1013:. But each stimulated emission event returns an atom from its excited state to the ground state, reducing the gain of the medium. With increasing beam power the net gain (gain minus loss) reduces to unity and the gain medium is said to be saturated. In a continuous wave (CW) laser, the balance of pump power against gain saturation and cavity losses produces an equilibrium value of the laser power inside the cavity; this equilibrium determines the operating point of the laser. If the applied pump power is too small, the gain will never be sufficient to overcome the cavity losses, and laser light will not be produced. The minimum pump power needed to begin laser action is called the
3601:
51:
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2784:. In conjunction, several advantages were expected from two-stage pumping of a three-level system. It was conjectured that the nucleus of an atom, embedded in the near field of a laser-driven coherently-oscillating electron cloud would experience a larger dipole field than that of the driving laser. Furthermore, the nonlinearity of the oscillating cloud would produce both spatial and temporal harmonics, so nuclear transitions of higher multipolarity could also be driven at multiples of the laser frequency.
943:
1990:
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2490:. This type of fiber consists of a fiber core, an inner cladding, and an outer cladding. The index of the three concentric layers is chosen so that the fiber core acts as a single-mode fiber for the laser emission while the outer cladding acts as a highly multimode core for the pump laser. This lets the pump propagate a large amount of power into and through the active inner core region, while still having a high numerical aperture (NA) to have easy launching conditions.
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1320:
864:
8188:
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367:
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1009:. The resonator typically consists of two mirrors between which a coherent beam of light travels in both directions, reflecting on itself so that an average photon will pass through the gain medium repeatedly before it is emitted from the output aperture or lost to diffraction or absorption. If the gain (amplification) in the medium is larger than the resonator losses, then the power of the recirculating light can rise
923:
2867:
2539:
420:
3282:
3330:
7106:
823:
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1382:) laser. Many types of lasers can be made to operate in continuous-wave mode to satisfy such an application. Many of these lasers lase in several longitudinal modes at the same time, and beats between the slightly different optical frequencies of those oscillations will produce amplitude variations on time scales shorter than the round-trip time (the reciprocal of the
2730:
1468:
approached the maximum possible level, the introduced loss mechanism (often an electro- or acousto-optical element) is rapidly removed (or that occurs by itself in a passive device), allowing lasing to begin which rapidly obtains the stored energy in the gain medium. This results in a short pulse incorporating that energy, and thus a high peak power.
2600:) are semiconductor lasers whose emission direction is perpendicular to the surface of the wafer. VCSEL devices typically have a more circular output beam than conventional laser diodes. As of 2005, only 850 nm VCSELs are widely available, with 1300 nm VCSELs beginning to be commercialized, and 1550 nm devices an area of research.
1841:(later an essential laser-device component). Moreover, in 1958, Prokhorov independently proposed using an open resonator, the first published appearance of this idea. Meanwhile, Schawlow and Townes had decided on an open-resonator laser design – apparently unaware of Prokhorov's publications and Gould's unpublished laser work.
975:. Particles can interact with light by either absorbing or emitting photons. Emission can be spontaneous or stimulated. In the latter case, the photon is emitted in the same direction as the light that is passing by. When the number of particles in one excited state exceeds the number of particles in some lower-energy state,
496:. For this to happen, many of the atoms or molecules must be in the proper excited state so that the photons can trigger them. In most materials, atoms or molecules drop out of excited states fairly rapidly, making it difficult or impossible to produce a chain reaction. The materials chosen for lasers are the ones that have
2639:) could be fabricated on the same chip. Unfortunately, silicon is a difficult lasing material to deal with, since it has certain properties which block lasing. However, recently teams have produced silicon lasers through methods such as fabricating the lasing material from silicon and other semiconductor materials, such as
3354:, although some have made their own class IV types. However, compared to other hobbyists, laser hobbyists are far less common, due to the cost and potential dangers involved. Due to the cost of lasers, some hobbyists use inexpensive means to obtain lasers, such as salvaging laser diodes from broken DVD players (red),
1848:. Gould's intention was that different "-ASER" acronyms should be used for different parts of the spectrum: "XASER" for x-rays, "UVASER" for ultraviolet, etc. "LASER" ended up becoming the generic term for non-microwave devices, although "RASER" was briefly popular for denoting radio-frequency-emitting devices.
1631:
1426:, for example, a small volume of material at the surface of a workpiece can be evaporated if it is heated in a very short time, while supplying the energy gradually would allow for the heat to be absorbed into the bulk of the piece, never attaining a sufficiently high temperature at a particular point.
1554:
which are then switched to discharge through flashlamps, producing an intense flash. Pulsed pumping is also required for three-level lasers in which the lower energy level rapidly becomes highly populated preventing further lasing until those atoms relax to the ground state. These lasers, such as the
1421:
In other cases, the application requires the production of pulses having as large an energy as possible. Since the pulse energy is equal to the average power divided by the repetition rate, this goal can sometimes be satisfied by lowering the rate of pulses so that more energy can be built up between
1398:
For continuous-wave operation, it is required for the population inversion of the gain medium to be continually replenished by a steady pump source. In some lasing media, this is impossible. In some other lasers, it would require pumping the laser at a very high continuous power level, which would be
893:
from one state to that at a higher energy level with energy difference ΔE, it will not stay that way forever. Eventually, a photon will be spontaneously created from the vacuum having energy ΔE. Conserving energy, the electron transitions to a lower energy level that is not occupied, with transitions
675:
light by way of stimulated emission. Light of a specific wavelength that passes through the gain medium is amplified (power increases). Feedback enables stimulated emission to amplify predominantly the optical frequency at the peak of the gain-frequency curve. As stimulated emission grows, eventually
1413:
The pulsed operation of lasers refers to any laser not classified as a continuous wave so that the optical power appears in pulses of some duration at some repetition rate. This encompasses a wide range of technologies addressing many different motivations. Some lasers are pulsed simply because they
679:
The process of stimulated emission is analogous to that of an audio oscillator with positive feedback which can occur, for example, when the speaker in a public-address system is placed in proximity to the microphone. The screech one hears is audio oscillation at the peak of the gain-frequency curve
2185:
gas by various international teams. This was accomplished by using an external maser to induce "optical transparency" in the medium by introducing and destructively interfering the ground electron transitions between two paths so that the likelihood for the ground electrons to absorb any energy has
1358:
A laser can be classified as operating in either continuous or pulsed mode, depending on whether the power output is essentially continuous over time or whether its output takes the form of pulses of light on one or another time scale. Of course, even a laser whose output is normally continuous can
2655:
directly on silicon for optical interconnects, paving the way for chip-level applications. These heterostructure nanowire lasers capable of optical interconnects in silicon are also capable of emitting pairs of phase-locked picosecond pulses with a repetition frequency up to 200 GHz, allowing
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other lasers with high efficiency. The highest-power industrial laser diodes, with power of up to 20 kW, are used in industry for cutting and welding. External-cavity semiconductor lasers have a semiconductor active medium in a larger cavity. These devices can generate high power outputs with
2307:
is maintained in the dopant. These materials are pumped optically using a shorter wavelength than the lasing wavelength, often from a flash tube or another laser. The usage of the term "solid-state" in laser physics is narrower than in typical use. Semiconductor lasers (laser diodes) are typically
1386:
between modes), typically a few nanoseconds or less. In most cases, these lasers are still termed "continuous-wave" as their output power is steady when averaged over longer periods, with the very high-frequency power variations having little or no impact on the intended application. (However, the
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and infrared to the visible spectrum, to soft X-rays. They have the widest frequency range of any laser type. While FEL beams share the same optical traits as other lasers, such as coherent radiation, FEL operation is quite different. Unlike gas, liquid, or solid-state lasers, which rely on bound
913:
A photon with the correct wavelength to be absorbed by a transition can also cause an electron to drop from the higher to the lower level, emitting a new photon. The emitted photon exactly matches the original photon in wavelength, phase, and direction. This process is called stimulated emission.
1812:
coined the acronym LASER, and described the elements required to construct one. Manuscript text: "Some rough calculations on the feasibility / of a LASER: Light
Amplification by Stimulated / Emission of Radiation. / Conceive a tube terminated by optically flat / / partially reflecting parallel
1467:
In a Q-switched laser, the population inversion is allowed to build up by introducing loss inside the resonator which exceeds the gain of the medium; this can also be described as a reduction of the quality factor or 'Q' of the cavity. Then, after the pump energy stored in the laser medium has
1044:
of the emitted light is 90 degrees in lead of the stimulating light. This, combined with the filtering effect of the optical resonator gives laser light its characteristic coherence, and may give it uniform polarization and monochromaticity, depending on the resonator's design. The fundamental
2197:
are powered by a chemical reaction permitting a large amount of energy to be released quickly. Such very high-power lasers are especially of interest to the military, however continuous wave chemical lasers at very high power levels, fed by streams of gasses, have been developed and have some
1549:
Another method of achieving pulsed laser operation is to pump the laser material with a source that is itself pulsed, either through electronic charging in the case of flash lamps, or another laser that is already pulsed. Pulsed pumping was historically used with dye lasers where the inverted
3676:
The indicated powers are for visible-light, continuous-wave lasers. For pulsed lasers and invisible wavelengths, other power limits apply. People working with class 3B and class 4 lasers can protect their eyes with safety goggles which are designed to absorb light of a particular wavelength.
2772:
has been the subject of wide-ranging academic research since the early 1970s. Much of this is summarized in three review articles. This research has been international in scope but mainly based in the former Soviet Union and the United States. While many scientists remain optimistic that a
2237:. Once the molecule transfers its excitation energy to a photon, its atoms are no longer bound to each other and the molecule disintegrates. This drastically reduces the population of the lower energy state thus greatly facilitating a population inversion. Excimers currently used are all
348:
as suggested by the acronym. It has been humorously noted that the acronym LOSER, for "light oscillation by stimulated emission of radiation", would have been more correct. With the widespread use of the original acronym as a common noun, optical amplifiers have come to be referred to as
2504:
when they are exposed to radiation of certain wavelengths. In particular, this can lead to degradation of the material and loss in laser functionality over time. The exact causes and effects of this phenomenon vary from material to material, although it often involves the formation of
1883:, featuring scientific prestige and money as the stakes. Gould won his first minor patent in 1977, yet it was not until 1987 that he won the first significant patent lawsuit victory when a Federal judge ordered the USPTO to issue patents to Gould for the optically pumped and the
1039:
In most lasers, lasing begins with spontaneous emission into the lasing mode. This initial light is then amplified by stimulated emission in the gain medium. Stimulated emission produces light that matches the input signal in direction, wavelength, and polarization, whereas the
994:), the light output from such a device lacks the spatial and temporal coherence achievable with lasers. Such a device cannot be described as an oscillator but rather as a high-gain optical amplifier that amplifies its spontaneous emission. The same mechanism describes so-called
3684:
micrometers are often referred to as "eye-safe", because the cornea tends to absorb light at these wavelengths, protecting the retina from damage. The label "eye-safe" can be misleading, however, as it applies only to relatively low-power continuous wave beams; a high-power or
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by an external source of energy. In most lasers, this medium consists of a population of atoms that have been excited into such a state using an outside light source, or an electrical field that supplies energy for atoms to absorb and be transformed into their excited states.
825:
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The optical bandwidth of a pulse cannot be narrower than the reciprocal of the pulse width. In the case of extremely short pulses, that implies lasing over a considerable bandwidth, quite contrary to the very narrow bandwidths typical of CW lasers. The lasing medium in some
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The underlying physical process creating photons in a laser is the same as in thermal radiation, but the actual emission is not the result of random thermal processes. Instead, the release of a photon is triggered by the nearby passage of another photon. This is called
2096:
Wavelengths of commercially available lasers. Laser types with distinct laser lines are shown above the wavelength bar, while below are shown lasers that can emit in a wavelength range. The color codifies the type of laser material (see the figure description for more
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that are electrically pumped. Recombination of electrons and holes created by the applied current introduces optical gain. Reflection from the ends of the crystal forms an optical resonator, although the resonator can be external to the semiconductor in some designs.
2475:. Guiding of light allows extremely long gain regions providing good cooling conditions; fibers have a high surface area to volume ratio which allows efficient cooling. In addition, the fiber's waveguiding properties tend to reduce the thermal distortion of the beam.
5973:
Mayer, B.; Janker, L.; Loitsch, B.; Treu, J.; Kostenbader, T.; Lichtmannecker, S.; Reichert, T.; Morkötter, S.; Kaniber, M.; Abstreiter, G.; Gies, C.; Koblmüller, G.; Finley, J.J. (January 13, 2016). "Monolithically
Integrated High-β Nanowire Lasers on Silicon".
2134:
lasers can operate at several lasing transitions between 351 and 528.7 nm. Depending on the optical design one or more of these transitions can be lasing simultaneously; the most commonly used lines are 458 nm, 488 nm and 514.5 nm. A nitrogen
836:
834:
832:
831:
835:
833:
5732:
C. Stewen, M. Larionov, and A. Giesen, "Yb:YAG thin disk laser with 1 kW output power", in OSA Trends in Optics and
Photonics, Advanced Solid-State Lasers, H. Injeyan, U. Keller, and C. Marshall, ed. (Optical Society of America, Washington, D.C., 2000) pp.
2403:
wavelengths strongly absorbed by water-bearing tissues. The Ho-YAG is usually operated in a pulsed mode and passed through optical fiber surgical devices to resurface joints, remove rot from teeth, vaporize cancers, and pulverize kidney and gall stones.
2117:(HeNe) can operate at many different wavelengths, however, the vast majority are engineered to lase at 633 nm; these relatively low-cost but highly coherent lasers are extremely common in optical research and educational laboratories. Commercial
3389:
Different applications need lasers with different output powers. Lasers that produce a continuous beam or a series of short pulses can be compared on the basis of their average power. Lasers that produce pulses can also be characterized based on the
2125:
can emit many hundreds of watts in a single spatial mode which can be concentrated into a tiny spot. This emission is in the thermal infrared at 10.6 μm; such lasers are regularly used in industry for cutting and welding. The efficiency of a
2035:
In 2015, researchers made a white laser, whose light is modulated by a synthetic nanosheet made out of zinc, cadmium, sulfur, and selenium that can emit red, green, and blue light in varying proportions, with each wavelength spanning 191 nm.
6544:
Boyer, K.; Java, H.; Luk, T.S.; McIntyre, I.A.; McPherson, A.; Rosman, R.; Solem, J.C.; Rhodes, C.K.; Szöke, A. (1987). "Discussion of the role of many-electron motions in multiphoton ionization and excitation". In Smith, S.; Knight, P. (eds.).
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and the period over which energy can be stored in the lasing medium or pumping mechanism, then it is still classified as a "modulated" or "pulsed" continuous wave laser. Most laser diodes used in communication systems fall into that category.
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or precancerous growths. They are most commonly used to treat superficial cancers that are on the surface of the body or the lining of internal organs. They are used to treat basal cell skin cancer and the very early stages of others like
2828:, which served as the laser's gain medium. The cells were then placed between two 20-micrometer-wide mirrors, which acted as the laser cavity. When the cell was illuminated with blue light, it emitted intensely directed green laser light.
3635:
blade. Today, it is accepted that even low-power lasers with only a few milliwatts of output power can be hazardous to human eyesight when the beam hits the eye directly or after reflection from a shiny surface. At wavelengths which the
2448:
overcome these issues by having a gain medium that is much thinner than the diameter of the pump beam. This allows for a more uniform temperature in the material. Thin disk lasers have been shown to produce beams of up to one kilowatt.
562:. All such devices are classified as "lasers" based on the method of producing light by stimulated emission. Lasers are employed where light of the required spatial or temporal coherence can not be produced using simpler technologies.
2894:
When lasers were invented in 1960, they were called "a solution looking for a problem". Since then, they have become ubiquitous, finding utility in thousands of highly varied applications in every section of modern society, including
3877:
1498:), a pulse of such short temporal length has a spectrum spread over a considerable bandwidth. Thus such a gain medium must have a gain bandwidth sufficiently broad to amplify those frequencies. An example of a suitable material is
5711:
2698:
are mainly known in their liquid form, researchers have also demonstrated narrow-linewidth tunable emission in dispersive oscillator configurations incorporating solid-state dye gain media. In their most prevalent form, these
3665:
Class 3R (formerly IIIa) lasers are usually up to 5 mW and involve a small risk of eye damage within the time of the blink reflex. Staring into such a beam for several seconds is likely to cause damage to a spot on the
7022:
488:. For this process to work, the passing photon must be similar in energy, and thus wavelength, to the one that could be released by the atom or molecule, and the atom or molecule must be in the suitable excited state.
6293:. Proceedings of Advances in Laser Science-I, First International Laser Science Conference, Dallas, TX 1985 (American Institute of Physics, Optical Science and Engineering, Series 6). Vol. 146. pp. 22–25.
5861:
3258:, uses lasers to treat some cancers using hyperthermia, which uses heat to shrink tumors by damaging or killing cancer cells. Lasers are more precise than traditional surgery methods and cause less damage, pain,
958:
The gain medium of a laser is normally a material of controlled purity, size, concentration, and shape, which amplifies the beam by the process of stimulated emission described above. This material can be of any
491:
The photon that is emitted by stimulated emission is identical to the photon that triggered its emission, and both photons can go on to trigger stimulated emission in other atoms, creating the possibility of a
2926:
player, introduced in 1978, was the first successful consumer product to include a laser but the compact disc player was the first laser-equipped device to become common, beginning in 1982 followed shortly by
7230:
1160:, cannot be replicated using standard light sources (except by discarding most of the light) as can be appreciated by comparing the beam from a flashlight (torch) or spotlight to that of almost any laser.
