and SIDS
13451:
13450:
13225:Hepatitis A and B
13201:Varicella zoster
12658:Subunit/component
12512:
12511:
12479:Mass spectrometry
12088:
12087:
11922:Master of Surgery
11886:
11885:
11871:Tropical medicine
11817:Prison healthcare
11732:Hospital medicine
11696:Disaster medicine
11686:Aviation medicine
11501:Hospital medicine
11408:Surgical oncology
11393:Pediatric surgery
11387:
11334:Endocrine surgery
11259:
11258:
11220:COVID-19 pandemic
11214:HIV/AIDS pandemic
11144:Alexander Fleming
11029:
11028:
11019:Tropical medicine
10960:Synthetic biology
10861:
10860:
10820:Social distancing
10773:Outbreak response
10394:
10393:
10221:Agent-based model
10207:
10206:
10203:
10202:
10199:
10198:
9746:Natural reservoir
9736:Infectious period
9726:Incubation period
9683:
9682:
9639:Natural disaster
9608:Tropical diseases
9591:Biodiversity loss
9528:Risk of infection
9518:Microbiome health
9511:Immunosuppression
9312:
9311:
9151:
9150:
8799:Trends Ecol. Evol
8639:(7531): 1486–87.
8563:Byrne JP (2012).
8288:978-1-55581-236-2
7792:(February 2009).
7736:(7935): 312–319.
7679:(6515): 404–405.
7444:(7265): 798–801.
7388:(7262): 399–401.
7280:978-0-323-95389-4
7212:(5519): 1155–60.
7158:978-0-385-49522-6
7133:978-0-393-04142-2
6680:978-0-393-60257-9
6669:Foster J (2018).
6634:978-0-9631172-1-2
6491:978-3-13-131991-3
6235:(10): 4497–4501.
6183:10.3390/v10050250
6150:978-0-323-67450-8
5999:978-0-323-67450-8
5519:10.1111/evo.13692
5471:10.1111/evo.13724
5319:978-0-8213-6179-5
5112:Trent RJ (2005).
4883:Nature Immunology
4615:978-0-8385-8529-0
4501:"About Parasites"
4272:(12): 1021–1030.
4142:Infection control
4127:Foodborne illness
4097:Biological hazard
4068:space environment
3963:paleopathologists
3899:tropical diseases
3882:(for example, in
3880:immunocompromised
3842:internal medicine
3822:medical treatment
3790:Alexander Fleming
3762:Koch's postulates
3664:Ayyubid Sultanate
3434:Emerging diseases
3339:List of epidemics
3291:
3290:
3262:Tropical diseases
2911: 6250–12,500
2808: 3,955–6,812
2802: 2,477–3,954
2796: 1,194–2,476
2466:immune mechanisms
2431:social distancing
2314:Aseptic technique
2296:Infection control
2117:Koch's postulates
2111:Infectious or not
2014:immunosuppressive
1933:Primary pathogens
1921:primary pathogens
1712:immunocompromised
1689:reference genomes
1651:
1650:
1643:
1625:
1439:The isolation of
1392:Biochemical tests
1269:Trypanosoma cruzi
1187:Microbial culture
961:Oral transmission
895:respiratory route
777:16S ribosomal RNA
590:
589:
551:Typical symptoms
338:(the most common
186:, followed by an
139:they produce. An
115:
114:
42:Medical condition
14026:
13996:
13995:
13984:
13983:
13982:
13975:
13857:Urologic disease
13679:
13672:
13665:
13656:
13655:
13543:MMR autism fraud
13490:Maurice Hilleman
13475:Hilary Koprowski
12783:
12782:
12539:
12532:
12525:
12516:
12515:
12399:Gross processing
12265:Caseous necrosis
12115:
12108:
12101:
12092:
12091:
12078:
12077:
12068:
12058:
12057:
12048:
12047:
12038:
12037:
11742:Medical genetics
11727:General practice
11604:Nuclear medicine
11479:Gastroenterology
11435:Vascular surgery
11385:
11312:
11311:
11286:
11279:
11272:
11263:
11262:
11225:
11174:Ignaz Semmelweis
11149:Maurice Hilleman
11056:
11049:
11042:
11033:
11032:
11014:Tropical disease
10950:Reverse zoonosis
10937:One Health Model
10766:Health education
10755:Community health
10674:Cordon sanitaire
10647:Ring vaccination
10617:Repurposed drugs
10504:
10503:
10423:Gastrointestinal
10266:Machine learning
10070:Gastrointestinal
10021:Intravenous line
9958:
9957:
9872:/Cross-infection
9859:Reverse zoonosis
9832:
9831:
9789:
9788:
9694:
9693:
9675:War and conflict
9543:Nutrition status
9506:Immunodeficiency
9363:
9362:
9339:
9332:
9325:
9316:
9315:
9229:Disciplines and
9211:
9204:
9197:
9188:
9187:
9075:
9074:
9063:
9062:
9026:
9020:
9019:
9017:
8978:
8969:
8963:
8962:
8960:
8958:
8936:
8930:
8929:
8919:
8909:
8875:
8869:
8868:
8866:
8864:
8855:. Archived from
8842:
8836:
8829:
8823:
8822:
8794:
8788:
8787:
8785:
8757:
8751:
8750:
8740:
8708:
8702:
8701:
8681:
8675:
8674:
8664:
8622:
8616:
8615:
8594:Reid MH (2013).
8591:
8585:
8584:
8560:
8554:
8553:
8543:
8537:
8536:
8525:
8519:
8518:
8494:
8488:
8487:
8477:
8437:
8431:
8430:
8420:
8414:
8413:
8411:
8410:
8383:
8377:
8376:
8351:(5452): 443–49.
8340:
8334:
8333:
8331:
8308:Emerg Infect Dis
8299:
8293:
8292:
8274:
8265:
8264:
8253:
8247:
8231:
8225:
8224:
8188:
8182:
8166:
8160:
8159:
8157:
8156:
8137:
8131:
8130:
8128:
8127:
8121:
8106:
8088:
8079:
8070:
8058:
8052:
8051:
8041:
8017:
8011:
8010:
8008:
8007:
7992:
7986:
7955:
7949:
7929:
7923:
7920:acute bronchitis
7908:
7902:
7901:
7899:
7892:
7884:
7878:
7877:
7875:
7868:
7860:
7854:
7853:
7851:
7849:
7834:
7828:
7815:
7809:
7808:
7806:
7805:
7786:
7780:
7779:
7769:
7721:
7715:
7714:
7688:
7664:
7658:
7657:
7647:
7628:10.7326/M20-3012
7607:
7601:
7600:
7564:
7558:
7557:
7555:
7554:
7535:
7529:
7528:
7518:
7486:
7480:
7479:
7469:
7428:
7422:
7421:
7376:
7370:
7369:
7359:
7327:
7321:
7320:
7318:
7316:
7301:
7295:
7294:
7293:
7292:
7254:
7248:
7247:
7229:
7197:
7191:
7190:
7188:
7187:
7169:
7163:
7162:
7144:
7138:
7137:
7125:
7115:
7106:
7105:
7103:
7102:
7093:. Archived from
7083:
7077:
7076:
7074:
7073:
7063:
7031:
7025:
7022:
7016:
7015:
7013:
6995:
6985:
6961:
6955:
6954:
6918:
6912:
6911:
6901:
6877:
6871:
6870:
6860:
6828:
6822:
6821:
6811:
6801:
6777:
6768:
6767:
6765:
6764:
6731:Baron S (1996).
6718:Fourth Edition:
6694:
6685:
6684:
6666:
6657:
6656:
6655:
6654:
6616:
6610:
6609:
6599:
6559:
6553:
6552:
6542:
6502:
6496:
6495:
6477:
6471:
6470:
6468:
6466:
6451:
6445:
6444:
6434:
6394:
6385:
6384:
6374:
6334:
6328:
6327:
6317:
6277:
6271:
6270:
6260:
6220:
6214:
6213:
6203:
6185:
6161:
6155:
6154:
6136:
6130:
6129:
6119:
6101:
6077:
6071:
6070:
6060:
6042:
6010:
6004:
6003:
5985:
5979:
5978:
5953:(9717): 834–45.
5941:
5932:
5931:
5921:
5911:
5887:
5881:
5880:
5870:
5845:(9): e00373–19.
5830:
5824:
5823:
5813:
5773:
5767:
5766:
5764:
5763:
5754:. Archived from
5743:
5732:
5731:
5729:
5691:
5685:
5684:
5674:
5664:
5640:
5634:
5633:
5605:
5599:
5598:
5588:
5556:
5550:
5549:
5547:
5546:
5498:
5492:
5491:
5473:
5449:
5443:
5440:MetaPathogen.com
5426:
5420:
5419:
5417:
5416:
5397:
5391:
5378:
5372:
5371:
5369:
5367:
5348:
5342:
5341:
5340:
5339:
5301:
5295:
5294:
5284:
5266:
5257:(12): e1001920.
5242:
5236:
5235:
5233:
5232:
5227:on July 22, 2015
5223:. Archived from
5213:
5207:
5206:
5196:
5156:
5150:
5149:
5147:
5109:
5103:
5102:
5100:
5098:
5092:
5081:
5073:
5067:
5066:
5038:
5032:
5031:
5021:
4981:
4975:
4974:
4972:
4971:
4962:. Archived from
4956:"Print Friendly"
4952:
4946:
4945:
4943:
4942:
4923:
4917:
4916:
4906:
4874:
4868:
4867:
4857:
4839:
4815:
4809:
4808:
4806:
4805:
4769:
4763:
4762:
4761:
4760:
4740:
4734:
4733:
4731:
4730:
4711:
4705:
4704:
4702:
4700:
4695:on March 5, 2012
4685:
4679:
4678:
4660:
4654:
4653:
4651:
4650:
4631:
4620:
4619:
4601:
4584:
4583:
4581:
4580:
4569:Cleveland Clinic
4561:
4555:
4554:
4526:
4520:
4519:
4517:
4516:
4497:
4491:
4490:
4489:
4488:
4460:
4454:
4453:
4451:
4450:
4431:
4425:
4424:
4419:
4418:
4403:
4397:
4396:
4386:
4369:(9963): 117–71.
4354:
4348:
4347:
4345:
4344:
4325:
4319:
4318:
4316:
4315:
4281:
4257:
4251:
4250:
4249:
4248:
4229:
4117:Cordon sanitaire
4086:of outer space.
3979:Acrocanthosaurus
3895:infectious agent
3715:
3712:
3686:
3683:
3660:Islamic scholars
3618:Sushruta Samhita
3611:
3608:
3599:plague of Athens
3596:
3593:
3589:
3586:
3518:wildlife disease
3287:
2962:
2956:
2934:
2926:
2918:
2910:
2902:
2894:
2886:
2878:
2870:
2862:
2854:
2846:
2838:
2807:
2801:
2795:
2789:
2783:
2777:
2771:
2765:
2759:
2753:
2706:genome sequences
2439:circuit breakers
2423:cordon sanitaire
2149:, the causative
2125:infectious agent
2104:Escherichia coli
1973:gastrointestinal
1971:or fungi in the
1957:immunodeficiency
1850:or prompts some
1811:latent infection
1703:– to facilitate
1646:
1639:
1635:
1632:
1626:
1624:
1583:
1559:
1551:
1306:light microscope
1292:within its gut.
