294:
1143: boson is not involved in the absorption or emission of electrons or positrons. Whenever an electron is observed as a new free particle, suddenly moving with kinetic energy, it is inferred to be a result of a neutrino interacting with the electron (with the momentum transfer via the Z boson) since this behavior happens more often when the neutrino beam is present. In this process, the neutrino simply strikes the electron (via exchange of a boson) and then scatters away from it, transferring some of the neutrino's momentum to the electron.
1371:
8884:
2995:. The team deliberately encrypted its data and withheld any preliminary results from themselves until the analysis was complete, to prevent "confirmation bias" bending their interpretation of the data. Kotwal described it as the 'largest crack in this beautiful theory', speculating that it might be the 'first clear evidence' of other forces or particles not accounted for by the Standard Model, and which might be accounted for by theories such as
2720: bosons was considered a major success for CERN. First, in 1973, came the observation of neutral current interactions as predicted by electroweak theory. The huge Gargamelle bubble chamber photographed the tracks produced by neutrino interactions and observed events where a neutrino interacted but did not produce a corresponding lepton. This is a hallmark of a neutral current interaction and is interpreted as a neutrino exchanging an unseen
2072:
2615:
7782:
6302:, such an interaction can only happen via the weak force. Since such an electron is not created from a nucleon (the nucleus left behind remains the same as before) and the departing electron is unchanged, except for the impulse imparted by the neutrino, this force interaction between the neutrino and the electron must be mediated by an electromagnetically neutral, weak force
3037:... The group reports that a combination of all W-mass measurements has a probability of compatibility of 0.5% only, and is therefore disfavoured. A 91% probability of compatibility is obtained when the CDF-II measurement is removed. The corresponding value of the W boson mass is mW = 80369.2 ± 13.3 MeV, which we quote as the World Average."
2532:
3036:
came to the following conclusion: "The LHC-TeV W-mass
Working Group, including W-mass experts from all hadron collider experiments, CDF, D0, ATLAS, CMS, LHCb, has been working to understand better the nature of this disagreement and suggest a way forward to obtain a world average value of the W mass.
3006:
Besides being inconsistent with the
Standard Model, the new measurement is also inconsistent with previous measurements such as ATLAS. This suggests that either the old or the new measurements, despite all precautions, have an unexpected systematic error, such as an undetected quirk in the equipment.
7432:
Amoroso, Simone; Andari, Nansi; Barter, William; Bendavid, Josh; Boonekamp, Maarten; Farry, Stephen; Gruenewald, Martin; Hays, Chris; Hunter, Ross; Kretzschmar, Jan; Lupton, Oliver; Pili, Martina; Miguel Ramos Pernas; Tuchming, Boris; Vesterinen, Mika; Vicini, Alessandro; Wang, Chen; Xu, Menglin (18
2986:
and the leader of the
Collider Detector at Fermilab collaboration, the lower beam luminosity used reduced the chance that events of interest would be obscured by other collisions and that the use of proton–antiproton collisions simplifies the process of quark–antiquark annihilation, which then
3040:
In
September 2024, the CMS experiment released in a preprint the most precise measurement of the W boson mass so far, 80 360.2 ± 9.9 MeV and also the one most in accordance with the value predicted by the standard model, the results were obtained from data of
5055:
include the square of these factors, and all possible diagrams (e.g. sum over quark families, and left and right contributions). The results tabulated below are just estimates, since they only include tree-level interaction diagrams in the
6389:
in 1958, by devising an equation which showed the analogy of the weak nuclear interactions with electromagnetism. Steve
Weinberg, Sheldon Glashow, and Abdus Salam later used these results to develop the electroweak unification, in
2389:
4379:
3015:, commented that "I do not think we have to discuss which new physics could explain the discrepancy between CDF and the Standard Model – we first have to understand why the CDF measurement is in strong tension with all ".
4574:
4261:
4518:
4462:
4901:
2974:, which is seven standard deviations above that predicted by the Standard Model, meaning that if the model is correct there should only be a one-trillionth chance that such a large mass would arise by
2738: boson with a proton or neutron in the bubble chamber. The neutrino is otherwise undetectable, so the only observable effect is the momentum imparted to the proton or neutron by the interaction.
4729:
2942:
Before 2022, measurements of the W boson mass appeared to be consistent with the
Standard Model. For example, in 2021, experimental measurements of the W boson mass were assessed to converge around
2394:
6147:
2109:
in the 1950s, attempts were undertaken to formulate a similar theory of the weak nuclear force. This culminated around 1968 in a unified theory of electromagnetism and weak interactions by
6722:
In the
Standard Model, right-handed neutrinos (and left-handed anti-neutrinos) do not exist; however, some extensions beyond the Standard Model allow them. If they do exist, they all have
4995:
6659:
6611:
3070:
6704:
1296: boson either lowers or raises the electric charge of the emitting particle by one unit, and also alters the spin by one unit. At the same time, the emission or absorption of a
6710:
elements), but experiments at present that measure the decays can't discriminate between neutrino mass eigenstates: They measure total decay width of the sum of all three processes.
3866:
3782:
3698:
3572:
3488:
3404:
5041:
2663: bosons behave in somewhat the same manner as photons, but do not become important until the energy of the interaction is comparable with the relatively huge mass of the
309:
7537:
747:
5106:
5034:
2841: boson a few months later, in May 1983. Rubbia and van der Meer were promptly awarded the 1984 Nobel Prize in Physics, a most unusual step for the conservative
4138:
2777: bosons themselves had to wait for the construction of a particle accelerator powerful enough to produce them. The first such machine that became available was the
4930:
2580:
4956:
2600:
2555:
2336:. Today it is widely accepted as one of the pillars of the Standard Model of particle physics, particularly given the 2012 discovery of the Higgs boson by the
2527:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}m_{{\text{W}}^{\pm }}&={\tfrac {1}{2}}vg\\m_{{\text{Z}}^{0}}&={\tfrac {1}{2}}v{\sqrt {g^{2}+{g'}^{2}}}\end{aligned}}}
3011:
reiterated that "... the (new) measurement needs to be confirmed by another experiment before it can be interpreted fully." Matthias Schott, of the
2937:
2204: bosons have mass while photons are massless was a major obstacle in developing electroweak theory. These particles are accurately described by an
7372:
7319:
7235:
6707:
4265:
4522:
4153:
740:
4466:
1436: bosons are carrier particles that mediate the weak nuclear force, much as the photon is the carrier particle for the electromagnetic force.
8807:
7634:
6233:
387:
7291:
4410:
2332:
The combination of the SU(2) gauge theory of the weak interaction, the electromagnetic interaction, and the Higgs mechanism is known as the
1121:
from matter (a process which conserves charge). Such behavior is almost as common as inelastic neutrino interactions and may be observed in
7161:
6306:. Thus, since no other neutrino-interacting neutral force carrier is known, the observed interaction must have occurred by exchange of a
733:
3007:
Future experiments with the LHC may help determine which set of measurements, if either, are the correct ones. Fermilab Deputy
Director
7602:
7495:
6991:
1569:, but affects only one of its 33 neutrons. The neutron is converted into a proton while also emitting an electron (often called a
8557:
17:
8941:
8795:
4141:
3251:
383:
310:
7320:"CDF collaboration at Fermilab announces most precise ever measurement of W boson mass to be in tension with the Standard Model"
4841:
7347:
4681:
7057:
7147:
1322:. The neutral Z boson cannot change the electric charge of any particle, nor can it change any other of the so-called "
2333:
313:
308:
7837:
6099:
314:
311:
8693:
2260:
413:
303:
321:
312:
8774:
319:
304:
1007: particle", and later gave the explanation that it was the last additional particle needed by the model. The
7786:
7513:
7075:"Forty years of the first attempt at the electroweak unification and of the prediction of the weak neutral boson"
6334:
320:
7397:
2819:), and were the collaborative effort of many people. Van der Meer was the driving force on the accelerator end (
4969:
301:
7213:
6615:
6567:
3044:
298:
8916:
7398:"Improved W boson Mass Measurement using $ \sqrt{s}=7$ TeV Proton-Proton Collisions with the ATLAS Detector"
6663:
4792:
2205:
357:
7258:
709:
8790:
7798:
6222:
594:
302:
8921:
3827:
3743:
3659:
3533:
3449:
3365:
2329: bosons to form their longitudinal components, and the remainder appears as the spin-0 Higgs boson.
1984:
interaction, therefore leaves the interacting particles unaffected, except for a transfer of spin and/or
1722:). It is one of the down quarks that interacts in beta decay, turning into an up quark to form a proton (
299:
7143:
2052: boson exchange were confirmed shortly thereafter (also in 1973), in a neutrino experiment in the
1775:
306:
8866:
7810:
7627:
7199:
P.A. Zyla et al. (Particle Data Group), Prog. Theor. Exp. Phys. 2020, 083C01 (2021) and 2021 update.
6744:, i.e. unable to interact by either the weak or electric forces no strong-force interactions either.
297:
8278:
7804:
6244:
2778:
2603:
1378:
for beta decay of a neutron into a proton, electron, and electron antineutrino via an intermediate
674:
604:
315:
8936:
8931:
8834:
8469:
8096:
7830:
6450:
Every entry in the lepton column can also be written as three decays, e.g. for the first row, as
5076:
5004:
2925:
2106:
1955:
375:
305:
246:
105:
4111:
8769:
8106:
7165:
4906:
2122:
1951:
1335:
624:
509:
449:
379:
318:
2034: boson exchange) as inelastically (via W boson exchange). Weak neutral currents via
8926:
8856:
7567:
7514:"CMS delivers the best-precision measurement of the W boson mass at the LHC | CMS Experiment"
7049:
6287:
2337:
2268:
1903:
1638:
1541:
1091:
499:
316:
300:
7041:
7022:
3018:
In 2023, the ATLAS experiment released an improved measurement for the mass of the W boson,
2799: bosons were seen in January 1983 during a series of experiments made possible by
1356: boson can only change the spin, momentum, and energy of the other particle. (See also
7584:
7452:
7086:
7006:
6949:
6882:
6254:
4939:
3250:
of the W boson to a quark–antiquark pair is proportional to the corresponding squared
2634:
1358:
1240:
409:
349:
317:
307:
7538:"New results from the CMS experiment put W boson mass mystery to rest | symmetry magazine"
7482:
7236:"Standard Model of physics challenged by most precise measurement of W boson particle yet"
7200:
7186:
7125:
6920:
2629:
Unlike beta decay, the observation of neutral current interactions that involve particles
8:
8871:
7854:
7563:
7477:
M. Grünewald (University Coll. Dublin) and A. Gurtu (CERN; TIFR Mumbai) (PDG April 2024)
6295:
6291:
6178:
5037:
3160:. Neglecting phase space effects and higher order corrections, simple estimates of their
3033:
3012:
2975:
2642:
2219:
gauge theory. Some mechanism is required to break the SU(2) symmetry, giving mass to the
781:
644:
459:
444:
327:
83:
76:
7588:
7456:
7090:
7010:
6953:
6886:
6386:
2560:
684:
8814:
7823:
7760:
7734:
7442:
3161:
2820:
2804:
2585:
2540:
2126:
2013:
1117:
619:
534:
7464:
1227:
of the electromagnetic force and has zero mass, consistent with the infinite range of
1115: boson mediates the transfer of momentum, spin and energy when neutrinos scatter
8883:
8851:
8764:
8243:
7988:
7915:
7764:
7752:
7575:
7104:
7053:
7042:
6253: – Hypothetical elementary particles: analogous pair of bosons predicted by the
6228:
4963:
3165:
2638:
1246:
1090: boson charge induces electron or positron emission or absorption, thus causing
868:
669:
599:
564:
494:
489:
454:
429:
405:
401:
226:
7099:
7074:
6937:
6870:
8861:
8632:
8407:
8268:
8253:
7935:
7846:
7748:
7744:
7592:
7460:
7218:
7129:
7094:
7014:
6967:
6957:
6900:
6890:
6741:
2816:
2341:
2016:
of neutrinos in matter; neutrinos are almost as likely to scatter elastically (via
1959:
1323:
1228:
1219:
Their high masses limit the range of the weak interaction. By way of contrast, the
954:
894:
788:
761:
654:
649:
549:
524:
484:
341:
285:
267:
110:
949:. Their experimental discovery was pivotal in establishing what is now called the
8911:
8829:
8754:
8738:
8678:
8088:
8013:
8003:
7993:
7905:
7296:
6987:
4959:
4835:
4386:
2983:
2979:
2272:
2256:
2114:
2110:
2076:
1981:
1375:
986:
864:
699:
584:
574:
569:
559:
519:
514:
474:
361:
220:
124:
120:
7348:"Do we have finally found new physics with the latest W boson mass measurement?"