2395:, typically operating around 1020–1050 nm. They are potentially very efficient and high-powered due to a small quantum defect. Extremely high powers in ultrashort pulses can be achieved with Yb:YAG.
2112:
Following the invention of the HeNe gas laser, many other gas discharges have been found to amplify light coherently. Gas lasers using many different gases have been built and used for many purposes. The
698:—a pair of mirrors on either end of the gain medium. Light bounces back and forth between the mirrors, passing through the gain medium and being amplified each time. Typically one of the two mirrors, the
6367:. 1988 Los Angeles Symposium: O-E/LASE '88, 1988, Los Angeles, CA, United States. Short and Ultrashort Wavelength Lasers. Vol. 146. International Society for Optics and Photonics. pp. 92–101.
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979:
is achieved. In this state, the rate of stimulated emission is larger than the rate of absorption of light in the medium, and therefore the light is amplified. A system with this property is called an
7053:
3672:
Class 4 lasers (≥ 500 mW) can burn skin, and in some cases, even scattered light from these lasers can cause eye and/or skin damage. Many industrial and scientific lasers are in this class.
508:. Combined with an energy source that continues to "pump" energy into the material, this makes it possible to have enough atoms or molecules in an excited state for a chain reaction to develop.
6386:
Rinker, G. A.; Solem, J.C.; Biedenharn, L.C. (1987). Lapp, M.; Stwalley, W.C.; Kenney-Wallace G.A. (eds.). "Nuclear interlevel transfer driven by collective outer shell electron excitations".
7634:
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826:
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6363:
Rinker, G.A.; Solem, J.C.; Biedenharn, L.C. (April 27, 1988). "Calculation of harmonic radiation and nuclear coupling arising from atoms in strong laser fields". In Jones, Randy C (ed.).
5921:
5695:
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use an organic dye as the gain medium. The wide gain spectrum of available dyes, or mixtures of dyes, allows these lasers to be highly tunable, or to produce very short-duration pulses (
1005:
is sometimes referred to as an "optical cavity", but this is a misnomer: lasers use open resonators as opposed to the literal cavity that would be employed at microwave frequencies in a
4509:
5310:
Cassidy, M. C.; Bruno, A.; Rubbert, S.; Irfan, M.; Kammhuber, J.; Schouten, R.N.; Akhmerov, A.R.; Kouwenhoven, L.P. (March 2, 2017). "Demonstration of an ac
Josephson junction laser".
2780:
Some of the early studies were directed toward short pulses of neutrons exciting the upper isomer state in a solid so the gamma-ray transition could benefit from the line-narrowing of
7370:
4767:
1541:) are identical and perfectly periodic. For this reason, and the extremely large peak powers attained by such short pulses, such lasers are invaluable in certain areas of research.
2253:
eye surgery. Commonly used excimer molecules include ArF (emission at 193 nm), KrCl (222 nm), KrF (248 nm), XeCl (308 nm), and XeF (351 nm). The molecular
2047:
microwave laser. Since the laser operates in the superconducting regime, it is more stable than other semiconductor-based lasers. The device has the potential for applications in
7014:
3144:
Informational markings: Laser lighting display technology can be used to project informational markings onto surfaces such as playing fields, roads, runways, or warehouse floors.
2139:(TEA) laser is an inexpensive gas laser, often home-built by hobbyists, which produces rather incoherent UV light at 337.1 nm. Metal ion lasers are gas lasers that generate
1997:
Since the early period of laser history, laser research has produced a variety of improved and specialized laser types, optimized for different performance goals, including:
1917:
to produce red laser light at 694 nanometers wavelength. The device was only capable of pulsed operation, due to its three-level pumping design scheme. Later that year, the
1701:. In 1955, Prokhorov and Basov suggested optical pumping of a multi-level system as a method for obtaining the population inversion, later a main method of laser pumping.
5853:
5442:
1792:. In 1958, Bell Labs filed a patent application for their proposed optical maser; and Schawlow and Townes submitted a manuscript of their theoretical calculations to the
1049:
of light emitted from the lasing resonator can be orders of magnitude narrower than the linewidth of light emitted from the passive resonator. Some lasers use a separate
554:, some lasers emit a broad spectrum of light or emit different wavelengths of light simultaneously. Certain lasers are not single spatial mode and have light beams that
5694:
Bass, Michael; DeCusatis, Casimer; Enoch, Jay; Lakshminarayanan, Vasudevan; Li, Guifang; MacDonald, Carolyn; Mahajan, Virendra; Stryland, Eric Van (November 13, 2009).
5258:
1490:. These pulses repeat at the round-trip time, that is, the time that it takes light to complete one round trip between the mirrors comprising the resonator. Due to the
1144:
typically exits the tiny crystal with a large divergence: up to 50°. However even such a divergent beam can be transformed into a similarly collimated beam employing a
2721:. The spacing of the whispering gallery modes is directly related to the bubble circumference, allowing bubble lasers to be used as highly sensitive pressure sensors.
878:) only if there is a transition between energy levels that match the energy carried by the photon or phonon. For light, this means that any given transition will only
7222:
1537:
and the like). Unlike the giant pulse of a Q-switched laser, consecutive pulses from a mode-locked laser are phase-coherent, that is, the pulses (and not just their
990:, light can be sufficiently amplified in a single pass through the gain medium without requiring a resonator. Although often referred to as a laser (see for example
472:, travel in different directions, and are released at different times. The energy within the object is not random, however: it is stored by atoms and molecules in "
1969:
demonstrated the first semiconductor laser with a visible emission. This first semiconductor laser could only be used in pulsed-beam operation, and when cooled to
1099:". Unstable laser resonators (not used in most lasers) produce fractal-shaped beams. Specialized optical systems can produce more complex beam geometries, such as
2436:
Thermal limitations in solid-state lasers arise from unconverted pump power that heats the medium. This heat, when coupled with a high thermo-optic coefficient (d
1732:, "for fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser–laser principle".
3743:
6484:
721:
Most practical lasers contain additional elements that affect the properties of the emitted light, such as the polarization, wavelength, and shape of the beam.
7846:
Produced by the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Real-time effects are demonstrated in a way that would be difficult to see in a classroom setting.
7666:
1644:
submitted a paper on using stimulated emissions to make a microwave amplifier to the June 1952 Institute of Radio
Engineers Vacuum Tube Research Conference at
886:
of light. Photons with the correct wavelength can cause an electron to jump from the lower to the higher energy level. The photon is consumed in this process.
4542:
3262:, swelling, and scarring. A disadvantage is that surgeons must acquire specialized training and thus it will likely be more expensive than other treatments.
5943:
7119:
7045:
6780:
1977:, in the USSR, and Izuo Hayashi and Morton Panish of Bell Labs also independently developed room-temperature, continual-operation diode lasers, using the
1132:. The beam of a single transverse mode (gaussian beam) laser eventually diverges at an angle that varies inversely with the beam diameter, as required by
1079:; such beams have the minimum divergence possible for a given beam diameter. Some lasers, particularly high-power ones, produce multimode beams, with the
4823:
1053:
to start the process off with a beam that is already highly coherent. This can produce beams with a narrower spectrum than would otherwise be possible.
2593:
developed and manufactured commercial high-power green laser diodes (515/520 nm), which compete with traditional diode-pumped solid-state lasers.
5549:
2257:
laser, emitting at 157 nm in the vacuum ultraviolet is sometimes referred to as an excimer laser, however, this appears to be a misnomer since F
1550:
population lifetime of a dye molecule was so short that a high-energy, fast pump was needed. The way to overcome this problem was to charge up large
1513:
Such mode-locked lasers are a most versatile tool for researching processes occurring on extremely short time scales (known as femtosecond physics,
7803:
4909:
4802:
1140:
would spread out to a size of perhaps 500 kilometers when shone on the Moon (from the distance of the earth). On the other hand, the light from a
702:, is partially transparent. Some of the light escapes through this mirror. Depending on the design of the cavity (whether the mirrors are flat or
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7277:
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2524:(DOS) structure required for the feedback to take place. They are typical micrometer-sized and tunable on the bands of the photonic crystals.
902:. The emitted photon has a random direction, but its wavelength matches the absorption wavelength of the transition. This is the mechanism of
6018:
2287:
use a crystalline or glass rod that is "doped" with ions that provide the required energy states. For example, the first working laser was a
1728:
expected that it would be impractical and not worth the effort. In 1964 Charles H. Townes, Nikolay Basov, and
Aleksandr Prokhorov shared the
934:
for the laser. The laser produces a tiny, intense spot on the screen to the right. The center of the spot appears white because the image is
5526:
4775:
3618:
Left: European laser warning symbol required for Class 2 lasers and higher. Right: US laser warning label, in this case for a Class 3B laser
2151:-copper (NeCu) 248 nm are two examples. Like all low-pressure gas lasers, the gain media of these lasers have quite narrow oscillation
5143:
1359:
be intentionally turned on and off at some rate to create pulses of light. When the modulation rate is on time scales much slower than the
1205:, atomic energy levels are not involved; it appears that the operation of this rather exotic device can be explained without reference to
7083:
6509:
Solem, J.C.; Biedenharn, L.C. (1988). "Laser coupling to nuclei via collective electronic oscillations: A simple heuristic model study".
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radiation rather than infrared or visible radiation. Townes's maser was incapable of continuous output. Meanwhile, in the Soviet Union,
1608:
Retherford found apparent stimulated emission in hydrogen spectra and effected the first demonstration of stimulated emission. In 1950,
523:, or they can have a very low divergence to concentrate their power at a great distance. Temporal (or longitudinal) coherence implies a
6310:
2391:
are other common "dopants" in solid-state lasers. Ytterbium is used in crystals such as Yb:YAG, Yb:KGW, Yb:KYW, Yb:SYS, Yb:BOYS, Yb:CaF
7790:
6933:
946:
Spectrum of a helium–neon laser. The actual bandwidth is much narrower than shown; the spectrum is limited by the measuring apparatus.
6841:
1872:
6712:
6631:
5579:
5374:
Mayer, B.; Regler, A.; Sterzl, S.; Stettner, T.; Koblmüller, G.; Kaniber, M.; Lingnau, B.; Lüdge, K.; Finley, J.J. (May 23, 2017).
5228:
4770:[The risk from laser: what it is and what it is like facing it; analysis of a problem which is thus not far away from us].
8148:
687:. The energy is typically supplied as an electric current or as light at a different wavelength. Pump light may be provided by a
7843:
5831:
1433:
effects. For a given pulse energy, this requires creating pulses of the shortest possible duration utilizing techniques such as
7255:
5446:
3346:
In recent years, some hobbyists have taken an interest in lasers. Lasers used by hobbyists are generally of class IIIa or IIIb
2241:; noble gasses are chemically inert and can only form compounds while in an excited state. Excimer lasers typically operate at
1946:
879:
3692:
Lasers can be a hazard to both civil and military aviation, due to the potential to temporarily distract or blind pilots. See
3689:
laser at these wavelengths can burn the cornea, causing severe eye damage, and even moderate-power lasers can injure the eye.
2747:(FEL) generate coherent, high-power radiation that is widely tunable, currently ranging in wavelength from microwaves through
1449:
produces optical gain over a wide bandwidth, making a laser possible that can thus generate pulses of light as short as a few
7547:
7518:
7424:
6986:
6891:
6415:"Theorem relating spatial and temporal harmonics for nuclear interlevel transfer driven by collective electronic oscillation"
5752:
5705:
5678:
5250:
5174:
4923:
4856:
4472:
4439:
4394:
4355:
4307:
4274:
4241:
4153:
4126:
4105:
4072:
4039:
3998:
3827:
2323:
2063:
7797:
7561:
230:
7618:
5891:
4093:
1834:
6228:
7650:
4566:"Spectral coherence, Part I: Passive resonator linewidth, fundamental laser linewidth, and Schawlow-Townes approximation"
2803:
1693:
and solved the problem of continuous-output systems by using more than two energy levels. These gain media could release
1339:
1189:, where energy is extracted from a transition in an atom or molecule. This is a quantum phenomenon that was predicted by
2059:
laser capable of emitting pairs of phase-locked picosecond laser pulses with a repetition frequency up to 200 GHz.
1194:
3796:
5288:
2821:
pumped by a nuclear explosion have also been proposed as antimissile weapons. Such devices would be one-shot weapons.
7682:
7604:
7589:
7502:
7487:
7469:
7454:
7439:
7409:
6465:
2349:
spectrum at 1064 nm. They are used for cutting, welding, and marking of metals and other materials, and also in
1306:
774:
621:
406:
3753:
1383:
1287:
930:
demonstration. The glow running through the center of the tube is an electric discharge. This glowing plasma is the
7887:
7165:
6336:. Proceedings of AIP Advances in Laser Science-I, Dallas, TX, November 18–22, 1985. Vol. 146. pp. 50–51.
5039:(1959). "The LASER, Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation". In Franken, P.A.; Sands R.H. (eds.).
4774:. Programma Corso di Formazione Obbligatorio (in Italian). University of Milano-Bicocca. p. 12. Archived from
4262:
2943:
1887:
laser devices. The question of just how to assign credit for inventing the laser remains unresolved by historians.
1686:
1634:
531:) along the beam. A beam produced by a thermal or other incoherent light source has an instantaneous amplitude and
186:
6804:"Discovery of Natural Gain Amplification in the 10-Micrometer Carbon Dioxide Laser Bands on Mars: A Natural Laser"
5697:
Handbook of Optics, Third
Edition Volume V: Atmospheric Optics, Modulators, Fiber Optics, X-Ray and Neutron Optics
1837:, as a general subject; afterward, in November 1957, Gould noted his ideas for a "laser", including using an open
1764:
1259:
1019:. The gain medium will amplify any photons passing through it, regardless of direction; but only the photons in a
5951:
4887:
3640:
and the lens can focus well, the coherence and low divergence of laser light means that it can be focused by the
2861:
7793:—The world's most powerful laser as of 2008 might create supernova-like shock waves and possibly even antimatter
7147:
7115:
1372:
Some applications of lasers depend on a beam whose output power is constant over time. Such a laser is known as
8057:
7816:
6770:
6597:
6442:
6127:
2506:
2071:
2052:
2040:
1244:
756:
603:
388:
17:
6332:
Biedenharn, L.C.; Boyer, K.; Solem, J.C. (1986). "Possibility of grasing by laser-driven nuclear excitation".
4819:
3990:
1677:
produced the first microwave amplifier, a device operating on similar principles to the laser, but amplifying
1023:
supported by the resonator will pass more than once through the medium and receive substantial amplification.
7334:
5460:
Matei, D.G.; Legero, T.; Häfner, S.; et al. (June 30, 2017). "1.5 μm Lasers with Sub-10 mHz
Linewidth".
3655:
Class 1 is inherently safe, usually because the light is contained in an enclosure, for example in CD players
3187:
3086:
1534:
1491:
1266:
6388:
Proceedings of the Second
International Laser Science Conference, Seattle, WA (Advances in Laser Science-II)
6044:
Baldwin, G.C.; Solem, J.C.; Gol'danskii, V. I. (1981). "Approaches to the development of gamma-ray lasers".
1945:
that was capable of continuous operation in the infrared (U.S. Patent 3,149,290); later, Javan received the
1697:
between an excited state and a lower excited state, not the ground state, facilitating the maintenance of a
1429:
Other applications rely on the peak pulse power (rather than the energy in the pulse), especially to obtain
1198:
898:. Spontaneous emission is a quantum-mechanical effect and a direct physical manifestation of the Heisenberg
515:. Spatial (or transverse) coherence is typically expressed through the output being a narrow beam, which is
8222:
3573:
2947:
2238:
2044:
1891:
1588:) for the absorption, spontaneous emission, and stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. In 1928,
1068:. A coherent beam of light is formed by single-frequency quantum photon states distributed according to a
102:
6547:
Proceedings of International Conference on Multiphoton Processes (ICOMP) IV, July 13–17, 1987, Boulder, CA
5557:
1035:
Red (660 & 635 nm), green (532 & 520 nm), and blue-violet (445 & 405 nm) lasers
8237:
8212:
8113:
2883:
2811:
1690:
1510:), which has a very wide gain bandwidth and can thus produce pulses of only a few femtoseconds duration.
1156:. That is possible due to the light being of a single spatial mode. This unique property of laser light,
6570:"A solvable approximate model for the response of atoms subjected to strong oscillatory electric fields"
2206:(3800 nm) the reaction is the combination of hydrogen or deuterium gas with combustion products of
1399:
impractical, or destroying the laser by producing excessive heat. Such lasers cannot be run in CW mode.
8242:
7917:
4799:
3693:
3562:
3500:
3365:
Hobbyists have also used surplus lasers taken from retired military applications and modified them for
3334:
3235:
3169:
2752:
atomic or molecular states, FELs use a relativistic electron beam as the lasing medium, hence the term
2358:
1530:
1526:
1273:
845:
7778:
5376:"Long-term mutual phase locking of picosecond pulse pairs generated by a semiconductor nanowire laser"
5066:
2074:, established a new world record by developing an erbium-doped fiber laser with a linewidth of only 10
7825:
7360:
5041:
The Ann Arbor Conference on Optical Pumping, the University of Michigan, 15 June through 18 June 1959
3713:
3047:
2995:
2939:
2908:
2825:
2824:
Living cells have been used to produce laser light. The cells were genetically engineered to produce
2464:
2362:
1772:
428:
182:
82:
7195:
4494:
3651:
Lasers are usually labeled with a safety class number, which identifies how dangerous the laser is:
7814:
Advancing the Laser anniversary site by SPIE: Video interviews, open-access articles, posters, DVDs
6149:
Baldwin, G.C.; Solem, J.C. (1982). "Is the time ripe? Or must we wait so long for breakthroughs?".