1284:, an uninfected
936:Escherichia coli
899:airborne disease
625:Infection of an
533:
529:
400:Macroparasites (
340:fungal infection
259:Escherichia coli
119:
57:
45:
44:
14034:
14033:
14029:
14028:
14027:
14025:
14024:
14023:
14004:
14003:
14002:
13990:
13980:
13978:
13970:
13968:
13963:
13945:
13912:
13899:
13876:
13848:
13830:
13817:
13799:
13776:
13772:Mental disorder
13763:
13750:
13746:Immune disorder
13722:
13704:
13686:
13683:
13653:
13648:
13647:
13632:Clinical trials
13611:
13580:
13519:
13495:Stanley Plotkin
13457:
13447:
13359:Cancer vaccines
13342:
13336:Schistosomiasis
13314:
13308:Trypanosomiasis
13281:
13245:Cytomegalovirus
13155:Pfizer–BioNTech
12950:
12774:
12723:Vaccine wastage
12693:
12621:
12573:
12543:
12513:
12508:
12467:Immunopathology
12447:Hematopathology
12428:
12353:
12124:
12119:
12089:
12084:
12026:
12015:Chief physician
11948:
11893:
11882:
11876:Travel medicine
11861:Sports medicine
11844:Sexual medicine
11784:Palliative care
11779:Pain management
11723:Family medicine
11701:Diving medicine
11647:
11575:
11537:
11530:
11446:
11439:
11398:Plastic surgery
11344:General surgery
11324:Cardiac surgery
11305:
11303:
11295:
11290:
11260:
11255:
11229:
11194:Major epidemics
11188:
11132:
11066:
11060:
11030:
11025:
10969:
10882:Antigenic shift
10877:Antigenic drift
10868:
10857:
10721:Barrier nursing
10669:Contact tracing
10660:
10653:
10498:
10496:
10489:
10400:
10390:
10291:
10285:
10276:Serial interval
10195:
10179:
10170:Cervico-vaginal
10165:
10156:Trans-placental
10151:
10135:
10103:
10065:
10001:Vascular system
10000:
9994:
9949:
9937:
9931:
9871:
9863:
9823:
9780:
9698:
9679:
9570:
9501:Immune response
9467:
9446:Drug resistance
9390:Infectious dose
9354:
9343:
9313:
9308:
9224:
9215:
9152:
9147:
9146:
9086:
9072:
9067:
9066:
9027:
9023:
9015:
8976:
8970:
8966:
8956:
8954:
8937:
8933:
8876:
8872:
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8592:
8588:
8581:
8561:
8557:
8544:
8540:
8526:
8522:
8495:
8491:
8446:Medical History
8438:
8434:
8421:
8417:
8408:
8406:
8385:
8384:
8380:
8341:
8337:
8300:
8296:
8289:
8275:
8268:
8255:
8254:
8250:
8245:Wayback Machine
8232:
8228:
8189:
8185:
8180:Wayback Machine
8167:
8163:
8154:
8152:
8145:www.ncpedia.org
8139:
8138:
8134:
8125:
8123:
8119:
8104:10.2307/1312814
8086:
8080:
8073:
8059:
8055:
8018:
8014:
8005:
8003:
7994:
7993:
7989:
7983:trypanosomiasis
7979:schistosomiasis
7956:
7952:
7930:
7926:
7909:
7905:
7897:
7890:
7886:
7885:
7881:
7873:
7866:
7862:
7861:
7857:
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7845:
7836:
7835:
7831:
7826:Wayback Machine
7816:
7812:
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7722:
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7536:
7532:
7487:
7483:
7429:
7425:
7377:
7373:
7328:
7324:
7314:
7312:
7305:"Herd Immunity"
7303:
7302:
7298:
7290:
7288:
7281:
7255:
7251:
7198:
7194:
7185:
7183:
7170:
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7159:
7145:
7141:
7134:
7116:
7109:
7100:
7098:
7085:
7084:
7080:
7071:
7069:
7046:(10): S27–S64.
7032:
7028:
7023:
7019:
6962:
6958:
6919:
6915:
6878:
6874:
6829:
6825:
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6762:
6760:
6745:
6727:Wayback Machine
6716:Wayback Machine
6705:Wayback Machine
6695:
6688:
6681:
6667:
6660:
6652:
6650:
6635:
6617:
6613:
6562:Dani A (2014).
6560:
6556:
6503:
6499:
6492:
6478:
6474:
6464:
6462:
6452:
6448:
6395:
6388:
6335:
6331:
6278:
6274:
6221:
6217:
6162:
6158:
6151:
6137:
6133:
6092:(3): e0003646.
6078:
6074:
6011:
6007:
6000:
5986:
5982:
5942:
5935:
5888:
5884:
5831:
5827:
5774:
5770:
5761:
5759:
5744:
5735:
5718:
5692:
5688:
5655:(4): e0005568.
5641:
5637:
5606:
5602:
5557:
5553:
5544:
5542:
5499:
5495:
5450:
5446:
5436:Wayback Machine
5427:
5423:
5414:
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5394:
5388:Wayback Machine
5379:
5375:
5365:
5363:
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5349:
5345:
5337:
5335:
5320:
5302:
5298:
5243:
5239:
5230:
5228:
5215:
5214:
5210:
5177:10.1038/nri2802
5157:
5153:
5136:
5110:
5106:
5096:
5094:
5090:
5079:
5075:
5074:
5070:
5039:
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4982:
4978:
4969:
4967:
4954:
4953:
4949:
4940:
4938:
4925:
4924:
4920:
4895:10.1038/ni.2614
4875:
4871:
4816:
4812:
4803:
4801:
4786:
4770:
4766:
4758:
4756:
4741:
4737:
4728:
4726:
4719:Infection Cycle
4713:
4712:
4708:
4698:
4696:
4687:
4686:
4682:
4675:
4661:
4657:
4648:
4646:
4633:
4632:
4623:
4616:
4602:
4587:
4578:
4576:
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4562:
4558:
4527:
4523:
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4512:
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4494:
4486:
4484:
4461:
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4432:
4428:
4416:
4414:
4405:
4404:
4400:
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4351:
4342:
4340:
4327:
4326:
4322:
4313:
4311:
4258:
4254:
4246:
4244:
4231:
4230:
4226:
4221:
4216:
4092:
4022:
4010:Main articles:
4008:
3942:
3936:
3923:fertility rates
3918:
3878:The patient is
3866:bacteriologists
3818:
3713:
3684:
3609:
3594:
3587:
3569:
3563:
3436:
3388:, measles, and
3341:
3335:
3284:
3281:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2939:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2903: 5000–6250
2900:
2896:
2895: 4000–5000
2892:
2888:
2887: 3000–4000
2884:
2880:
2879: 2000–3000
2876:
2872:
2871: 1000–2000
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2822:
2810:
2809:
2805:
2803:
2799:
2797:
2793:
2791:
2790: 517–1,193
2787:
2785:
2781:
2779:
2775:
2773:
2769:
2767:
2763:
2761:
2757:
2755:
2751:
2742:
2730:Yersinia pestis
2693:
2661:aminoglycosides
2597:
2562:
2550:polysaccharides
2447:
2403:virus in 2001.
2298:
2290:Main articles:
2288:
2216:
2196:
2113:
2081:
2049:
2027:), exposure to
2008:), exposure to
2002:genetic defects
1953:
1947:
1935:
1908:
1902:
1874:
1783:
1778:
1720:
1647:
1636:
1630:
1627:
1584:
1582:
1572:
1560:
1549:
1501:
1457:red blood cells
1394:
1298:
1189:
1165:
1106:medical history
1096:infections and
1079:
1034:transplantation
1007:or baby during
945:gastroenteritis
914:Vibrio cholerae
891:Droplet contact
875:West Nile fever
857:
851:
832:mad cow disease
799:
627:ingrown toenail
619:
595:
593:Pathophysiology
540:Viral infection
536:Characteristic
520:
476:
231:
215:antihelminthics
43:
40:
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
14032:
14022:
14021:
14016:
14001:
14000:
13988:
13965:
13964:
13962:
13961:
13956:
13950:
13947:
13946:
13944:
13943:
13938:
13933:
13928:
13923:
13917:
13914:
13913:
13911:
13910:
13904:
13901:
13900:
13898:
13897:
13892:
13887:
13881:
13878:
13877:
13875:
13874:
13869:
13867:Breast disease
13864:
13859:
13853:
13850:
13849:
13847:
13846:
13841:
13835:
13832:
13831:
13829:
13828:
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13810:
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13724:
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13687:
13682:
13681:
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13582:
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13561:
13556:
13551:
13546:
13533:
13527:
13525:
13521:
13520:
13518:
13517:
13512:
13510:Katalin Karikó
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13502:
13497:
13492:
13487:
13482:
13477:
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13443:
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13433:
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13398:
13393:
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13343:
13341:
13340:
13339:
13338:
13333:
13324:
13322:
13316:
13315:
13313:
13312:
13311:
13310:
13302:
13301:
13300:
13289:
13287:
13283:
13282:
13280:
13279:
13278:
13277:
13272:
13267:
13265:Herpes simplex
13262:
13257:
13252:
13247:
13239:
13238:
13237:
13232:
13227:
13219:
13214:
13213:
13212:
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13194:
13189:
13184:
13183:
13182:
13177:
13172:
13167:
13165:Sinopharm BIBP
13162:
13157:
13152:
13147:
13142:
13137:
13132:
13127:
13122:
13117:
13115:Bharat Biotech
13112:
13102:
13097:
13092:
13087:
13086:
13085:
13080:
13070:
13065:
13060:
13055:
13050:
13049:
13048:
13043:
13033:
13028:
13023:
13018:
13013:
13012:
13011:
13006:
13001:
12996:
12981:
12980:
12979:
12969:
12964:
12958:
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12949:
12948:
12947:
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12941:
12936:
12928:
12927:
12926:
12921:
12913:
12908:
12907:
12906:
12901:
12891:
12890:
12889:
12879:
12874:
12869:
12868:
12867:
12862:
12852:
12847:
12842:
12841:
12840:
12835:
12825:
12820:
12815:
12810:
12805:
12800:
12795:
12789:
12787:
12780:
12776:
12775:
12773:
12772:
12771:
12770:
12765:
12760:
12755:
12750:
12742:
12741:
12740:
12738:Vaccine injury
12735:
12730:
12725:
12720:
12715:
12710:
12701:
12699:
12698:Administration
12695:
12694:
12692:
12691:
12686:
12681:
12672:
12655:
12654:
12653:
12648:
12640:
12635:
12629:
12627:
12623:
12622:
12620:
12619:
12614:
12609:
12604:
12599:
12598:
12597:
12587:
12581:
12579:
12575:
12574:
12542:
12541:
12534:
12527:
12519:
12510:
12509:
12507:
12506:
12501:
12496:
12491:
12489:Flow cytometry
12486:
12484:Chromatography
12481:
12476:
12470:
12469:
12464:
12459:
12454:
12449:
12444:
12438:
12436:
12430:
12429:
12427:
12426:
12421:
12416:
12411:
12406:
12404:Histopathology
12401:
12395:
12394:
12389:
12384:
12379:
12374:
12369:
12363:
12361:
12355:
12354:
12352:
12351:
12346:
12345:
12344:
12339:
12330:
12318:
12312:
12311:
12306:
12301:
12296:
12295:
12294:
12284:
12283:
12282:
12277:
12272:
12267:
12262:
12257:
12252:
12242:
12240:
12234:
12233:
12232:
12231:
12226:
12216:
12211:
12206:
12201:
12196:
12194:
12188:
12187:
12182:
12177:
12172:
12171:
12170:
12160:
12159:
12158:
12153:
12148:
12143:
12132:
12130:
12126:
12125:
12118:
12117:
12110:
12103:
12095:
12086:
12085:
12083:
12082:
12072:
12062:
12052:
12042:
12031:
12028:
12027:
12025:
12024:
12019:
12018:
12017:
12007:
12002:
11997:
11992:
11987:
11982:
11977:
11972:
11967:
11962:
11956:
11954:
11953:Related topics
11950:
11949:
11947:
11946:
11945:
11944:
11934:
11929:
11924:
11919:
11914:
11909:
11904:
11902:Medical school
11898:
11896:
11888:
11887:
11884:
11883:
11881:
11880:
11879:
11878:
11868:
11863:
11858:
11856:Sleep medicine
11853:
11852:
11851:
11841:
11836:
11831:
11830:
11829:
11819:
11814:
11809:
11803:
11798:
11797:
11796:
11786:
11781:
11776:
11771:
11766:
11761:
11760:
11759:
11749:
11744:
11739:
11734:
11729:
11720:
11715:
11714:
11713:
11703:
11698:
11693:
11688:
11683:
11682:
11681:
11676:
11669:Anesthesiology
11666:
11661:
11655:
11653:
11649:
11648:
11646:
11645:
11644:
11643:
11638:
11633:
11628:
11623:
11618:
11608:
11607:
11606:
11601:
11599:Neuroradiology
11596:
11585:
11583:
11577:
11576:
11574:
11573:
11568:
11563:
11558:
11553:
11548:
11542:
11540:
11536:Obstetrics and
11532:
11531:
11529:
11528:
11523:
11518:
11513:
11508:
11503:
11498:
11493:
11488:
11487:
11486:
11476:
11471:
11466:
11461:
11451:
11449:
11441:
11440:
11438:
11437:
11432:
11431:
11430:
11420:
11418:Trauma surgery
11415:
11410:
11405:
11400:
11395:
11390:
11389:
11388:
11381:Otolaryngology
11378:
11373:
11368:
11363:
11358:
11357:
11356:
11351:
11341:
11336:
11331:
11326:
11320:
11318:
11309:
11307:subspecialties
11297:
11296:
11289:
11288:
11281:
11274:
11266:
11257:
11256:
11254:
11253:
11248:
11243:
11237:
11235:
11231:
11230:
11228:
11227:
11217:
11216:(1981–present)
11211:
11205:
11198:
11196:
11190:
11189:
11187:
11186:
11181:
11176:
11171:
11166:
11161:
11156:
11151:
11146:
11140:
11138:
11134:
11133:
11131:
11130:
11125:
11120:
11115:
11110:
11105:
11100:
11095:
11090:
11085:
11080:
11074:
11072:
11068:
11067:
11059:
11058:
11051:
11044:
11036:
11027:
11026:
11024:
11023:
11022:
11021:
11011:
11006:
11001:
10996:
10991:
10988:
10983:
10977:
10975:
10971:
10970:
10968:
10967:
10962:
10957:
10952:
10947:
10944:
10939:
10934:
10929:
10924:
10919:
10914:
10912:Emergent virus
10909:
10904:
10899:
10894:
10893:
10892:
10884:
10879:
10873:
10871:
10863:
10862:
10859:
10858:
10856:
10855:
10852:
10847:
10845:Vector control
10842:
10837:
10832:
10827:
10822:
10817:
10812:
10807:
10802:
10801:
10800:
10795:
10790:
10788:N95 respirator
10780:
10775:
10770:
10769:
10768:
10763:
10758:
10747:
10742:
10741:
10740:
10730:
10725:
10724:
10723:
10713:
10712:
10711:
10706:
10701:
10691:
10686:
10681:
10676:
10671:
10665:
10663:
10661:pharmaceutical
10655:
10654:
10652:
10651:
10650:
10649:
10644:
10639:
10634:
10629:
10619:
10614:
10609:
10604:
10599:
10594:
10593:
10592:
10582:
10577:
10572:
10567:
10562:
10557:
10552:
10551:
10550:
10540:
10539:
10538:
10528:
10523:
10522:
10521:
10510:
10508:
10507:Pharmaceutical
10501:
10491:
10490:
10488:
10487:
10484:
10479:
10474:
10469:
10464:
10459:
10458:Cardiovascular
10456:
10451:
10446:
10443:
10438:
10437:Nervous system
10435:
10432:
10431:
10430:
10420:
10419:
10418:
10413:
10404:
10402:
10396:
10395:
10392:
10391:
10389:
10388:
10383:
10378:
10373:
10368:
10363:
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10353:
10348:
10343:
10338:
10333:
10328:
10323:
10322:
10321:
10316:
10306:
10301:
10295:
10293:
10287:
10286:
10284:
10283:
10278:
10273:
10268:
10263:
10261:Infection rate
10258:
10253:
10248:
10243:
10238:
10233:
10228:
10223:
10217:
10215:
10209:
10208:
10205:
10204:
10201:
10200:
10197:
10196:
10194:
10193:
10187:
10185:
10181:
10180:
10178:
10177:
10173:
10171:
10167:
10166:
10164:
10163:
10159:
10157:
10153:
10152:
10150:
10149:
10143:
10141:
10137:
10136:
10134:
10133:
10127:
10122:
10117:
10111:
10109:
10105:
10104:
10102:
10101:
10096:
10091:
10086:
10085:
10084:
10073:
10071:
10067:
10066:
10064:
10063:
10062:
10061:
10056:
10048:
10047:
10046:
10041:
10033:
10032:
10031:
10026:
10023:
10018:
10016:Injection site
10010:
10004:
10002:
9996:
9995:
9993:
9992:
9987:
9985:Dental aerosol
9982:
9981:
9980:
9970:
9964:
9962:
9955:
9951:
9950:
9948:
9947:
9941:
9939:
9933:
9932:
9930:
9929:
9924:
9923:
9922:
9917:
9916:
9915:
9910:
9907:
9896:
9895:
9894:
9889:
9881:
9875:
9873:
9869:Human-to-human
9865:
9864:
9862:
9861:
9856:
9851:
9846:
9840:
9838:
9829:
9825:
9824:
9822:
9821:
9815:
9812:
9809:
9804:
9799:
9795:
9793:
9786:
9782:
9781:
9779:
9778:
9773:
9768:
9766:Super-spreader
9763:
9761:Superinfection
9758:
9753:
9748:
9743:
9738:
9733:
9728:
9723:
9718:
9713:
9708:
9702:
9700:
9691:
9685:
9684:
9681:
9680:
9678:
9677:
9672:
9670:Vector control
9667:
9662:
9657:
9652:
9647:
9646:
9645:
9637:
9632:
9627:
9622:
9617:
9612:
9611:
9610:
9605:
9599:Climate zones
9597:
9595:Climate change
9592:
9589:
9586:
9580:
9578:
9572:
9571:
9569:
9568:
9567:
9566:
9563:
9560:
9559:
9558:
9550:
9547:
9544:
9541:
9538:
9530:
9525:
9520:
9515:
9514:
9513:
9508:
9498:
9493:
9488:
9483:
9477:
9475:
9469:
9468:
9466:
9465:
9460:
9459:
9458:
9453:
9448:
9438:
9437:
9436:
9431:
9426:
9421:
9411:
9409:Quorum sensing
9406:
9405:
9404:
9394:
9393:
9392:
9382:
9377:
9371:
9369:
9360:
9356:
9355:
9342:
9341:
9334:
9327:
9319:
9310:
9309:
9307:
9306:
9305:
9304:
9294:
9293:
9292:
9287:
9277:
9276:
9275:
9265:
9264:
9263:
9258:
9248:
9247:
9246:
9235:
9233:
9226:
9225:
9214:
9213:
9206:
9199:
9191:
9185:
9184:
9176:
9170:
9164:
9158:
9149:
9148:
9145:
9144:
9133:
9122:
9107:
9087:
9082:
9081:
9079:
9078:Classification
9071:
9070:External links
9068:
9065:
9064:
9031:Adv. Space Res
9021:
8964:
8931:
8870:
8837:
8824:
8805:(11): 618–24.
8789:
8752:
8723:(11): 561–64.
8703:
8676:
8617:
8611:978-1107067110
8610:
8586:
8580:978-1598842531
8579:
8573:. p. 29.
8555:
8538:
8520:
8489:
8432:
8415:
8393:. p. 14.
8378:
8335:
8294:
8287:
8266:
8248:
8226:
8183:
8161:
8132:
8071:
8053:
8012:
7987:
7975:onchocerciasis
7959:Chagas disease
7950:
7924:
7903:
7879:
7855:
7829:
7810:
7781:
7716:
7659:
7622:(5): 362–367.
7602:
7559:
7530:
7481:
7423:
7371:
7322:
7296:
7279:
7249:
7192:
7164:
7157:
7139:
7132:
7107:
7078:
7026:
7017:
6956:
6929:(2): 215–218.
6913:
6872:
6843:(2): 297–311.
6823:
6769:
6743:
6686:
6679:
6658:
6633:
6611:
6554:
6497:
6490:
6472:
6446:
6409:(4): 391–406.
6386:
6349:(4): 276–282.
6329:
6292:(4): 289–306.
6272:
6215:
6156:
6149:
6131:
6072:
6005:
5998:
5980:
5933:
5882:
5825:
5768:
5733:
5716:
5686:
5635:
5616:(9): 511–517.
5600:
5571:(4): 649–658.
5551:
5513:(4): 636–647.
5493:
5464:(4): 858–859.
5444:
5421:
5392:
5373:
5343:
5318:
5296:
5237:
5208:
5171:(7): 514–526.
5151:
5134:
5104:
5068:
5033:
4996:(3): 603–661.
4976:
4947:
4918:
4869:
4810:
4784:
4764:
4735:
4706:
4680:
4674:978-1438126371
4673:
4655:
4621:
4614:
4585:
4556:
4521:
4507:. 2019-02-25.
4492:
4455:
4441:. 2019-06-27.