7018:
4374:{\displaystyle ~|V_{\text{cd}}|^{2}+|V_{\text{cs}}|^{2}+|V_{\text{cb}}|^{2}=1~,}
714:
167:
8888:
8802:
8759:
8495:
8283:
7978:
7973:
7895:
7597:
7433:
Aug 2023). "Compatibility and combination of world W-boson mass measurements".
6962:
6895:
6250:
4998:
4831:
4147:
2812:
2808:
2622:
2056:
1566:
1254:
1122:
950:
898:
639:
609:
554:
544:
529:
439:
345:
281:
240:
155:
71:
4569:{\displaystyle \,B(\mathrm {\tau } ^{+}\mathrm {\nu } _{\mathrm {\tau } })=\,}
4256:{\displaystyle ~|V_{\text{ud}}|^{2}+|V_{\text{us}}|^{2}+|V_{\text{ub}}|^{2}~=}
8905:
8846:
8698:
8665:
8457:
8427:
8359:
8218:
7998:
7925:
7910:
7373:"New value for W boson mass dims 2022 hints of physics beyond Standard Model"
7263:
7108:
3205:
3008:
3000:
2996:
2963:
collider before its closure in 2011 determined the mass of the W boson to be
2216:
2211:, but the bosons in a gauge theory must be massless. As a case in point, the
1570:
1463:
1331:
1315:
1224:
784:
659:
614:
579:
434:
7659:
4513:{\displaystyle \,B(\mathrm {\mu } ^{+}\mathrm {\nu } _{\mathrm {\mu } })=\,}
8824:
8374:
8364:
8354:
8115:
8066:
8008:
7930:
7885:
7756:
6972:
6905:
6737:
6723:
6283:
5071:
5057:
4933:
4059:
denote the three flavours of neutrinos. The other particles, starting with
3999:
3255:
2938:
Physics beyond the
Standard Model § Experimental results not explained
2800:
2208:
872:
769:
719:
689:
664:
634:
504:
479:
464:
353:
255:
203:
7496:"Measurement of the W boson mass in proton-proton collisions at √s=13 TeV"
1151:
These bosons are among the heavyweights of the elementary particles. With
8839:
8607:
8510:
8505:
8422:
8417:
8347:
8301:
8258:
8223:
8182:
8074:
8038:
7900:
6239:
6206:
6187:
In 2018, the CMS collaboration observed the first exclusive decay of the
4748:
3247:
2921:
2842:
2264:
2263:, fulfills this role. It requires the existence of another particle, the
2118:
1327:
1314: boson can change the type of the particle – for example changing a
694:
679:
629:
589:
539:
191:
128:
98:
6564:, for every neutrino mass eigenstate, with decay widths proportional to
2956:
However, in April 2022, a new analysis of data that was obtained by the
8581:
8475:
8465:
8447:
8337:
8238:
8173:
7890:
7815:
7044:
Dreams of a Final Theory: The search for the fundamental laws of nature
6259:
5052:
2619:
2097: bosons. This is one of the leading terms contributing to neutral
2053:
1783:
1667:
1662:
Again, the neutron is not an elementary particle but a composite of an
1467:
704:
469:
4457:{\displaystyle \,B(\mathrm {e} ^{+}\mathrm {\nu } _{\mathrm {e} })=\,}
2645:
laboratories in the world (and then only after 1983). This is because
1370:
8723:
8713:
8683:
8576:
8542:
8535:
8412:
8402:
8397:
8369:
8137:
7920:
6155:
3157:
1500:
1479:
1471:
983:
938:
7422:
S. Navas et al.(Particle Data Group), Phys. Rev. D110, 030001 (2024)
5051:
strengths of each coupling can be estimated by considering that the
2012:
have distinct signatures: They provide the only known mechanism for
937:
has none. All three of these particles are very short-lived, with a
27:
Elementary particles; gauge bosons that mediate the weak interaction
8819:
8647:
8602:
8586:
8547:
8520:
8233:
8228:
8208:
8178:
8168:
8163:
7983:
7958:
7953:
7880:
7739:
7447:
7324:
7292:"Newly Measured Particle Seems Heavy Enough to Break Known Physics"
6809: boson, so it does not have sufficient energy to decay into a
3156: bosons have sufficient energy to decay into the highest-mass
2992:
2960:
2957:
2614:
2071:
2009:
1985:
1883:
1803:
1774:). At the most fundamental level, then, the weak force changes the
1663:
1618:
1521:
1319:
1232:
1069:
8728:
8718:
8688:
8642:
8637:
8612:
8530:
8515:
8442:
8437:
8342:
8327:
8273:
8248:
8213:
8142:
8124:
7863:
7628:"PL B667, 1 (2008), and 2009 partial update for the 2010 edition"
3200:
and antilepton (one of them charged and another neutral) or to a
3117:
1578:
3268:
The decay widths for the W boson are then proportional to:
8708:
8703:
8332:
8319:
8310:
8132:
8046:
7945:
7781:
6210:
4666:
4591:. The hadronic branching ratio is dominated by the CKM-favored
3995:
3197:
2988:
2212:
1598:
1220:
1206:
2931:
8733:
8673:
8525:
8384:
8263:
8203:
8158:
8051:
8029:
7872:
6303:
4098:
3201:
2147: bosons necessary to explain beta decay, but also a new
1236:
897:
and is its own antiparticle. The three particles each have a
88:
7795:, the ultimate source of information on particle properties.
8500:
8432:
8392:
7968:
7963:
7431:
3029:, which aligned with predictions from the Standard Model.
2098:
2060:
1213:
1210:
1152:
147:
7214:
Key particle weighs in a bit heavy, confounding physicists
4896:{\displaystyle ~T_{3}-Q\sin ^{2}\,\theta _{\mathsf {W}}~,}
2066:
6936:
Tanabashi, M.; et al. (Particle Data Group) (2018).
6869:
Tanabashi, M.; et al. (Particle Data Group) (2018).
143:
139:
7658:
Sirunyan, A.M.; et al. (CMS Collaboration) (2018).
4724:{\displaystyle \,B(\ell ^{+}\mathrm {\nu } _{\ell })=\,}
4669:
branching ratios has been measured experimentally to be
1205: bosons are almost 80 times as massive as the
7792:
7483:
https://pdg.lbl.gov/2024/reviews/rpp2024-rev-w-mass.pdf
7201:
https://pdg.lbl.gov/2021/reviews/rpp2021-rev-w-mass.pdf
2215:
is massless because electromagnetism is described by a
7626:
Amsler, C.; et al. (Particle Data Group) (2010).
3003:
described the result as a 'monumental piece of work'.
2472:
2424:
2275:
created by the Higgs field, three are absorbed by the
1365:
1239:
are also presumed to have zero mass, the range of the
6666:
6618:
6570:
6102:
5079:
5007:
4972:
4942:
4909:
4844:
4684:
4525:
4469:
4413:
4268:
4156:
4114:
3830:
3746:
3662:
3536:
3452:
3368:
3047:
2588:
2563:
2543:
2392:
1072:
absorption and emission. During these processes, the
6264:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
1565:This reaction does not involve the whole cobalt-60
6698:
6653:
6605:
6142:{\displaystyle ~x=\sin ^{2}\,\theta _{\text{W}}~.}
6141:
5100:
5028:
4989:
4950:
4936:of the fermion (the "charge" for the weak force),
4924:
4895:
4773:decay into a fermion and its antiparticle. As the
4723:
4568:
4512:
4456:
4373:
4255:
4132:
3860:
3776:
3692:
3566:
3482:
3398:
3064:
2594:
2574:
2549:
2526:
7493:
8903:
863: bosons have either a positive or negative
7259:"W boson mass measurement surprises physicists"
7120:
7118:
6236: – Mathematics of a particle physics model
1573:in this context) and an electron antineutrino:
296:
7799:The W and Z particles: a personal recollection
7233:
6923:, Prog. Theor. Exp. Phys. 2022, 083C01 (2022).
6718:
6716:
6294:between subatomic particles is negligible, by
6282:Because neutrinos are neither affected by the
6234:Mathematical formulation of the Standard Model
1842:which is immediately followed by decay of the
1462: bosons are best known for their role in
1235:is also expected to have zero mass. (Although
7831:
7289:
7179:
6385: bosons was made by Brazilian physicist
6225: – Description of the behavior of bosons
6096:To keep the notation compact, the table uses
1025: bosons had already been named, and the
919: bosons have a magnetic moment, but the
741:
7555:
7144:"The discovery of the weak neutral currents"
7115:
6919:R. L. Workman et al. (Particle Data Group),
7317:
6713:
2932:2022 unexpected measurement of W boson mass
7838:
7824:
7256:
6931:
6929:
6864:
6862:
6740:also zero. The all-zero charges make them
4986:
4973:
2999:. The Nobel-winning theoretical physicist
2165: boson that had never been observed.
1125:upon irradiation with neutrino beams. The
748:
734:
7738:
7596:
7446:
7390:
7370:
7285:
7283:
7281:
7098:
6971:
6961:
6935:
6904:
6894:
6868:
6695:
6667:
6647:
6619:
6599:
6571:
6247: – Hypothetical particles in physics
6158:–antiquark pair is left out of the table.
6122:
5094:
5083:
5022:
5011:
4990:{\displaystyle \;\theta _{\mathsf {w}}\;}
4947:
4943:
4921:
4910:
4874:
4720:
4685:
4565:
4526:
4509:
4470:
4453:
4414:
4129:
4115:
1338:, etc.). The emission or absorption of a
7845:
7657:
7561:
7066:
7039:
6986:
6654:{\displaystyle \,|U_{\text{e2}}|^{2}\,,}
6606:{\displaystyle \,|U_{\text{e1}}|^{2}\,,}
6393:
6363:
6361:
3065:{\displaystyle \mathrm {W} \to \mu \nu }
2902: bosons, together with the photon (
2613:
2383: bosons have the following masses:
2070:
1980: boson between particles, called a
1369:
7494:CMS collaboration (17 September 2024).