5190:
2565:
emit at wavelengths from 375 nm to 3500 nm. Low to medium power laser diodes are used in
2370:
2338:
2330:
2203:
2174:
1974:
6250:
Baldwin, G.C.; Solem, J.C. (1980). "Two-stage pumping of three-level Mössbauer gamma-ray lasers".
2225:
are a special sort of gas laser powered by an electric discharge in which the lasing medium is an
1592:
confirmed the existence of the phenomena of stimulated emission and negative absorption. In 1939,
1255:
423:
A laser normally produces a very narrow beam of light in a single wavelength, in this case, green.
8232:
6906:
Dalrymple B.E., Duff J.M., Menzel E.R. "Inherent fingerprint luminescence – detection by laser".
5522:
5443:"The Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt has developed a laser with a linewidth of only 10 mHz"
4915:
3986:
3628:
characterized the first laser as having the power of one "Gillette" as it could burn through one
3398:
greater than its average power. The average output power is always less than the power consumed.
3298:
3090:
3055:
2999:
2714:
2365:
or quadrupled in frequency to produce 532 nm (green, visible), 355 nm and 266 nm (
2199:
1327:
1233:
745:
592:
551:
377:
270:
Today, all such devices operating at frequencies higher than microwaves (approximately above 300
131:
110:
7860:
website with animations, applications and research about laser and other quantum based phenomena
7755:
7739:
7723:
7707:
7691:
7675:
7659:
7643:
7627:
6867:
5135:
4768:"Il rischio da laser: cosa è e come affrontarlo; analisi di un problema non così lontano da noi"
2904:
1072:. As a result, the arrival rate of photons in a laser beam is described by Poisson statistics.
860:. Thus, electrons are found in specific energy levels of an atom, two of which are shown below:
8087:
7907:
5085:
4464:
4456:
4148:
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3728:
3718:
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1240:
1065:
752:
599:
384:
210:
31:
7075:
6883:
6876:
4606:
4299:
4064:
683:
For the gain medium to amplify light, it needs to be supplied with energy in a process called
468:
Thermal radiation is a random process, and thus the photons emitted have a range of different
313:" is frequently used in the field, meaning "to give off coherent light," especially about the
7975:
5139:
4266:
4121:
3925:
3843:
3788:
3733:
3700:
2644:
2640:
2605:
2319:
2114:
1906:, and Gould, at the TRG (Technical Research Group) company. Maiman's functional laser used a
1717:
1593:
1585:
1514:
1495:
1137:
983:. When an optical amplifier is placed inside a resonant optical cavity, one obtains a laser.
927:
899:
848:, the energy of an electron orbiting an atomic nucleus is larger for orbits further from the
797:
711:
74:
6919:
Dalrymple B.E. "Visible and infrared luminescence in documents : excitation by laser".
6286:
4188:
4097:
3979:
3600:
535:
that vary randomly with respect to time and position, thus having a short coherence length.
527:
wave at a single frequency, whose phase is correlated over a relatively great distance (the
8082:
7965:
7953:
7880:
6817:
6743:
6662:
6581:
6518:
6476:
6426:
6337:
6294:
6259:
6212:
6111:
6053:
5983:
5793:
5620:
5479:
5397:
5329:
5097:
5008:
4949:
4736:
4691:
4621:
4577:
4524:
4295:
4184:
4060:
3662:
of the eye will prevent damage. Usually up to 1 mW power, for example, laser pointers.
2896:
2648:
2636:
2533:
2304:
2211:
2118:
1698:
1092:
1069:
976:
895:
524:
480:, which allows materials to be determined through the specific wavelengths that they emit.
432:
225:
as a white light source; this permits a much smaller emitting area due to the much greater
218:
55:
6803:
6704:
4057:
Military Laser Technology for Defense: Technology for Revolutionizing 21st Century Warfare
1482:
A mode-locked laser is capable of emitting extremely short pulses on the order of tens of
465:, that we see as light. This is the process that causes a candle flame to give off light.
344:
A laser that produces light by itself is technically an optical oscillator rather than an
8:
8133:
8052:
7992:
7912:
7475:
6863:
5827:
4227:
3784:
3395:
2911:
using lasers is a key technology in modern communications, allowing services such as the
2837:
2748:
2744:
2628:
2087:
2070:, a joint institute of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and the
1954:
1895:
1818:
1784:, began a serious study of infrared "optical masers". As ideas developed, they abandoned
1745:
1694:
1616:, which was experimentally demonstrated two years later by Brossel, Kastler, and Winter.
1589:
1202:
1186:
1164:
1141:
1084:
995:
931:
817:
664:
512:
505:
485:
331:
314:
117:
78:
6821:
6747:
6666:
6623:
6585:
6522:
6480:
6430:
6341:
6298:
6263:
6216:
6115:
6057:
5987:
5797:
5624:
5586:
5483:
5401:
5333:
5220:
5101:
5012:
4953:
4740:
4695:
4625:
4581:
4528:
3900:"Laser Lighting: White-light lasers challenge LEDs in directional lighting applications"
3152: billion. In the same year, approximately 733 million diode lasers, valued at
3148:
In 2004, excluding diode lasers, approximately 131,000 lasers were sold with a value of
2781:
2717:
in the bubble produce an output spectrum composed of hundreds of evenly spaced peaks; a
2269:
967:. The gain medium absorbs pump energy, which raises some electrons into higher energy ("
550:
with slightly different wavelengths. Although temporal coherence implies some degree of
8227:
7553:
6991:
5809:
5783:
5636:
5503:
5469:
5418:
5387:
5375:
5353:
5319:
5113:
4972:
4937:
4709:
4482:
4335:
4231:
4200:
3203:
2168:
1930:
1899:
1868:
1844:
At a conference in 1959, Gordon Gould first published the acronym "LASER" in the paper
1741:
1170:
1010:
856:. However, quantum mechanical effects force electrons to take on discrete positions in
676:
one frequency dominates over all others, meaning that a coherent beam has been formed.
571:
166:
151:
147:
6734:
Malte C. Gather & Seok Hyun Yun (June 12, 2011). "Single-cell biological lasers".
2840:, irradiated planetary or stellar gases may amplify light producing a natural laser.
476:", which release photons with distinct wavelengths. This gives rise to the science of
318:
8153:
8027:
8002:
7751:
7746:
7735:
7719:
7714:
7703:
7687:
7671:
7655:
7639:
7623:
7600:
7585:
7557:
7543:
7514:
7498:
7483:
7465:
7450:
7435:
7420:
7405:
6887:
6833:
6808:
6550:
6530:
6438:
6395:
6181:
5999:
5813:
5701:
5674:
5640:
5507:
5495:
5423:
5345:
5170:
5131:
5044:
4977:
4919:
4852:
4713:
4590:
4565:
4468:
4435:
4390:
4351:
4303:
4270:
4237:
4204:
4101:
4068:
4035:
3994:
3823:
3792:
3565:, a 192-beam, 1.8-megajoule laser system adjoining a 10-meter-diameter target chamber
3255:
3247:
3179:
2624:
2521:
2520:
lasers are lasers based on nano-structures that provide the mode confinement and the
2487:
2415:
2284:
2048:
1966:
1894:, Malibu, California, ahead of several research teams, including those of Townes, at
1674:
1663:
1653:
1518:
1507:
1430:
1206:
1157:
1088:
987:
980:
672:
559:
462:
345:
206:
123:
106:
7804:
Northrop Grumman's Press Release on the Firestrike 15 kW tactical laser product
5632:
4431:
4347:
3648:, resulting in localized burning and permanent damage in seconds or even less time.
2647:, materials that allow coherent light to be produced from silicon. These are called
90:
50:
8163:
8128:
8108:
8077:
7774:
A Practical Guide to Lasers for Experimenters and Hobbyists by Samuel M. Goldwasser
7535:
7266:. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, July/August 2005. Retrieved May 27, 2006.
7252:
6825:
6751:
6670:
6589:
6526:
6434:
6368:
6345:
6302:
6267:
6220:
6173:
6168:
Solem, J.C. (1979). "On the feasibility of an impulsively driven gamma-ray laser".
6119:
6061:
5991:
5801:
5744:
5628:
5491:
5487:
5413:
5405:
5357:
5337:
5117:
5105:
5016:
4967:
4957:
4699:
4629:
4585:
4532:
4192:
2963:
2710:
2661:
2632:
2517:
2494:
2430:
2246:
2140:
1958:
1713:
1709:
1538:
1522:
1360:
1280:
1116:
1050:
1015:
964:
907:
688:
528:
442:
256:
190:
155:
135:
59:
4257:
Al-Amri, Mohammad D.; El-Gomati, Mohamed; Zubairy, M. Suhail (December 12, 2016).
3952:"Laser light for headlights: Latest trend in car lighting | OSRAM Automotive"
3815:
Proceedings of Laser Surgery: Advanced Characterization, Therapeutics, and Systems
2399:-doped YAG crystals emit at 2097 nm and form an efficient laser operating at
1095:-Gaussian functions. Some high-power lasers use a flat-topped profile known as a "
310:
255:, for "microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation". When similar
8217:
8191:
8072:
8062:
7873:
7832:
7820:
7785:
7529:
7259:
7151:
5995:
5073:
4846:
4806:
4031:
4027:
4023:
3813:
3723:
3629:
3625:
3382:
3377:
3219:
3138:
3108:
2979:
2919:
2900:
2774:
2687:
2652:
2444:) can cause thermal lensing and reduce the quantum efficiency. Diode-pumped thin
2233:
in existing designs. These are molecules that can only exist with one atom in an
2014:
1970:
1826:
1794:
1670:
1613:
1569:
1374:
1201:
which applies to absorption and stimulated emission. However, in the case of the
1190:
1174:
1121:
1080:
1046:
960:
555:
446:
299:
290:
202:
174:
98:
7768:
7118:. National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute. September 13, 2011.
6829:
6688:
Robinson, Clarence A. (February 23, 1981). "Advance made on high-energy laser".
5883:
1167:
is used to measure the intensity profile, width, and divergence of laser beams.
8168:
8158:
8118:
8067:
7985:
7938:
7922:
7730:
7335:"Theodore Maiman, 79; harnessed light to build the world's first working laser"
7308:
6200:
6123:
3514:
3251:
3227:
3165:
3078:
3066:
3022:
3011:
2971:
2887:
2807:
2769:
2765:
2718:
2501:
2194:
1978:
1950:
1864:
1856:
1725:
1609:
1597:
1423:
1129:
1111:
1104:
1057:
991:
857:
849:
699:
695:
651:
493:
450:
306:
7539:
6878:
A Century of Nature: Twenty-One Discoveries that Changed Science and the World
6201:"Maximum density and capture rates of neutrons moderated from a pulsed source"
6065:
5774:
Wu, X.; et al. (October 25, 2004). "Ultraviolet photonic crystal laser".
4196:
8206:
8123:
8103:
8044:
7970:
7581:
7365:
7110:
5021:
4996:
4633:
4424:
4340:
3669:
Class 3B lasers (5–499 mW) can cause immediate eye damage upon exposure.
3545:
3513:
Output of the majority of commercially available solid-state lasers used for
3449:
3420:
3231:
3223:
3175:
3130:
3116:
3104:
3098:
2983:
2975:
2967:
2959:
2928:
2695:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2468:
2419:
2234:
2222:
1989:
1962:
1884:
1789:
1682:
1149:
1145:
1120:: the wavefronts are planar, normal to the direction of propagation, with no
1076:
1061:
1041:
972:
968:
951:
942:
890:
788:
703:
684:
532:
516:
501:
497:
473:
198:
194:
178:
170:
139:
127:
7773:
6755:
6674:
6399:
6079:
Baldwin, G.C.; Solem, J.C. (1995). "Recent proposals for gamma-ray lasers".
5341:
5048:
4537:
4175:
Strelnitski, Vladimir (1997). "Masers, Lasers and the Interstellar Medium".
3874:"Semiconductor Sources: Laser plus phosphor emits white light without droop"
2463:
Solid-state lasers or laser amplifiers where the light is guided due to the
1890:
On May 16, 1960, Theodore H. Maiman operated the first functioning laser at
1596:
predicted the use of stimulated emission to amplify "short" waves. In 1947,
1555:
excimer laser and the copper vapor laser, can never be operated in CW mode.
894:
to different levels having different time constants. This process is called
126:
allows a laser to be focused to a tight spot, enabling applications such as
8143:
8012:
8007:
7948:
6871:
6837:
6593:
6003:
5499:
5427:
5349:
5280:
5036:
4981:
4675:
3659:
3590:
3291:
3271:
3243:
3183:
3062:
2795:
2706:
2677:
2651:. Recent developments have also shown the use of monolithically integrated
2613:
2426:
2350:
2164:
2056:
1852:
1822:
1809:
1641:
1487:
1477:
1450:
1408:
1388:
1020:
935:
903:
477:
222:
116:
A laser differs from other sources of light in that it emits light that is
6224:
2810:
reaction, replacing the banks of hundreds of lasers currently employed in
8173:
8034:
8017:
7997:
7838:
3112:
3051:
3007:
2991:
2871:
2818:
2792:
2691:
2672:
2657:
2562:
2472:
2458:
2366:
2242:
2175:
Lasing without maintaining the medium excited into a population inversion
2092:
1721:
1462:
1434:
1153:
1133:
1125:
1100:
1096:
284:
214:
159:
7859:
7278:"Magurele Laser officially becomes the most powerful laser in the world"
7173:
5788:
5409:
4962:
4820:"American Institute of Physics Oral History Interview with Joseph Weber"
4809:
Presentation Speech by Professor Ivar Waller. Retrieved January 1, 2007.
3577:
3301:
for information on how to incorporate it into this article's main text.
1319:
245:
The first device using amplification by stimulated emission operated at
8022:
7511:
LASER: The inventor, the Nobel laureate, and the thirty-year patent war
6554:
5251:"Scientists Finally Created a White Laser—and It Could Light Your Home"
4223:
3781:
Laser: The Inventor, The Nobel Laureate, and The Thirty-Year Patent War
3686:
3445:
3366:
3359:
3124:
3074:
2738:
2608:
are semiconductor lasers that have an active transition between energy
2573:
and CD/DVD players. Laser diodes are also frequently used to optically
2547:
2500:
Fiber lasers, like other optical media, can suffer from the effects of
2445:
2288:
2160:
1780:
That same year, Charles H. Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow, then at
1705:
1584:'s law of radiation, conceptually based upon probability coefficients (
1581:
1551:
1483:
1247: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
883:
759: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
707:
606: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
539:
520:
519:. Laser beams can be focused to very tiny spots, achieving a very high
469:
391: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
337:
42:
6372:
6185:
5805:
5656:
Ode to a quantum physicist: A festschrift in honor of Marlan O. Scully
4879:
2542:
A 5.6 mm 'closed can' commercial laser diode, such as those used in a
1630:
863:
263:, until "microwave" was replaced by "light" in the acronym, to become
8138:
7980:
7960:
7943:
7140:
7015:"Laser Marketplace 2005: Consumer applications boost laser sales 10%"
6960:
6271:
5109:
4019:
3738:
3641:
3195:
3120:
3094:
2923:
2879:
2799:
2764:
The pursuit of a high-quantum-energy laser using transitions between
2683:
2579:
2543:
2480:
2376:
2354:
2315:
2152:
2136:
2131:
2107:
1993:
Graph showing the history of maximum laser pulse intensity since 1960
1934:
1922:
1907:
1903:
1876:
1838:
1801:
1781:
1678:
1351:
1002:
801:
706:), the light coming out of the laser may spread out or form a narrow
295:
246:
38:
7813:
6569:
6414:
6349:
6306:
6177:
6099:
3624:
Even the first laser was recognized as being potentially dangerous.
2318:
is a common dopant in various solid-state laser crystals, including
1395:
is to create very short pulses at the rate of the round-trip time.)
1222:
734:
581:
449:. A common way to release photons is to heat an object; some of the
366:
5474:
5392:
5324:
3569:
3558:
3259:
3214:
3018:
2912:
2791:
reported that there was speculation about the possibility of using
2788:
2422:
2411:
2407:
2400:
2346:
2300:
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2254:
2230:
2207:
2182:
1830:
1785:
1503:
1499:
793:
668:
458:
454:
234:
226:
134:. It also allows a laser beam to stay narrow over great distances (
5693:
4704:
4679:
4448:
1851:
Gould's notes included possible applications for a laser, such as
1846:
The LASER, Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
1346:
1334:
7855:
Virtual Museum of Laser History, from the touring exhibit by SPIE
7769:
Encyclopedia of laser physics and technology by Rüdiger Paschotta
7109:
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
6466:"Primer on coupling collective electronic oscillations to nuclei"
6287:"Interlevel transfer mechanisms and their application to grasers"
3572:(10×10 W)—world's most powerful laser as of 2019, located at the
3355:
3239:
3238:. Laser therapy is often combined with other treatments, such as
2849:
2620:
2396:
2384:
2380:
2226:
1914:
1880:
1659:
922:
805:
671:. The gain medium is a material with properties that allow it to
4090:
Basics of Laser Physics: For Students of Science and Engineering
3609:
1580:" ("On the Quantum Theory of Radiation") via a re-derivation of
840:
Animation explaining stimulated emission and the laser principle
329:
are also used for naturally occurring coherent emissions, as in
3748:
3645:
3637:
3432:
3358:
players (violet), or even higher power laser diodes from CD or
3210:
3199:
2601:
2586:
2476:
2388:
2342:
2334:
2178:
2144:
2008:
1938:
1645:
1136:
theory. Thus, the "pencil beam" directly generated by a common
875:
871:
667:, a mechanism to energize it, and something to provide optical
546:. Most "single wavelength" lasers produce radiation in several
543:
437:
6549:. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 58.