4426:
4398:
4349:
4320:
4252:
4223:
4222:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4214:
4209:
4204:
4199:
4194:
4189:
4184:
4179:
4174:
4169:
4164:
4159:
4154:
4149:
4144:
4139:
4134:
4129:
4124:
4119:
4114:
4109:
4104:
4099:
4093:
4091:
4088:
4080:Microorganisms
4038:, became more
4036:food poisoning
4020:Space medicine
4007:
4004:
3959:fossil remains
3940:Paleopathology
3938:Main article:
3935:
3932:
3917:
3914:
3913:
3912:
3909:
3902:
3891:
3876:
3840:physicians or
3817:
3814:
3802:Gerhard Domagk
3703:bubonic plague
3595: 400 BCE
3565:Main article:
3562:
3559:
3558:
3557:
3550:
3543:
3536:
3529:
3502:
3501:
3474:
3435:
3432:
3431:
3430:
3419:
3412:
3405:
3398:
3382:
3375:
3334:
3331:
3289:
3288:
3278:
3277:
3274:
3271:
3268:
3265:
3259:
3255:
3254:
3251:
3248:
3245:
3242:
3237:
3233:
3232:
3229:
3226:
3223:
3220:
3215:
3211:
3210:
3207:
3204:
3201:
3198:
3193:
3189:
3188:
3185:
3182:
3179:
3176:
3171:
3167:
3166:
3163:
3160:
3157:
3154:
3149:
3145:
3144:
3141:
3138:
3135:
3132:
3127:
3123:
3122:
3119:
3116:
3113:
3110:
3105:
3101:
3100:
3097:
3094:
3091:
3088:
3082:
3078:
3077:
3074:
3071:
3068:
3065:
3060:
3056:
3055:
3052:
3049:
3046:
3043:
3034:
3030:
3029:
3026:
3023:
3020:
3017:
3012:
3008:
3007:
3004:
3001:
2998:
2995:
2992:
2988:
2987:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2968:Cause of death
2966:
2938:
2937:
2931:
2929:
2923:
2921:
2915:
2913:
2907:
2905:
2899:
2897:
2891:
2889:
2883:
2881:
2875:
2873:
2867:
2865:
2863: 500–1000
2859:
2857:
2851:
2849:
2843:
2841:
2835:
2832:
2804:
2798:
2792:
2786:
2780:
2774:
2768:
2762:
2756:
2750:
2749:
2741:
2738:
2692:
2689:
2657:cephalosporins
2632:antihelminthic
2612:antitubercular
2602:anti-infective
2596:
2593:
2561:
2558:
2508:
2507:
2504:
2501:
2446:
2443:
2401:foot-and-mouth
2363:
2362:
2351:
2345:
2287:
2284:
2264:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2243:
2238:
2236:Skin infection
2233:
2215:
2212:
2195:
2194:Contagiousness
2192:
2132:species cause
2112:
2109:
2080:
2077:
2048:
2045:
1949:Main article:
1946:
1943:
1934:
1931:
1912:microorganisms
1901:
1898:
1873:
1870:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1776:Classification
1774:
1719:
1716:
1649:
1648:
1631:September 2024
1563:
1561:
1554:
1548:
1545:
1500:
1497:
1445:RNA replicases
1393:
1390:
1374:Actinomycetota
1354:crystal violet
1297:
1294:
1264:Chagas disease
1188:
1185:
1181:petechial rash
1164:
1161:
1148:produced by a
1078:
1075:
1064:
1063:
1046:, which is an
1037:
1020:
992:
986:
975:athlete's foot
968:
958:
948:
902:
853:Main article:
850:
847:
816:staphylococcus
806:Microorganisms
798:
795:
754:staphylococcal
750:
749:
742:
739:
734:the intrinsic
732:
698:Corynebacteria
687:that exist on
685:staphylococcus
618:
615:
594:
591:
588:
587:
582:
577:
573:
572:
564:
557:conjunctivitis
552:
548:
547:
542:
537:
519:
516:
475:
472:
471:
470:
464:
463:
462:
436:
398:
373:
372:
371:
359:
321:
275:
230:
227:
211:antiprotozoals
172:immune systems
113:
112:
91:
87:
86:
81:
75:
74:
62:False-colored
59:
58:
50:
49:
41:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
14031:
14020:
14017:
14015:
14012:
14011:
14009:
13999:
13994:
13989:
13987:
13977:
13976:
13973:
13960:
13959:Fetal disease
13957:
13955:
13952:
13951:
13948:
13942:
13939:
13937:
13934:
13932:
13929:
13927:
13924:
13922:
13919:
13918:
13915:
13909:
13906:
13905:
13902:
13896:
13893:
13891:
13888:
13886:
13883:
13882:
13879:
13873:
13870:
13868:
13865:
13863:
13860:
13858:
13855:
13854:
13851:
13845:
13842:
13840:
13837:
13836:
13833:
13827:
13824:
13823:
13820:
13814:
13811:
13809:
13806:
13805:
13802:
13796:
13793:
13791:
13788:
13786:
13783:
13782:
13779:
13773:
13770:
13769:
13766:
13760:
13757:
13756:
13753:
13747:
13744:
13742:
13739:
13737:
13734:
13732:
13729:
13728:
13725:
13719:
13716:
13714:
13711:
13710:
13707:
13701:
13698:
13696:
13693:
13692:
13689:
13680:
13675:
13673:
13668:
13666:
13661:
13660:
13657:
13641:
13639:
13636:
13635:
13633:
13630:
13627:
13624:
13622:
13619:
13618:
13614:
13608:
13605:
13603:
13600:
13598:
13595:
13593:
13590:
13589:
13587:
13583:
13577:
13574:
13572:
13571:
13567:
13565:
13562:
13560:
13557:
13555:
13552:
13550:
13547:
13544:
13542:
13537:
13534:
13532:
13529:
13528:
13526:
13522:
13516:
13515:Drew Weissman
13513:
13511:
13508:
13506:
13503:
13501:
13500:H. Fred Clark
13498:
13496:
13493:
13491:
13488:
13486:
13483:
13481:
13478:
13476:
13473:
13471:
13470:Louis Pasteur
13468:
13466:
13465:Edward Jenner
13463:
13462:
13460:
13454:
13442:
13439:
13437:
13436:DTwP-HepB-Hib
13434:
13432:
13431:DTaP-IPV-HepB
13429:
13427:
13424:
13423:
13422:combination:
13421:
13419:
13416:
13414:
13411:
13409:
13406:
13404:
13401:
13397:
13394:
13390:
13387:
13385:
13382:
13381:
13380:
13377:
13375:
13372:
13370:
13367:
13365:
13362:
13361:
13360:
13357:
13355:
13352:
13351:
13349:
13345:
13337:
13334:
13332:
13329:
13328:
13326:
13325:
13323:
13321:
13320:Helminthiasis
13317:
13309:
13306:
13305:
13303:
13299:
13296:
13295:
13294:
13291:
13290:
13288:
13284:
13276:
13273:
13271:
13268:
13266:
13263:
13261:
13258:
13256:
13253:
13251:
13248:
13246:
13243:
13242:
13240:
13236:
13233:
13231:
13228:
13226:
13223:
13222:
13221:combination:
13220:
13218:
13215:
13211:
13208:
13206:
13203:
13202:
13200:
13198:
13195:
13193:
13190:
13188:
13185:
13181:
13178:
13176:
13173:
13171:
13168:
13166:
13163:
13161:
13158:
13156:
13153:
13151:
13148:
13146:
13143:
13141:
13138:
13136:
13133:
13131:
13128:
13126:
13123:
13121:
13118:
13116:
13113:
13111:
13108:
13107:
13106:
13103:
13101:
13098:
13096:
13093:
13091:
13088:
13084:
13081:
13079:
13076:
13075:
13074:
13071:
13069:
13066:
13064:
13061:
13059:
13056:
13054:
13051:
13047:
13044:
13042:
13039:
13038:
13037:
13034:
13032:
13029:
13027:
13024:
13022:
13019:
13017:
13014:
13010:
13007:
13005:
13002:
13000:
12997:
12994:
12990:
12987:
12986:
12985:
12982:
12978:
12975:
12974:
12973:
12970:
12968:
12965:
12963:
12960:
12959:
12957:
12953:
12945:
12942:
12940:
12937:
12935:
12932:
12931:
12929:
12925:
12922:
12920:
12919:DPT/DTwP/DTaP
12917:
12916:
12915:combination:
12914:
12912:
12909:
12905:
12902:
12900:
12897:
12896:
12895:
12892:
12888:
12885:
12884:
12883:
12880:
12878:
12875:
12873:
12870:
12866:
12863:
12861:
12858:
12857:
12856:
12853:
12851:
12848:
12846:
12843:
12839:
12836:
12834:
12831:
12830:
12829:
12828:Meningococcus
12826:
12824:
12821:
12819:
12818:Leptospirosis
12816:
12814:
12811:
12809:
12806:
12804:
12801:
12799:
12796:
12794:
12791:
12790:
12788:
12784:
12781:
12777:
12769:
12766:
12764:
12761:
12759:
12756:
12754:
12753:Vaccine court
12751:
12749:
12746:
12745:
12743:
12739:
12736:
12734:
12731:
12729:
12726:
12724:
12721:
12719:
12716:
12714:
12711:
12709:
12708:GAVI Alliance
12706:
12705:
12703:
12702:
12700:
12696:
12690:
12687:
12685:
12682:
12680:
12676:
12673:
12671:
12667:
12663:
12659:
12656:
12652:
12649:
12647:
12644:
12643:
12641:
12639:
12636:
12634:
12631:
12630:
12628:
12624:
12618:
12615:
12613:
12610:
12608:
12605:
12603:
12600:
12596:
12593:
12592:
12591:
12588:
12586:
12583:
12582:
12580:
12576:
12571:
12567:
12563:
12559:
12555:
12551:
12547:
12540:
12535:
12533:
12528:
12526:
12521:
12520:
12517:
12505:
12502:
12500:
12497:
12495:
12492:
12490:
12487:
12485:
12482:
12480:
12477:
12475:
12472:
12471:
12468:
12465:
12463:
12460:
12458:
12455:
12453:
12450:
12448:
12445:
12443:
12440:
12439:
12437:
12435:
12431:
12425:
12422:
12420:
12417:
12415:
12412:
12410:
12407:
12405:
12402:
12400:
12397:
12396:
12393:
12390:
12388:
12385:
12383:
12380:
12378:
12375:
12373:
12372:Cytopathology
12370:
12368:
12365:
12364:
12362:
12360:
12356:
12350:
12347:
12343:
12340:
12338:
12334:
12331:
12329:
12326:
12325:
12324:
12323:
12319:
12317:
12316:Accumulations
12314:
12313:
12310:
12307:
12305:
12302:
12300:
12297:
12293:
12290:
12289:
12288:
12285:
12281:
12278:
12276:
12273:
12271:
12268:
12266:
12263:
12261:
12258:
12256:
12253:
12251:
12248:
12247:
12246:
12243:
12241:
12239:
12236:
12235:
12230:
12227:
12225:
12222:
12221:
12220:
12217:
12215:
12212:
12210:
12207:
12205:
12202:
12200:
12197:
12195:
12193:
12190:
12189:
12186:
12185:Wound healing
12183:
12181:
12178:
12176:
12173:
12169:
12166:
12165:
12164:
12161:
12157:
12154:
12152:
12149:
12147:
12144:
12142:
12139:
12138:
12137:
12134:
12133:
12131:
12127:
12123:
12116:
12111:
12109:
12104:
12102:
12097:
12096:
12093:
12081:
12073:
12071:
12067:
12063:
12061:
12053:
12051:
12043:
12041:
12033:
12032:
12029:
12023:
12020:
12016:
12013:
12012:
12011:
12008:
12006:
12003:
12001:
11998:
11996:
11993:
11991:
11988:
11986:
11985:Public health
11983:
11981:
11978:
11976:
11973:
11971:
11968:
11966:
11965:Allied health
11963:
11961:
11958:
11957:
11955:
11951:
11943:
11940:
11939:
11938:
11935:
11933:
11930:
11928:
11925:
11923:
11920:
11918:
11915:
11913:
11910:
11908:
11905:
11903:
11900:
11899:
11897:
11895:
11889:
11877:
11874:
11873:
11872:
11869:
11867:
11864:
11862:
11859:
11857:
11854:
11850:
11847:
11846:
11845:
11842:
11840:
11837:
11835:
11832:
11828:
11825:
11824:
11823:
11820:
11818:
11815:
11813:
11810:
11807:
11804:
11802:
11799:
11795:
11792:
11791:
11790:
11787:
11785:
11782:
11780:
11777:
11775:
11774:Oral medicine
11772:
11770:
11769:Ophthalmology
11767:
11765:
11762:
11758:
11755:
11754:
11753:
11750:
11748:
11745:
11743:
11740:
11738:
11735:
11733:
11730:
11728:
11724:
11721:
11719:
11716:
11712:
11709:
11708:
11707:
11704:
11702:
11699:
11697:
11694:
11692:
11689:
11687:
11684:
11680:
11677:
11675:
11672:
11671:
11670:
11667:
11665:
11662:
11660:
11657:
11656:
11654:
11650:
11642:
11639:
11637:
11634:
11632:
11631:Cytopathology
11629:
11627:
11624:
11622:
11619:
11617:
11614:
11613:
11612:
11609:
11605:
11602:
11600:
11597:
11595:
11592:
11591:
11590:
11587:
11586:
11584:
11582:
11578:
11572:
11571:Urogynecology
11569:
11567:
11564:
11562:
11559:
11557:
11554:
11552:
11549:
11547:
11544:
11543:
11541:
11539:
11533:
11527:
11524:
11522:
11519:
11517:
11514:
11512:
11509:
11507:
11504:
11502:
11499:
11497:
11494:
11492:
11489:
11485:
11482:
11481:
11480:
11477:
11475:
11474:Endocrinology
11472:
11470:
11467:
11465:
11462:
11460:
11456:
11453:
11452:
11450:
11448:
11442:
11436:
11433:
11429:
11426:
11425:
11424:
11421:
11419:
11416:
11414:
11411:
11409:
11406:
11404:
11401:
11399:
11396:
11394:
11391:
11384:
11383:
11382:
11379:
11377:
11374:
11372:
11369:
11367:
11364:
11362:
11359:
11355:
11352:
11350:
11347:
11346:
11345:
11342:
11340:
11337:
11335:
11332:
11330:
11327:
11325:
11322:
11321:
11319:
11317:
11313:
11310:
11308:
11302:
11298:
11294:
11287:
11282:
11280:
11275:
11273:
11268:
11267:
11264:
11252:
11249:
11247:
11244:
11242:
11239:
11238:
11236:
11232:
11222:(2019–present
11221:
11218:
11215:
11212:
11209:
11206:
11203:
11200:
11199:
11197:
11195:
11191:
11185:
11182:
11180:
11177:
11175:
11172:
11170:
11167:
11165:
11164:Louis Pasteur
11162:
11160:
11157:
11155:
11154:Edward Jenner
11152:
11150:
11147:
11145:
11142:
11141:
11139:
11135:
11129:
11126:
11124:
11123:Typhoid fever
11121:
11119:
11116:
11114:
11111:
11109:
11106:
11104:
11101:
11099:
11096:
11094:
11091:
11089:
11086:
11084:
11081:
11079:
11076:
11075:
11073:
11069:
11065:
11057:
11052:
11050:
11045:
11043:
11038:
11037:
11034:
11020:
11017:
11016:
11015:
11012:
11010:
11007:
11005:
11002:
11000:
10997:
10995:
10992:
10989:
10987:
10984:
10982:
10979:
10978:
10976:
10972:
10966:
10963:
10961:
10958:
10956:
10953:
10951:
10948:
10945:
10943:
10940:
10938:
10935:
10933:
10930:
10928:
10925:
10923:
10920:
10918:
10915:
10913:
10910:
10908:
10905:
10903:
10900:
10898:
10895:
10891:
10888:
10887:
10885:
10883:
10880:
10878:
10875:
10874:
10872:
10870:
10864:
10853:
10851:
10848:
10846:
10843:
10841:
10838:
10836:
10833:
10831:
10828:
10826:
10825:Sterilization
10823:
10821:
10818:
10816:
10813:
10811:
10808:
10806:
10803:
10799:
10796:
10794:
10793:Surgical mask
10791:
10789:
10786:
10785:
10784:
10781:
10779:
10776:
10774:
10771:
10767:
10764:
10762:
10759:
10756:
10753:
10752:
10751:
10750:Public health
10748:
10746:
10743:
10739:
10736:
10735:
10734:
10731:
10729:
10726:
10722:
10719:
10718:
10717:
10714:
10710:
10707:
10705:
10702:
10700:
10697:
10696:
10695:
10692:
10690:
10687:
10685:
10682:
10680:
10677:
10675:
10672:
10670:
10667:
10666:
10664:
10662:
10656:
10648:
10645:
10643:
10640:
10638:
10635:
10633:
10630:
10628:
10625:
10624:
10623:
10620:
10618:
10615:
10613:
10610:
10608:
10605:
10603:
10602:Phage therapy
10600:
10598:
10595:
10591:
10588:
10587:
10586:
10585:Immunotherapy
10583:
10581:
10578:
10576:
10573:
10571:
10568:
10566:
10563:
10561:
10558:
10556:
10553:
10549:
10546:
10545:
10544:
10543:Antimicrobial
10541:
10537:
10534:
10533:
10532:
10529:
10527:
10524:
10520:
10517:
10516:
10515:
10512:
10511:
10509:
10505:
10502:
10500:
10492:
10485:
10483:
10480:
10478:
10475:
10473:
10470:
10468:
10465:
10463:
10460:
10457:
10455:
10452:
10450:
10447:
10444:
10442:
10439:
10436:
10434:Genitourinary
10433:
10429:
10426:
10425:
10424:
10421:
10417:
10414:
10412:
10409:
10408:
10406:
10405:
10403:
10397:
10387:
10384:
10382:
10379:
10377:
10374:
10372:
10369:
10367:
10364:
10362:
10359:
10357:
10354:
10352:
10349:
10347:
10344:
10342:
10339:
10337:
10334:
10332:
10329:
10327:
10324:
10320:
10317:
10315:
10312:
10311:
10310:
10307:
10305:
10302:
10300:
10297:
10296:
10294:
10292:in population
10288:
10282:
10279:
10277:
10274:
10272:
10269:
10267:
10264:
10262:
10259:
10257:
10256:Herd immunity
10254:
10252:
10249:
10247:
10244:
10242:
10239:
10237:
10234:
10232:
10229:
10227:
10224:
10222:
10219:
10218:
10216:
10214:
10210:
10192:
10189:
10188:
10186:
10182:
10175:
10174:
10172:
10168:
10161:
10160:
10158:
10154:
10148:
10145:
10144:
10142:
10140:Genitourinary
10138:
10132:
10128:
10126:
10123:
10121:
10118:
10116:
10113:
10112:
10110:
10106:
10100:
10097:
10095:
10092:
10090:
10087:
10083:
10082:Contamination
10080:
10079:
10078:
10075:
10074:
10072:
10068:
10060:
10057:
10055:
10052:
10051:
10050:Vector-borne
10049:
10045:
10042:
10040:
10037:
10036:
10034:
10030:
10027:
10024:
10022:
10019:
10017:
10014:
10013:
10011:
10009:
10006:
10005:
10003:
9997:
9991:
9988:
9986:
9983:
9979:
9976:
9975:
9974:
9971:
9969:
9966:
9965:
9963:
9959:
9956:
9952:
9946:
9943:
9942:
9940:
9934:
9928:
9925:
9921:
9918:
9914:
9911:
9908:
9905:
9904:
9903:
9900:
9899:
9897:
9893:
9890:
9888:
9885:
9884:
9882:
9880:
9877:
9876:
9874:
9870:
9866:
9860:
9857:
9855:
9852:
9850:
9847:
9845:
9842:
9841:
9839:
9837:
9836:Cross-species
9833:
9830:
9826:
9819:
9816:
9813:
9810:
9808:
9805:
9803:
9800:
9797:
9796:
9794:
9790:
9787:
9783:
9777:
9776:Window period
9774:
9772:
9769:
9767:
9764:
9762:
9759:
9757:
9754:
9752:
9749:
9747:
9744:
9742:
9741:Latent period
9739:
9737:
9734:
9732:
9729:
9727:
9724:
9722:
9719:
9717:
9714:
9712:
9709:
9707:
9704:
9703:
9701:
9695:
9692:
9690:
9686:
9676:
9673:
9671:
9668:
9666:
9663:
9661:
9658:
9656:
9653:
9651:
9648:
9644:
9641:
9640:
9638:
9636:
9633:
9631:
9628:
9626:
9623:
9621:
9620:Deforestation
9618:
9616:
9613:
9609:
9606:
9604:
9601:
9600:
9598:
9596:
9593:
9590:
9587:
9585:
9582:
9581:
9579:
9577:
9573:
9565:Stress levels
9564:
9561:
9557:
9554:
9553:
9551:
9548:
9545:
9542:
9539:
9536:
9535:
9534:
9531:
9529:
9526:
9524:
9521:
9519:
9516:
9512:
9509:
9507:
9504:
9503:
9502:
9499:
9497:
9494:
9492:
9489:
9487:
9484:
9482:
9479:
9478:
9476:
9474:
9470:
9464:
9461:
9457:
9454:
9452:
9449:
9447:
9444:
9443:
9442:
9439:
9435:
9432:
9430:
9427:
9425:
9422:
9420:
9417:
9416:
9415:
9412:
9410:
9407:
9403:
9400:
9399:
9398:
9397:Pathogenicity
9395:
9391:
9388:
9387:
9386:
9383:
9381:
9378:
9376:
9373:
9372:
9370:
9368:
9364:
9361:
9357:
9352:
9348:
9340:
9335:
9333:
9328:
9326:
9321:
9320:
9317:
9303:
9302:ectoparasites
9300:
9299:
9298:
9295:
9291:
9288:
9286:
9283:
9282:
9281:
9278:
9274:
9271:
9270:
9269:
9266:
9262:
9259:
9257:
9254:
9253:
9252:
9249:
9245:
9242:
9241:
9240:
9237:
9236:
9234:
9232:
9227:
9223:
9219:
9212:
9207:
9205:
9200:
9198:
9193:
9192:
9189:
9182:
9181:
9177:
9174:
9171:
9168:
9165:
9162:
9159:
9157:
9154:
9153:
9143:
9139:
9138:
9134:
9132:
9128:
9127:
9123:
9121:
9117:
9116:
9112:
9108:
9106:
9102:
9098:
9097:
9093:
9089:
9088:
9085:
9080:
9076:
9060:
9056:
9052:
9048:
9044:
9040:
9037:(8): 105–18.
9036:
9032:
9025:
9014:
9010:
9006:
9002:
8998:
8994:
8990:
8987:(8): 119–29.
8986:
8982:
8975:
8968:
8952:
8948:
8947:
8942:
8935:
8927:
8923:
8918:
8913:
8908:
8903:
8899:
8895:
8891:
8887:
8886:
8881:
8874:
8858:
8854:
8853:
8848:
8841:
8834:
8828:
8820:
8816:
8812:
8808:
8804:
8800:
8793:
8784:
8779:
8775:
8771:
8767:
8763:
8756:
8748:
8744:
8739:
8734:
8730:
8726:
8722:
8718:
8714:
8707:
8699:
8695:
8692:(2): 129–54.
8691:
8687:
8680:
8672:
8668:
8663:
8658:
8654:
8650:
8646:
8642:
8638:
8634:
8633:
8628:
8621:
8613:
8607:
8603:
8599:
8598:
8590:
8582:
8576:
8572:
8568:
8567:
8559:
8551:
8550:
8542:
8534:
8533:
8524:
8516:
8512:
8509:(4): 541–43.
8508:
8504:
8500:
8493:
8485:
8481:
8476:
8471:
8467:
8463:
8459:
8455:
8451:
8447:
8443:
8436:
8428:
8427:
8419:
8404:
8400:
8396:
8392:
8388:
8382:
8374:
8370:
8366:
8362:
8358:
8354:
8350:
8346:
8339:
8330:
8325:
8321:
8317:
8313:
8309:
8305:
8304:"Summer buzz"
8298:
8290:
8284:
8280:
8273:
8271:
8262:
8258:
8252:
8246:
8242:
8239:
8235:
8230:
8222:
8218:
8214:
8210:
8206:
8202:
8198:
8194:
8187:
8181:
8177:
8174:
8170:
8165:
8150:
8146:
8142:
8136:
8118:
8114:
8110:
8105:
8100:
8097:(2): 115–26.
8096:
8092:
8085:
8078:
8076:
8069:
8068:archive.today
8065:
8062:
8057:
8049:
8045:
8040:
8035:
8032:(5): 454–61.