6926:
6859:
6699:{\displaystyle \,|U_{\text{e3}}|^{2}\,}
5036:is different for fermions of different
1068: bosons are verified mediators of
14:
8904:
8309:
7625:
7345:
7278:
7229:
7227:
4980:
4881:
2641:, such as are available in only a few
7819:
7805:When CERN saw the end of the alphabet
7619:
7371:Ouellette, Jennifer (24 March 2023).
7238:. Australian Broadcasting Corporation
7154:
7072:
7033:
6358:
5044:, the coupling is different as well.
3278:
3275:
2807:. The actual experiments were called
7030:— The electroweak unification paper.
4791: boson is a mixture of the pre-
3998:(more exactly, the positive charged
3913:Energy conservation forbids decay to
2267:, which has since been found at the
2067:Predictions of the W, W and Z bosons
7579:. 2012 Review of Particle Physics.
7224:
6980:
6732: = 0 and electric charge
6355:exchange might cause flavor change.
3861:{\displaystyle |V_{\text{cb}}|^{2}}
3777:{\displaystyle |V_{\text{cs}}|^{2}}
3693:{\displaystyle |V_{\text{cd}}|^{2}}
3567:{\displaystyle |V_{\text{ub}}|^{2}}
3483:{\displaystyle |V_{\text{us}}|^{2}}
3399:{\displaystyle |V_{\text{ud}}|^{2}}
2008: boson interactions involving
1366:Relations to the weak nuclear force
1146:
1043: bosons were named for having
989:named the additional particle the "
24:
7250:
7189:(Press release). Nobel Foundation.
7162:"The UA2 Collaboration collection"
7073:Lopes, J. Leite (September 1999).
4441:
4423:
3049:
2976:non-systematic observational error
2079:showing the exchange of a pair of
1260: = 1. The emission of a
1243:is limited for different reasons;
292:
25:
8953:
7811:W and Z particles at Hyperphysics
7774:
7126:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1979"
2261:1964 PRL symmetry breaking papers
2121:, for which they shared the 1979
978: bosons are named after the
414:Physics beyond the Standard Model
8882:
8775:Timeline of particle discoveries
7780:
7150:from the original on 2017-03-07.
7146:. CERN Courier. 3 October 2004.
6791:is greater than the mass of the
6181:or "handedness" of the fermions.
4962:of the fermion (in units of the
3254:element and the number of quark
3208:(with opposite electric charges
2582:is the U(1) gauge coupling, and
8942:Subatomic particles with spin 1
7651:
7640:from the original on 2011-06-05
7608:from the original on 2017-02-20
7530:
7506:
7487:
7471:
7465:10.1140/epjc/s10052-024-12532-z
7425:
7416:
7364:
7346:Schott, Matthias (2022-04-07).
7339:
7311:
7234:Weule, Genelle (8 April 2022).
7205:
7193:
7136:
7100:10.1590/S0103-97331999000300024
6921:"Mass and Width of the W Boson"
6747:
6444:
6440:→ charged antilepton + neutrino
6419:→ charged lepton + antineutrino
6335:Flavor-changing neutral current
4150:of the CKM matrix implies that
2781:, where unambiguous signals of
772:that are together known as the
7793:The Review of Particle Physics
7749:10.1103/PhysRevLett.121.141801
7352:Physics, Life and all the Rest
7290:Wood, Charlie (7 April 2022).
6913:
6685:
6669:
6637:
6621:
6589:
6573:
6327:
6276:
5095:
5080:
5023:
5008:
4932:is the third component of the
4714:
4689:
4559:
4530:
4503:
4474:
4447:
4418:
4407: boson are approximately
4349:
4333:
4319:
4303:
4289:
4273:
4237:
4221:
4207:
4191:
4177:
4161:
3848:
3832:
3764:
3748:
3680:
3664:
3554:
3538:
3470:
3454:
3386:
3370:
3053:
2271:. Of the four components of a
13:
1:
7479:Mass and Width of the W Boson
7187:"Nobel Prize in Physics 1984"
6853:
6337:for a conjecture that a rare
4665:final states. The sum of the
3994:denote the three flavours of
3171:
2633:requires huge investments in
2557:is the SU(2) gauge coupling,
1466:. Consider, for example, the
1209:– heavier, even, than entire
791:; the respective symbols are
358:Spontaneous symmetry breaking
8791:History of subatomic physics
7318:Marc, Tracy (7 April 2022).
7079:Brazilian Journal of Physics
6938:"Review of Particle Physics"
6871:"Review of Particle Physics"
6269:
6154:The impossible decay into a
4381:thus each of two quark rows
2609:
2334:Glashow–Weinberg–Salam model
1962:are zero. The exchange of a
893: boson is electrically
7:
7562:Beringer, J.; et al. (
7435:European Physical Journal C
7257:Wogan, Tim (8 April 2022).
7019:10.1103/physrevlett.19.1264
6262: – subatomic particles
6216:
5888:
5693:
5572:
5476:
5380:
5101:{\displaystyle (\,T_{3}\,)}
5042:left-handed or right-handed
5029:{\displaystyle (\,T_{3}\,)}
5001:. Because the weak isospin
4742:
3164:can be calculated from the
2259:, first put forward by the
1927:
1439:
10:
8958:
7598:10.1103/PhysRevD.86.010001
6963:10.1103/PhysRevD.98.030001
6896:10.1103/PhysRevD.98.030001
5670:
5270:
5149:
5145:Experimental measurements
4746:
4133:{\displaystyle \,V_{ij}\,}
2935:
778:intermediate vector bosons
388:Standard Model mathematics
8880:
8783:
8747:
8664:
8625:
8595:
8569:
8565:
8556:
8488:
8456:
8383:
8318:
8300:
8196:
8151:
8123:
8114:
8105:
8087:
8065:
8037:
8028:
7944:
7871:
7862:
7853:
7048:. Vintage Press. p.
7040:Weinberg, Steven (1993).
6736: = 0, and with
5675:
5331:
5112:
5109:
5070:
5067:
4925:{\displaystyle \,T_{3}\,}
4140:denote the corresponding
4108:is applied). The various
3911:
2823:). UA1 and UA2 found the
2105:Following the success of
776:or more generally as the
266:
254:
239:
219:
190:
154:
135:
116:
104:
94:
82:
70:
18:Intermediate vector boson
8808:mathematical formulation
8403:Eta and eta prime mesons
7568:"Gauge and Higgs bosons"
7542:www.symmetrymagazine.org
6367:The first prediction of
6296:deduction (technically,
6223:Bose–Einstein statistics
4385:Therefore, the leptonic
3075:
2779:Super Proton Synchrotron
2604:vacuum expectation value
2347:The model predicts that
2129:postulated not only the
8470:Double-charm tetraquark
7727:Physical Review Letters
6999:Physical Review Letters
4101:and antiquarks (factor
2926:electroweak interaction
2625:, now exhibited at CERN
2107:quantum electrodynamics
1956:flavour quantum numbers
376:Electroweak interaction
6700:
6655:
6607:
6143:
5102:
5030:
4991:
4952:
4926:
4897:
4725:
4570:
4514:
4458:
4375:
4257:
4134:
3862:
3778:
3694:
3568:
3484:
3400:
3206:of complementary types
3120:pairs but neither the
3116: bosons decay to
3066:
2626:
2596:
2576:
2551:
2528:
2123:Nobel Prize in Physics
2102:
1397:
1253:All three bosons have
380:Quantum chromodynamics
324:
8867:Wave–particle duality
8857:Relativistic particle
7994:Electron antineutrino
7404:. CERN. 22 March 2023
6701:
6656:
6608:
6288:electromagnetic force
6144:
5103:
5031:
4992:
4953:
4951:{\displaystyle \,Q\,}
4927:
4898:
4726:
4571:
4515:
4459:
4376:
4258:
4135:
3863:
3779:
3695:
3569:
3485:
3401:
3067:
2920:), comprise the four
2741:The discovery of the
2684:The discovery of the
2635:particle accelerators
2617:
2597:
2577:
2552:
2529:
2269:Large Hadron Collider
2074:
1373:
1092:nuclear transmutation
871:and are each other's
410:Neutrino oscillations
330:of the Standard Model
323:
268:Weak hypercharge
8917:Elementary particles
8097:Faddeev–Popov ghosts
7847:Particles in physics
7789:at Wikimedia Commons
7660:"Observation of the
7028:on January 12, 2012.
6992:"A Model of Leptons"
6664:
6616:
6568:
6255:Grand Unified Theory
6100:
5077:
5005:
4970:
4940:
4907:
4842:
4682:
4523:
4467:
4411:
4266:
4154:
4112:
3828:
3744:
3660:
3534:
3450:
3366:
3045:
2811:(led by Rubbia) and
2631:other than neutrinos
2586:
2561:
2541:
2390:
2255:in the process. The
1952:its own antiparticle
1359:Weak neutral current
1241:strong nuclear force
1169:, respectively, the
782:elementary particles
350:Quantum field theory
328:Elementary particles
221:Electric charge
8872:Particle chauvinism
8815:Subatomic particles
7801:by Pierre Darriulat
7589:2012PhRvD..86a0001B
7564:Particle Data Group
7500:CMS document server
7457:2024EPJC...84..451L
7221:(AP), April 7, 2022
7091:1999BrJPh..29..574L
7011:1967PhRvL..19.1264W
6954:2018PhRvD..98c0001T
6887:2018PhRvD..98c0001T
6292:gravitational force
3162:branching fractions
3034:Particle Data Group
3013:University of Mainz
2643:high-energy physics
1954:. Thus, all of its
1778:of a single quark:
1231:; the hypothetical
77:Elementary particle
67:
8922:Electroweak theory
7211:Borenstein, Seth,
6696:
6651:
6603:
6290:, and because the
6213:–antilepton pair.
6139:
5142: = 0.23
5098:
5026:
4987:
4948:
4922:
4893:
4838:includes a factor
4830: bosons (see
4721:
4566:
4510:
4454:
4371:
4253:
4130:
3858:
3774:
3690:
3564:
3480:
3396:
3166:coupling constants
3062:
2987:decayed to give a
2821:stochastic cooling
2805:Simon van der Meer
2639:particle detectors
2627:
2592:
2575:{\displaystyle g'}
2572:
2547:
2524:
2522:
2481:
2433:
2168:The fact that the
2127:electroweak theory
2103:
2014:elastic scattering
1398:
325:
30:
8896:
8895:
8852:Massless particle
8660:
8659:
8656:
8655:
8621:
8620:
8484:
8483:
8296:
8295:
8292:
8291:
8244:Magnetic monopole
8192:
8191:
8083:
8082:
8024:
8023:
8004:Muon antineutrino
7989:Electron neutrino
7807:by Daniel Denegri
7785:Media related to
7576:Physical Review D
7059:978-0-09-922391-7
7005:(21): 1264–1266.
6942:Physical Review D
6875:Physical Review D
6680:
6632:
6584:
6229:List of particles
6205: boson to a
6135:
6130:
6105:
6089:
6088:
5694:Down-type quarks
4999:weak mixing angle
4964:elementary charge
4889:
4847:
4832:weak mixing angle
4793:symmetry-breaking
4367:
4344:
4314:
4284:
4271:
4249:
4232:
4202:
4172:
4159:
3936:
3935:
3843:
3759:
3675:
3549:
3465:
3381:
2595:{\displaystyle v}
2550:{\displaystyle g}
2518:
2480:
2454:
2432:
2406:
1247:Color confinement
1047:electric charge.
