27:
185:, was also commonly consumed both as a regional food and for medicinal purposes in Central America after it was brought to the New World by the Spanish and Portuguese. Only the immatures are consumed. Boiled pupae were eaten to treat apoplexy, aphasy, bronchitis, pneumonia, convulsions, hemorrhages, and frequent urination. The excrement produced by the larvae is also eaten to improve circulation and alleviate the symptoms of cholera (intense vomiting and diarrhea).
163:, or grasshoppers, are commonly consumed as a toasted regional dish in some parts of Mexico, but they are also used medicinally. They are said to serve as diuretic to treat kidney diseases, to reduce swelling, and to relieve the pain of intestinal disorders when they are consumed. However, there are some risks associated with consuming chapulines, as they are known to harbor nematodes which may be transmitted to humans upon consumption.
1682:
418:
begun to investigate the drug development potential of blood-feeding insect saliva. These compounds in the saliva of blood feeding insects are capable of increasing the ease of blood feeding by preventing coagulation of platelets around the wound and provide protection against the host's immune response. Currently, over 1280 different protein families have been associated with the saliva of blood feeding organisms.
365:. Melittin blocks the expression of inflammatory genes, thus reducing swelling and pain. It is administered by direct insect sting, or intramuscular injections. Bee products demonstrate a wide array of antimicrobial factors and in laboratory studies and have been shown to kill antibiotic resistant bacteria, pancreatic cancer cells, and many other infectious microbes.
49:, who provides examples of all major insect groups, spiders, worms and molluscs and discusses their potential as suppliers of bioactive components. Using insects (and spiders) to treat various maladies and injuries has a long tradition and, having stood the test of time, can be effective and provide results. However, sometimes folk-medicinal "logic" was based on the
121:, is an example of a major insect agricultural pest which is also a medicinal remedy. The larvae, which are also the form of the insect with the greatest economic impact on agriculture, are harvested, boiled, and mashed into a paste which is administered topically and is said to induce lactation, reduce fever, and soothe gastrointestinal tracts.
53:("let likes be cured by likes") and had, if any at all, little more than a psychological effect. For example, to treat cases of constipation, dung beetles were prescribed; to slim down stick insects were thought to help; hairy tarantulas seemed the right treatment for hair loss and fat grubs resembling the swollen limb caused by the parasite
92:
and is widely used, especially by the elderly. It is said to prolong life, to have anti-aging properties, to replenish Qi, and to increase virility and fertility. Recent interest in the ants' medicinal qualities has led to researchers to study the extract's potential to serve as an anti-inflammatory
156:
The
Americas were more highly influenced by the Doctrine of Signatures than China, India, or Africa, most likely because of their colonial history with Europe. The majority of insect use in medicine is associated with Central America and parts of South America, rather than North America, and most of
147:
are also used in parts of Africa much like they are in India. Parts of the mound are dug up, boiled, and turned into a paste, which can then be applied to external wounds to prevent infection or consumed to treat internal hemorrhages. termites are used not only as a form of medicine, but also as a
77:
includes the use of herbal medicine, acupuncture, massage, exercise, and dietary therapy. It is a typical component of modern medical care throughout East Asia and in some parts of
Southeast Asia (such as Thailand). Insects are very commonly incorporated as part of the herbal medicine component of
140:
is consumed for medicinal purposes. These insects are typically collected, dried in the sun, and then ground into a powder. The powder can then be turned into a paste when mixed with water and ash and applied to the forehead to alleviate the pain of violent headaches. Additionally, the headaches
129:
Unlike China and India, the traditional insect medicine of Africa is extremely variable. It is largely regional, with few, if any, major agreements on which insects are useful as treatments for which ailments. Most insect medicinal treatments are passed on through communities and families, rather
104:
is ancient traditional Indian treatment almost universally incorporated alongside
Western medicine as a typical component of medical treatment in India. Although Ayurvedic medicine is often effective, doses can be inconsistent, and may sometimes be contaminated with toxic heavy metals. Some brief
111:
is said to cure a variety of diseases, both specific and vague. Typically the mound or a portion of the mound is dug up and the termites and the architectural components of the mound are together ground into a paste which is then applied topically to the affected areas or, more rarely, mixed with
417:
Many blood-feeding insects like horseflies or mosquitoes inject multiple bioactive compounds into their prey. These insects have been used by practitioners of
Eastern Medicine for hundreds of years to prevent blood clot formation or thrombosis. However, modern medical research has only recently
203:
is the most frequently referenced medical bee material. It can be applied to skin to treat excessive scar tissue, rashes, and burns, and can be applied as a poultice to eyes to treat infection. It is also consumed for digestive problems and as a general health restorative, and can be heated and
57:
were expected to help the elephantiasis patient. An organism bearing parts that resemble human body parts, animals, or other objects, was thought to have useful relevance to those parts, animals or objects. So, for example, the femurs of grasshoppers, which were said to resemble the human liver,
148:
medical device. If a "healer" wants to insert a medicine subcutaneously, they will often spread that medicine on the skin of the patient, and then agitate a termite and place the insect on the skin of the patient. When the termite bites, its mandibles effectively serve as an injection device.