8031:
8027:
8023:
8016:
8001:
7997:
7991:
7984:
7980:
7976:
7972:
7971:leishmaniasis
7968:
7964:
7960:
7954:
7948:
7944:
7943:
7938:
7934:
7928:
7921:
7917:
7913:
7907:
7896:
7889:
7883:
7872:
7865:
7859:
7843:
7839:
7833:
7827:
7823:
7820:
7814:
7799:
7795:
7791:
7785:
7777:
7773:
7768:
7763:
7759:
7755:
7751:
7747:
7743:
7739:
7735:
7731:
7727:
7720:
7712:
7708:
7704:
7700:
7696:
7692:
7687:
7682:
7678:
7674:
7670:
7663:
7655:
7651:
7646:
7641:
7637:
7633:
7629:
7625:
7621:
7617:
7613:
7606:
7598:
7594:
7590:
7586:
7582:
7578:
7575:(4): 352–58.
7574:
7570:
7563:
7548:
7544:
7540:
7534:
7526:
7522:
7517:
7512:
7508:
7504:
7500:
7496:
7492:
7485:
7477:
7473:
7468:
7463:
7459:
7455:
7451:
7447:
7443:
7439:
7435:
7427:
7419:
7415:
7411:
7407:
7403:
7399:
7395:
7391:
7387:
7383:
7375:
7367:
7363:
7358:
7353:
7349:
7345:
7342:(3): 192–95.
7341:
7337:
7333:
7326:
7310:
7306:
7300:
7286:
7282:
7276:
7272:
7268:
7264:
7260:
7253:
7245:
7241:
7237:
7233:
7228:
7223:
7219:
7215:
7211:
7207:
7203:
7196:
7181:
7177:
7176:
7168:
7160:
7154:
7150:
7143:
7135:
7129:
7124:
7123:
7114:
7112:
7097:on 2009-09-24
7096:
7092:
7088:
7082:
7067:
7062:
7057:
7053:
7049:
7045:
7041:
7037:
7030:
7021:
7012:
7007:
7003:
6999:
6994:
6989:
6984:
6979:
6975:
6971:
6967:
6960:
6952:
6948:
6944:
6940:
6936:
6932:
6928:
6924:
6917:
6909:
6905:
6900:
6895:
6892:(1): E9–E12.
6891:
6887:
6883:
6876:
6868:
6864:
6859:
6854:
6850:
6846:
6842:
6838:
6834:
6827:
6819:
6815:
6810:
6805:
6800:
6795:
6791:
6787:
6783:
6776:
6774:
6758:
6754:
6750:
6746:
6744:9780963117212
6740:
6736:
6735:
6728:
6724:
6721:
6717:
6713:
6710:
6706:
6702:
6699:
6698:public domain
6693:
6691:
6682:
6676:
6672:
6665:
6663:
6648:
6644:
6640:
6636:
6630:
6626:
6622:
6615:
6607:
6603:
6598:
6593:
6589:
6585:
6581:
6577:
6573:
6569:
6565:
6558:
6550:
6546:
6541:
6536:
6532:
6528:
6524:
6520:
6516:
6512:
6508:
6501:
6493:
6487:
6483:
6476:
6461:
6457:
6450:
6442:
6438:
6433:
6428:
6424:
6420:
6416:
6412:
6408:
6404:
6400:
6393:
6391:
6382:
6378:
6373:
6368:
6364:
6360:
6356:
6352:
6348:
6344:
6340:
6333:
6325:
6321:
6316:
6311:
6307:
6303:
6299:
6295:
6291:
6287:
6283:
6276:
6268:
6264:
6259:
6254:
6250:
6246:
6242:
6238:
6234:
6230:
6226:
6225:"Nocardiosis"
6219:
6211:
6207:
6202:
6197:
6193:
6189:
6184:
6179:
6175:
6171:
6167:
6160:
6152:
6146:
6142:
6135:
6127:
6123:
6118:
6113:
6109:
6105:
6100:
6095:
6091:
6087:
6083:
6076:
6068:
6064:
6059:
6054:
6050:
6046:
6041:
6036:
6032:
6028:
6024:
6020:
6016:
6009:
6001:
5995:
5991:
5984:
5976:
5972:
5968:
5964:
5960:
5956:
5952:
5948:
5940:
5938:
5929:
5925:
5920:
5915:
5910:
5905:
5902:(183167): 3.
5901:
5897:
5893:
5886:
5878:
5874:
5869:
5864:
5860:
5856:
5852:
5848:
5844:
5840:
5836:
5829:
5821:
5817:
5812:
5807:
5803:
5799:
5795:
5791:
5788:: e141–e162.
5787:
5783:
5779:
5772:
5758:on 2024-01-02
5757:
5753:
5749:
5742:
5740:
5738:
5728:
5723:
5719:
5717:9780128037089
5713:
5709:
5705:
5701:
5697:
5690:
5682:
5678:
5673:
5668:
5663:
5658:
5654:
5650:
5646:
5639:
5631:
5627:
5623:
5619:
5615:
5611:
5604:
5596:
5592:
5587:
5582:
5578:
5574:
5570:
5566:
5562:
5555:
5540:
5536:
5532:
5528:
5524:
5520:
5516:
5512:
5508:
5504:
5497:
5489:
5485:
5481:
5477:
5472:
5467:
5463:
5459:
5455:
5448:
5441:
5437:
5433:
5430:
5425:
5410:
5406:
5402:
5396:
5389:
5385:
5382:
5377:
5361:
5357:
5353:
5347:
5333:
5329:
5325:
5321:
5315:
5311:
5307:
5300:
5292:
5288:
5283:
5278:
5274:
5270:
5265:
5260:
5256:
5252:
5251:PLOS Medicine
5248:
5241:
5226:
5222:
5218:
5212:
5204:
5200:
5195:
5190:
5186:
5182:
5178:
5174:
5170:
5166:
5162:
5155:
5146:
5141:
5137:
5135:9780126990577
5131:
5127:
5123:
5119:
5115:
5108:
5089:
5085:
5078:
5072:
5064:
5060:
5056:
5052:
5049:(6): 605–11.
5048:
5044:
5037:
5029:
5025:
5020:
5015:
5011:
5007:
5003:
4999:
4995:
4991:
4987:
4980:
4966:on 2016-12-02
4965:
4961:
4957:
4951:
4936:
4933:. St. Louis.
4932:
4928:
4922:
4914:
4910:
4905:
4900:
4896:
4892:
4889:(7): 654–59.
4888:
4884:
4880:
4873:
4865:
4861:
4856:
4851:
4847:
4843:
4838:
4833:
4829:
4825:
4821:
4814:
4799:
4795:
4791:
4787:
4785:9780963117212
4781:
4777:
4776:
4768:
4754:
4750:
4746:
4739:
4724:
4720:
4716:
4710:
4694:
4690:
4684:
4676:
4670:
4666:
4659:
4644:
4640:
4636:
4630:
4628:
4626:
4617:
4611:
4607:
4600:
4598:
4596:
4594:
4592:
4590:
4574:
4570:
4566:
4560:
4552:
4548:
4544:
4540:
4537:(1): 155–71.
4536:
4532:
4525:
4510:
4506:
4502:
4496:
4482:
4478:
4474:
4470:
4466:
4459:
4444:
4440:
4436:
4430:
4423:
4413:on 2015-02-06
4412:
4408:
4402:
4394:
4390:
4385:
4380:
4376:
4372:
4368:
4364:
4360:
4353:
4338:
4334:
4330:
4324:
4309:
4305:
4301:
4297:
4293:
4289:
4285:
4280:
4275:
4271:
4267:
4263:
4256:
4242:
4238:
4234:
4228:
4224:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4205:
4203:
4200:
4198:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4188:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4178:
4175:
4173:
4170:
4168:
4165:
4163:
4160:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4138:
4135:
4133:
4130:
4128:
4125:
4123:
4120:
4118:
4115:
4113:
4110:
4108:
4105:
4103:
4100:
4098:
4095:
4094:
4087:
4085:
4081:
4077:
4073:
4069:
4065:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4041:
4037:
4033:
4032:
4027:
4026:Space Shuttle
4021:
4017:
4013:
4003:
4001:
4000:Herrerasaurus
3997:
3993:
3992:
3991:Tyrannosaurus
3987:
3986:
3981:
3980:
3975:
3974:Herrerasaurus
3970:
3969:
3964:
3960:
3952:
3951:
3950:Herrerasaurus
3946:
3941:
3934:Fossil record
3931:
3928:
3924:
3910:
3907:
3903:
3900:
3896:
3892:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3877:
3874:
3873:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3863:
3862:immunologists
3859:
3855:
3854:pulmonologist
3851:
3847:
3843:
3839:
3835:
3831:
3827:
3826:medical field
3823:
3813:
3811:
3807:
3806:sulphonamides
3803:
3799:
3795:
3791:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3766:Edward Jenner
3763:
3759:
3755:
3751:
3750:Louis Pasteur
3746:
3742:
3737:
3735:
3731:
3727:
3723:
3719:
3718:Ibn al-Khatib
3708:
3704:
3701:
3696:
3694:
3690:
3679:
3675:
3671:
3670:
3665:
3661:
3657:
3653:
3652:miasma theory
3649:
3645:
3641:
3640:
3635:
3631:
3626:
3623:
3619:
3615:
3610: 175 AD
3604:
3600:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3568:
3555:
3551:
3548:
3545:Uncontrolled
3544:
3541:
3537:
3534:
3530:
3527:
3523:
3522:
3521:
3519:
3515:
3511:
3507:
3499:
3495:
3494:host organism
3491:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3472:
3469:, leading to
3468:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3449:
3448:
3447:
3445:
3441:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3406:
3403:
3399:
3396:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3380:
3376:
3373:
3370:
3369:
3368:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3330:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3315:poliomyelitis
3312:
3308:
3304:
3300:
3296:
3286:
3279:
3276:9, 10, 16–18
3275:
3272:
3269:
3266:
3263:
3260:
3257:
3256:
3252:
3249:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3235:
3234:
3230:
3227:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3213:
3212:
3208:
3205:
3202:
3199:
3197:
3194:
3191:
3190:
3186:
3183:
3180:
3177:
3175:
3172:
3169:
3168:
3164:
3161:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3147:
3146:
3142:
3139:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3125:
3124:
3120:
3117:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3103:
3102:
3098:
3095:
3092:
3089:
3086:
3083:
3080:
3079:
3075:
3072:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3058:
3057:
3053:
3050:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3038:
3035:
3032:
3031:
3027:
3024:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3010:
3009:
3005:
3002:
2999:
2996:
2993:
2990:
2989:
2985:
2983:(in millions)
2980:
2976:Percentage of
2975:
2973:(in millions)
2970:
2967:
2964:
2963:
2960:
2955:
2953:
2949:
2944:
2935: ≥50,000
2930:
2922:
2914:
2906:
2898:
2890:
2882:
2874:
2866:
2858:
2855: 250–500
2850:
2842:
2839: no data
2834:
2833:
2830:
2826:
2821:
2817:
2784: 284–516
2778: 213–283
2772: 172–212
2766: 115–171
2746:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2731:
2726:
2722:
2717:
2715:
2714:immune system
2711:
2707:
2703:
2698:
2688:
2685:
2681:
2680:self-limiting
2676:
2674:
2673:tetracyclines
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2628:antiprotozoal
2625:
2624:antiparasitic
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2603:
2592:
2590:
2586:
2585:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2569:treated with
2568:
2557:
2556:to newborns.