869:elementary charge
758:
757:
406:Hierarchy problem
402:Strong CP problem
276:
275:
256:Weak isospin
16:(Redirected from
8949:
8886:
8862:Virtual particle
8633:Mesonic molecule
8567:
8566:
8563:
8562:
8408:Bottom eta meson
8316:
8315:
8307:
8306:
8279:W′ and Z′ bosons
8269:Sterile neutrino
8254:Majorana fermion
8121:
8120:
8112:
8111:
8035:
8034:
8014:Tau antineutrino
7869:
7868:
7860:
7859:
7840:
7833:
7826:
7817:
7816:
7784:
7769:
7768:
7742:
7722:
7721:
7715:
7714:
7713:
7706:
7705:
7698:
7697:
7696:
7689:
7688:
7680:
7678:
7677:
7676:
7669:
7668:
7655:
7649:
7648:
7646:
7645:
7639:
7632:
7623:
7617:
7616:
7614:
7613:
7607:
7600:
7572:
7559:
7553:
7552:
7550:
7549:
7534:
7528:
7527:
7525:
7524:
7510:
7504:
7503:
7491:
7485:
7475:
7469:
7468:
7450:
7429:
7423:
7420:
7414:
7413:
7411:
7409:
7402:ATLAS experiment
7394:
7388:
7387:
7385:
7383:
7368:
7362:
7361:
7359:
7358:
7343:
7337:
7336:
7334:
7332:
7315:
7309:
7308:
7306:
7304:
7287:
7276:
7275:
7273:
7271:
7254:
7248:
7247:
7245:
7243:
7231:
7222:
7219:Associated Press
7209:
7203:
7197:
7191:
7190:
7183:
7177:
7176:
7174:
7173:
7164:. Archived from
7158:
7152:
7151:
7140:
7134:
7133:
7130:Nobel Foundation
7122:
7113:
7112:
7102:
7070:
7064:
7063:
7047:
7037:
7031:
7029:
7027:
7021:. Archived from
6996:
6988:Weinberg, Steven
6984:
6978:
6977:
6975:
6965:
6933:
6924:
6917:
6911:
6910:
6908:
6898:
6866:
6847:
6845:
6844:
6843:
6837:
6834:
6833:
6826:
6825:
6824:
6817:
6816:
6808:
6807:
6806:
6799:
6798:
6790:
6789:
6788:
6782:
6779:
6778:
6770:
6769:
6768:
6761:
6760:
6753:The mass of the
6751:
6745:
6735:
6728:
6720:
6711:
6705:
6703:
6702:
6697:
6694:
6693:
6688:
6682:
6681:
6678:
6672:
6660:
6658:
6657:
6652:
6646:
6645:
6640:
6634:
6633:
6630:
6624:
6612:
6610:
6609:
6604:
6598:
6597:
6592:
6586:
6585:
6582:
6576:
6560:
6559:
6558:
6551:
6550:
6543:
6542:
6541:
6534:
6533:
6522:
6521:
6520:
6513:
6512:
6505:
6504:
6503:
6496:
6495:
6484:
6483:
6482:
6475:
6474:
6467:
6466:
6465:
6458:
6457:
6448:
6442:
6441:
6439:
6438:
6437:
6430:
6429:
6420:
6418:
6417:
6416:
6409:
6408:
6397:
6391:
6387:José Leite Lopes
6384:
6383:
6382:
6375:
6374:
6365:
6356:
6354:
6353:
6352:
6345:
6344:
6331:
6325:
6323:
6322:
6321:
6314:
6313:
6280:
6265:
6245:W′ and Z′ bosons
6204:
6203:
6202:
6195:
6194:
6175:
6174:
6167:
6166:
6148:
6146:
6145:
6140:
6133:
6132:
6131:
6128:
6121:
6120:
6103:
6085:
6083:
6076:
6071:
6069:
6066:
6064:
6063:
6060:
6057:
6049:
6047:
6044:
6042:
6041:
6038:
6035:
6028:
6026:
6025:
6022:
6019:
6009:
6006:
6004:
6003:
6000:
5997:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5982:
5979:
5976:
5969:
5967:
5966:
5963:
5960:
5952:
5951:
5950:
5943:
5942:
5934:
5933:
5932:
5925:
5924:
5914:
5913:
5912:
5905:
5904:
5897:
5884:
5882:
5875:
5870:
5868:
5865:
5863:
5862:
5859:
5856:
5848:
5846:
5843:
5841:
5840:
5837:
5834:
5827:
5825:
5824:
5821:
5818:
5808:
5805:
5803:
5802:
5799:
5796:
5788:
5787:
5784:
5782:
5781:
5778:
5775:
5768:
5766:
5765:
5762:
5759:
5749:
5748:
5747:
5740:
5739:
5731:
5730:
5729:
5722:
5721:
5713:
5712:
5711:
5704:
5703:
5689:
5687:
5680:
5666:
5664:
5657:
5652:
5651:
5646:
5644:
5640:
5638:
5637:
5634:
5631:
5621:
5616:
5615:
5611:
5609:
5608:
5605:
5602:
5592:
5591:
5590:
5583:
5582:
5568:
5566:
5559:
5554:
5553:
5548:
5546:
5542:
5540:
5539:
5536:
5533:
5523:
5518:
5514:
5512:
5511:
5508:
5505:
5496:
5495:
5494:
5487:
5486:
5472:
5470:
5463:
5458:
5457:
5452:
5450:
5446:
5444:
5443:
5440:
5437:
5427:
5422:
5418:
5416:
5415:
5412:
5409:
5400:
5399:
5398:
5391:
5390:
5376:
5374:
5367:
5362:
5361:
5356:
5354:
5350:
5348:
5347:
5344:
5341:
5329:
5328:
5327:
5320:
5319:
5311:
5310:
5309:
5302:
5301:
5293:
5292:
5291:
5284:
5283:
5266:
5264:
5257:
5252:
5250:
5248:
5247:
5244:
5241:
5228:
5226:
5225:
5222:
5219:
5211:
5210:
5209:
5201:
5200:
5192:
5191:
5190:
5182:
5181:
5173:
5172:
5171:
5163:
5162:
5141:
5135:
5134:
5128:
5127:
5113:Branching ratio
5110:Relative factor
5107:
5105:
5104:
5099:
5093:
5092:
5065:
5064:
5035:
5033:
5032:
5027:
5021:
5020:
4996:
4994:
4993:
4988:
4985:
4984:
4983:
4957:
4955:
4954:
4949:
4931:
4929:
4928:
4923:
4920:
4919:
4902:
4900:
4899:
4894:
4887:
4886:
4885:
4884:
4873:
4872:
4857:
4856:
4845:
4829:
4828:
4827:
4820:
4819:
4811:
4810:
4809:
4802:
4801:
4790:
4789:
4788:
4781:
4780:
4770:
4769:
4768:
4761:
4760:
4739:
4737:
4735:
4730:
4728:
4727:
4722:
4713:
4712:
4707:
4701:
4700:
4676:
4674:
4664:
4663:
4662:
4656:
4653:
4652:
4645:
4644:
4643:
4636:
4635:
4627:
4626:
4625:
4619:
4616:
4615:
4608:
4607:
4606:
4599:
4598:
4590:
4588:
4587:
4584:
4581:
4575:
4573:
4572:
4567:
4558:
4557:
4556:
4550:
4544:
4543:
4538:
4519:
4517:
4516:
4511:
4502:
4501:
4500:
4494:
4488:
4487:
4482:
4463:
4461:
4460:
4455:
4446:
4445:
4444:
4438:
4432:
4431:
4426:
4406:
4405:
4404:
4397:
4396:
4387:branching ratios
4384:
4380:
4378:
4377:
4372:
4365:
4358:
4357:
4352:
4346:
4345:
4342:
4336:
4328:
4327:
4322:
4316:
4315:
4312:
4306:
4298:
4297:
4292:
4286:
4285:
4282:
4276:
4269:
4262:
4260:
4259:
4254:
4247:
4246:
4245:
4240:
4234:
4233:
4230:
4224:
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3032:In May 2024 the
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2817:Pierre Darriulat
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1147:Basic properties
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955:particle physics
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789:weak interaction
762:particle physics
750:
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342:Particle physics
295:
286:particle physics
278:
277:
225:W: ±1
215:
213:
206:
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192:Decay width
186:
182:0.0021 GeV/
181:
173:
165:
146:collaborations,
111:Weak interaction
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8830:Nuclear physics
8779:
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8679:Davydov soliton
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7297:Quanta Magazine
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5806:
5800:
5797:
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5793:
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5785:
5779:
5776:
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5772:
5770:
5763:
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5752:
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5708:
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5678:
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5635:
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5300:
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5296:
5295:
5290:
5288:
5287:
5286:
5282:
5280:
5279:
5278:
5277:
5272:Charged leptons
5262:
5260:
5255:
5245:
5242:
5239:
5238:
5236:
5234:
5223:
5220:
5217:
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5074:
5016:
5012:
5006:
5003:
5002:
4979:
4978:
4974:
4971:
4968:
4967:
4960:electric charge
4941:
4938:
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4911:
4908:
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4880:
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4868:
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4759:
4757:
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4751:
4745:
4733:
4731:
4708:
4703:
4702:
4696:
4692:
4683:
4680:
4679:
4678:
4672:
4670:
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4477:
4468:
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4427:
4422:
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4412:
4409:
4408:
4403:
4401:
4400:
4399:
4395:
4393:
4392:
4391:
4390:
4382:
4353:
4348:
4347:
4341:
4337:
4332:
4323:
4318:
4317:
4311:
4307:
4302:
4293:
4288:
4287:
4281:
4277:
4272:
4267:
4264:
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3990:
3988:
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3341:
3337:
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3333:
3329:
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3325:
3324:
3315:
3312:
3311:
3310:
3306:
3304:
3303:
3302:
3301:
3297:
3295:
3294:
3293:
3289:
3287:
3286:
3285:
3284:
3265:
3260:
3259:
3240:
3237:
3234:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3221:
3218:
3215:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3196:can decay to a
3190:
3188:
3187:
3186:
3182:
3180:
3179:
3178:
3177:
3174:
3152:
3150:
3149:
3148:
3144:
3142:
3141:
3140:
3139:
3134:
3132:
3131:
3130:
3126:
3124:
3123:
3122:
3121:
3112:
3110:
3109:
3108:
3104:
3102:
3101:
3100:
3099:
3094:
3092:
3091:
3090:
3086:
3084:
3083:
3082:
3081:
3078:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3042:
3024:
3021:
3019:
2984:Duke University
2980:Ashutosh Kotwal
2978:. According to
2969:
2966:
2964:
2948:
2945:
2943:
2940:
2934:
2916:
2914:
2913:
2912:
2908:
2906:
2905:
2904:
2903:
2898:
2896:
2895:
2894:
2890:
2888:
2887:
2886:
2885:
2880:
2878:
2877:
2876:
2872:
2870:
2869:
2868:
2867:
2862:
2860:
2859:
2858:
2854:
2852:
2851:
2850:
2849:
2837:
2835:
2834:
2833:
2829:
2827:
2826:
2825:
2824:
2795:
2793:
2792:
2791:
2787:
2785:
2784:
2783:
2782:
2773:
2771:
2770:
2769:
2765:
2763:
2762:
2761:
2760:
2755:
2753:
2752:
2751:
2747:
2745:
2744:
2743:
2742:
2734:
2732:
2731:
2730:
2726:
2724:
2723:
2722:
2721:
2716:
2714:
2713:
2712:
2708:
2706:
2705:
2704:
2703:
2698:
2696:
2695:
2694:
2690:
2688:
2687:
2686:
2685:
2677:
2675:
2674:
2673:
2669:
2667:
2666:
2665:
2664:
2659:
2657:
2656:
2655:
2651:
2649:
2648:
2647:
2646:
2612:
2587:
2584:
2583:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2558:
2542:
2539:
2538:
2521:
2520:
2512:
2503:
2502:
2501:
2492:
2488:
2486:
2471:
2464:
2456:
2451:
2450:
2449:
2445:
2442:
2441:
2423:
2416:
2408:
2403:
2402:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2387:
2379:
2377:
2376:
2375:
2371:
2369:
2368:
2367:
2366:
2361:
2359:
2358:
2357:
2353:
2351:
2350:
2349:
2348:
2325:
2323:
2322:
2321:
2317:
2315:
2314:
2313:
2312:
2307:
2305:
2304:
2303:
2299:
2297:
2296:
2295:
2294:
2289:
2287:
2286:
2285:
2281:
2279:
2278:
2277:
2276:
2273:Goldstone boson
2257:Higgs mechanism
2251:
2249:
2248:
2247:
2243:
2241:
2240:
2239:
2238:
2233:
2231:
2230:
2229:
2225:
2223:
2222:
2221:
2220:
2200:
2198:
2197:
2196:
2192:
2190:
2189:
2188:
2187:
2182:
2180:
2179:
2178:
2174:
2172:
2171:
2170:
2169:
2161:
2159:
2158:
2157:
2153:
2151:
2150:
2149:
2148:
2143:
2141:
2140:
2139:
2135:
2133:
2132:
2131:
2130:
2115:Steven Weinberg
2111:Sheldon Glashow
2093:
2091:
2090:
2089:
2085:
2083:
2082:
2081:
2080:
2077:Feynman diagram
2069:
2048:
2046:
2045:
2044:
2040:
2038:
2037:
2036:
2035:
2030:
2028:
2027:
2026:
2022:
2020:
2019:
2018:
2017:
2004:
2002:
2001:
2000:
1996:
1994:
1993:
1992:
1991:
1982:neutral current
1976:
1974:
1973:
1972:
1968:
1966:
1965:
1964:
1963:
1950: boson is
1946:
1944:
1943:
1942:
1938:
1936:
1935:
1934:
1933:
1930:
1919:
1916:
1915:
1914:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1905:
1904:
1902:
1896:
1894:
1893:
1892:
1888:
1886:
1885:
1884:
1882:
1877:
1875:
1874:
1873:
1869:
1867:
1866:
1865:
1864:
1856:
1854:
1853:
1852:
1848:
1846:
1845:
1844:
1843:
1835:
1833:
1832:
1831:
1827:
1825:
1824:
1823:
1822:
1816:
1814:
1813:
1812:
1808:
1806:
1805:
1804:
1802:
1796:
1794:
1793:
1792:
1788:
1786:
1785:
1784:
1782:
1770:
1768:
1767:
1766:
1762:
1760:
1759:
1758:
1757:
1753:
1751:
1750:
1749:
1745:
1743:
1742:
1741:
1740:
1736:
1734:
1733:
1732:
1728:
1726:
1725:
1724:
1723:
1718:
1716:
1715:
1714:
1710:
1708:
1707:
1706:
1705:
1701:
1699:
1698:
1697:
1693:
1691:
1690:
1689:
1688:
1684:
1682:
1681:
1680:
1676:
1674:
1673:
1672:
1671:
1654:
1651:
1650:
1649:
1646:
1643:
1641:
1640:
1639:
1637:
1631:
1629:
1628:
1627:
1623:
1621:
1620:
1619:
1617:
1611:
1609:
1608:
1607:
1603:
1601:
1600:
1599:
1597:
1591:
1589:
1588:
1587:
1583:
1581:
1580:
1579:
1577:
1557:
1554:
1553:
1552:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1543:
1542:
1540:
1534:
1532:
1531:
1530:
1526:
1524:
1523:
1522:
1520:
1514:
1512:
1511:
1510:
1506:
1503:
1502:
1501:
1499:
1493:
1491:
1490:
1489:
1485:
1482:
1481:
1480:
1478:
1458:
1456:
1455:
1454:
1450:
1448:
1447:
1446:
1445:
1442:
1432:
1430:
1429:
1428:
1424:
1422:
1421:
1420:
1419:
1414:
1412:
1411:
1410:
1406:
1404:
1403:
1402:
1401:
1392:
1390:
1389:
1388:
1384:
1382:
1381:
1380:
1379:
1376:Feynman diagram
1368:
1352:
1350:
1349:
1348:
1344:
1342:
1341:
1340:
1339:
1310:
1308:
1307:
1306:
1302:
1300:
1299:
1298:
1297:
1292:
1290:
1289:
1288:
1284:
1282:
1281:
1280:
1279:
1274:
1272:
1271:
1270:
1266:
1264:
1263:
1262:
1261:
1201:
1199:
1198:
1197:
1193:
1191:
1190:
1189:
1188:
1183:
1181:
1180:
1179:
1175:
1173:
1172:
1171:
1170:
1163:
1156:
1149:
1139:
1137:
1136:
1135:
1131:
1129:
1128:
1127:
1126:
1123:bubble chambers
1111:
1109:
1108:
1107:
1103:
1101:
1100:
1099:
1098:
1086:
1084:
1083:
1082:
1078:
1076:
1075:
1074:
1073:
1064:
1062:
1061:
1060:
1056:
1054:
1053:
1052:
1051:
1039:
1037:
1036:
1035:
1031:
1029:
1028:
1027:
1026:
1021:
1019:
1018:
1017:
1013:
1011:
1010:
1009:
1008:
1003:
1001:
1000:
999:
995:
993:
992:
991:
990:
987:Steven Weinberg
974:
972:
971:
970:
966:
964:
963:
962:
961:
944:
942:
933:
931:
930:
929:
925:
923:
922:
921:
920:
915:
913:
912:
911:
907:
905:
904:
903:
902:
889:
887:
886:
885:
881:
879:
878:
877:
876:
865:electric charge
859:
857:
856:
855:
851:
849:
848:
847:
846:
841:
839:
838:
837:
833:
831:
830:
829:
828:
823:
821:
820:
819:
815:
813:
812:
811:
810:
805:
803:
802:
801:
797:
795:
794:
793:
792:
754:
725:
724:
425:
417:
416:
412:
408:
404:
399:
391:
390:
386:
382:
378:
373:
365:
364:
362:Higgs mechanism
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
339:
331:
322:
293:
261:
232:Z: 0
231:
214:0.0023 GeV
211:
209:
207:
199:
197:
179:
177:
175:
163:
161:
62:
60:
59:
58:
54:
52:
51:
50:
49:
44:
42:
41:
40:
36:
34:
33:
32:
31:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
8955:
8945:
8944:
8939:
8937:Force carriers
8934:
8932:Standard Model
8929:
8924:
8919:
8914:
8894:
8893:
8889:Physics portal
8881:
8878:
8877:
8875:
8874:
8869:
8864:
8859:
8854:
8849:
8844:
8843:
8842:
8832:
8827:
8822:
8817:
8812:
8811:
8810:
8803:Standard Model
8800:
8799:
8798:
8787:
8785:
8781:
8780:
8778:
8777:
8772:
8770:Quasiparticles
8767:
8762:
8757:
8751:
8749:
8745:
8744:
8742:
8741:
8736:
8731:
8726:
8721:
8716:
8711:
8706:
8701:
8696:
8691:
8686:
8681:
8676:
8670:
8668:
8666:Quasiparticles
8662:
8661:
8658:
8657:
8654:
8653:
8651:
8650:
8645:
8640:
8635:
8629:
8627:
8623:
8622:
8619:
8618:
8616:
8615:
8610:
8605:
8599:
8597:
8593:
8592:
8590:
8589:
8584:
8579:
8573:
8571:
8560:
8554:
8553:
8551:
8550:
8545:
8540:
8539:
8538:
8533:
8528:
8523:
8518:
8513:
8503:
8498:
8492:
8490:
8486:
8485:
8482:
8481:
8479:
8478:
8473:
8462:
8460:
8458:Exotic hadrons
8454:
8453:
8451:
8450:
8445:
8440:
8435:
8430:
8425:
8420:
8415:
8410:
8405:
8400:
8395:
8389:
8387:
8381:
8380:
8378:
8377:
8372:
8367:
8362:
8357:
8352:
8351:
8350:
8345:
8340:
8335:
8324:
8322:
8313:
8304:
8298:
8297:
8294:
8293:
8290:
8289:
8287:
8286:
8284:X and Y bosons
8281:
8276:
8271:
8266:
8261:
8256:
8251:
8246:
8241:
8236:
8231:
8226:
8221:
8216:
8211:
8206:
8200:
8198:
8194:
8193:
8190:
8189:
8187:
8186:
8176:
8171:
8166:
8161:
8155:
8153:
8149:
8148:
8146:
8145:
8140:
8135:
8129:
8127:
8118:
8109:
8103:
8102:
8100:
8099:
8093:
8091:
8085:
8084:
8081:
8080:
8078:
8077:
8071:
8069:
8063:
8062:
8060:
8059:
8057:W and Z bosons
8054:
8049:
8043:
8041:
8032:
8026:
8025:
8022:
8021:
8019:
8018:
8017:
8016:
8011:
8006:
8001:
7996:
7991:
7981:
7976:
7971:
7966:
7961:
7956:
7950:
7948:
7942:
7941:
7939:
7938:
7933:
7928:
7923:
7918:
7913:
7911:Strange (quark
7908:
7903:
7898:
7893:
7888:
7883:
7877:
7875:
7866:
7857:
7851:
7850:
7843:
7842:
7835:
7828:
7820:
7814:
7813:
7808:
7802:
7796:
7790:
7787:W and Z bosons
7776:
7775:External links
7773:
7771:
7770:
7733:(14): 141801.
7723:= 13 TeV"
7716:collisions at
7711:
7703:
7694:
7686:
7674:
7666:
7650:
7618:
7554:
7529:
7505:
7486:
7470:
7424:
7415:
7389:
7363:
7338:
7310:
7277:
7249:
7223:
7204:
7192:
7178:
7153:
7135:
7114:
7085:(3): 574–578.