231:
Though insects were widely used throughout history for medical treatment on nearly every continent, relatively little medical entomological research has been conducted since the revolutionary advent of antibiotics. Heavy reliance on antibiotics, coupled with discomfort with insects in
Western
196:
products are used medicinally across Asia, Europe, Africa, Australia, and the
Americas, despite the fact that the honey bee was not introduced to the Americas until the colonization by Spain and Portugal. They are by far the most common medical insect product, both historically and currently.
170:
would be collected and used as living sutures by Mayans. This involved agitating an ant and holding its mandibles up to the wound edges; when it bit down, the thorax and abdomen were removed, leaving the head holding the wound together. The ant's salivary gland secretions were reputed to have
223:, or bee pollen, is eaten as a generally health restorative, and is said to help treat both internal and external infections. All of these honey bee products are regularly produced and sold, especially online and in health food stores, though none are yet approved by the FDA.
157:
it is based on the medical techniques of indigenous peoples. Currently, insect medicine is practiced much more rarely than in China, India, or Africa, though it is still relatively common in rural areas with large indigenous populations. Some examples to follow:
175:
was used to treat rheumatism, arthritis, and poliomyelitis via the immunological reaction produced by its sting. This technique, in which ants are allowed to sting affected areas in a controlled manner, is still used in some arid rural areas of Mexico.
215:, a resinous, waxy mixture collected by honeybees and used as a hive insulator and sealant, is often consumed by menopausal women because of its high hormone content, and it is said to have antibiotic, anesthetic, and anti-inflammatory properties.
130:
than being taught in university settings, as
Traditional Chinese Medicine and Ayurveda sometimes are; furthermore, most traditional medicine practices necessitate a person in a "healer" role. Some brief examples to follow:
58:
were used to treat liver ailments by the indigenous peoples of Mexico. This doctrine is common throughout traditional and alternative medicine, but is most prominent where medical traditions are broadly accepted, as in
273:
noticed that wounds which had been left untreated for several days, and which had become infested with maggots, healed better than wounds not so infested. Maggots secrete several chemicals that kill
1090:
Yang, X., Hu, K., Yan, G., et al., 2000. Fibrinogenolytic components in
Tabanid, an ingredient in traditional Chinese medicine and their properties. J. Southwest Agric. Univ. 22, 173e176 (Chinese).
236:
until the rise of antibiotic resistant infections sparked pharmaceutical research to explore new resources. Arthropods represent a rich and largely unexplored source of new medicinal compounds.
112:
water and consumed. This treatment was said to cure ulcers, rheumatic diseases, and anemia. It was also suggested to be a general pain reliever and health improver.
633:"Practices of entomophagy and entomotherapy by members of the Nyishi and Galo tribes, two ethnic groups of the state of Arunachal Pradesh (North-East India)"
433:
Meyer-Rochow, V.B. (2017). Therapeutic arthropods and other, largely terrestrial, folk-medicinally important invertebrates: a comparative survey and review.
1099:
Ribeiro, J.M.C., Arca, B., 2009. From sialomes to the sialoverse: an insight into salivary potion of blood-feeding insects. Adv. Insect
Physiol. 37, 59e118.
166:
Much like the termites of Africa, ants were sometimes used as medicinal devices by the indigenous peoples of
Central America. The soldier cast of the
522:
Li, Dong-mei; Zhong, Ming; Su, Qi-biao; Song, Fang-ming; Xie, Tang-gui; He, Jun-hui; Wei, Jie; Lu, Guo-shou; Hu, Xiao-xi; Wei, Gui-ning (March 2020).