5611:
Mompart, J.; Corbalán, R. (2000). "Lasing without inversion".
3394:
power of each pulse. The peak power of a pulsed laser is many
2918:
The first widely noticeable use of lasers was the supermarket
2866:
2538:
2429:. It is also notable for use as a mode-locked laser producing
2137:
transverse electrical discharge in gas at atmospheric pressure
1572:
established the theoretical foundations for the laser and the
419:
7854:
3632:
3476:
3462:
3369:. Pulsed ruby and YAG lasers work well for this application.
3082:
3030:
3026:
2845:
2597:
2590:
2554:
2250:
1860:
1625:
1573:
1323:
1006:
461:
within the object to gain energy, which is then lost through
271:
251:
143:
70:
7808:
7699:
Journal of the Optical Society of America B: Optical Physics
7076:"Laser therapy for cancer: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia"
6934:"Laser Technology Enhances Experience for Sports Fans, Refs"
6733:
3703:
may be more sensitive to laser damage than biological eyes.
3329:
2806:
proposed that a single such laser could be used to ignite a
2373:(DPSS) lasers are used to make bright green laser pointers.
2245:
wavelengths with major applications including semiconductor
1060:
showed that coherent states are formed from combinations of
233:
suffered by LEDs; such devices are already used in some car
6775:
6511:
Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer
6419:
Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer
6043:
5944:"Picolight ships first 4-Gbit/s 1310-nm VCSEL transceivers"
4364:
4236:. Vol. 83. National Academy of Sciences. p. 202.
3819:
3191:
2841:
2292:
2148:
2067:
1942:
1918:
1911:
1180:
853:
511:
Lasers are distinguished from other light sources by their
158:
of light with a broad spectrum but durations as short as a
154:. Alternatively, temporal coherence can be used to produce
6653:
Hecht, Jeff (May 2008). "The history of the x-ray laser".
2890:
research and other high energy density physics experiments
1704:
Townes reports that several eminent physicists—among them
1185:
The mechanism of producing radiation in a laser relies on
7865:
7580:. Prentice Hall International Series in Optoelectronics,
5373:
4673:
2656:
for on-chip optical signal processing. Another type is a
2156:
1649:
1075:
Many lasers produce a beam that can be approximated as a
1031:
445:
interactions with other fundamental particles that carry
146:(light detection and ranging). Lasers can also have high
5854:"High-power direct-diode lasers for cutting and welding"
5459:
5309:
5221:"Researchers demonstrate the world's first white lasers"
4727:
Einstein, A (1917). "Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung".
3402:
The continuous or average power required for some uses:
3337:
has been used to shoot down rockets and artillery shells
2729:
1875:(USPTO) denied his application, and awarded a patent to
634:
317:
of a laser; when a laser is operating it is said to be "
7850:
MIT Video Lecture: Understanding Lasers and Fiberoptics
6987:"Football Tech That's More Than a Laser and Light Show"
6365:
Proc. SPIE 0875, Short and Ultrashort Wavelength Lasers
4756:
Steen, W.M. "Laser Materials Processing", 2nd Ed. 1998.
4655:
4607:"Coherent and incoherent states of the radiation field"
4256:
4218:
4216:
4214:
3744:
Sound amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
2899:, information technology, science, medicine, industry,
213:
for entertainment. Semiconductor lasers in the blue to
95:
light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
7667:
IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics
5972:
4230:(2003). "Arthur Schawlow". In Edward P. Lazear (ed.).
3680:
Infrared lasers with wavelengths longer than about 1.4
2878:) with numerous applications, to football field sized
2493:
Pump light can be used more efficiently by creating a
1965:
band of the spectrum at 850 nm. Later that year,
1612:(Nobel Prize for Physics 1966) proposed the method of
150:, which permits them to emit light with a very narrow
7839:
Free software for Simulation of random laser dynamics
7835:
history of the invention, with audio interview clips.
7300:
7013:
Kincade, Kathy; Anderson, Stephen (January 1, 2005).
6567:
6385:
6362:
3981:
The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science
1833:. When Gould and Townes met, they spoke of radiation
986:
For lasing media with extremely high gain, so-called
870:
An electron in an atom can absorb energy from light (
37:"Laser beam" redirects here. Not to be confused with
7809:
Website on Lasers 50th anniversary by APS, OSA, SPIE
7166:"Howto: Make a DVD burner into a high-powered laser"
7154:
Sam Barros June 21, 2006. Retrieved January 1, 2007.
6568:
Biedenharn, L.C.; Rinker, G.A.; Solem, J.C. (1989).
6543:
6331:
5191:"For The First Time, A Laser That Shines Pure White"
4680:"Laser Optics: Fractal modes in unstable resonators"
4211:
2737:
at the FOM Institute for Plasma Physics Rijnhuizen,
694:
The most common type of laser uses feedback from an
500:, which stay excited for a relatively long time. In
7791:
Powerful laser is 'brightest light in the universe'
4752:
4750:
2664:to produce a laser from materials such as silicon.
2345:). All these lasers can produce high powers in the
7196:"Laser Diode Power Output Based on DVD-R/RW specs"
6875:
6394:. New York: American Institute of Physics: 75–86.
4423:
4339:
3978:
1148:system, as is always included, for instance, in a
427:Modern physics describes light and other forms of
27:Device which emits light via optical amplification
7800:" an online course by F. Balembois and S. Forget.
6862:
4911:How the Laser Happened: Adventures of a Scientist
3553:Examples of pulsed systems with high peak power:
2612:of an electron in a structure containing several
2081:
1669:In 1953, Charles H. Townes and graduate students
8204:
5088:(1960). "Stimulated optical radiation in ruby".
4747:
4510:"Phase aspect in photon emission and absorption"
3811:
1652:asked Weber to give a seminar on this idea, and
1173:of a laser beam from a matte surface produces a
259:devices were developed they were first known as
7012:
6508:
6463:
6170:Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory Report LA-7898
5610:
5585:. Photon Systems, Covina, Calif. Archived from
4563:
3182:), laser healing (photobiomodulation therapy),
2483:ions are common active species in such lasers.
1867:. He continued developing the idea and filed a
6473:Los Alamos National Laboratory Report LA-10878
4994:
4938:"Extension of frequencies from maser to laser"
2486:Quite often, the fiber laser is designed as a
1415:
7881:
7779:Homebuilt Lasers Page by Professor Mark Csele
7326:
7253:Orchestrating the world's most powerful laser
3174:Lasers have many uses in medicine, including
2578:good beam quality, wavelength-tunable narrow-
2198:industrial applications. As examples, in the
1879:, in 1960. That provoked a twenty-eight-year
6249:
6198:
6148:
6097:
6078:
5520:
4720:
1648:, Ontario, Canada. After this presentation,
1367:
1128:, that can only remain true well within the
862:
538:Lasers are characterized according to their
441:. Photons are released and absorbed through
7223:"How to select a surgical veterinary laser"
7046:"Diode-laser market grows at a slower rate"
6574:Journal of the Optical Society of America B
6019:"Bubble lasers can be sturdy and sensitive"
5440:
5281:"Researchers demonstrate new type of laser"
4851:(2nd ed.). CRC Press. pp. 89–91.
4674:Karman, G.P.; McDonald, G.S.; New, G.H.C.;
4598:
4557:
4501:
4174:
3006:, and non-contact measurement of parts and
2676:Close-up of a table-top dye laser based on
1193:, who derived the relationship between the
453:being applied to the object will cause the
7888:
7874:
4995:Schawlow, Arthur; Townes, Charles (1958).
4844:
4292:Understanding Lasers: An Entry-Level Guide
4013:
2512:
138:), a feature used in applications such as
7844:Video Demonstrations in Lasers and Optics
7098:
6617:
6615:
5787:
5668:
5473:
5417:
5391:
5323:
5029:
5020:
4971:
4961:
4935:
4848:Masers and Lasers: An Historical Approach
4703:
4589:
4536:
4222:
3812:Ross T., Adam; Becker G., Daniel (2001).
3290:This article should include a summary of
2596:Vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers (
2369:) beams, respectively. Frequency-doubled
2066:(PTB), together with US researchers from
2032:and this research continues to this day.
1873:United States Patent and Trademark Office
1720:and hence could not work. Others such as
1326:measurements of lunar topography made by
1307:Learn how and when to remove this message
917:
775:Learn how and when to remove this message
622:Learn how and when to remove this message
407:Learn how and when to remove this message
7576:Wilson, J. & Hawkes, J.F.B. (1987).
7527:
7497:. 4th ed. Trans. David Hanna. Springer.
7432:Fundamentals of Light Sources and Lasers
6882:. University of Chicago Press. pp.
6687:
4726:
4661:
4382:
4370:
3976:
3376:
3328:
3252:Laser-induced interstitial thermotherapy
2865:
2728:
2671:
2627:. Silicon is the material of choice for
2537:
2268:
2091:
1988:
1800:
1716:—argued the maser violated Heisenberg's
1658:
1629:
1345:
1333:
1318:
1197:describing spontaneous emission and the
1181:Quantum vs. classical emission processes
1030:
941:
921:
821:
633:
418:
49:
8149:Multiple-prism grating laser oscillator
7534:. Graduate Texts in Physics. Springer.
7400:Bertolotti, Mario (1999, trans. 2004).
6984:
6622:Fildes, Jonathan (September 12, 2007).
5654:Javan, A. (2000). "On knowing Marlan".
5369:
5367:
4604:
4507:
4454:
4421:
4334:
4054:
3844:"December 1958: Invention of the Laser"
3658:Class 2 is safe during normal use; the
3190:, and cosmetic skin treatments such as
2724:
2703:use dye-doped polymers as laser media.
2582:radiation, or ultrashort laser pulses.
2527:
2277:, based on a Nd:YAG laser, used at the
97:. The first laser was built in 1960 by
14:
8205:
7564:from the original on February 25, 2021
7508:
7275:
7202:from the original on November 22, 2011
7086:from the original on February 24, 2021
7044:Steele, Robert V. (February 1, 2005).
7043:
6844:from the original on February 17, 2022
6702:
6621:
6612:
6464:Solem, J.C.; Biedenharn, L.C. (1987).
6313:from the original on November 27, 2018
6010:
5261:from the original on December 16, 2019
5231:from the original on December 16, 2019
5201:from the original on December 16, 2019
5084:
4765:
4376:
3932:from the original on November 16, 2011
3854:from the original on December 10, 2021
3778:
3027:electro-optical countermeasures (EOCM)
2870:Lasers range in size from microscopic
1947:Albert Einstein World Award of Science
811:
800:are important in our understanding of
7869:
7373:from the original on February 2, 2019
7358:
7306:
7221:Peavy, George M. (January 23, 2014).
7220:
6958:
6801:
6652:
6412:
6284:
6231:from the original on February 7, 2016
6167:
5834:from the original on December 7, 2015
5742:
5714:from the original on February 8, 2023
5653:
5547:
5529:from the original on October 11, 2014
5164:
5035:
4936:Nishizawa, Jun-ichi (December 2009).
4545:from the original on February 8, 2023
4289:
4094:Springer Science & Business Media
4055:McAulay, Alastair D. (May 31, 2011).
4014:Bertolotti, Mario (October 1, 2004).
3958:from the original on February 7, 2019
3906:from the original on February 7, 2019
2773:breakthrough is near, an operational
2264:
2163:), making them candidates for use in
2064:Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt
1984:
1350:Mercury Laser Altimeter (MLA) of the
1212:
1064:states, for which he was awarded the
189:, semiconducting chip manufacturing (
7635:IEEE Journal of Lightwave Technology
7619:Applied Physics B: Lasers and Optics
6768:
6705:"Laser is produced by a living cell"
6690:Aviation Week & Space Technology
5966:
5864:from the original on August 11, 2018
5364:
4929:
4430:. University Science Books. p.
4346:. University Science Books. p.
4087:
3977:Heilbron, John L. (March 27, 2003).
3644:into an extremely small spot on the
3372:
3275:
1788:radiation to instead concentrate on
1245:adding citations to reliable sources
1216:
1026:
757:adding citations to reliable sources
728:
714:, this device is sometimes called a
604:adding citations to reliable sources
575:
389:adding citations to reliable sources
360:
7651:IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics
7578:Lasers: Principles and Applications
7307:Zurer, Rachel (December 27, 2011).
7288:from the original on April 14, 2021
7233:from the original on April 19, 2016
7170:Transmissions from Planet Stephanie
7056:from the original on April 12, 2015
7025:from the original on April 13, 2015
6783:from the original on April 14, 2021
6634:from the original on April 21, 2009
6600:from the original on March 21, 2020
6445:from the original on March 18, 2020
6199:Baldwin, G.C.; Solem, J.C. (1979).
6098:Baldwin, G.C.; Solem, J.C. (1997).
5924:from the original on March 18, 2014
5894:from the original on March 18, 2014
4890:from the original on April 24, 2019
3926:"How Laser-powered Headlights Work"
3017:Military: marking targets, guiding
2804:University of California, Riverside
2623:laser is important in the field of
2312:referred to as solid-state lasers.
2130:laser is unusually high: over 30%.
1973:temperatures (77 K). In 1970,
1829:about the energy levels of excited
1808:First page of the notebook wherein
1656:asked him for a copy of the paper.
1402:
24:
7513:. New York: Simon & Schuster.
7389:
7332:
7122:from the original on April 5, 2020
6802:Mumma, Michael J (April 3, 1981).
6715:from the original on June 13, 2011
6624:"Mirror particles form new matter"
6490:from the original on March 4, 2016
6130:from the original on July 28, 2019
6016:
5950:. December 9, 2005. Archived from
5773:
5755:from the original on June 25, 2023
5291:from the original on March 3, 2017
5146:from the original on April 4, 2004
5130:
4826:from the original on March 8, 2016
4564:Pollnau, M.; Eichhorn, M. (2020).
4088:Renk, Karl F. (February 9, 2012).
3880:from the original on June 13, 2016
3381:Laser application in astronomical
2189:
1689:were independently working on the
93:that originated as an acronym for
25:
8254:
7762:
7683:IEEE Photonics Technology Letters
7333:Jr, John Johnson (May 11, 2007).
7309:"Three Smart Things About Lasers"
6985:Randall, Kevin (April 20, 2022).
6205:Nuclear Science & Engineering
5671:Handbook of the Eurolaser Academy
4942:Proc Jpn Acad Ser B Phys Biol Sci
4386:Photonics Essentials, 2nd edition
4290:Hecht, Jeff (December 27, 2018).
2831:
2357:. These lasers are also commonly
2217:
1740:In April 1957, Japanese engineer
1544:
197:and skin treatments, cutting and
8187:
8186:
7359:Hecht, Jeff (January 24, 2018).
7352:
7276:Dragan, Aurel (March 13, 2019).
7269:
7245:
7214:
7188:
7163:
7157:
7134:
7104:
7068:
6769:Chen, Sophia (January 1, 2020).
5167:Beam: The Race to Make the Laser
4643:from the original on May 8, 2021
4591:10.1016/j.pquantelec.2020.100255
3608:
3599:
3280:
2953:
2944:free-space optical communication
1759:
1578:Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung
1521:), for maximizing the effect of
1221:
1114:) of a laser beam, it is highly
733:
724:
580:
365:
294:), whereas devices operating at
217:have also been used in place of
205:devices for marking targets and
187:free-space optical communication
7417:The Laser in America, 1950–1970
7037:
7006:
6978:
6959:Woods, Susan (April 13, 2015).
6952:
6926:
6913:
6900:
6856:
6795:
6762:
6727:
6703:Palmer, Jason (June 13, 2011).
6696:
6681:
6646:
6561:
6537:
6502:
6457:
6406:
6379:
6356:
6325:
6278:
6243:
6192:
6161:
6142:
6091:
6072:
6037:
6025:. American Institute of Physics
5936:
5906:
5876:
5846:
5820:
5767:
5736:
5726:
5687:
5662:
5647:
5604:
5572:
5541:
5514:
5453:
5445:(Press release). Archived from
5434:
5303:
5273:
5243:
5213:
5183:
5158:
5124:
5078:
5063:The Laser in America, 1950–1970
5055:
4988:
4902:
4872:
4838:
4812:
4800:The Nobel Prize in Physics 1966
4793:
4759:
4667:
4570:Progress in Quantum Electronics
4415:
4328:
4316:
4283:
4250:
4168:
4141:
4114:
4081:
4048:
3038:
2882:glass lasers (bottom) used for
2862:List of applications for lasers
2759:
2452:
2147:-silver (HeAg) 224 nm and
1798:, which was published in 1958.
1471:
1232:needs additional citations for
1124:at that point. However, due to
950:The gain medium is put into an
744:needs additional citations for
638:Components of a typical laser:
591:needs additional citations for
504:, such a material is called an
376:needs additional citations for
356:
105:, based on theoretical work by
8058:Amplified spontaneous emission
7611:
7531:Quantum Photonics, 2nd edition
7482:. Cambridge University Press.
7361:"Can Lidars Zap Camera Chips?"
5492:10.1103/PhysRevLett.118.263202
4177:Astrophysics and Space Science
4007:
3970:
3944:
3918:
3892:
3866:
3836:
3805:
3772:
3254:(LITT), or interstitial laser
3159:
2433:of extremely high peak power.