2555:
2551:
2547:
2542:
2540:
2539:herd immunity
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2519:
2517:
2513:
2505:
2502:
2499:
2495:
2494:opsonoization
2491:
2487:
2486:
2485:
2483:
2482:T lymphocytes
2479:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2459:
2458:typhoid fever
2455:
2451:
2442:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2415:
2413:
2409:
2404:
2402:
2398:
2393:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2369:
2359:
2355:
2352:
2349:
2348:disinfectants
2346:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2333:
2332:
2331:
2329:
2325:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2293:
2292:Public health
2283:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2251:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2228:
2227:
2225:
2221:
2211:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2191:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2167:
2163:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2147:
2142:
2137:
2135:
2131:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2108:
2106:
2105:
2100:
2099:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2076:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2044:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2010:antimicrobial
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1984:
1983:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1952:
1942:
1940:
1930:
1928:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1913:
1907:
1897:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1869:
1867:
1864:(rather than
1863:
1862:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1828:
1826:
1825:
1824:Herpesviridae
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1803:
1799:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1773:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1733:
1724:
1715:
1713:
1708:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1645:
1642:
1634:
1623:
1620:
1616:
1613:
1609:
1606:
1602:
1599:
1595:
1592: –
1591:
1587:
1586:Find sources:
1580:
1576:
1570:
1569:
1564:This article
1562:
1558:
1553:
1552:
1544:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1524:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1505:
1496:
1492:
1490:
1485:
1483:
1482:refrigeration
1479:
1478:
1473:
1468:
1464:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1453:hemagglutinin
1450:
1446:
1442:
1437:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1406:carbohydrates
1403:
1399:
1389:
1387:
1386:
1381:
1380:
1379:Mycobacterium
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1346:
1345:electrostatic
1342:
1337:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1293:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1274:xenodiagnosis
1271:
1270:
1265:
1261:
1256:
1255:
1250:
1249:
1243:
1241:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1213:growth medium
1210:
1202:
1201:Gram negative
1198:
1197:nutrient agar
1193:
1184:
1182:
1178:
1173:
1171:
1170:pathognomonic
1160:
1158:
1153:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1122:
1120:
1116:
1110:
1107:
1102:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1088:
1084:
1074:
1071:
1070:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1038:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1025:
1021:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
997:
993:
990:
987:
984:
980:
976:
972:
969:
966:
962:
959:
956:
952:
949:
946:
942:
938:
937:
932:
931:
926:
922:
921:
916:
915:
910:
906:
903:
900:
896:
892:
889:
888:
887:
881:among others.
880:
879:avian malaria
876:
872:
868:
867:
861:
856:
846:
843:
839:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
812:
807:
803:
794:
792:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
769:
767:
763:
759:
755:
747:
743:
740:
737:
733:
730:
726:
725:
724:
717:
713:
711:
710:wound healing
707:
706:
701:
699:
694:
690:
686:
682:
679:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
636:immune system
634:a suppressed
628:
623:
614:
612:
608:
599:
586:
583:
581:
578:
575:
574:
570:
569:ear infection
565:
562:
558:
553:
550:
549:
546:
543:
541:
538:
535:
534:
528:
526:
515:
513:
508:
503:
501:
497:
493:
489:
485:
481:
468:
465:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
437:
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
411:
407:
403:
399:
396:
395:
390:
389:
384:
380:
379:
377:
374:
370:
368:
363:
362:Basidiomycota
360:
357:
356:dermatophytes
354:species; and
353:
352:
348:
346:
341:
337:
336:
331:
328:
327:
325:
322:
319:
318:
313:
312:
307:
306:
301:
300:
295:
294:
289:
288:
283:
279:
276:
273:
272:
267:
266:
261:
260:
255:
254:
249:
248:
243:
240:
239:
238:
237:) including:
236:
226:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
191:
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
156:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
92:
88:
85:
82:
80:
76:
72:
69:
65:
60:
56:
51:
46:
38:
36:
31:
24:
19:
14019:Epidemiology
13941:Chondropathy
13936:Bone disease
13908:Skin disease
13736:Malnutrition
13713:Benign tumor
13694:
13592:Epidemiology
13568:
13540:
13426:DTaP-IPV/Hib
13217:Yellow fever
13130:EpiVacCorona
12882:Tuberculosis
12855:Pneumococcal
12823:Lyme disease
12651:Heterologous
12561:
12550:Immunization
12474:Enzyme assay
12320:
12315:
12304:Karyorrhexis
12280:Myocytolysis
12270:Fat necrosis
12175:Inflammation
12163:Hemodynamics
12156:Pathogenesis
12140:
11990:Rural health
11975:Nanomedicine
11526:Rheumatology
11457: /
11376:Hand surgery
11361:Neurosurgery
11128:Yellow fever
11118:Tuberculosis
10733:Notification
10704:Hand washing
10699:Food hygiene
10684:Disinfection
10580:Immunization
10531:Anthelmintic
10519:prophylactic
10407:Respiratory
10331:Hyperendemic
10281:WAIFW matrix
9936:Environment-
9689:Transmission
9665:Urbanization
9463:Host tropism
9359:Determinants
9346:
9345:Concepts in
9280:Parasitology
9239:Bacteriology
9222:microbiology
9217:
9178:
9135:
9124:
9109:
9090:
9034:
9030:
9024:
8984:
8980:
8967:
8957:14 September
8955:. Retrieved
8944:
8934:
8892:(4): e6237.
8889:
8883:
8873:
8863:14 September
8861:. Retrieved
8857:the original
8850:
8840:
8832:
8827:
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8798:
8792:
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8390:
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8311:
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8278:
8261:the original
8251:
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8196:
8192:
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8172:
8164:
8153:. Retrieved
8144:
8135:
8124:. Retrieved
8094:
8090:
8056:
8029:
8025:
8015:
8004:. Retrieved
7990:
7963:dengue fever
7953:
7940:
7927:
7906:
7882:
7858:
7846:. Retrieved
7832:
7813:
7802:. Retrieved
7784:
7733:
7729:
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7676:
7672:
7662:
7619:
7615:
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7572:
7568:
7562:
7551:. Retrieved
7542:
7533:
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7437:
7426:
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7339:
7335:
7325:
7313:. Retrieved
7299:
7289:, retrieved
7262:
7252:
7209:
7205:
7195:
7184:. Retrieved
7174:
7167:
7149:The hot zone
7148:
7142:
7121:
7099:. Retrieved
7095:the original
7090:
7081:
7070:. Retrieved
7043:
7039:
7029:
7020:
6973:
6969:
6959:
6926:
6922:
6916:
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6840:
6836:
6826:
6792:(11): 2413.
6789:
6785:
6761:. Retrieved
6733:
6671:Microbiology
6670:
6651:, retrieved
6624:
6614:
6574:(1): 86–87.
6571:
6567:
6557:
6514:
6510:
6500:
6481:
6475:
6465:17 September
6463:. Retrieved
6459:
6449:
6406:
6402:
6346:
6342:
6332:
6289:
6286:Gut Microbes
6285:
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6232:
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5828:
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5760:. Retrieved
5756:the original
5751:
5699:
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5652:
5648:
5638:
5613:
5609:
5603:
5568:
5564:
5554:
5543:. Retrieved
5510:
5506:
5496:
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5439:
5424:
5413:. Retrieved
5404:
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5376:
5364:. Retrieved
5355:
5346:
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5299:
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5250:
5240:
5229:. Retrieved
5225:the original
5220:
5211:
5168:
5164:
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5117:
5107:
5095:. Retrieved
5084:immunize.org
5083:
5071:
5046:
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4979:
4968:. Retrieved
4964:the original
4959:
4950:
4939:. Retrieved
4930:
4921:
4886:
4882:
4872:
4827:
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4802:. Retrieved
4774:
4767:
4757:, retrieved
4748:
4738:
4727:. Retrieved
4718:
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4693:the original
4683:
4664:
4658:
4647:. Retrieved
4638:
4605:
4577:. Retrieved
4568:
4559:
4534:
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4524:
4513:. Retrieved
4504:
4495:
4485:, retrieved
4468:
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4438:
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4421:
4415:. Retrieved
4411:the original
4401:
4366:
4362:
4352:
4341:. Retrieved
4332:
4323:
4312:. Retrieved
4269:
4265:
4255:
4245:, retrieved
4236:
4227:
4050:, funded by
4029:
4023:
3999:
3989:
3983:
3977:
3973:
3966:
3956:
3948:
3919:
3888:chemotherapy
3870:
3838:primary care
3834:Epidemiology
3819:
3774:Albert Sabin
3745:William Budd
3738:
3697:
3689:Islamic diet
3667:
3656:tuberculosis
3643:
3637:
3627:
3602:
3570:
3547:urbanization
3540:rain forests
3510:vector-borne
3503:
3437:
3416:tuberculosis
3354:
3292:
3282:
3085:Tuberculosis
2958:
2945:
2942:
2760: 82–114
2740:Epidemiology
2735:
2728:
2718:
2694:
2677:
2610:; including
2601:
2598:
2588:
2582:
2563:
2543:
2520:
2516:inflammation
2509:
2498:phagocytosis
2463:
2416:
2412:pest control
2405:
2394:
2364:
2358:prophylactic
2326:
2318:hand washing
2311:
2268:inflammation
2265:
2224:organ system
2222:location or
2217:
2197:
2172:Epidemiology
2170:
2161:
2157:, cannot be
2144:
2138:
2134:tuberculosis
2130:Mycobacteria
2114:
2102:
2096:
2093:appendicitis
2082:
2061:complication
2050:
2025:chemotherapy
1980:
1954:
1936:
1924:
1920:
1909:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1875:
1865:
1861:colonization
1859:
1858:to speak of
1843:
1831:
1829:
1822:
1810:
1800:
1797:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1784:
1766:geographical
1729:
1709:
1667:rather than
1656:encephalitis
1652:
1637:
1628:
1618:
1611:
1604:
1597:
1585:
1573:Please help
1568:verification
1565:
1525:
1510:
1493:
1489:immunoassays
1486:
1475:
1472:Strep throat
1465:
1460:
1438:
1418:fermentation
1395:
1383:
1377:
1338:
1299:
1289:
1281:
1267:
1252:
1246:
1244:
1206:
1174:
1166:
1154:
1123:
1111:
1103:
1080:
1067:
1065:
1039:
1026:transmission
1022:
994:
988:
970:
960:
950:
934:
928:
918:
912:
904:
894:
890:
884:
864:
849:Transmission
844:
840:
809:
800:
793:
770:
751:
722:
703:
696:
656:
632:
617:Colonization
610:
606:
604:
521:
507:asymptomatic
504:
477:
429:schistosomes
404:) including
392:
386:
367:Cryptococcus
365:
351:Pneumocystis
349:
343:
334:
315:
309:
305:Rabies virus
303:
299:Lyssaviruses
297:
291:
285:
269:
263:
257:
251:
245:
232:
192:
184:inflammation
157:
148:
144:
140:
120:
116:
34:
18:
13795:Ear disease
13790:Eye disease
13628:from market
13524:Controversy
13458:researchers
13374:Hepatitis B
13260:Hepatitis C
13205:Chicken pox
13031:Hepatitis E
13026:Hepatitis B
13021:Hepatitis A
12967:Chikungunya
12944:Shigellosis
12798:Brucellosis
12684:Therapeutic
12638:Inactivated
12578:Development
12566:Inoculation
12558:Vaccination
12328:Hemosiderin
12209:Hyperplasia
12204:Hypertrophy
12180:Cell damage
12060:Wikiproject
11849:Venereology
11794:Neonatology
11691:Dermatology
11546:Gynaecology
11538:gynaecology
11521:Pulmonology
11339:Eye surgery
11301:Specialties
11210:(1918–1920)
11208:Spanish flu
11204:(1346–1353)
11202:Black Death
11159:Robert Koch
11062:History of
10986:Eradication
10897:Biosecurity
10622:Vaccination
10597:Inoculation
10575:Drug safety
10570:Combination
10497:and Control
10445:Soft tissue
10399:Anatomical
10366:Seasonality
10346:Mesoendemic
10326:Holoendemic
10319:Farr's laws
10231:Attack rate
10029:Animal bite
10025:Insect bite
9961:Respiratory
9588:Air quality
9576:Environment
9486:Comorbidity
9402:Attack rate
9385:Infectivity
8717:J R Soc Med
8452:(1): 1–34.