524:"Active fraction of Polyrhachis vicina Rogers (AFPR) suppressed breast cancer growth and progression via regulating EGR1/lncRNA-NKILA/NF-ΞΊB axis"
78:
traditional Chinese medicine, and their medical properties and applications are broadly accepted and agreed upon. Some brief examples follow:
46:
1126:
892:
Heuer, Heike; Heuer, Lutz (2011). "Blowfly Strike and Maggot Therapy: From Parasitology to Medical Treatment". In Mehlhorn, Heinz (ed.).
565:"Characterization, Antioxidant Activities, and Pancreatic Lipase Inhibitory Effect of Extract From the Edible Insect Polyrhachis vicina"
219:
is used to treat anemia, gastrointestinal ulcers, arteriosclerosis, hypo- and hypertension, and inhibition of sexual libido. Finally
481:
Ramos-Elorduy; de Concini, J.; Moreno, J.M. Pino (1988). "The utilization of insects in the empirical medicine of ancient Mexicans".
349:
is the medical use of honeybee products such as honey, pollen, bee bread, propolis, royal jelly and bee venom. One of the major
1410:
901:
37:
Insects have long been used in medicine, both traditional and modern, sometimes with little evidence of their effectiveness.
917:
Sherman, R. A.; Hall, M.J.R.; Thomas, S. (2000). "Medicinal Maggots: An Ancient Remedy for Some Contemporary Afflictions".
141:
themselves can be prevented by a "healer" inserting the paste under the skin at the nape of the affected person's neck.
1056:
845:"Larval therapy from antiquity to the present day: Mechanisms of action, clinical applications and future potential"
211:, or honey bee venom, can be applied via direct stings to relieve arthritis, rheumatism, polyneuritis, and asthma.
1119:
1135:
707:
Srivastava, S.K.; Babu, N.; Pandey, H. (2009). "Traditional insect bioprospecting--As human food and medicine".
1525:
1715:
1608:
1201:
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tissue. This helps to prevent infection; it also speeds healing of chronically infected wounds and ulcers.
74:
59:
1720:
1658:
1112:
1638:
1618:
523:
204:
consumed to treat head colds, cough, throat infections, laryngitis, tuberculosis, and lung diseases.
802:
Sun, Xinjuan; Jiang, Kechun; Chen, Jingan; Wu, Liang; Lu, Hui; Wang, Aiping; Wang, Jianming (2014).
1603:
1598:
954:"Wound healingβfrom poultices to maggots. (a short synopsis of wound healing throughout the ages)"
93:
cancer-fighting agent. Chinese Black Mountain Ant extract is typically consumed mixed with wine.
1505:
1482:
1395:
26:
1570:
309:
50:
804:"A systematic review of maggot debridement therapy for chronically infected wounds and ulcers"
767:
Dossey, A.T. (2010). "Insects and their chemical weaponry: new potential for drug discovery".
394:
family (Meloidae). It and other such species were used in preparations offered by traditional
1663:
1555:
1345:
1340:
1191:
1073:
20:
1047:. In Holstege, Christopher P.; Neer, Thomas; Saathoff, Gregory B.; Furbee, R. Brent (eds.).
1510:
1304:
1291:
358:
54:
8:
1710:
1668:
1613:
1495:
1380:
1365:
270:
66:, and less by community and family based medicine, as is more common in parts of Africa.
843:
Whitaker, I.S.; Twine, C.; Whitaker, M.J.; Welck, M.; Brown, C.S.; Shandall, A. (2007).
1705:
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89:
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563:
Zhang, Zongqi; Chen, Sicong; Wei, Xunfan; Xiao, Jinhua; Huang, Dawei (7 April 2022).