2082:Types and operating principles
2072:University of Colorado Boulder
2062:In 2017, researchers from the
2053:Technical University of Munich
2051:. In 2017, researchers at the
2041:Delft University of Technology
1765:"The Man, the Myth, the Laser"
1563:
1535:optical parametric oscillators
1525:in optical materials (e.g. in
1456:
1152:whose light originates from a
249:frequencies, and was called a
240:
13:
1:
7826:Bright Idea: The First Lasers
7447:Solid-State Laser Engineering
7264:Science and Technology Review
7198:. elabz.com. April 10, 2011.
6100:"Recoilless gamma-ray lasers"
5441:Erika Schow (June 29, 2017).
4997:"Infrared and Optical Masers"
3765:
3489:DVD 24× dual-layer recording
3322:is a laser that is used as a
3265:
3087:laser capture microdissection
3050:. Lasers are used for latent
2667:
2497:, or a stack of such lasers.
2101:
2019:minimum output pulse duration
1177:with interesting properties.
558:more than is required by the
58:system producing four orange
7464:. University Science Books.
7460:Siegman, Anthony E. (1986).
7415:Bromberg, Joan Lisa (1991).
7116:"Lasers in Cancer Treatment"
7052:. Vol. 41, no. 2.
7021:. Vol. 41, no. 1.
6921:Journal of Forensic Sciences
6908:Journal of Forensic Sciences
6531:10.1016/0022-4073(88)90066-0
6439:10.1016/0022-4073(88)90067-2
5996:10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b03404
5700:. McGraw Hill Professional.
5550:"The TEA Nitrogen Gas Laser"
4422:Siegman, Anthony E. (1986).
2948:laser communication in space
2802:laser. David Cassidy of the
2604:are external-cavity VCSELs.
2202:(2700–2900 nm) and the
2177:was demonstrated in 1992 in
2039:In 2017, researchers at the
2004:maximum average output power
1892:Hughes Research Laboratories
103:Hughes Research Laboratories
7:
8114:Chirped pulse amplification
7449:. 3rd ed. Springer-Verlag.
6830:10.1126/science.212.4490.45
5169:. Oxford University Press.
4908:Townes, Charles H. (1999).
4455:Walker, Jearl (June 1974).
3706:
3534:
3520:
3507:
3493:
3483:
3469:
3455:
3439:
3426:
3414:
3349:
3347:
3335:Tactical High Energy weapon
3213:by shrinking or destroying
2884:inertial confinement fusion
2812:inertial confinement fusion
2660:, which takes advantage of
1927:William R. Bennett Jr.
1748:" in a patent application.
1746:semiconductor optical maser
1744:proposed the concept of a "
1502:-doped, artificially grown
1494:(also known as energy–time
1447:vibronic solid-state lasers
796:and how they interact with
10:
8259:
7918:List of laser applications
7895:
7258:November 21, 2008, at the
6334:AIP Conference Proceedings
6291:AIP Conference Proceedings
6252:Journal of Applied Physics
6124:10.1103/RevModPhys.69.1085
5523:"The Carbon Dioxide Laser"
4845:Bertolotti, Mario (2015).
4463:. W. H. Freeman. pp.
3754:Fabry–Pérot interferometer
3694:Lasers and aviation safety
3588:
3563:National Ignition Facility
3544:lasers used in industrial
3501:Holographic Versatile Disc
3341:
3269:
3236:non-small cell lung cancer
3170:Lasers in cancer treatment
3163:
3156: billion, were sold.
2922:, introduced in 1974. The
2859:
2713:as the optical resonator.
2709:are dye lasers that use a
2531:
2456:
2105:
2085:
2055:demonstrated the smallest
1623:
1558:
1531:parametric down-conversion
1527:second-harmonic generation
1486:down to less than 10
1475:
1460:
1406:
815:
786:
569:
274:) are called lasers (e.g.
229:of a laser and avoids the
179:DNA sequencing instruments
36:
29:
8182:
8096:
8043:
7931:
7903:
7540:10.1007/978-3-030-47325-9
7528:Pearsall, Thomas (2020).
7445:Koechner, Walter (1992).
6655:Optics and Photonics News
6104:Reviews of Modern Physics
6066:10.1103/RevModPhys.53.687
6046:Reviews of Modern Physics
5633:10.1088/1464-4266/2/3/201
5521:Nolen, Jim; Derek Verno.
4729:Physikalische Zeitschrift
4383:Pearsall, Thomas (2010).
3714:Coherent perfect absorber
3584:
3209:Lasers are used to treat
3048:LIDAR traffic enforcement
2996:selective laser sintering
2940:fiber-optic communication
2909:Fiber-optic communication
2903:, entertainment, and the
2852:exhibit this phenomenon.
2826:green fluorescent protein
2798:to drive a very powerful
2553:Semiconductor lasers are
2522:density of optical states
2465:total internal reflection
2425:laser, commonly used for
2181:gas and again in 1995 in
1773:Science History Institute
1758:
1753:
1368:Continuous-wave operation
1083:often approximated using
963:: gas, liquid, solid, or
565:
431:as the group behavior of
429:electromagnetic radiation
83:electromagnetic radiation
7831:October 3, 2012, at the
7404:. Institute of Physics.
7402:The History of the Laser
7394:
7150:August 14, 2005, at the
5948:Laser Focus World Online
5022:10.1103/PhysRev.112.1940
4766:Batani, Dimitri (2004).
4634:10.1103/PhysRev.131.2766
4016:The History of the Laser
3696:for more on this topic.
2938:Communications: besides
2733:The free-electron laser
2715:Whispering gallery modes
2631:, and so electronic and
2371:diode-pumped solid-state
2339:yttrium aluminium garnet
2331:yttrium lithium fluoride
2235:excited electronic state
2204:deuterium fluoride laser
2025:maximum power efficiency
1933:, constructed the first
1735:
1619:
1342:optical wireless network
201:materials, military and
7819:April 23, 2021, at the
7493:Svelto, Orazio (1998).
6756:10.1038/nphoton.2011.99
6675:10.1364/opn.19.5.000026
5776:Applied Physics Letters
5342:10.1126/science.aah6640
4916:Oxford University Press
4538:10.1364/OPTICA.5.000465
4197:10.1023/A:1000892300429
4189:1997Ap&SS.252..279S
3987:Oxford University Press
3299:Knowledge:Summary style
3135:laser lighting displays
3091:fluorescence microscopy
3056:forensic identification
3000:selective laser melting
2855:
2787:In September 2007, the
2777:is yet to be realized.
2513:Photonic crystal lasers
2229:, or more precisely an
2200:hydrogen fluoride laser
1953:demonstrated the first
1931:Donald R. Herriott
1900:Arthur L. Schawlow
1387:term is not applied to
211:laser lighting displays
111:Arthur Leonard Schawlow
69:is a device that emits
7908:List of laser articles
6923:, 28(3), 1983, 692–696
6910:, 22(1), 1977, 106–115
6874:; Tim Lincoln (eds.).
6594:10.1364/JOSAB.6.000221
5669:Schuocker, D. (1998).
4605:Glauber, R.J. (1963).
3759:Ultrashort pulse laser
3729:List of laser articles
3719:Homogeneous broadening
3701:charge-coupled devices
3503:prototype development
3386:
3338:
3324:directed-energy weapon
3004:laser metal deposition
2988:additive manufacturing
2942:, lasers are used for
2891:
2741:
2701:solid-state dye lasers
2680:
2606:Quantum cascade lasers
2550:
2281:
2279:Starfire Optical Range
2261:is a stable compound.
2098:
1994:
1814:
1730:Nobel Prize in Physics
1675:Herbert J. Zeiger
1666:
1654:Charles H. Townes
1637:
1355:
1343:
1331:
1066:Nobel Prize in physics
1036:
947:
939:
918:Gain medium and cavity
867:
841:
798:electromagnetic fields
712:electronic oscillators
663:A laser consists of a
660:
424:
107:Charles H. Townes
62:
32:Laser (disambiguation)
7784:June 1, 2009, at the
7595:Yariv, Amnon (1989).
7509:Taylor, Nick (2000).
6225:10.13182/NSE79-A20384
5858:industrial-lasers.com
5560:on September 11, 2007
5554:Homebuilt Lasers Page
5380:Nature Communications
5140:University of Chicago
5072:May 28, 2014, at the
4805:June 4, 2011, at the
4296:John Wiley & Sons
4061:John Wiley & Sons
3902:. February 22, 2017.
3779:Taylor, Nick (2000).
3734:List of light sources
3380:
3332:
3103:Commercial products:
2934:Some other uses are:
2869:
2732:
2675:
2645:gallium(III) arsenide
2641:indium(III) phosphide
2637:optical interconnects
2619:The development of a
2541:
2320:yttrium orthovanadate
2272:
2095:
2086:Further information:
2045:AC Josephson junction
1992:
1804:
1718:uncertainty principle
1662:
1633:
1594:Valentin A. Fabrikant
1586:Einstein coefficients
1515:femtosecond chemistry
1349:
1337:
1322:
1110:Near the "waist" (or
1034:
945:
925:
900:uncertainty principle
866:
839:
691:or by another laser.
637:
433:fundamental particles
422:
219:light-emitting diodes
75:optical amplification
73:through a process of
53:
8083:Population inversion
7862:Universite Paris Sud
7495:Principles of Lasers
7476:Silfvast, William T.
7430:Csele, Mark (2004).
7176:on February 17, 2022
6940:. September 10, 2014
6413:Solem, J.C. (1988).
6285:Solem, J.C. (1986).
5828:"Laser Diode Market"
5749:www.rp-photonics.com
5743:Paschotta, Rüdiger.
5548:Csele, Mark (2004).
5525:. Davidson Physics.
5165:Hecht, Jeff (2005).
5132:Townes, Charles Hard
5061:Joan Lisa Bromberg,
4508:Pollnau, M. (2018).
4233:Biographical Memoirs
3928:. November 7, 2011.
3876:. November 7, 2013.
3785:Simon & Schuster
2897:consumer electronics
2838:astrophysical masers
2745:Free-electron lasers
2725:Free-electron lasers
2649:hybrid silicon laser
2635:components (such as
2534:Semiconductor lasers
2528:Semiconductor lasers
2418:) produces a highly
2305:population inversion
2212:nitrogen trifluoride
2001:new wavelength bands
1957:, which was made of
1699:population inversion
1695:stimulated emissions
1671:James P. Gordon
1241:improve this article
1070:Poisson distribution
996:astrophysical masers
977:population inversion
896:spontaneous emission
889:When an electron is
753:improve this article
645:Laser pumping energy
600:improve this article
385:improve this article
56:Very Large Telescope
30:For other uses, see
8223:American inventions
8134:Laser beam profiler
8053:Active laser medium
7993:Free-electron laser
7913:List of laser types
7597:Quantum Electronics
6822:1981Sci...212...45M
6748:2011NaPho...5..406G
6667:2008OptPN..19R..26H
6586:1989JOSAB...6..221B
6523:1988JQSRT..40..707S
6481:1987pcce.rept.....S
6431:1988JQSRT..40..713S
6342:1986AIPC..146...50B
6299:1986AIPC..146...22S
6264:1980JAP....51.2372B
6217:1979NSE....72..281B
6116:1997RvMP...69.1085B
6058:1981RvMP...53..687B
5988:2016NanoL..16..152M
5920:. August 19, 2015.
5830:. Hanel Photonics.
5798:2004ApPhL..85.3657W
5625:2000JOptB...2R...7M
5484:2017PhRvL.118z3202M
5410:10.1038/ncomms15521
5402:2017NatCo...815521M
5334:2017Sci...355..939C
5102:1960Natur.187..493M
5013:1958PhRv..112.1940S
4963:10.2183/pjab.85.454
4954:2009PJAB...85..454N
4741:1917PhyZ...18..121E
4696:1999Natur.402..138K
4626:1963PhRv..131.2766G
4582:2020PQE....7200255P
4529:2018Optic...5..465P
4336:Siegman, Anthony E.
4325:, Paul Hewitt, 2002
3403:
3396:orders of magnitude
3033:, blinding troops,
2749:terahertz radiation
2629:integrated circuits
2471:are instead called
2239:noble gas compounds
2088:List of laser types
2013:maximum peak pulse
2007:maximum peak pulse
1961:and emitted in the
1955:semiconductor laser
1951:Robert N. Hall
1896:Columbia University
1871:in April 1959. The
1819:Columbia University
1687:Aleksandr Prokhorov
1635:Aleksandr Prokhorov
1598:Willis E. Lamb
1590:Rudolf W. Ladenburg
1203:free electron laser
1187:stimulated emission
1165:laser beam profiler
1142:semiconductor laser
818:Stimulated emission
812:Stimulated emission
680:for the amplifier.
517:diffraction-limited
506:active laser medium
486:stimulated emission
332:astrophysical maser
302:are called masers.
167:optical disc drives
165:Lasers are used in
79:stimulated emission
54:A telescope in the
8238:Russian inventions
8213:1960 introductions
7798:Laser Fundamentals
7480:Laser Fundamentals
6992:The New York Times
5197:. March 18, 2019.
5065:(1991), pp. 74–77
4461:Light and Its Uses
4403:on August 17, 2021
4373:, p. 276=285.
4323:Conceptual physics
4259:Optics in Our Time
4154:Collins Dictionary
4127:Collins Dictionary
3401:
3387:
3339:
2994:processes such as
2892:
2742:
2694:). Although these
2681:
2551:
2285:Solid-state lasers
2282:
2265:Solid-state lasers
2169:Raman spectroscopy
2119:carbon dioxide (CO
2099:
1995:
1985:Recent innovations
1949:in 1993. In 1962,
1910:-pumped synthetic
1869:patent application
1815:
1742:Jun-ichi Nishizawa
1691:quantum oscillator
1667:
1638:
1391:lasers, where the
1356:
1344:
1332:
1213:Modes of operation
1171:Diffuse reflection
1037:
948:
940:
868:
842:
661:
572:Laser construction
425:
280:ultraviolet lasers
209:and speed, and in
152:frequency spectrum
148:temporal coherence
63:
8243:Soviet inventions
8200:
8199:
8154:Optical amplifier
8003:Solid-state laser
7747:Photonics Spectra
7715:Laser Focus World
7599:. 3rd ed. Wiley.
7549:978-3-030-47324-2
7520:978-0-684-83515-0
7425:978-0-262-02318-4
7339:Los Angeles Times
7164:Maks, Stephanie.
7050:Laser Focus World
7019:Laser Focus World
6965:Shop Floor Lasers
6893:978-0-226-28413-2
6868:"The first laser"
6864:Charles H. Townes
6692:. pp. 25–27.
6373:10.1117/12.943887
6017:Miller, Johanna.
5954:on March 13, 2006
5806:10.1063/1.1808888
5707:978-0-07-163314-7
5680:978-0-412-81910-0
5318:(6328): 939–942.
5257:. July 30, 2015.
5176:978-0-19-514210-5
5136:"The first laser"
5096:(4736): 493–494.
4924:978-0-19-512268-8
4880:"Guide to Lasers"
4858:978-1-4822-1780-3
4678:(November 1999).
4474:978-0-7167-1185-8
4441:978-0-935702-11-8
4396:978-0-07-162935-5
4357:978-0-935702-11-8
4309:978-1-119-31064-8
4276:978-3-319-31903-2
4243:978-0-309-08699-8
4107:978-3-642-23565-8
4074:978-0-470-25560-5
4041:978-1-4200-3340-3
4000:978-0-19-974376-6
3829:978-0-8194-3922-2
3699:Cameras based on
3551:
3550:
3540:Typical sealed CO
3526:Typical sealed CO
3373:Examples by power
3316:
3315:
3248:radiation therapy
3054:detection in the
2625:optical computing
2488:double-clad fiber
2467:in a single mode
2431:ultrashort pulses
2115:helium–neon laser
2049:quantum computing
2022:minimum linewidth
1967:Nick Holonyak Jr.
1825:was working on a
1821:graduate student
1778:
1777:
1664:Charles H. Townes
1519:ultrafast science
1431:nonlinear optical
1414:cannot be run in
1384:frequency spacing
1317:
1316:
1309:
1291:
1207:quantum mechanics
1158:spatial coherence
1138:helium–neon laser
1027:The light emitted
988:superluminescence
981:optical amplifier
928:helium–neon laser
837:
785:
784:
777:
632:
631:
624:
560:diffraction limit
498:metastable states
463:thermal radiation
417:
416:
409:
346:optical amplifier
300:radio frequencies
221:(LEDs) to excite
156:ultrashort pulses
124:Spatial coherence
60:laser guide stars
16:(Redirected from
8250:
8190:
8189:
8164:Optical isolator
8129:Injection seeder
8109:Beam homogenizer
8088:Ultrashort pulse
8078:Lasing threshold
7890:
7883:
7876:
7867:
7866:
7573:
7571:
7569:
7524:
7383:
7382:
7380:
7378:
7356:
7350:
7349:
7347:
7345:
7330:
7324:
7323:
7321:
7319:
7304:
7298:
7297:
7295:
7293:
7273:
7267:
7251:Heller, Arnie, "
7249:
7243:
7242:
7240:
7238:
7218:
7212:
7211:
7209:
7207:
7192:
7186:
7185:
7183:
7181:
7172:. Archived from
7161:
7155:
7138:
7132:
7131:
7129:
7127:
7108:
7107:
7102:
7096:
7095:
7093:
7091:
7072:
7066:
7065:
7063:
7061:
7041:
7035:
7034:
7032:
7030:
7010:
7004:
7003:
7001:
6999:
6982:
6976:
6975:
6973:
6971:
6956:
6950:
6949:
6947:
6945:
6930:
6924:
6917:
6911:
6904:
6898:
6897:
6881:
6860:
6854:
6853:
6851:
6849:
6799:
6793:
6792:
6790:
6788:
6766:
6760:
6759:
6736:Nature Photonics
6731:
6725:
6724:
6722:
6720:
6700:
6694:
6693:
6685:
6679:
6678:
6650:
6644:
6643:
6641:
6639:
6619:
6610:
6609:
6607:
6605:
6565:
6559:
6558:
6541:
6535:
6534:
6506:
6500:
6499:
6497:
6495:
6489:
6470:
6461:
6455:
6454:
6452:
6450:
6410:
6404:
6403:
6383:
6377:
6376:
6360:
6354:
6353:
6329:
6323:
6322:
6320:
6318:
6282:
6276:
6275:
6272:10.1063/1.328007
6258:(5): 2372–2380.