7065:
7058:
7032:
6979:
6925:
6912:
6857:
6855:
6852:
6849:
6848:
6841:
6831:
6822:
6814:
6804:
6796:
6786:
6776:
6766:
6758:
6746:
6729:
6712:
6692:
6687:
6676:
6671:
6650:
6644:
6639:
6628:
6623:
6602:
6596:
6591:
6580:
6575:
6561:
6556:
6548:
6539:
6531:
6523:
6518:
6510:
6501:
6493:
6485:
6480:
6472:
6463:
6455:
6443:
6435:
6427:
6414:
6406:
6392:
6380:
6372:
6357:
6350:
6342:
6326:
6319:
6311:
6274:
6273:
6271:
6268:
6267:
6266:
6257:
6251:X and Y bosons
6248:
6242:
6237:
6231:
6226:
6218:
6215:
6200:
6192:
6185:
6184:
6183:
6182:
6159:
6149:
6138:
6126:
6119:
6115:
6111:
6108:
6091:
6090:
6087:
6086:
6077:
6072:
6010:
5989:
5953:
5948:
5940:
5930:
5922:
5916:
5910:
5902:
5889:Up-type quarks
5886:
5885:
5876:
5871:
5809:
5789:
5750:
5745:
5737:
5727:
5719:
5709:
5701:
5695:
5691:
5690:
5681:
5676:
5674:
5668:
5667:
5658:
5653:
5622:
5617:
5593:
5588:
5580:
5574:
5570:
5569:
5560:
5555:
5524:
5519:
5497:
5492:
5484:
5478:
5474:
5473:
5464:
5459:
5428:
5423:
5401:
5396:
5388:
5382:
5378:
5377:
5368:
5363:
5332:
5330:
5325:
5317:
5307:
5299:
5289:
5281:
5275:
5268:
5267:
5258:
5253:
5232:
5229:
5212:
5206:
5198:
5187:
5179:
5168:
5160:
5154:
5147:
5146:
5143:
5138:Predicted for
5136:
5129:
5122:
5119:
5115:
5114:
5111:
5108:
5097:
5091:
5087:
5082:
5069:
5025:
5019:
5015:
5010:
4982:
4977:
4946:
4918:
4914:
4892:
4883:
4878:
4871:
4867:
4863:
4860:
4855:
4851:
4825:
4817:
4807:
4799:
4786:
4778:
4766:
4758:
4744:
4741:
4719:
4716:
4711:
4706:
4699:
4695:
4691:
4688:
4660:
4650:
4641:
4633:
4623:
4613:
4604:
4596:
4564:
4561:
4555:
4549:
4542:
4537:
4532:
4529:
4508:
4505:
4499:
4493:
4486:
4481:
4476:
4473:
4452:
4449:
4443:
4437:
4430:
4425:
4420:
4417:
4402:
4394:
4370:
4364:
4361:
4356:
4351:
4340:
4335:
4331:
4326:
4321:
4310:
4305:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4280:
4275:
4252:
4244:
4239:
4228:
4223:
4219:
4214:
4209:
4198:
4193:
4189:
4184:
4179:
4168:
4163:
4144:coefficients.
4126:
4123:
4119:
4105:
4092:
4082:
4072:
4064:
4053:
4045:
4034:
4026:
4015:
4007:
3989:
3981:
3971:
3963:
3953:
3945:
3938:
3937:
3934:
3933:
3927:
3919:
3910:
3907:
3901:
3893:
3884:
3876:
3869:
3868:
3855:
3850:
3839:
3834:
3822:
3817:
3807:
3798:
3790:
3784:
3771:
3766:
3755:
3750:
3738:
3733:
3723:
3714:
3706:
3700:
3687:
3682:
3671:
3666:
3654:
3649:
3639:
3630:
3622:
3616:
3613:
3607:
3599:
3590:
3582:
3575:
3574:
3561:
3556:
3545:
3540:
3528:
3523:
3513:
3504:
3496:
3490:
3477:
3472:
3461:
3456:
3444:
3439:
3429:
3420:
3412:
3406:
3393:
3388:
3377:
3372:
3360:
3355:
3345:
3336:
3328:
3322:
3319:
3313:
3305:
3296:
3288:
3281:
3280:
3277:
3263:
3204:and antiquark
3189:
3181:
3173:
3170:
3151:
3143:
3133:
3125:
3111:
3103:
3093:
3085:
3077:
3074:
3061:
3058:
3055:
3051:
2933:
2930:
2915:
2907:
2897:
2889:
2879:
2871:
2861:
2853:
2836:
2828:
2794:
2786:
2772:
2764:
2754:
2746:
2733:
2725:
2715:
2707:
2697:
2689:
2676:
2668:
2658:
2650:
2632:
2623:bubble chamber
2611:
2608:
2591:
2570:
2567:
2546:
2535:
2534:
2515:
2509:
2506:
2500:
2495:
2491:
2485:
2479:
2476:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2459:
2448:
2444:
2443:
2440:
2437:
2431:
2428:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2411:
2400:
2396:
2395:
2378:
2370:
2360:
2352:
2324:
2316:
2306:
2298:
2288:
2280:
2250:
2242:
2232:
2224:
2199:
2191:
2181:
2173:
2160:
2152:
2142:
2134:
2092:
2084:
2068:
2065:
2057:bubble chamber
2047:
2039:
2029:
2021:
2003:
1995:
1975:
1967:
1945:
1937:
1929:
1926:
1925:
1924:
1917:
1907:
1895:
1887:
1876:
1868:
1855:
1847:
1840:
1839:
1834:
1826:
1815:
1807:
1795:
1787:
1769:
1761:
1752:
1744:
1735:
1727:
1717:
1709:
1700:
1692:
1683:
1675:
1660:
1659:
1652:
1642:
1630:
1622:
1610:
1602:
1590:
1582:
1563:
1562:
1555:
1545:
1533:
1525:
1513:
1504:
1492:
1483:
1457:
1449:
1441:
1438:
1431:
1423:
1413:
1405:
1391:
1383:
1367:
1364:
1351:
1343:
1309:
1301:
1291:
1283:
1273:
1265:
1200:
1192:
1182:
1174:
1164:91.2 GeV/
1157:80.4 GeV/
1148:
1145:
1138:
1130:
1110:
1102:
1085:
1077:
1063:
1055:
1038:
1030:
1020:
1012:
1002:
994:
973:
965:
951:Standard Model
932:
924:
914:
906:
888:
880:
858:
850:
840:
832:
822:
814:
804:
796:
766:W and Z bosons
756:
755:
753:
752:
745:
738:
730:
727:
726:
723:
722:
717:
712:
707:
702:
697:
692:
687:
682:
677:
672:
667:
662:
657:
652:
647:
642:
637:
632:
627:
622:
617:
612:
607:
602:
597:
592:
587:
582:
577:
572:
567:
562:
557:
552:
547:
542:
537:
532:
527:
522:
517:
512:
507:
502:
497:
492:
487:
482:
477:
472:
467:
462:
457:
452:
447:
442:
437:
432:
426:
423:
422:
419:
418:
400:
397:
396:
393:
392:
374:
371:
370:
367:
366:
346:Standard Model
340:
337:
336:
333:
332:
326:
289:
288:
282:Standard Model
274:
273:
270:
264:
263:
258:
252:
251:
243:
237:
236:
223:
217:
216:
194:
188:
187:
158:
152:
151:
137:
133:
132:
118:
114:
113:
108:
102:
101:
96:
92:
91:
86:
80:
79:
74:
61:
53:
43:
35:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8954:
8943:
8940:
8938:
8935:
8933:
8930:
8928:
8925:
8923:
8920:
8918:
8915:
8913:
8910:
8909:
8907:
8900:
8891:
8890:
8885:
8879:
8873:
8870:
8868:
8865:
8863:
8860:
8858:
8855:
8853:
8850:
8848:
8847:Exotic matter
8845:
8841:
8838:
8837:
8836:
8835:Eightfold way
8833:
8831:
8828:
8826:
8825:Antiparticles
8823:
8821:
8818:
8816:
8813:
8809:
8806:
8805:
8804:
8801:
8797:
8794:
8793:
8792:
8789:
8788:
8786:
8782:
8776:
8773:
8771:
8768:
8766:
8763:
8761:
8758:
8756:
8753:
8752:
8750:
8746:
8740:
8737:
8735:
8732:
8730:
8727:
8725:
8722:
8720:
8717:
8715:
8712:
8710:
8707:
8705:
8702:
8700:
8697:
8695:
8692:
8690:
8687:
8685:
8682:
8680:
8677:
8675:
8672:
8671:
8669:
8667:
8663:
8649:
8646:
8644:
8641:
8639:
8636:
8634:
8631:
8630:
8628:
8624:
8614:
8611:
8609:
8606:
8604:
8601:
8600:
8598:
8594:
8588:
8585:
8583:
8580:
8578:
8575:
8574:
8572:
8568:
8564:
8561:
8559:
8555:
8549:
8546:
8544:
8541:
8537:
8534:
8532:
8529:
8527:
8524:
8522:
8519:
8517:
8514:
8512:
8509:
8508:
8507:
8504:
8502:
8499:
8497:
8496:Atomic nuclei
8494:
8493:
8491:
8487:
8477:
8474:
8471:
8467:
8464:
8463:
8461:
8459:
8455:
8449:
8446:
8444:
8441:
8439:
8436:
8434:
8431:
8429:
8428:Upsilon meson
8426:
8424:
8421:
8419:
8416:
8414:
8411:
8409:
8406:
8404:
8401:
8399:
8396:
8394:
8391:
8390:
8388:
8386:
8382:
8376:
8373:
8371:
8368:
8366:
8363:
8361:
8360:Lambda baryon
8358:
8356:
8353:
8349:
8346:
8344:
8341:
8339:
8336:
8334:
8331:
8330:
8329:
8326:
8325:
8323:
8321:
8317:
8314:
8312:
8308:
8305:
8303:
8299:
8285:
8282:
8280:
8277:
8275:
8272:
8270:
8267:
8265:
8262:
8260:
8257:
8255:
8252:
8250:
8247:
8245:
8242:
8240:
8237:
8235:
8232:
8230:
8227:
8225:
8222:
8220:
8219:Dual graviton
8217:
8215:
8212:
8210:
8207:
8205:
8202:
8201:
8199:
8195:
8184:
8180:
8177:
8175:
8172:
8170:
8167:
8165:
8162:
8160:
8157:
8156:
8154:
8150:
8144:
8141:
8139:
8136:
8134:
8131:
8130:
8128:
8126:
8122:
8119:
8117:
8116:Superpartners
8113:
8110:
8108:
8104:
8098:
8095:
8094:
8092:
8090:
8086:
8076:
8073:
8072:
8070:
8068:
8064:
8058:
8055:
8053:
8050:
8048:
8045:
8044:
8042:
8040:
8036:
8033:
8031:
8027:
8015:
8012:
8010:
8007:
8005:
8002:
8000:
7999:Muon neutrino
7997:
7995:
7992:
7990:
7987:
7986:
7985:
7982:
7980:
7977:
7975:
7972:
7970:
7967:
7965:
7962:
7960:
7957:
7955:
7952:
7951:
7949:
7947:
7943:
7937:
7934:
7932:
7931:Bottom (quark
7929:
7927:
7924:
7922:
7919:
7917:
7914:
7912:
7909:
7907:
7904:
7902:
7899:
7897:
7894:
7892:
7889:
7887:
7884:
7882:
7879:
7878:
7876:
7874:
7870:
7867:
7865:
7861:
7858:
7856:
7852:
7848:
7841:
7836:
7834:
7829:
7827:
7822:
7821:
7818:
7812:
7809:
7806:
7803:
7800:
7797:
7794:
7791:
7788:
7783:
7779:
7778:
7766:
7762:
7758:
7754:
7750:
7746:
7741:
7736:
7732:
7728:
7724:
7654:
7636:
7629:
7622:
7604:
7599:
7594:
7590:
7586:
7582:
7578:
7577:
7569:
7565:
7558:
7543:
7539:
7533:
7519:
7515:
7509:
7501:
7497:
7490:
7484:
7480:
7474:
7466:
7462:
7458:
7454:
7449:
7444:
7440:
7436:
7428:
7419:
7403:
7399:
7393:
7378:
7374:
7367:
7353:
7349:
7342:
7327:
7326:
7321:
7314:
7299:
7298:
7293:
7286:
7284:
7282:
7266:
7265:
7264:Physics World
7260:
7253:
7237:
7230:
7228:
7220:
7216:
7215:
7208:
7202:
7196:
7188:
7182:
7168:on 2013-06-04
7167:
7163:
7157:
7149:
7145:
7139:
7131:
7127:
7121:
7119:
7110:
7106:
7101:
7096:
7092:
7088:
7084:
7080:
7076:
7069:
7061:
7055:
7051:
7046:
7045:
7036:
7024:
7020:
7016:
7012:
7008:
7004:
7000:
6993:
6989:
6983:
6974:
6973:10044/1/68623
6969:
6964:
6959:
6955:
6951:
6948:(3): 030001.