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379:
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172:
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815:
776:
739:
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535:
329:
266:
45:
The medicinal uses of insects and other arthropods worldwide have been reviewed by
1104:
1033:
N.A. Ratcliffe et al. Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 41 (2011) 747e769
1044:
930:
540:
325:
317:
995:"Maggot Debridement Therapy in Modern Army Medicine: Perceptions and Prevalence"
820:
803:
500:
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1577:
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1476:
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391:
250:
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30:
1011:
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1565:
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938:
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829:
788:
668:
608:
549:
233:
979:
649:
1628:
1459:
1430:
1355:
1325:
1279:
1229:
406:
402:
313:
216:
181:
133:
83:
136:
is both commonly eaten as a delicacy and an excellent source of protein
1405:
1400:
1257:
1172:
395:
346:
341:
160:
115:
The Jatropha Leaf Miner, a lepidopteran which feeds preferentially on
1623:
1239:
780:
399:
278:
220:
193:
1520:
1425:
1267:
1262:
354:
262:
212:
208:
167:
144:
117:
101:
63:
1515:
1471:
1437:
1415:
1370:
350:
274:
108:
19:
For arachnids like scorpions, spiders, or ticks in medicine, see
1449:
1150:
1139:
993:
Heitkamp, Rae A.; Peck, George W.; Kirkup, Benjamin C. (2013).
383:
258:
1681:
1420:
480:
357:, has the potential to treat inflammation in people who have
301:
200:
630:
1464:
1051:. Jones & Bartlett. pp. 39β48, esp. 41, 43, 45ff.
282:
842:
435:
Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 13:9 (31 pages)
728:"Research and utilization of medicinal insects in China"
631:
Chakravorty, J.; Ghosh, S.; Meyer-Rochow, V.B. (2011).
261:) into soft tissue wounds to selectively clean out the
1049:
Criminal Poisoning: Clinical and Forensic Perspectives
726:
Feng, Y.; Zhao, M.; He, Z.; Chen, Z.; Sun, L. (2009).
896:. Parasitology Research Monographs. pp. 301β23.
253:
is the intentional introduction of live, disinfected
706:
1134:
1027:
40:
992:
1042:
916:
702:
700:
698:
368:
1697:
696:
694:
692:
690:
688:
686:
684:
682:
680:
678:
562:
332:. It continues to be used in military medicine.
69:
801:
725:
1120:
675:
521:
1065:
910:
836:
808:International Journal of Infectious Diseases
405:, a toxic blistering agent once used as an
1127:
1113:
891:
1036:
1010:
969:
868:
819:
743:
658:
648:
637:Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine
598:
580:
539:
476:
474:
472:
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468:
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464:
462:
427:
226:
951:
626:
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622:
620:
618:
460:
458:
456:
454:
452:
450:
448:
446:
444:
442:
412:
297:, proteolytic enzymes, and many others.
171:antibiotic properties. The venom of the
25:
795:
709:Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge
1698:
1411:List of crop plants pollinated by bees
766:
16:Uses of insects for medicinal purposes
1108:
1071:
615:
439:
188:
96:
719:
232:culture limited the field of insect
398:. The insect is the source of the
312:. More recently, they were used in
13:
493:
14:
1732:
1078:Farlex Partner Medical Dictionary
528:Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy
239:
1680:
745:10.1111/j.1748-5967.2009.00236.x
81:The Chinese Black Mountain Ant,
41:Traditional and alternative uses
1093:
1084:
986:
945:
885:
1526:Home-stored product entomology
760:
556:
515:
369:Blister beetle and Spanish fly
1:
1609:Decline in insect populations
1202:List of insect-inspired songs
501:"Insects boost immune system"
421:
335:
33:on a wound on a diabetic foot
931:10.1146/annurev.ento.45.1.55
849:Postgraduate Medical Journal
541:10.1016/j.biopha.2019.109616
75:Traditional Chinese medicine
70:Traditional Chinese medicine
60:traditional Chinese medicine
7:
919:Annual Review of Entomology
821:10.1016/j.ijid.2014.03.1397
151:
10:
1737:
1639:Pesticide toxicity to bees
1619:List of endangered insects
1043:Froberg, Blake A. (2010).
958:The Ulster Medical Journal
372:
339:
243:
88:, is supposed to act as a
31:Maggot debridement therapy
18:
1677:
1649:
1591:
1543:
1494:
1379:
1318:
1290:
1248:
1217:
1160:
1146:
1012:10.7205/milmed-d-12-00200
124:
1604:Colony collapse disorder
1599:Bees and toxic chemicals
861:10.1136/pgmj.2006.055905
582:10.3389/fnut.2022.860174
1506:Insect bites and stings
1483:Drosophila melanogaster
1396:Biological pest control
769:Natural Product Reports
503:. BBC. 10 February 2002
483:Journal of Ethnobiology
1571:Rats, Lice and History
732:Entomological Research
569:Frontiers in Nutrition
310:indigenous Australians
300:Maggots were used for
227:Modern scientific uses
51:Doctrine of Signatures
34:
1556:Alfred Russel Wallace
1341:Entomological warfare
1192:Insects in literature
952:Donnelly, J. (1998).