6247:
6241:
6240:
6238:
6236:
6196:
6190:
6189:
6165:
6159:
6158:
6146:
6140:
6139:
6137:
6135:
6110:(4): 1085–1117.
6095:
6089:
6088:
6076:
6070:
6069:
6041:
6035:
6034:
6032:
6030:
6014:
6008:
6007:
5970:
5964:
5963:
5961:
5959:
5940:
5934:
5933:
5931:
5929:
5910:
5904:
5903:
5901:
5899:
5880:
5874:
5873:
5871:
5869:
5850:
5844:
5843:
5841:
5839:
5824:
5818:
5817:
5791:
5771:
5765:
5764:
5762:
5760:
5745:"Photodarkening"
5740:
5734:
5730:
5724:
5723:
5721:
5719:
5691:
5685:
5684:
5666:
5660:
5659:
5651:
5645:
5644:
5608:
5602:
5601:
5599:
5597:
5591:
5584:
5580:"Deep UV Lasers"
5576:
5570:
5569:
5567:
5565:
5556:. Archived from
5545:
5539:
5538:
5536:
5534:
5518:
5512:
5511:
5477:
5457:
5451:
5450:
5449:on July 3, 2017.
5438:
5432:
5431:
5421:
5395:
5371:
5362:
5361:
5327:
5307:
5301:
5300:
5298:
5296:
5277:
5271:
5270:
5268:
5266:
5247:
5241:
5240:
5238:
5236:
5217:
5211:
5210:
5208:
5206:
5187:
5181:
5180:
5162:
5156:
5155:
5153:
5151:
5128:
5122:
5121:
5110:10.1038/187493a0
5082:
5076:
5059:
5053:
5052:
5037:Gould, R. Gordon
5033:
5027:
5026:
5024:
5007:(6): 1940–1949.
4992:
4986:
4985:
4975:
4965:
4933:
4927:
4906:
4900:
4899:
4897:
4895:
4876:
4870:
4869:
4867:
4865:
4842:
4836:
4835:
4833:
4831:
4816:
4810:
4797:
4791:
4790:
4788:
4786:
4781:on June 14, 2007
4780:
4772:wwwold.unimib.it
4763:
4757:
4754:
4745:
4744:
4724:
4718:
4717:
4707:
4671:
4665:
4659:
4653:
4652:
4650:
4648:
4642:
4620:(6): 2766–2788.
4611:
4602:
4596:
4595:
4593:
4561:
4555:
4554:
4552:
4550:
4540:
4514:
4505:
4499:
4498:
4492:
4488:
4486:
4478:
4457:"Nitrogen Laser"
4452:
4446:
4445:
4429:
4419:
4413:
4412:
4410:
4408:
4399:. Archived from
4380:
4374:
4368:
4362:
4361:
4345:
4332:
4326:
4320:
4314:
4313:
4287:
4281:
4280:
4254:
4248:
4247:
4220:
4209:
4208:
4172:
4166:
4165:
4163:
4161:
4145:
4139:
4138:
4136:
4134:
4118:
4112:
4111:
4085:
4079:
4078:
4052:
4046:
4045:
4011:
4005:
4004:
3984:
3974:
3968:
3967:
3965:
3963:
3948:
3942:
3941:
3939:
3937:
3922:
3916:
3915:
3913:
3911:
3896:
3890:
3889:
3887:
3885:
3870:
3864:
3863:
3861:
3859:
3840:
3834:
3833:
3809:
3803:
3802:
3776:
3683:
3612:
3603:
3537:
3530:surgical lasers
3523:
3510:
3496:
3486:
3472:
3458:
3442:
3429:
3417:
3404:
3400:
3353:
3311:
3308:
3302:
3284:
3283:
3276:
3256:photocoagulation
3155:
3151:
3139:laser turntables
3109:barcode scanners
2966:thin materials,
2782:Mössbauer effect
2662:Raman scattering
2633:silicon photonic
2518:Photonic crystal
2495:fiber disk laser
2353:and for pumping
2247:photolithography
2141:deep ultraviolet
2077:
2043:demonstrated an
1959:gallium arsenide
1817:Simultaneously,
1763:
1762:
1751:
1750:
1714:Llewellyn Thomas
1710:John von Neumann
1607:
1603:
1403:Pulsed operation
1312:
1305:
1301:
1298:
1292:
1290:
1249:
1225:
1217:
1105:optical vortexes
1081:transverse modes
1051:injection seeder
1016:lasing threshold
908:thermal emission
838:
780:
773:
769:
766:
760:
737:
729:
716:laser oscillator
710:. In analogy to
627:
620:
616:
613:
607:
584:
576:
552:monochromaticity
529:coherence length
412:
405:
401:
398:
392:
369:
361:
351:laser amplifiers
291:gamma-ray lasers
191:photolithography
175:barcode scanners
21:
8258:
8257:
8253:
8252:
8251:
8249:
8248:
8247:
8203:
8202:
8201:
8196:
8178:
8092:
8073:Laser linewidth
8063:Continuous wave
8039:
7932:Types of lasers
7927:
7899:
7894:
7833:Wayback Machine
7821:Wayback Machine
7786:Wayback Machine
7765:
7614:
7567:
7565:
7550:
7521:
7397:
7392:
7390:Further reading
7387:
7386:
7376:
7374:
7357:
7353:
7343:
7341:
7331:
7327:
7317:
7315:
7305:
7301:
7291:
7289:
7282:Business Review
7274:
7270:
7260:Wayback Machine
7250:
7246:
7236:
7234:
7219:
7215:
7205:
7203:
7194:
7193:
7189:
7179:
7177:
7162:
7158:
7152:Wayback Machine
7144:
7139:
7135:
7125:
7123:
7114:
7105:
7103:
7099:
7089:
7087:
7080:medlineplus.gov
7074:
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6894:
6861:
6857:
6847:
6845:
6816:(4490): 45–49.
6800:
6796:
6786:
6784:
6767:
6763:
6732:
6728:
6718:
6716:
6701:
6697:
6686:
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6468:
6462:
6458:
6448:
6446:
6411:
6407:
6384:
6380:
6361:
6357:
6350:10.1063/1.35928
6330:
6326:
6316:
6314:
6307:10.1063/1.35861
6283:
6279:
6248:
6244:
6234:
6232:
6197:
6193:
6178:10.2172/6010532
6166:
6162:
6147:
6143:
6133:
6131:
6096:
6092:
6077:
6073:
6042:
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6015:
6011:
5971:
5967:
5957:
5955:
5942:
5941:
5937:
5927:
5925:
5912:
5911:
5907:
5897:
5895:
5882:
5881:
5877:
5867:
5865:
5852:
5851:
5847:
5837:
5835:
5826:
5825:
5821:
5789:physics/0406005
5772:
5768:
5758:
5756:
5741:
5737:
5731:
5727:
5717:
5715:
5708:
5692:
5688:
5681:
5667:
5663:
5652:
5648:
5609:
5605:
5595:
5593:
5592:on July 1, 2007
5589:
5582:
5578:
5577:
5573:
5563:
5561:
5546:
5542:
5532:
5530:
5519:
5515:
5462:Phys. Rev. Lett
5458:
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5439:
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5262:
5249:
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5204:
5202:
5195:Popular Science
5189:
5188:
5184:
5177:
5163:
5159:
5149:
5147:
5129:
5125:
5083:
5079:
5074:Wayback Machine
5060:
5056:
5043:. p. 128.
5034:
5030:
5001:Physical Review
4993:
4989:
4948:(10): 454–465.
4934:
4930:
4907:
4903:
4893:
4891:
4878:
4877:
4873:
4863:
4861:
4859:
4843:
4839:
4829:
4827:
4822:. May 4, 2015.
4818:
4817:
4813:
4807:Wayback Machine
4798:
4794:
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4546:
4512:
4506:
4502:
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4489:
4480:
4479:
4475:
4453:
4449:
4442:
4420:
4416:
4406:
4404:
4397:
4389:. McGraw-Hill.
4381:
4377:
4369:
4365:
4358:
4333:
4329:
4321:
4317:
4310:
4288:
4284:
4277:
4255:
4251:
4244:
4228:Townes, Charles
4221:
4212:
4173:
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4120:
4119:
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3945:
3935:
3933:
3924:
3923:
3919:
3909:
3907:
3898:
3897:
3893:
3883:
3881:
3872:
3871:
3867:
3857:
3855:
3842:
3841:
3837:
3830:
3822:. p. 396.
3810:
3806:
3799:
3777:
3773:
3768:
3763:
3724:Laser linewidth
3709:
3681:
3626:Theodore Maiman
3622:
3621:
3620:
3619:
3615:
3614:
3613:
3605:
3604:
3593:
3587:
3543:
3535:
3529:
3521:
3515:micro machining
3508:
3499:Green laser in
3494:
3484:
3470:
3456:
3440:
3427:
3415:
3383:adaptive optics
3375:
3344:
3333:The US–Israeli
3312:
3306:
3303:
3296:
3285:
3281:
3274:
3268:
3202:reduction, and
3172:
3164:Main articles:
3162:
3153:
3149:
3129:Entertainment:
3044:Law enforcement
3023:missile defense
2920:barcode scanner
2901:law enforcement
2888:nuclear weapons
2864:
2858:
2834:
2775:gamma-ray laser
2766:isomeric states
2762:
2727:
2688:on the order of
2670:
2653:nanowire lasers
2536:
2530:
2515:
2461:
2455:
2394:
2327:
2267:
2260:
2220:
2195:Chemical lasers
2192:
2190:Chemical lasers
2186:been canceled.
2129:
2122:
2110:
2104:
2090:
2084:
2075:
1987:
1971:liquid nitrogen
1827:doctoral thesis
1806:LASER notebook:
1795:Physical Review
1760:
1738:
1628:
1622:
1614:optical pumping
1605:
1601:
1570:Albert Einstein
1566:
1561:
1547:
1480:
1474:
1465:
1459:
1411:
1405:
1375:continuous-wave
1370:
1361:cavity lifetime
1313:
1302:
1296:
1293:
1250:
1248:
1238:
1226:
1215:
1191:Albert Einstein
1183:
1175:speckle pattern
1122:beam divergence
1047:laser linewidth
1029:
920:
882:one particular
822:
820:
814:
791:
781:
770:
764:
761:
750:
738:
727:
659:
628:
617:
611:
608:
597:
585:
574:
568:
447:electric charge
443:electromagnetic
413:
402:
396:
393:
382:
370:
359:
276:infrared lasers
243:
207:measuring range
203:law enforcement
99:Theodore Maiman
46:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
8256:
8246:
8245:
8240:
8235:
8233:Quantum optics
8230:
8225:
8220:
8215:
8198:
8197:
8195:
8194:
8183:
8180:
8179:
8177:
8176:
8171:
8169:Output coupler
8166:
8161:
8159:Optical cavity
8156:
8151:
8146:
8141:
8136:
8131:
8126:
8121:
8119:Gain-switching
8116:
8111:
8106:
8100:
8098:
8094:
8093:
8091:
8090:
8085:
8080:
8075:
8070:
8068:Laser ablation
8065:
8060:
8055:
8049:
8047:
8041:
8040:
8038:
8037:
8032:
8031:
8030:
8025:
8020:
8015:
8010:
8000:
7995:
7990:
7989:
7988:
7983:
7978:
7973:
7968:
7966:Carbon dioxide
7958:
7957:
7956:
7954:Liquid-crystal
7951:
7941:
7939:Chemical laser
7935:
7933:
7929:
7928:
7926:
7925:
7923:Laser acronyms
7920:
7915:
7910:
7904:
7901:
7900:
7893:
7892:
7885:
7878:
7870:
7864:
7863:
7857:
7852:
7847:
7841:
7836:
7823:
7811:
7806:
7801:
7794:
7788:
7776:
7771:
7764:
7763:External links
7761:
7760:
7759:
7743:
7731:Optics Letters
7727:
7711:
7695:
7679:
7663:
7647:
7631:
7613:
7610:
7609:
7608:
7593:
7574:
7548:
7525:
7519:
7506:
7491:
7473:
7458:
7443:
7428:
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7396:
7393:
7391:
7388:
7385:
7384:
7351:
7325:
7299:
7268:
7244:
7213:
7187:
7156:
7142:
7133:
7097:
7067:
7036:
7005:
6977:
6951:
6925:
6912:
6899:
6892:
6855:
6794:
6761:
6742:(7): 406–410.
6726:
6695:
6680:
6645:
6611:
6580:(2): 221–227.
6560:
6536:
6517:(6): 707–712.
6501:
6456:
6425:(6): 713–715.
6405:
6378:
6355:
6324:
6277:
6242:
6211:(3): 281–289.
6191:
6160:
6141:
6090:
6071:
6052:(4): 687–744.
6036:
6009:
5982:(1): 152–156.
5965:
5935:
5905:
5875:
5845:
5819:
5766:
5735:
5725:
5706:
5686:
5679:
5661:
5646:
5603:
5571:
5540:
5513:
5468:(26): 263202.
5452:
5433:
5363:
5302:
5272:
5242:
5212:
5182:
5175:
5157:
5123:
5077:
5054:
5028:
4987:
4928:
4901:
4871:
4857:
4837:
4811:
4792:
4758:
4746:
4719:
4676:Woerdman, J.P.
4666:
4664:, p. 276.
4654:
4597:
4556:
4523:(4): 465–474.
4500:
4473:
4447:
4440:
4414:
4395:
4375:
4363:
4356:
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4315:
4308:
4282:
4275:
4249:
4242:
4210:
4167:
4140:
4113:
4106:
4080:
4073:
4047:
4040:
4006:
3999:
3969:
3943:
3917:
3891:
3865:
3835:
3828:
3804:
3798:978-0684835150
3797:
3770:
3769:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3761:
3756:
3751:
3746:
3741:
3736:
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3667:
3663:
3656:
3617:
3616:
3607:
3606:
3598:
3597:
3596:
3595:
3594:
3589:Main article:
3586:
3583:
3582:
3581:
3566:
3549:
3548:
3541:
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3524:
3518:
3517:
3511:
3505:
3504:
3497:
3491:
3490:
3487:
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3480:
3473:
3467:
3466:
3459:
3453:
3452:
3443:
3437:
3436:
3430:
3424:
3423:
3421:Laser pointers
3418:
3412:
3411:
3408:
3374:
3371:
3343:
3340:
3314:
3313:
3288:
3286:
3279:
3270:Main article:
3267:
3264:
3188:ophthalmoscopy
3178:(particularly
3166:Laser medicine
3161:
3158:
3146:
3145:
3142:
3127:
3117:laser pointers
3105:laser printers
3101:
3079:interferometry
3067:laser ablation
3059:
3041:
3035:firearms sight
3015:
3012:laser cleaning
2972:heat treatment
2956:
2952:Medicine: see
2950:
2929:laser printers
2860:Main article:
2857:
2854:
2833:
2832:Natural lasers
2830:
2808:nuclear fusion
2770:atomic nucleus
2761:
2758:
2726:
2723:
2719:frequency comb
2696:tunable lasers
2669:
2666:
2571:laser printers
2567:laser pointers
2532:Main article:
2529:
2526:
2514:
2511:
2502:photodarkening
2457:Main article:
2454:
2451:
2392:
2325:
2266:
2263:
2258:
2223:Excimer lasers
2219:
2218:Excimer lasers
2216:
2191:
2188:
2155:, less than 3
2127:
2120:
2106:Main article:
2103:
2100:
2083:
2080:
2030:
2029:
2026:
2023:
2020:
2017:
2011:
2005:
2002:
1986:
1983:
1979:heterojunction
1975:Zhores Alferov
1865:nuclear fusion
1857:interferometry
1776:
1775:
1756:
1755:
1754:External audio
1737:
1734:
1726:Polykarp Kusch
1624:Main article:
1621:
1618:
1610:Alfred Kastler
1576:in the paper "
1565:
1562:
1560:
1557:
1546:
1545:Pulsed pumping
1543:
1476:Main article:
1473:
1470:
1461:Main article:
1458:
1455:
1424:laser ablation
1407:Main article:
1404:
1401:
1369:
1366:
1340:point to point
1315:
1314:
1229:
1227:
1220:
1214:
1211:
1182:
1179:
1130:Rayleigh range
1058:Roy J. Glauber
1028:
1025:
992:nitrogen laser
973:quantum states
919:
916:
846:classical view
816:Main article:
813:
810:
783:
782:
741:
739:
732:
726:
723:
700:output coupler
696:optical cavity
658:
657:
654:
652:Output coupler
649:
648:High reflector
646:
643:
639:
630:
629:
588:
586:
579:
570:Main article:
567:
564:
494:chain reaction
474:excited states
451:thermal energy
415:
414:
373:
371:
364:
358:
355:
261:optical masers
242:
239:
171:laser printers
140:laser pointers
26:
18:Infrared laser
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8255:
8244:
8241:
8239:
8236:
8234:
8231:
8229:
8226:
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8193:
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8165:
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8157:
8155:
8152:
8150:
8147:
8145:
8142:
8140:
8137:
8135:
8132:
8130:
8127:
8125:
8124:Gaussian beam
8122:
8120:
8117:
8115:
8112:
8110:
8107:
8105:
8104:Beam expander
8102:
8101:
8099:
8095:
8089:
8086:
8084:
8081:
8079:
8076:
8074:
8071:
8069:
8066:
8064:
8061:
8059:
8056:
8054:
8051:
8050:
8048:
8046:
8045:Laser physics
8042:
8036:
8033:
8029:
8026:
8024:
8021:
8019:
8016:
8014:
8011:
8009:
8006:
8005:
8004:
8001:
7999:
7996:
7994:
7991:
7987:
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7967:
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7946:
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7937:
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7930:
7924:
7921:
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7916:
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7911:
7909:
7906:
7905:
7902:
7898:
7891:
7886:
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7879:
7877:
7872:
7871:
7868:
7861:
7858:
7856:
7853:
7851:
7848:
7845:
7842:
7840:
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7834:
7830:
7827:
7824:
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7818:
7815:
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7807:
7805:
7802:
7799:
7795:
7792:
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7770:
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7766:
7757:
7753:
7749:
7748:
7744:
7741:
7737:
7733:
7732:
7728:
7725:
7721:
7717:
7716:
7712:
7709:
7705:
7701:
7700:
7696:
7693:
7689:
7685:
7684:
7680:
7677:
7673:
7669:
7668:
7664:
7661:
7657:
7653:
7652:
7648:
7645:
7641:
7637:
7636:
7632:
7629:
7625:
7621:
7620:
7616:
7615:
7606:
7605:0-471-60997-8
7602:
7598:
7594:
7591:
7590:0-13-523697-5
7587:
7583:
7582:Prentice Hall
7579:
7575:
7563:
7559:
7555:
7551:
7545:
7541:
7537:
7533:
7532:
7526:
7522:
7516:
7512:
7507:
7504:
7503:0-306-45748-2
7500:
7496:
7492:
7489:
7488:0-521-55617-1
7485:
7481:
7477:
7474:
7471:
7470:0-935702-11-3
7467:
7463:
7459:
7456:
7455:0-387-53756-2
7452:
7448:
7444:
7441:
7440:0-471-47660-9
7437:
7433:
7429:
7426:
7422:
7419:. MIT Press.