6947:
6943:
6939:
6932:
6930:
6922:
6916:
6907:
6906:10044/1/68623
6902:
6897:
6892:
6888:
6884:
6881:(3): 030001.
6880:
6876:
6872:
6865:
6863:
6858:
6771:quark plus a
6750:
6743:
6739:
6725:
6719:
6717:
6709:
6690:
6674:
6648:
6642:
6626:
6600:
6594:
6578:
6447:
6399:Specifically:
6396:
6388:
6364:
6362:
6336:
6333:However, see
6330:
6305:
6301:
6299:
6293:
6289:
6285:
6279:
6275:
6261:
6258:
6256:
6252:
6249:
6246:
6243:
6241:
6238:
6235:
6232:
6230:
6227:
6224:
6221:
6220:
6214:
6212:
6208:
6180:
6176:
6168:
6160:
6157:
6153:
6150:
6136:
6124:
6117:
6113:
6109:
6106:
6095:
6094:
6093:
6092:
6078:
6073:
6011:
5990:
5954:
5917:
5895:
5887:
5877:
5872:
5810:
5790:
5751:
5696:
5692:
5682:
5677:
5673:
5669:
5659:
5654:
5623:
5618:
5594:
5575:
5571:
5561:
5556:
5525:
5520:
5498:
5479:
5475:
5465:
5460:
5429:
5424:
5402:
5383:
5379:
5369:
5364:
5333:
5276:
5273:
5269:
5259:
5254:
5233:
5230:
5213:
5155:
5152:
5148:
5144:
5137:
5130:
5123:
5120:
5117:
5116:
5089:
5085:
5073:
5066:
5063:
5062:
5061:
5059:
5054:
5050:
5045:
5043:
5039:
5017:
5013:
5000:
4975:
4965:
4961:
4944:
4935:
4916:
4912:
4890:
4876:
4869:
4865:
4861:
4858:
4853:
4849:
4837:
4836:vertex factor
4833:
4794:
4772:
4750:
4740:
4717:
4709:
4704:
4697:
4693:
4686:
4668:
4562:
4553:
4547:
4540:
4535:
4527:
4506:
4497:
4491:
4484:
4479:
4471:
4450:
4435:
4428:
4415:
4388:
4368:
4362:
4359:
4354:
4338:
4329:
4324:
4308:
4299:
4294:
4278:
4250:
4242:
4226:
4217:
4212:
4196:
4187:
4182:
4166:
4149:
4145:
4143:
4124:
4121:
4117:
4100:
4097:, all denote
4001:
3997:
3914:
3908:
3871:
3870:
3853:
3837:
3823:
3785:
3769:
3753:
3739:
3701:
3685:
3669:
3655:
3617:
3614:
3577:
3576:
3559:
3543:
3529:
3491:
3475:
3459:
3445:
3407:
3391:
3375:
3361:
3323:
3320:
3283:
3282:
3274:
3271:
3270:
3269:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3169:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3119:
3073:
3059:
3056:
3038:
3035:
3030:
3016:
3014:
3010:
3009:Joseph Lykken
3004:
3002:
3001:Frank Wilczek
2998:
2997:supersymmetry
2994:
2990:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2962:
2959:
2954:
2939:
2929:
2927:
2923:
2846:
2844:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2780:
2739:
2682:
2681: boson.
2644:
2640:
2636:
2630:
2624:
2621:
2616:
2607:
2605:
2602:is the Higgs
2589:
2568:
2565:
2544:
2513:
2507:
2504:
2498:
2493:
2489:
2483:
2477:
2474:
2468:
2466:
2457:
2446:
2438:
2435:
2429:
2426:
2420:
2418:
2409:
2398:
2386:
2385:
2384:
2345:
2344:experiments.
2343:
2339:
2335:
2330:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2207:
2166:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2100:
2078:
2073:
2064:
2062:
2058:
2055:
2015:
2011:
1989:
1987:
1983:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1922:
1899:
1863:
1862:
1861:
1819:
1799:
1781:
1780:
1779:
1777:
1669:
1665:
1657:
1634:
1614:
1594:
1576:
1575:
1574:
1572:
1571:beta particle
1568:
1560:
1537:
1517:
1496:
1477:
1476:
1475:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1464:nuclear decay
1437:
1377:
1372:
1363:
1361:
1360:
1337:
1333:
1332:baryon number
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1316:strange quark
1259:
1256:
1255:particle spin
1251:
1249:
1248:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1225:force carrier
1222:
1217:
1215:
1212:
1208:
1167:
1160:
1154:
1144:
1124:
1120:
1119:
1095:
1093:
1071:
1048:
1046:
988:
985:
981:
958:
956:
952:
940:
900:
896:
874:
873:antiparticles
870:
866:
790:
786:
783:
779:
775:
771:
770:vector bosons
767:
763:
751:
746:
744:
739:
737:
732:
731:
729:
728:
721:
718:
716:
713:
711:
708:
706:
703:
701:
698:
696:
693:
691:
688:
686:
683:
681:
678:
676:
673:
671:
668:
666:
663:
661:
658:
656:
653:
651:
648:
646:
643:
641:
638:
636:
633:
631:
628:
626:
623:
621:
618:
616:
613:
611:
608:
606:
603:
601:
598:
596:
593:
591:
588:
586:
583:
581:
578:
576:
573:
571:
568:
566:
563:
561:
558:
556:
553:
551:
548:
546:
543:
541:
538:
536:
533:
531:
528:
526:
523:
521:
518:
516:
513:
511:
508:
506:
503:
501:
498:
496:
493:
491:
488:
486:
483:
481:
478:
476:
473:
471:
468:
466:
463:
461:
458:
456:
453:
451:
448:
446:
443:
441:
438:
436:
433:
431:
428:
427:
421:
420:
415:
411:
407:
403:
395:
394:
389:
385:
381:
377:
369:
368:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
335:
334:
329:
291:
290:
287:
283:
280:
279:
271:
269:
265:
259:
257:
253:
250:
249:
244:
242:
238:
235:
230:
229:
224:
222:
218:
205:
195:
193:
189:
185:
172:
171:
159:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
119:
115:
112:
109:
107:
103:
100:
97:
93:
90:
87:
85:
81:
78:
75:
73:
69:
19:
8927:Gauge bosons
8898:
8887:
8558:Hypothetical
8506:Exotic atoms
8375:Omega baryon
8365:Sigma baryon
8355:Delta baryon
8107:Hypothetical
8089:Ghost fields
8075:Higgs boson
8056:
8009:Tau neutrino
7901:Charm (quark
7730:
7726:
7653:
7642:. Retrieved
7621:
7610:. Retrieved
7580:
7574:
7557:
7546:. Retrieved
7544:. 2024-09-17
7541:
7532:
7521:. Retrieved
7517:
7508:
7499:
7489:
7478:
7473:
7438:
7434:
7427:
7418:
7406:. Retrieved
7401:
7392:
7380:. Retrieved
7377:Ars Technica
7376:
7366:
7355:. Retrieved
7351:
7341:
7329:. Retrieved
7323:
7313:
7301:. Retrieved
7295:
7268:. Retrieved
7262:
7252:
7240:. Retrieved
7212:
7207:
7195:
7181:
7170:. Retrieved
7166:the original
7156:
7138:
7082:
7078:
7068:
7043:
7035:
7023:the original
7002:
6998:
6982:
6945:
6941:
6915:
6878:
6874:
6749:
6738:color charge
6446:
6395:
6329:
6324: boson.
6297:
6284:strong force
6278:
6186:
6170:
6162:
6161:Subheadings
6151:
6051:+ 3 (−
5893:
5671:
5271:
5150:
5072:Weak isospin
5058:Fermi theory
5048:
5046:
4934:weak isospin
4771: bosons
4753:
4752:
4146:
3939:
3912:
3194: bosons
3176:
3175:
3079:
3039:
3031:
3017:
3005:
2955:
2941:
2922:gauge bosons
2847:
2801:Carlo Rubbia
2740:
2683:
2628:
2536:
2346:
2331:
2209:gauge theory
2167:
2104:
2101:oscillation.
1990:
1931:
1841:
1661:
1564:
1443:
1399:
1357:
1257:
1252:
1244:
1218:
1165:
1158:
1150:
1116:
1096:
1049:
1044:
979:
959:
777:
773:
765:
759:
372:Constituents
354:Gauge theory
247:
233:
227:
183:
169:
106:Interactions
8840:Quark model
8608:Theta meson
8511:Positronium
8423:Omega meson
8418:J/psi meson
8348:Antineutron
8259:Dark photon
8224:Graviphoton
8183:Stop squark
7891:Down (quark
6846:quark pair.
6708:PMNS matrix
6240:Weak charge
6177:denote the
5053:decay rates
4749:Weak charge
4000:antileptons
3248:decay width
3027:16 MeV
2951:12 MeV
2265:Higgs boson
2119:Abdus Salam
1668:down quarks
1396: boson
1328:strangeness
1326:" (such as
1118:elastically
982:force. The
774:weak bosons
550:Chamberlain
398:Limitations
202:0.042
166:0.012
99:Gauge boson
72:Composition
8906:Categories
8582:Heptaquark
8543:Superatoms
8476:Pentaquark
8466:Tetraquark
8448:Quarkonium
8338:Antiproton
8239:Leptoquark
8174:Neutralino
7936:antiquark)
7926:antiquark)
7921:Top (quark
7916:antiquark)
7906:antiquark)
7896:antiquark)
7886:antiquark)
7855:Elementary
7740:1806.04213
7644:2010-05-19
7612:2013-10-21
7566:) (2012).
7548:2024-09-20
7523:2024-09-20
7448:2308.09417
7441:(5): 451.
7357:2022-04-09
7172:2009-06-22
6854:References
6260:ZZ diboson
5812:3 (−
5335:3 (−
5068:Particles
4747:See also:
4383:sums to 3.
4142:CKM matrix
3252:CKM matrix
2972:9 MeV
2936:See also:
2620:Gargamelle
2054:Gargamelle
1468:beta decay
901:of 1. The
520:Iliopoulos
430:Rutherford
424:Scientists
384:CKM matrix
338:Background
260:W: ±1
136:Discovered
84:Statistics
8820:Particles
8765:Particles
8724:Polariton
8714:Plasmaron
8684:Dropleton
8577:Hexaquark
8548:Molecules
8536:Protonium
8413:Phi meson
8398:Rho meson
8370:Xi baryon
8302:Composite
8138:Gravitino
7881:Up (quark
7765:118950363
7681:decay in
7679:→ ψ ℓ+ ℓ−
7109:0103-9733
6742:"sterile"
6298:abduction
6270:Footnotes
6179:chirality
6156:top quark
6125:θ
5381:Electron
5151:Neutrinos
5040:, either
5038:chirality
4976:θ
4877:θ
4859:−
4710:ℓ
4705:ν
4694:ℓ
4554:τ
4548:ν
4536:τ
4498:μ
4492:ν
4480:μ
4436:ν
4148:Unitarity
3158:top quark
3060:ν
3057:μ
3054:→
2610:Discovery
2410:±
2010:neutrinos
1928:Z bosons
1472:cobalt-60
984:physicist
947:10 s
941:of about
939:half-life
710:de Mayolo
655:Schwinger
595:Kobayashi
485:Gell-Mann
450:Sudarshan
262:Z: 0
117:Theorized
8796:timeline
8648:R-hadron
8603:Glueball
8587:Skyrmion
8521:Tauonium
8234:Inflaton
8229:Graviton
8209:Curvaton
8179:Sfermion
8169:Higgsino
8164:Chargino
8125:Gauginos
7984:Neutrino
7969:Antimuon
7959:Positron
7954:Electron
7864:Fermions
7757:30339440
7635:Archived
7603:Archived
7583:(1): 1.