650:10.1186/1746-4269-7-5
413:Blood-feeding insects
353:in bee venom, called
29:
21:Arachnids in medicine
1716:Traditional medicine
1511:Insect sting allergy
1305:Cicadas in mythology
382:is an emerald-green
359:Rheumatoid arthritis
105:examples to follow:
55:Wuchereria bancrofti
1614:Habitat destruction
1366:Insects in religion
271:classical antiquity
1721:Insects in culture
1687:Insects portal
1659:Insects and humans
1187:Arthropods in film
1136:Human interactions
964:(Suppl 1): 47β51.
363:Multiple sclerosis
322:American Civil War
291:phenylacetaldehyde
189:Honey bee products
97:India and Ayurveda
35:
1693:
1692:
1582:Insect Literature
1539:
1538:
1438:Carmine/Cochineal
1391:Beneficial insect
1361:Insects in ethics
1310:Scarab (artifact)
1300:Bees in mythology
1209:Insects on stamps
1005:(11): 1411β1416.
999:Military Medicine
903:978-3-642-19381-1
775:(12): 1737β1757.
388:Lytta vesicatoria
375:Lytta vesicatoria
330:Second World Wars
295:calcium carbonate
287:phenylacetic acid
267:Military surgeons
173:Red harvester ant
1728:
1685:
1684:
1561:Jean-Henri Fabre
1336:Cricket fighting
1331:Cockroach racing
1197:Insects in music
1158:
1157:
1129:
1122:
1115:
1106:
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1100:
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781:10.1039/c005319h
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1314:
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1103:
1098:
1094:
1089:
1085:
1072:Anon. (2012) .
1070:
1066:
1059:
1041:
1037:
1032:
1028:
991:
987:
950:
946:
915:
911:
904:
890:
886:
855:(980): 409β13.
841:
837:
800:
796:
765:
761:
724:
720:
705:
676:
629:
616:
561:
557:
520:
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499:
498:
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479:
440:
432:
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415:
377:
371:
344:
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318:Napoleonic Wars
316:Europe, in the
304:healing by the
248:
242:
229:
191:
154:
127:
99:
72:
43:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
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1578:Lafcadio Hearn
1575:
1563:
1558:
1553:
1551:Jan Swammerdam
1547:
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1477:Model organism
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1351:Insect farming
1348:
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1235:Artificial fly
1232:
1227:
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1215:
1214:
1212:
1211:
1206:
1205:
1204:
1194:
1189:
1184:
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1182:
1175:
1168:Insects in art
1164:
1162:
1155:
1144:
1143:
1132:
1131:
1124:
1117:
1109:
1102:
1101:
1092:
1083:
1064:
1058:978-1449617578
1057:
1035:
1026:
985:
944:
909:
902:
884:
835:
794:
759:
738:(5): 313β316.
718:
674:
614:
555:
514:
492:
438:
425:
423:
420:
414:
411:
392:blister beetle
373:Main article:
370:
367:
340:Main article:
337:
334:
251:Maggot therapy
246:Maggot therapy
244:Main article:
241:
240:Maggot therapy
238:
228:
225:
207:Additionally,
190:
187:
179:The silkworm,
153:
150:
126:
123:
98:
95:
71:
68:
42:
39:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1733:
1722:
1719:
1717:
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1662:
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1634:Neonicotinoid
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1319:Other aspects
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1179:Musca depicta
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715:(4): 485β494.
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496:
489:(2): 195β202.