7418:
7414:
7411:
7410:0-7503-0911-3
7407:
7403:
7399:
7398:
7372:
7368:
7367:
7366:IEEE Spectrum
7362:
7355:
7340:
7336:
7329:
7314:
7310:
7303:
7287:
7283:
7279:
7272:
7265:
7261:
7257:
7254:
7248:
7232:
7228:
7224:
7217:
7201:
7197:
7191:
7175:
7171:
7167:
7160:
7153:
7149:
7146:
7137:
7121:
7117:
7112:
7111:public domain
7101:
7085:
7081:
7077:
7071:
7055:
7051:
7047:
7040:
7024:
7020:
7016:
7009:
6994:
6993:
6988:
6981:
6966:
6962:
6961:"Front Lines"
6955:
6939:
6938:Photonics.com
6935:
6929:
6922:
6916:
6909:
6903:
6895:
6889:
6885:
6880:
6879:
6873:
6869:
6865:
6859:
6843:
6839:
6835:
6831:
6827:
6823:
6819:
6815:
6811:
6810:
6805:
6798:
6782:
6778:
6777:
6772:
6771:"Alien Light"
6765:
6757:
6753:
6749:
6745:
6741:
6737:
6730:
6714:
6710:
6706:
6699:
6691:
6684:
6676:
6672:
6668:
6664:
6660:
6656:
6649:
6633:
6629:
6625:
6618:
6616:
6599:
6595:
6591:
6587:
6583:
6579:
6575:
6571:
6564:
6556:
6552:
6548:
6540:
6532:
6528:
6524:
6520:
6516:
6512:
6505:
6486:
6482:
6478:
6474:
6467:
6460:
6444:
6440:
6436:
6432:
6428:
6424:
6420:
6416:
6409:
6401:
6397:
6393:
6389:
6382:
6374:
6370:
6366:
6359:
6351:
6347:
6343:
6339:
6335:
6328:
6312:
6308:
6304:
6300:
6296:
6292:
6288:
6281:
6273:
6269:
6265:
6261:
6257:
6253:
6246:
6230:
6226:
6222:
6218:
6214:
6210:
6206:
6202:
6195:
6187:
6183:
6179:
6175:
6171:
6164:
6157:(6): 6&8.
6156:
6152:
6145:
6129:
6125:
6121:
6117:
6113:
6109:
6105:
6101:
6094:
6087:(2): 231–239.
6086:
6082:
6081:Laser Physics
6075:
6067:
6063:
6059:
6055:
6051:
6047:
6040:
6024:
6023:Physics Today
6020:
6013:
6005:
6001:
5997:
5993:
5989:
5985:
5981:
5977:
5969:
5953:
5949:
5945:
5939:
5923:
5919:
5915:
5914:"Green Laser"
5909:
5893:
5889:
5885:
5884:"LASER Diode"
5879:
5863:
5859:
5855:
5849:
5838:September 26,
5833:
5829:
5823:
5815:
5811:
5807:
5803:
5799:
5795:
5790:
5785:
5781:
5777:
5770:
5754:
5750:
5746:
5739:
5729:
5713:
5709:
5703:
5699:
5698:
5690:
5682:
5676:
5672:
5665:
5657:
5650:
5642:
5638:
5634:
5630:
5626:
5622:
5619:(3): R7–R24.
5618:
5614:
5607:
5588:
5581:
5575:
5564:September 15,
5559:
5555:
5551:
5544:
5528:
5524:
5517:
5509:
5505:
5501:
5497:
5493:
5489:
5485:
5481:
5476:
5471:
5467:
5463:
5456:
5448:
5444:
5437:
5429:
5425:
5420:
5415:
5411:
5407:
5403:
5399:
5394:
5389:
5385:
5381:
5377:
5370:
5368:
5359:
5355:
5351:
5347:
5343:
5339:
5335:
5331:
5326:
5321:
5317:
5313:
5306:
5290:
5286:
5282:
5276:
5260:
5256:
5252:
5246:
5230:
5226:
5222:
5216:
5200:
5196:
5192:
5186:
5178:
5172:
5168:
5161:
5145:
5141:
5137:
5133:
5127:
5119:
5115:
5111:
5107:
5103:
5099:
5095:
5091:
5087:
5086:Maiman, T. H.
5081:
5075:
5071:
5068:
5064:
5058:
5050:
5046:
5042:
5038:
5032:
5023:
5018:
5014:
5010:
5006:
5002:
4998:
4991:
4983:
4979:
4974:
4969:
4964:
4959:
4955:
4951:
4947:
4943:
4939:
4932:
4925:
4921:
4917:
4913:
4912:
4905:
4889:
4885:
4881:
4875:
4860:
4854:
4850:
4849:
4841:
4825:
4821:
4815:
4808:
4804:
4801:
4796:
4777:
4773:
4769:
4762:
4753:
4751:
4742:
4738:
4734:
4730:
4723:
4715:
4711:
4706:
4705:10.1038/45960
4701:
4697:
4693:
4690:(6758): 138.
4689:
4685:
4681:
4677:
4670:
4663:
4662:Pearsall 2020
4658:
4639:
4635:
4631:
4627:
4623:
4619:
4615:
4608:
4601:
4592:
4587:
4583:
4579:
4575:
4571:
4567:
4560:
4544:
4539:
4534:
4530:
4526:
4522:
4518:
4511:
4504:
4496:
4484:
4476:
4470:
4466:
4462:
4458:
4451:
4443:
4437:
4433:
4428:
4427:
4418:
4402:
4398:
4392:
4388:
4387:
4379:
4372:
4371:Pearsall 2020
4367:
4359:
4353:
4349:
4344:
4343:
4337:
4331:
4324:
4319:
4311:
4305:
4301:
4297:
4293:
4286:
4278:
4272:
4268:
4264:
4260:
4253:
4245:
4239:
4235:
4234:
4229:
4225:
4219:
4217:
4215:
4206:
4202:
4198:
4194:
4190:
4186:
4182:
4178:
4171:
4156:
4155:
4150:
4144:
4129:
4128:
4123:
4117:
4109:
4103:
4099:
4095:
4091:
4084:
4076:
4070:
4066:
4062:
4058:
4051:
4043:
4037:
4033:
4029:
4025:
4021:
4017:
4010:
4002:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3983:
3982:
3973:
3957:
3953:
3947:
3931:
3927:
3921:
3905:
3901:
3895:
3879:
3875:
3869:
3853:
3849:
3845:
3839:
3831:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3816:
3808:
3800:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3775:
3771:
3760:
3757:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3747:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3720:
3717:
3715:
3712:
3711:
3704:
3702:
3697:
3695:
3690:
3688:
3678:
3671:
3668:
3664:
3661:
3657:
3654:
3653:
3652:
3649:
3647:
3643:
3639:
3634:
3631:
3627:
3611:
3602:
3592:
3579:
3575:
3571:
3567:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3555:
3554:
3547:
3546:laser cutting
3539:
3533:
3525:
3519:
3516:
3512:
3506:
3502:
3498:
3492:
3488:
3482:
3478:
3475:Consumer 16×
3474:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3454:
3451:
3450:DVD-ROM drive
3447:
3444:
3438:
3434:
3431:
3425:
3422:
3419:
3413:
3409:
3406:
3405:
3399:
3397:
3393:
3384:
3379:
3370:
3368:
3363:
3361:
3357:
3351:
3350:§ Safety
3336:
3331:
3327:
3325:
3321:
3310:
3307:December 2019
3300:
3295:
3293:
3287:
3278:
3277:
3273:
3263:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3237:
3233:
3229:
3225:
3221:
3216:
3212:
3207:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3176:laser surgery
3171:
3167:
3157:
3143:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3131:optical discs
3128:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3100:
3099:laser cooling
3096:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2976:marking parts
2973:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2955:
2951:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2936:
2935:
2932:
2930:
2925:
2921:
2916:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2853:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2829:
2827:
2822:
2820:
2815:
2814:experiments.
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2794:
2790:
2785:
2783:
2778:
2776:
2771:
2767:
2757:
2755:
2754:free-electron
2750:
2746:
2740:
2736:
2731:
2722:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2707:Bubble lasers
2704:
2702:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2679:
2674:
2665:
2663:
2659:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2617:
2615:
2614:quantum wells
2611:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2594:
2592:
2588:
2583:
2581:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2559:
2556:
2549:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2525:
2523:
2519:
2510:
2508:
2507:color centers
2503:
2498:
2496:
2491:
2489:
2484:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2469:optical fiber
2466:
2460:
2450:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2434:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2402:
2398:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2311:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2280:
2276:
2271:
2262:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2215:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2196:
2187:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2143:wavelengths.
2142:
2138:
2133:
2124:
2116:
2109:
2094:
2089:
2079:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2060:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2037:
2033:
2027:
2024:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2012:
2010:
2006:
2003:
2000:
1999:
1998:
1991:
1982:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1963:near-infrared
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1888:
1886:
1885:gas discharge
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1849:
1847:
1842:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1797:
1796:
1791:
1790:visible light
1787:
1783:
1774:
1770:
1769:Distillations
1766:
1757:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1743:
1733:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1702:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1683:Nikolay Basov
1680:
1676:
1672:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1636:
1632:
1627:
1617:
1615:
1611:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1556:
1553:
1542:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1511:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1492:Fourier limit
1489:
1485:
1479:
1469:
1464:
1454:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1438:
1436:
1432:
1427:
1425:
1419:
1417:
1410:
1400:
1396:
1394:
1390:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1376:
1365:
1362:
1353:
1348:
1341:
1336:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1311:
1308:
1300:
1297:February 2023
1289:
1286:
1282:
1279:
1275:
1272:
1268:
1265:
1261:
1258: –
1257:
1253:
1252:Find sources:
1246:
1242:
1236:
1235:
1230:This section
1228:
1224:
1219:
1218:
1210:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1199:B coefficient
1196:
1195:A coefficient
1192:
1188:
1178:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1166:
1161:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1150:laser pointer
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1118:
1113:
1108:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1077:Gaussian beam
1073:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1062:photon number
1059:
1054:
1052:
1048:
1043:
1033:
1024:
1022:
1018:
1017:
1012:
1011:exponentially
1008:
1004:
999:
997:
993:
989:
984:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
956:
953:
952:excited state
944:
937:
933:
929:
924:
915:
911:
909:
905:
901:
897:
892:
887:
885:
881:
877:
873:
865:
861:
859:
855:
851:
847:
819:
809:
807:
803:
799:
795:
790:
789:Laser science
779:
776:
768:
758:
754:
748:
747:
742:This section
740:
736:
731:
730:
725:Laser physics
722:
719:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
692:
690:
686:
681:
677:
674:
670:
666:
655:
653:
650:
647:
644:
641:
640:
636:
626:
623:
615:
605:
601:
595:
594:
589:This section
587:
583:
578:
577:
573:
563:
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
536:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
509:
507:
503:
502:laser physics
499:
495:
489:
487:
481:
479:
475:
471:
466:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
439:
434:
430:
421:
411:
408:
400:
390:
386:
380:
379:
374:This section
372:
368:
363:
362:
354:
352:
347:
342:
340:
339:
334:
333:
328:
324:
321:". The terms
320:
316:
312:
308:
303:
301:
297:
293:
292:
287:
286:
281:
277:
273:
268:
266:
262:
258:
254:
253:
248:
238:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
195:laser surgery
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
163:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
128:laser cutting
125:
121:
120:
114:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
77:based on the
76:
72:
68:
61:
57:
52:
48:
44:
40:
33:
19:
8144:Mode locking
8097:Laser optics
7896:
7745:
7729:
7713:
7697:
7681:
7665:
7649:
7633:
7617:
7596:
7577:
7568:February 23,
7566:. Retrieved
7530:
7510:
7494:
7479:
7461:
7446:
7431:
7416:
7401:
7375:. Retrieved
7364:
7354:
7344:February 16,
7342:. Retrieved
7338:
7328:
7318:February 16,
7316:. Retrieved
7312:
7302:
7290:. Retrieved
7281:
7271:
7263:
7247:
7235:. Retrieved
7226:
7216:
7206:December 10,
7204:. Retrieved
7190:
7178:. Retrieved
7174:the original
7169:
7159:
7141:PowerLabs CO
7136:
7126:December 15,
7124:. Retrieved
7100:
7090:December 15,
7088:. Retrieved
7079:
7070:
7058:. Retrieved
7049:
7039:
7027:. Retrieved
7018:
7008:
6996:. Retrieved
6990:
6980:
6968:. Retrieved
6964:
6954:
6942:. Retrieved
6937:
6928:
6920:
6915:
6907:
6902:
6877:
6872:Laura Garwin
6858:
6846:. Retrieved
6813:
6807:
6797:
6785:. Retrieved
6774:
6764:
6739:
6735:
6729:
6717:. Retrieved
6708:
6698:
6689:
6683:
6661:(5): 26–33.
6658:
6654:
6648:
6636:. Retrieved
6627:
6602:. Retrieved
6577:
6573:
6563:
6546:
6539:
6514:
6510:
6504:
6492:. Retrieved
6472:
6459:
6449:September 8,
6447:. Retrieved
6422:
6418:
6408:
6391:
6387:
6381:
6364:
6358:
6333:
6327:
6317:November 27,
6315:. Retrieved
6290:
6280:
6255:
6251:
6245:
6233:. Retrieved
6208:
6204:
6194:
6169:
6163:
6154:
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6144:
6132:. Retrieved
6107:
6103:
6093:
6084:
6080:
6074:
6049:
6045:
6039:
6027:. Retrieved
6022:
6012:
5979:
5976:Nano Letters
5975:
5968:
5956:. Retrieved
5952:the original
5947:
5938:
5926:. Retrieved
5918:osram-os.com
5917:
5908:
5896:. Retrieved
5888:nichia.co.jp
5887:
5878:
5866:. Retrieved
5857:
5848:
5836:. Retrieved
5822:
5782:(17): 3657.
5779:
5775:
5769:
5757:. Retrieved
5748:
5738:
5728:
5716:. Retrieved
5696:
5689:
5673:. Springer.
5670:
5664:
5655:
5649:
5616:
5612:
5606:
5594:. Retrieved
5587:the original
5574:
5562:. Retrieved
5558:the original
5553:
5543:
5531:. Retrieved
5516:
5465:
5461:
5455:
5447:the original
5436:
5383:
5379:
5315:
5311:
5305:
5293:. Retrieved
5284:
5275:
5265:December 16,
5263:. Retrieved
5254:
5245:
5235:December 16,
5233:. Retrieved
5224:
5215:
5205:December 16,
5203:. Retrieved
5194:
5185:
5166:
5160:
5148:. Retrieved
5126:
5093:
5089:
5080:
5062:
5057:
5040:
5031:
5004:
5000:
4990:
4945:
4941:
4931:
4926:, pp. 69–70.