8314:(3): 1184.
5120:: 193–220.
4830:(9): 2392.
4689:"Infection"
4233:"infection"
4107:Coinfection
4076:antibiotics
4056:spaceflight
4006:Outer space
3906:antibiotics
3786:eradication
3758:Robert Koch
3722:Renaissance
3714: 1369
3700:Black Death
3685: 1250
3533:agriculture
3531:Changes in
3451:Coevolution
3423:Spanish flu
3379:Black Death
3363:(or global
3240:Hepatitis B
2981:Deaths 1993
2971:Deaths 2002
2754: 28–81
2644:intravenous
2626:(including
2567:hepatitis C
2531:vaccination
2454:Mary Mallon
2419:quarantined
2354:antibiotics
2335:antiseptics
2280:salpingitis
2121:Robert Koch
2041:HIV disease
1906:Coinfection
1842:implying a
1802:subclinical
1795:inapparent,
1754:serological
1664:Metagenomic
1590:"Infection"
1541:neurotoxins
1529:clostridial
1477:S. pyogenes
1467:Serological
1343:due to the
1325:fluorescent
1314:biochemical
1260:embryonated
1062:to another.
925:rotaviruses
666:mutualistic
652:oral cavity
525:antibiotics
459:infestation
345:Aspergillus
207:antifungals
199:antibiotics
195:medications
14008:Categories
13559:Thiomersal
13505:Paul Offit
13480:Jonas Salk
13456:Inventors/
13327:research:
13304:research:
13241:research:
13170:Skycovione
13160:Sanofi–GSK
13105:SARS-CoV-2
13016:Hantavirus
12977:rVSV-ZEBOV
12962:Adenovirus
12930:research:
12808:Diphtheria
12646:Attenuated
12494:Blood bank
12337:Lipofuscin
12333:Lipochrome
12309:Karyolysis
12238:Cell death
12219:Metaplasia
11822:Psychiatry
11808:(PM&R)
11801:Phlebology
11789:Pediatrics
11616:Anatomical
11581:Diagnostic
11561:Obstetrics
11511:Nephrology
11496:Hematology
11491:Geriatrics
11484:Hepatology
11469:Cardiology
11459:Immunology
11169:Jonas Salk
10869:infections
10810:Sanitation
10778:Quarantine
10637:resistance
10555:Antiseptic
10536:Ascaricide
10526:Antifungal
10514:Antibiotic
10495:Prevention
10428:Intestinal
10361:Prevalence
10341:Inequality
10290:Occurrence
10089:Breastmilk
9973:Bioaerosol
9945:Sapronosis
9920:Horizontal
9792:Endogenous
9771:Viral load
9731:Index case
9297:Entomology
9137:DiseasesDB
8409:2023-11-17
8391:HathiTrust
8155:2023-11-17
8126:2013-11-27
8091:BioScience
8006:2015-09-24
7916:influenzas
7912:pneumonias
7848:21 October
7804:2020-10-05
7553:2020-11-10
7291:2023-03-02
7186:2022-10-20
7101:2010-01-21
7072:2017-03-26
6763:2013-11-27
6653:2020-01-23
6176:(5): 250.
5762:2024-01-02
5545:2022-06-28
5415:2017-04-19
5366:17 October
5338:2021-08-13
5231:2010-01-14
4970:2016-12-02
4941:2016-12-02
4804:2022-10-20
4759:2023-11-17
4729:2023-11-10
4649:2023-11-10
4579:2022-04-22
4515:2019-12-09
4487:2019-12-09
4469:StatPearls
4449:2019-12-09
4417:2015-08-20
4343:2022-04-22
4314:2021-03-26
4247:2023-11-17
4219:References
4002:specimen.
3985:Allosaurus
3804:developed
3798:penicillin
3794:antibiotic
3770:Jonas Salk
3734:microscopy
3707:Al-Andalus
3632:physician
3588: 460
3581:Thucydides
3579:historian
3480:, such as
3337:See also:
3319:diphtheria
3196:Meningitis
2986:1993 Rank
2978:all deaths
2847: ≤250
2814:See also:
2710:interferon
2702:SARS-CoV-2
2669:quinolones
2665:macrolides
2653:penicillin
2648:resistance
2620:antifungal
2608:antibiotic
2595:Treatments
2490:complement
2478:antibodies
2286:Prevention
2276:meningitis
2208:quarantine
2151:spirochete
2089:nosocomial
2085:iatrogenic
2053:root cause
1904:See also:
1749:hypotheses
1732:indication
1601:newspapers
1531:diseases (
1362:Gram stain
1302:microscopy
1296:Microscopy
1286:triatomine
1237:Eukaryotic
1119:antibodies
1024:Iatrogenic
1013:childbirth
941:tape worms
909:fecal-oral
779:analysis,
766:peritoneum
689:human skin
500:runny nose
439:Arthropods
427:, such as
425:trematodes
413:roundworms
388:Toxoplasma
330:Ascomycota
311:Ebolavirus
293:Rhinovirus
271:Salmonella
203:antivirals
190:response.
71:sporozoite
66:showing a
13695:Infection
13638:Phase III
13626:Withdrawn
13554:Pox party
13364:ALVAC-CEA
13286:Protozoan
13175:Sputnik V
13125:CoronaVac
13095:Rotavirus
12993:Pandemrix
12845:Pertussis
12786:Bacterial
12670:Synthetic
12633:Conjugate
12585:Adjuvants
12562:Infection
12349:Steatosis
12292:Apoptosis
12229:Glandular
12214:Dysplasia
12146:Neoplasia
12141:Infection
12122:Pathology
12010:Physician
11894:education
11752:Neurology
11747:Narcology
11611:Pathology
11589:Radiology
11464:Angiology
11428:Andrology
11179:John Snow
10981:Discovery
10907:Disease X
10867:Emerging
10815:Screening
10716:Isolation
10560:Antiviral
10386:Twindemic
10336:Incidence
10213:Modelling
10176:Perinatal
10108:Cutaneous
9999:Linked to
9909:Perinatal
9828:Exogenous
9820:formation
9562:Pregnancy
9419:Endotoxin
9414:Virulence
9290:helminths
9231:pathogens
9183:(journal)
8653:0959-8138
8466:0025-7273
7888:"Table 5"
7758:1476-4687
7711:225041500
7695:0036-8075
7636:1539-3704
7543:Drugs.com
7501:: 25–64.
7315:11 August
7011:198135563
6951:201283277
6720:Chapter 8
6588:2080-4806
6531:0901-8328
6517:: 22766.
6423:1234-1983
6363:2234-3806
6306:1949-0976
6249:0095-1137
6192:1999-4915
6108:1935-2735
6049:0027-8424
5859:0095-1137
5802:1733-134X
5702:: 22–39.
5507:Evolution
5458:Evolution
5273:1549-1277
5185:1474-1741
5010:0893-8512
4931:StudyBlue
4846:1420-3049
4824:Molecules
4304:227067133
4288:2154-1663
3886:or after
3850:internist
3846:pneumonia
3810:synthetic
3741:John Snow
3698:When the
3648:epidemics
3573:Antiquity
3554:transport
3467:virulence
3463:resistant
3444:commensal
3427:Influenza
3402:influenza
3311:pertussis
3152:Pertussis
2636:topically
2616:antiviral
2579:ribavirin
2435:lockdowns
2368:virulence
2356:, called
2272:pneumonia
2204:influenza
2018:poisoning
2012:drugs or
2004:(such as
1990:traumatic
1939:virulence
1916:pathogens
1866:infection
1848:ambiguity
1832:infection
1830:The word
1758:genotypic
1434:selective
1402:enzymatic
1398:metabolic
1370:Bacillota
1366:acid-fast
1352:stain or
1240:parasites
1134:PET scans
1130:CAT scans
1090:abscesses
1087:cutaneous
1077:Diagnosis
1058:from one
1056:pathogens
1030:injection
1009:pregnancy
923:species,
736:virulence
678:mammalian
670:commensal
433:helminths
421:tapeworms
410:parasitic
406:nematodes
376:Parasites
284:. (E.g.
235:pathogens
193:Specific
176:Mammalian
160:pathogens
129:pathogens
121:infection
102:parasitic
94:Bacterial
79:Specialty
48:Infection
37:(journal)
13986:Medicine
13396:Prostvac
13389:Gardasil
13384:Cervarix
13331:Hookworm
13210:Shingles
13192:Smallpox
13110:Corbevax
13046:Gardasil
13041:Cervarix
12779:Vaccines
12733:Schedule
12704:Global:
12612:Timeline
12554:Vaccines
12504:Serology
12299:Pyknosis
12245:Necrosis
12224:Squamous
12168:Ischemia
12040:Category
11516:Oncology
11447:medicine
11445:Internal
11293:Medicine
11113:Syphilis
11108:Smallpox
11083:HIV/AIDS
10890:EARS-Net
10805:Safe sex
10757:services
10728:Lockdown
10499:measures
10401:location
10381:Syndemic
10376:Sporadic
10356:Pandemic
10351:Outbreak
10309:Epidemic
10162:Prenatal
10054:Mosquito
9938:to-human
9913:Neonatal
9906:Prenatal
9854:Zoonosis
9699:concepts
9630:Humidity
9615:Commerce
9491:Diabetes
9424:Exotoxin
9285:protozoa
9268:Mycology
9251:Virology
9244:bacteria
9059:11542695
9013:Archived
9009:11542696
8951:Archived
8926:23658630
8885:PLOS ONE
8819:19683831
8768:: 1–50.
8747:12411628
8698:15309812
8671:16373721
8571:ABC-CLIO
8403:Archived
8373:10642539
8241:Archived
8221:20357515
8176:Archived
8149:Archived
8117:Archived
8064:Archived
8048:22296079
8000:Archived
7937:botulism
7895:Archived
7893:. 1995.
7871:Archived
7869:. 2004.
7842:Archived
7822:Archived
7798:Archived
7776:36261521
7703:33093097
7654:32491919
7589:23806898
7547:Archived
7525:25232278
7476:19759533
7410:19684573
7366:16476746
7309:Archived
7285:archived
7244:16914744
7236:11303090
7180:Archived
7066:Archived
7002:31325286
6993:10957193
6943:31440916
6908:28515626
6867:31027668
6818:29135922
6757:Archived
6753:21413252
6723:Archived
6712:Archived
6701:Archived
6647:archived
6643:21413348
6606:24982790
6549:24167660
6441:24078518
6381:22779069
6324:22572875
6267:14532173
6210:29748498
6126:25793495
6067:20855600
5975:28014329
5967:20132979
5928:25614838
5877:31142607
5820:35505859
5681:28448507
5630:18657880
5595:86478171
5539:Archived
5535:73418339
5527:30734920
5488:85448255
5480:30900249
5432:Archived
5409:Archived
5384:Archived
5360:Archived
5332:archived
5328:21250326
5291:26633705
5203:20577268
5088:Archived
5063:22318282
5028:26016486
4935:Archived
4913:23778792
4864:30231567
4798:Archived
4794:21413346
4753:archived
4723:Archived
4643:Archived
4573:Archived
4509:Archived
4481:archived
4477:28613714
4443:Archived
4393:25530442
4337:Archived
4308:Archived
4296:33208389
4241:archived
4090:See also
4072:bacteria
4064:microbes
4040:virulent
3927:polygyny
3778:smallpox
3705:reached
3676:scholar
3634:Ibn Sina
3622:Sushruta
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10120:Fomite
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