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56:
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48:
38:
32:
28:
22:
1664:Insecticides
1581:
1569:
1566:Hans Zinsser
1531:Clothes moth
1481:
1292:In mythology
1249:
1225:Fishing bait
1177:
1095:
1086:
1077:
1074:"Cantharide"
1067:
1048:
1038:
1029:
1002:
998:
988:
961:
957:
947:
922:
918:
912:
894:Nature Helps
893:
887:
852:
848:
838:
811:
807:
797:
772:
768:
762:
735:
731:
721:
712:
708:
640:
636:
572:
568:
558:
531:
527:
517:
505:. Retrieved
495:
486:
482:
434:
429:
416:
396:apothecaries
387:
378:
345:
299:
277:, including
249:
234:pharmacology
230:
206:
199:
192:
180:
178:
165:
159:
155:
143:
137:
132:
128:
116:
114:
107:
100:
82:
80:
73:
47:Meyer-Rochow
44:
36:
1650:Categories,
1629:Insecticide
1460:Sericulture
1431:Royal jelly
1356:Flea circus
1346:Entomophagy
1280:Cantharidin
1275:Spanish fly
1250:In medicine
1230:Fly fishing
1161:In the arts
407:aphrodisiac
403:cantharidin
380:Spanish fly
314:Renaissance
217:Royal jelly
182:Bombyx mori
134:Grasshopper
84:Polyrhachis
1711:Entomology
1700:Categories
1669:Pesticides
1406:Bee pollen
1401:Beekeeping
1383:entomology
1326:Biomimicry
1258:Apitherapy
1218:In fishing
1173:Beetlewing
1154:in culture
422:References
347:Apitherapy
342:Apitherapy
336:Apitherapy
161:Chapulines
1706:Ethnology
1652:templates
1624:Pesticide
1240:Fly tying
1080:. Farlex.
1045:"Animals"
925:: 55β81.
591:2296-861X
400:terpenoid
390:, in the
279:allantoin
221:Bee bread
194:Honey bee
1592:Concerns
1544:Pioneers
1521:Woodworm
1426:Propolis
1381:Economic
1268:Melittin
1263:Apitoxin
1021:23198524
939:10761570
879:17551073
830:24841930
814:: 32β7.
789:20957283
754:84306843
669:21235790
609:35464030
550:31881485
355:Melittin
351:peptides
275:microbes
263:necrotic
257:larvae (
255:blow fly
213:Propolis
209:apitoxin
168:Army ant
152:Americas
145:Termites
118:Jatropha
102:Ayurveda
90:cure all
64:Ayurveda
1516:Bed bug
1498:insects
1496:Harmful
1472:Shellac
1416:Beeswax
1371:Jingzhe
1151:insects
1147:Aspects
1140:insects
980:9807955
971:2448900
870:2600045
660:3031207
600:9021923
507:1 April
308:and by
259:maggots
109:Termite
1455:Kermes
1450:Chitin
1443:Polish
1055:
1019:
978:
968:
937:
900:
877:
867:
828:
787:
752:
667:
657:
607:
597:
589:
548:
384:beetle
320:, the
269:since
125:Africa
86:vicina
1421:Honey
1138:with
750:S2CID
643:: 5.
326:First
302:wound
201:Honey
1465:Silk
1053:ISBN
1017:PMID
976:PMID
935:PMID
898:ISBN
875:PMID
826:PMID
785:PMID
665:PMID
605:PMID
587:ISSN
546:PMID
509:2016
328:and
306:Maya
283:urea
62:and
1149:of
1007:doi
1003:177
966:PMC
927:doi
865:PMC
857:doi
816:doi
777:doi
740:doi
655:PMC
645:doi
595:PMC
577:doi
536:doi
532:123
361:or
138:and
1702::
1076:.
1015:.
1001:.
997:.
974:.
962:67
960:.
956:.
933:.
923:45
921:.
873:.
863:.
853:83
851:.
847:.
824:.
812:25
810:.
806:.
783:.
773:27
771:.
748:.
736:39
734:.
730:.
711:.
677:^
663:.
653:.
639:.
635:.
617:^
603:.
593:.
585:.
575:.
571:.
567:.
544:.
534:.
530:.
526:.
485:.
441:^
409:.
386:,
293:,
289:,
285:,
281:,
1584:)
1580:(
1574:)
1568:(
1128:e
1121:t
1114:v
1061:.
1023:.
1009::
982:.
941:.
929::
906:.
881:.
859::
832:.
818::
791:.
779::
756:.
742::
713:8
671:.
647::
641:7
611:.
579::
573:9
552:.
538::
511:.
487:8
23:.
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