4910:
4904:
4892:. Retrieved
4883:
4874:
4862:. Retrieved
4847:
4840:
4828:. Retrieved
4814:
4795:
4783:. Retrieved
4779:(Powerpoint)
4776:the original
4771:
4761:
4732:
4728:
4722:
4687:
4683:
4669:
4657:
4647:February 23,
4645:. Retrieved
4617:
4613:
4600:
4573:
4569:
4559:
4547:. Retrieved
4520:
4516:
4503:
4460:
4450:
4425:
4417:
4407:February 23,
4405:. Retrieved
4401:the original
4385:
4378:
4366:
4341:
4330:
4322:
4318:
4291:
4285:
4258:
4252:
4232:
4180:
4176:
4170:
4158:. Retrieved
4152:
4143:
4131:. Retrieved
4125:
4116:
4089:
4083:
4056:
4050:
4015:
4009:
3980:
3972:
3960:. Retrieved
3946:
3934:. Retrieved
3920:
3908:. Retrieved
3894:
3882:. Retrieved
3868:
3856:. Retrieved
3847:
3838:
3814:
3807:
3780:
3774:
3698:
3691:
3679:
3675:
3660:blink reflex
3650:
3623:
3591:Laser safety
3576:facility in
3552:
3391:
3388:
3364:
3345:
3320:laser weapon
3319:
3317:
3304:
3292:Laser weapon
3289:
3272:Laser weapon
3244:chemotherapy
3208:
3204:hair removal
3184:kidney stone
3173:
3147:
3113:thermometers
3063:spectroscopy
2946:, including
2933:
2917:
2893:
2875:
2872:diode lasers
2835:
2823:
2819:X-ray lasers
2817:Space-based
2816:
2796:annihilation
2786:
2779:
2763:
2760:Exotic media
2753:
2743:
2734:
2705:
2692:femtoseconds
2682:
2678:Rhodamine 6G
2618:
2609:
2595:
2584:
2563:laser diodes
2560:
2552:
2516:
2499:
2492:
2485:
2473:fiber lasers
2462:
2453:Fiber lasers
2441:
2437:
2435:
2427:spectroscopy
2406:
2375:
2351:spectroscopy
2314:
2309:
2291:, made from
2283:
2221:
2193:
2173:
2165:fluorescence
2111:
2078:millihertz.
2061:
2057:mode locking
2038:
2034:
2031:
2028:minimum cost
1996:
1889:
1853:spectrometry
1850:
1845:
1843:
1823:Gordon Gould
1816:
1810:Gordon Gould
1805:
1793:
1779:
1768:
1739:
1703:
1668:
1642:Joseph Weber
1639:
1577:
1567:
1548:
1523:nonlinearity
1512:
1488:femtoseconds
1481:
1478:Mode locking
1472:Mode locking
1466:
1451:femtoseconds
1446:
1442:
1439:
1428:
1420:
1412:
1409:Pulsed laser
1397:
1392:
1379:
1373:
1371:
1357:
1303:
1294:
1284:
1277:
1270:
1263:
1251:
1239:Please help
1234:verification
1231:
1184:
1169:
1162:
1115:
1112:focal region
1109:
1101:Bessel beams
1074:
1055:
1038:
1021:spatial mode
1014:
1001:The optical
1000:
985:
957:
949:
912:
904:fluorescence
888:
869:
843:
792:
771:
762:
751:Please help
746:verification
743:
720:
715:
693:
682:
678:
662:
618:
612:October 2023
609:
598:Please help
593:verification
590:
547:
537:
510:
490:
482:
478:spectroscopy
467:
436:
426:
403:
397:October 2023
394:
383:Please help
378:verification
375:
357:Fundamentals
350:
343:
336:
330:
326:
322:
304:
289:
285:X-ray lasers
283:
279:
275:
269:
264:
260:
250:
244:
223:fluorescence
164:
118:
115:
94:
86:
66:
64:
47:
8174:Q-switching
8035:X-ray laser
8028:Ti-sapphire
7998:Laser diode
7976:Helium–neon
7612:Periodicals
7377:February 1,
6848:February 9,
6787:February 9,
6494:January 13,
6235:January 13,
6151:Laser Focus
5658:. Elsevier.
5255:gizmodo.com
4735:: 121–128.
4491:|work=
4224:Chu, Steven
4183:: 279–287.
4022:. pp.
3989:. pp.
3962:February 4,
3936:February 4,
3910:February 4,
3884:February 4,
3858:January 27,
3561:(700×10 W)—
3461:High-speed
3360:DVD burners
3194:treatment,
3186:treatment,
3180:eye surgery
3160:In medicine
3125:bubblegrams
3052:fingerprint
3008:3D scanning
2992:3D printing
2970:, material
2793:positronium
2658:Raman laser
2561:Commercial
2459:Fiber laser
2446:disk lasers
2416:Ti:sapphire
2243:ultraviolet
2167:suppressed
1981:structure.
1813:mirrors..."
1722:Isidor Rabi
1564:Foundations
1508:Ti:sapphire
1496:uncertainty
1484:picoseconds
1463:Q-switching
1457:Q-switching
1435:Q-switching
1422:pulses. In
1389:mode-locked
1154:laser diode
1134:diffraction
1126:diffraction
1097:tophat beam
936:overexposed
932:gain medium
874:) or heat (
665:gain medium
642:Gain medium
470:wavelengths
315:gain medium
307:back-formed
241:Terminology
183:fiber-optic
160:femtosecond
136:collimation
132:lithography
85:. The word
8207:Categories
7227:Aesculight
6998:August 30,
6970:August 23,
6944:August 23,
5868:August 11,
5533:August 17,
5475:1702.04669
5393:1603.02169
5325:1703.05404
4785:January 1,
4576:: 100255.
4298:. p.
4265:. p.
4160:January 6,
4133:January 6,
4096:. p.
4063:. p.
3787:. p.
3766:References
3687:Q-switched
3580:, Romania.
3536:100–3000 W
3446:DVD player
3367:holography
3266:As weapons
3075:scattering
3061:Research:
2964:converting
2962:including
2958:Industry:
2739:Nieuwegein
2684:Dye lasers
2668:Dye lasers
2548:DVD player
2355:dye lasers
2289:ruby laser
2161:picometers
2153:linewidths
2102:Gas lasers
1921:physicist
1706:Niels Bohr
1582:Max Planck
1552:capacitors
1443:dye lasers
1416:continuous
1354:spacecraft
1338:Laserlink
1328:Clementine
1267:newspapers
1117:collimated
884:wavelength
787:See also:
689:flash lamp
656:Laser beam
540:wavelength
521:irradiance
338:atom laser
43:Lazer Beam
8228:Photonics
8139:M squared
7961:Gas laser
7944:Dye laser
7756:0731-1230
7740:0146-9592
7724:0740-2511
7708:0740-3224
7692:1041-1135
7676:1077-260X
7660:0018-9197
7644:0733-8724
7628:0946-2171
7558:240934073
7434:. Wiley.
7292:March 23,
7237:March 30,
5928:March 18,
5898:March 18,
5814:119460787
5641:121209763
5613:J. Opt. B
5508:206293342
5386:: 15521.
4894:April 24,
4864:March 15,
4830:March 16,
4714:205046813
4614:Phys. Rev
4493:ignored (
4483:cite book
4205:115181195
4020:CRC Press
3739:Nanolaser
3196:cellulite
3121:holograms
3095:metrology
3071:annealing
3019:munitions
2980:engraving
2924:laserdisc
2880:neodymium
2800:gamma ray
2610:sub-bands
2585:In 2012,
2580:linewidth
2481:ytterbium
2377:Ytterbium
2316:Neodymium
2132:Argon-ion
2108:Gas laser
2097:details).
1935:gas laser
1923:Ali Javan
1908:flashlamp
1904:Bell Labs
1877:Bell Labs
1839:resonator
1782:Bell Labs
1771:Podcast,
1679:microwave
1640:In 1951,
1568:In 1917,
1539:envelopes
1393:intention
1352:MESSENGER
1056:In 1963,
1003:resonator
998:/lasers.
802:chemistry
794:Electrons
525:polarized
513:coherence
459:electrons
455:molecules
435:known as
298:or lower
296:microwave
247:microwave
235:headlamps
91:anacronym
39:LazarBeam
8192:Category
7986:Nitrogen
7829:Archived
7817:Archived
7782:Archived
7562:Archived
7478:(1996).
7371:Archived
7286:Archived
7256:Archived
7231:Archived
7200:Archived
7180:April 6,
7148:Archived
7120:Archived
7084:Archived
7060:April 6,
7054:Archived
7029:April 6,
7023:Archived
6866:(2003).
6842:Archived
6838:17747630
6781:Archived
6719:June 13,
6713:Archived
6709:BBC News
6632:Archived
6628:BBC News
6604:June 13,
6598:Archived
6555:10147730
6485:Archived
6443:Archived
6400:16971600
6311:Archived
6229:Archived
6134:June 13,
6128:Archived
6029:April 2,
6004:26618638
5922:Archived
5892:Archived
5862:Archived
5832:Archived
5759:July 22,
5753:Archived
5718:July 16,
5712:Archived
5527:Archived
5500:28707932
5428:28534489
5350:28254938
5295:March 4,
5289:Archived
5285:Phys.org
5259:Archived
5229:Archived
5225:phys.org
5199:Archived
5144:Archived
5070:Archived
5049:02460155
4982:20009378
4888:Archived
4824:Archived
4803:Archived
4638:Archived
4549:June 28,
4543:Archived
4338:(1986).
4263:Springer
4149:"LASING"
3956:Archived
3930:Archived
3904:Archived
3878:Archived
3852:Archived
3707:See also
3630:Gillette
3578:Măgurele
3522:30–100 W
3260:bleeding
3220:cervical
3154:US$ 3.20
3150:US$ 2.19
3077:, laser
3073:, laser
3069:, laser
2913:Internet
2905:military
2789:BBC News
2423:infrared
2412:sapphire
2408:Titanium
2401:infrared
2347:infrared
2301:corundum
2297:chromium
2255:fluorine
2231:exciplex
2208:ethylene
2183:rubidium
2123:) lasers
1937:, using
1835:emission
1831:thallium
1786:infrared
1504:sapphire
1500:titanium
1453:(10 s).
1093:Laguerre
1089:Gaussian
858:orbitals
765:May 2017
669:feedback
227:radiance
119:coherent
7971:Excimer
6818:Bibcode
6809:Science
6744:Bibcode
6663:Bibcode
6638:May 22,
6582:Bibcode
6519:Bibcode
6477:Bibcode
6427:Bibcode
6338:Bibcode
6295:Bibcode
6260:Bibcode
6213:Bibcode
6186:6010532
6112:Bibcode
6054:Bibcode
5984:Bibcode
5958:May 27,
5794:Bibcode
5621:Bibcode
5596:May 27,
5480:Bibcode
5419:5457509
5398:Bibcode
5358:1364541
5330:Bibcode
5312:Science
5150:May 15,
5118:4224209
5098:Bibcode
5009:Bibcode
4973:3621550
4950:Bibcode
4884:Hobarts
4737:Bibcode
4692:Bibcode
4622:Bibcode
4578:Bibcode
4525:Bibcode
4185:Bibcode
3848:aps.org
3666:retina.
3479:burner
3465:burner
3441:5–10 mW
3385:imaging
3356:Blu-ray
3342:Hobbies
3240:surgery
3228:vaginal
2984:bonding
2968:welding
2960:cutting
2850:MWC 349
2621:silicon
2602:VECSELs
2420:tunable
2410:-doped
2397:Holmium
2385:thulium
2381:holmium
2363:tripled
2359:doubled
2303:). The
2299:-doped
2273:A 50 W
2227:excimer
1919:Iranian
1915:crystal
1881:lawsuit
1559:History
1330:mission
1281:scholar
1256:"Laser"
1085:Hermite
969:excited
891:excited
876:phonons
872:photons
850:nucleus
844:In the
806:physics
685:pumping
673:amplify
556:diverge
438:photons
311:to lase
257:optical
215:near-UV
199:welding
8218:Lasers
8013:Nd:YAG
8008:Er:YAG
7949:Bubble
7897:Lasers
7754:
7738:
7722:
7706:
7690:
7674:
7658:
7642:
7626:
7603:
7588:
7556:
7546:
7517:
7501:
7486:
7468:
7462:Lasers
7453:
7438:
7423:
7408:
7145:LASER!
7113::
6890:
6884:107–12
6836:
6553:
6398:
6184:
6002:
5812:
5733:35–41.
5704:
5677:
5639:
5506:
5498:
5426:
5416:
5356:
5348:
5173:
5116:
5090:Nature
5067:online
5047:
4980:
4970:
4922:
4855:
4712:
4684:Nature
4517:Optica
4471:
4438:
4426:Lasers
4393:
4354:
4342:Lasers
4306:
4273:
4240:
4203:
4122:"LASE"
4104:
4071:
4038:
3997:
3826:
3795:
3749:Spaser
3682:
3646:retina
3638:cornea
3585:Safety
3574:ELI-NP
3509:1–20 W
3485:400 mW
3471:250 mW
3457:100 mW
3435:drive
3433:CD-ROM
3416:1–5 mW
3234:, and
3232:vulvar
3224:penile
3215:tumors
3211:cancer
3200:striae
3037:. See
3010:, and
2768:of an
2711:bubble
2690:a few
2598:VCSELs
2587:Nichia
2555:diodes
2477:Erbium
2389:erbium
2387:, and
2343:Nd:YAG
2337:) and
2335:Nd:YLF
2324:Nd:YVO
2179:sodium
2145:Helium
2076:
2009:energy
1939:helium
1929:, and
1925:, and
1863:, and
1712:, and
1646:Ottawa
1606:
1602:
1600:and R.
1418:mode.
1283:
1276:
1269:
1262:
1254:
965:plasma
938:there.
880:absorb
852:of an
704:curved
566:Design
544:vacuum
319:lasing
309:verb "
185:, and
89:is an
8018:Raman
7554:S2CID
7395:Books
7313:WIRED
6870:. In
6488:(PDF)
6475:: 1.
6469:(PDF)
5810:S2CID
5784:arXiv
5637:S2CID
5590:(PDF)
5583:(PDF)
5504:S2CID
5470:arXiv
5388:arXiv
5354:S2CID
5320:arXiv
5114:S2CID
4710:S2CID
4641:(PDF)
4610:(PDF)
4513:(PDF)
4465:40–43
4201:S2CID
3633:razor
3477:DVD-R
3463:CD-RW
3407:Power
3348:(see
3246:, or
3083:lidar
3058:field
3039:below
3031:lidar
2954:below
2846:Venus
2836:Like
2735:FELIX
2591:OSRAM
2275:FASOR
2251:LASIK
2159:(0.5
2015:power
1902:, at
1861:radar
1736:Laser
1626:Maser
1620:Maser
1574:maser
1324:Lidar
1288:JSTOR
1274:books
1042:phase
1007:maser
961:state
548:modes
542:in a
533:phase
327:maser
323:laser
265:laser
252:maser
231:droop
144:lidar
87:laser
71:light
67:laser
8023:Ruby
7752:ISSN
7736:ISSN
7720:ISSN
7704:ISSN
7688:ISSN
7672:ISSN
7656:ISSN
7640:ISSN
7624:ISSN
7601:ISBN
7586:ISBN
7570:2021
7544:ISBN
7515:ISBN
7499:ISBN
7484:ISBN
7466:ISBN
7451:ISBN
7436:ISBN
7421:ISBN
7406:ISBN
7379:2019
7346:2024
7320:2024
7294:2021
7239:2016
7208:2011
7182:2015
7128:2017
7092:2017
7062:2015
7031:2015
7000:2023
6972:2023
6946:2023
6888:ISBN
6850:2021
6834:PMID
6789:2021
6776:SPIE
6721:2011
6640:2008
6606:2019
6551:OSTI
6496:2016
6451:2019
6396:OCLC
6319:2018
6237:2016
6182:OSTI
6136:2019
6031:2024
6000:PMID
5960:2006
5930:2014
5900:2014
5870:2018
5840:2014
5761:2023
5720:2017
5702:ISBN
5675:ISBN
5598:2007
5566:2007
5535:2014
5496:PMID
5424:PMID
5346:PMID
5297:2017
5267:2019
5237:2019
5207:2019
5171:ISBN
5152:2008
5045:OCLC
4978:PMID
4920:ISBN
4896:2017
4866:2016
4853:ISBN
4832:2016
4787:2007
4649:2021
4551:2020
4495:help
4469:ISBN
4436:ISBN
4409:2021
4391:ISBN
4352:ISBN
4304:ISBN
4271:ISBN
4238:ISBN
4162:2024
4135:2024
4102:ISBN
4069:ISBN
4036:ISBN
3995:ISBN
3964:2019
3938:2019
3912:2019
3886:2019
3860:2022
3824:ISBN
3820:SPIE
3793:ISBN
3557:700
3428:5 mW
3410:Use
3392:peak
3297:See
3198:and
3192:acne
3168:and
2998:and
2982:and
2856:Uses
2848:and
2842:Mars
2589:and
2575:pump
2479:and
2293:ruby
2249:and
2149:neon
2068:JILA
1943:neon
1941:and
1912:ruby
1724:and
1685:and
1673:and
1517:and
1445:and
1260:news
1146:lens
1103:and
906:and
854:atom
804:and
708:beam
457:and
335:and
325:and
305:The
142:and
130:and
109:and
7981:Ion
7536:doi
7262:."
6826:doi
6814:212
6752:doi
6671:doi
6590:doi
6527:doi
6435:doi
6392:160
6369:doi
6346:doi
6303:doi
6268:doi
6221:doi
6174:doi
6120:doi
6062:doi
5992:doi
5802:doi
5629:doi
5488:doi
5466:118
5414:PMC
5406:doi
5338:doi
5316:355
5106:doi
5094:187
5017:doi
5005:112
4968:PMC
4958:doi
4700:doi
4688:402
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