7518:cms.cern
7408:26 March
7382:26 March
7325:Fermilab
7148:Archived
6990:(1967).
6286:nor the
6217:See also
5625:(−
5527:(−
5431:(−
5231:0
5121:Symbols
5049:relative
4834:), each
4667:hadronic
3276:Leptons
3229:∓
3210:±
3172:W bosons
3138:nor the
3072:decays.
2993:neutrino
2961:Tevatron
2958:Fermilab
2815:(led by
2569:′
2508:′
2125:. Their
1986:momentum
1860:itself:
1666:and two
1664:up quark
1440:W bosons
1320:up quark
1318:into an
1233:graviton
1070:neutrino
1050:The two
780:. These
700:Guralnik
645:Politzer
620:'t Hooft
575:Weinberg
570:Majorana
560:Schwartz
525:Lederman
510:Anderson
500:Friedman
460:Anderson
455:Davis Jr
440:Chadwick
208:Z:
196:W:
176:Z:
160:W:
125:Weinberg
8784:Related
8755:Baryons
8729:Polaron
8719:Plasmon
8694:Fracton
8689:Exciton
8643:Diquark
8638:Pomeron
8613:T meson
8570:Baryons
8531:Pionium
8516:Muonium
8443:D meson
8438:B meson
8343:Neutron
8328:Nucleon
8320:Baryons
8311:Hadrons
8274:Tachyon
8249:Majoron
8214:Dilaton
8143:Photino
7979:Antitau
7946:Leptons
7718:√
7585:Bibcode
7453:Bibcode
7331:8 April
7303:9 April
7270:9 April
7242:9 April
7087:Bibcode
7007:Bibcode
6950:Bibcode
6883:Bibcode
6724:isospin
6207:ψ meson
6065:
6053:
6043:
6031:
6027:
6015:
6005:
5993:
5991:−
5984:
5972:
5968:
5956:
5864:
5852:
5842:
5830:
5826:
5814:
5804:
5792:
5783:
5771:
5767:
5755:
5753:−
5672:Hadrons
5639:
5627:
5610:
5598:
5596:−
5541:
5529:
5513:
5501:
5499:−
5445:
5433:
5417:
5405:
5403:−
5349:
5337:
5249:
5237:
5227:
5215:
4997:is the
4966:), and
4958:is the
4743:Z boson
4677:, with
4589:
4577:
4389:of the
3996:leptons
3279:Quarks
3256:colours
3246:). The
3244:
3225:
3118:fermion
2924:of the
1960:charges
1776:flavour
1567:nucleus
1324:charges
1223:is the
895:neutral
785:mediate
685:Englert
660:Wilczek
625:Veltman
600:Maskawa
555:Cabibbo
515:Glashow
490:Kendall
475:Feynman
435:Thomson
245:1
178:91.1876
121:Glashow
89:Bosonic
8912:Bosons
8760:Mesons
8709:Phonon
8704:Magnon
8626:Others
8596:Mesons
8489:Others
8385:Mesons
8333:Proton
8197:Others
8152:Others
8133:Gluino
8067:Scalar
8047:Photon
8030:Bosons
7873:Quarks
7763:
7755:
7107:
7056:
6552:ν
6514:ν
6476:ν
6211:lepton
6209:and a
6134:
6104:
5896:except
5665:0.008%
5584:τ
5567:0.007%
5488:μ
5471:0.004%
5375:0.003%
5371:10.097
5321:τ
5303:μ
5274:(all)
5207:τ
5202:ν
5188:μ
5183:ν
5164:ν
5153:(all)
4903:where
4888:
4846:
4366:
4270:
4248:
4158:
4099:quarks
4054:τ
4049:ν
4035:μ
4030:ν
4011:ν
3985:τ
3967:μ
3940:Here,
3902:τ
3897:ν
3880:τ
3608:μ
3603:ν
3586:μ
3309:ν
3198:lepton
2991:and a
2989:lepton
2911:γ
2884:, and
2537:where
2311:, and
2213:photon
2117:, and
1912:ν
1647:ν
1550:ν
1237:gluons
1221:photon
1207:proton
1153:masses
875:. The
845:. The
827:, and
764:, the
715:Lattes
705:Kibble
665:Cronin
650:Reines
615:Yukawa
530:Maiani
505:Powell
495:Taylor
480:Rubbia
210:2.4952
174:(2022)
162:80.377
150:, 1983
131:(1968)
95:Family
66:Bosons
8748:Lists
8739:Trion
8734:Roton
8674:Anyon
8501:Atoms
8264:Preon
8204:Axion
8159:Axino
8052:Gluon
8039:Gauge
7761:S2CID
7735:arXiv
7638:(PDF)
7631:(PDF)
7606:(PDF)
7571:(PDF)
7443:arXiv
7026:(PDF)
6995:(PDF)
6390:1973.
6304:boson
6173:RIGHT
6075:11.8%
5874:15.2%
5850:+ 3 (
5688:0.06%
5684:69.91
5679:69.2%
5661:3.367
5563:3.366
5477:Muon
5467:3.363
5366:10.2%
5265:0.06%
5261:20.00
5256:20.5%
5133:RIGHT
5118:Name
4736:0.09%
4732:10.80
4675:0.27%
4671:67.60
3266:= 3 .
3202:quark
3076:Decay
2342:ATLAS
2206:SU(2)
1336:charm
1214:atoms
867:of 1
720:Zweig
695:Hagen
690:Brout
680:Higgs
675:Vleck
670:Fitch
640:Pauli
630:Gross
605:Mills
590:Salam
545:Nambu
540:Cowan
470:Dirac
465:Fermi
198:2.085
129:Salam
8699:Hole
8526:Onia
8433:Kaon
8393:Pion
7964:Muon
7753:PMID
7410:2023
7384:2023
7333:2022
7305:2022
7272:2022
7244:2022
7105:ISSN
7054:ISBN
6169:and
6165:LEFT
6084:0.6%
6080:11.6
5883:0.4%
5879:15.6
5656:3.4%
5573:Tau
5558:3.4%
5462:3.4%
5126:LEFT
5047:The
4812:and
4628:and
4077:and
3227:and
3098:and
3080:The
2848:The
2803:and
2759:and
2702:and
2637:and
2618:The
2365:and
2340:and
2237:and
2217:U(1)
2186:and
2099:Kaon
2061:CERN
1958:and
1932:The
1444:The
1418:and
1400:The
1374:The
1245:see
1211:iron
1187:and
1162:and
1097:The
1045:zero
980:weak
960:The
899:spin
787:the
768:are
635:Pais
610:Yang
585:Ward
565:Perl
535:Meer
445:Bose
241:Spin
168:GeV/
156:Mass
148:CERN
142:and
48:and
7974:Tau
7745:doi
7731:121
7593:doi
7461:doi
7095:doi
7015:doi
6968:hdl
6958:doi
6901:hdl
6891:doi
6114:sin
6013:3 (
5358:+ 3
5235:3 (
4866:sin
4002:).
3022:360
2982:of
2967:433
2946:379
2813:UA2
2809:UA1
2338:CMS
2059:at
1470:of
1362:.)
1278:or
1250:.)
1155:of
953:of
760:In
580:Lee
284:of
204:GeV
144:UA2
140:UA1
8908::
7759:.
7751:.
7743:.
7729:.
7725:.
7633:.
7601:.
7591:.
7581:86
7573:.
7540:.
7516:.
7498:.
7481:;
7459:.
7451:.
7439:84
7437:.
7400:.
7375:.
7350:.
7322:.
7294:.
7280:^
7261:.
7226:^
7217:,
7128:.
7117:^
7103:.
7093:.
7083:29
7081:.
7077:.
7052:.
7050:94
7013:.
7003:19
7001:.
6997:.
6966:.
6956:.
6946:98
6944:.
6940:.
6928:^
6899:.
6889:.
6879:98
6877:.
6873:.
6861:^
6715:^
6679:e3
6631:e2
6583:e1
6526:,
6488:,
6360:^
6048:)
6029:−
5970:−
5935:,
5915:)
5847:)
5828:+
5769:+
5732:,
5714:,
5648:+
5645:)
5641:+
5612:+
5550:+
5547:)
5543:+
5515:+
5454:+
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5447:+
5419:+
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5351:+
5312:,
5294:,
5193:,
5174:,
5060:.
4343:cb
4313:cs
4283:cd
4231:ub
4201:us
4171:ud
4040:,
4021:,
3976:,
3958:,
3932:.
3909:1
3842:cb
3824:3
3758:cs
3740:3
3674:cd
3656:3
3615:1
3548:ub
3530:3
3464:us
3446:3
3380:ud
3362:3
3321:1
3258:,
3168:.
3020:80
2965:80
2953:.
2944:80
2928:.
2866:,
2845:.
2606:.
2293:,
2113:,
2075:A
2063:.
1988:.
1901:+
1881:→
1821:+
1801:→
1636:+
1616:+
1596:→
1539:+
1519:+
1509:Ni
1505:28
1498:→
1488:Co
1484:27
1474:.
1334:,
1330:,
1216:.
1094:.
957:.
809:,
127:,
123:,
8472:)
8468:(
8185:)
8181:(
7839:e
7832:t
7825:v
7767:.
7747::
7737::
7720:s
7707:p
7690:p
7670:Z
7647:.
7615:.
7595::
7587::
7551:.
7526:.
7502:.
7467:.
7463::
7455::
7445::
7412:.
7386:.
7360:.
7335:.
7307:.
7274:.
7246:.
7175:.
7132:.
7111:.
7097::
7089::
7062:.
7017::
7009::
6976:.
6970::
6960::
6952::
6909:.
6903::
6893::
6885::
6836:t
6818:t
6800:Z
6781:t
6762:t
6734:Q
6730:3
6727:T
6706:(
6691:2
6686:|
6675:U
6670:|
6649:,
6643:2
6638:|
6627:U
6622:|
6601:,
6595:2
6590:|
6579:U
6574:|
6562:3
6535:e
6524:2
6497:e
6486:1
6459:e
6431:W
6410:W
6376:Z
6346:Z
6315:Z
6300:)
6196:Z
6152:*
6137:.
6129:W
6118:2
6110:=
6107:x
6082:±
6070:)
6068:x
6062:3
6059:/
6056:2
6046:x
6040:3
6037:/
6034:2
6024:2
6021:/
6018:1
6008:x
6002:3
5999:/
5996:2
5987:x
5981:3
5978:/
5975:2
5965:2
5962:/
5959:1
5944:c
5926:u
5906:t
5894:*
5891:(
5881:±
5869:)
5867:x
5861:3
5858:/
5855:1
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