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the towns and countryside in the northern region since 1981. In order to deprive the SNM of a civilian base of support in their area of operation, those living in rural areas between
Hargeisa and the Ethiopian border have suffered particularly brutal treatment. A scorched earth policy that involved the burning of farms, the killing of livestock, the destruction of water-storage tanks and the deliberate poisoning of wells, has been pursued actively by the military. The principal towns have been subjected to a curfew for several years; arbitrary restrictions on the extension of the curfew have facilitated extortion by soldiers and curfew patrols. Internal travel is controlled through military checkpoints .... The existence of the SNM has provided a pretext for President Barre and his military deputies in the north to wage a war against peaceful citizens and to enable them to consolidate their control of the country by terrorizing anyone who is suspected of not being wholeheartedly pro-government. Years of sustained state violence have created a serious level of political unrest in the region.
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would receive a fair share of representation post unification. The south proceeded to dominate all of the important posts of the new state, this included the
President, Prime Minister, Minister of Defence, Minister of Interior and Minister of Foreign Affairs posts all given to politicians hailing from the south. The political marginalisation that majority of northerners felt was further exacerbated by economic deprivation, the north received just under 7 percent of nationally disbursed development assistance by the late 1970s, as more than 95% of all development projects and scholarships were distributed in the south. One example is cited by Hassan Megag Samater, the former director in charge of the Ministry of Education in Somaliland, he states that he had handed his post in 1966 with the northern region having "several hundred schools at all levels, from elementary schools to college. By the last year of the Barre regime, there was not a single school functioning at full strength."
1323:"Since it has become evident that the Isaaq were, by act and intent, with the SNM; and since we could not see them giving up the line they have pursued so deceptively for some time; and in order to forestall them; we arranged for the other inhabitants of the North continuous meetings and a mobilization campaign designed to rouse them to action and to raise their level of awareness. This was intended to strengthen their unity and to surround Somali unity with a defensive wall. Among those inhabitants are: the Awdal people, the various sections of Western Somalis , the Las Qorey people, and the Daami people, etc. There is no doubt that the unity of these people will restore the balance of the scales which are now tipped in favour of the Isaaq. If they attack their tasks energetically, their unity will also undoubtedly humble those who arrogantly maintain that they own the North when the reality is otherwise."
931:(the north-west of nascent Somali Republic), the major cities of the former British protectorate voted against the ratification of the constitution β Hargeisa (72%), Berbera (69%), Lasanod (67), Burao (65), (Erigavo (69%), Borama (87%), β all returned negative votes. This was in contrast to the south (ex-Italian colony) which returned a strong support for the constitution (and four times the expected vote numbers in the south, indicating electoral fraud, an example of this is a small southern village called Wanla Weyn registered a yes vote higher than the 100,000 votes counted in all of the north), this was major signal of discontent coming from the north only a year after forming the union. Another example of the simmering discontent in the north was a coup attempt by northern officers that was thwarted in 1961.
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1187:(SNM) in London in April 1981. Initially, the aim of the various groups that merged to create the SNM was not to create an armed liberation front, but rather these groups formed as a direct response to the harsh policies enacted by the Barre regime against the Isaaqs. However, the official position changed following the meeting of the newly formed SNM Congress in October 1981 to one of liberation "with the expressed aim of ridding Somalia of Barre and instituting a democratic government in Somalia that would be inclusive of and based on the clan system". Ideologically, the SNM was a Western-leaning movement and was described as "one of the most democratic movements in the Horn of Africa".
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genocide against the Isaaq people of the north. It was clear then that the Barre regime had labelled the entire Isaaq population as enemy of the state. In order to weaken support for the SNM within the Isaaqs, the government enacted a policy of systematic use of large-scale violence against the local Isaaq population. A report by Africa Watch stated that the policy was "the outcome of a specific conception of how the war against the insurgents should be fought," with the logic being to "punish civilians for their presumed support for the SNM attacks and to discourage them from further assistance".
1843:. One of them was Jean Metenier, a French hospital technician in Hargeisa, who told reporters upon arrival at Nairobi airport that "at least two dozen people were executed by firing squad against the wall of his house and the corpses subsequently dumped on the streets to serve "as an example."" The attacks on civilians were the result of the military's realisation the local Isaaq population of Hargeisa welcomed the SNM attack. This was the military's attempt at "punishing the civilians for their SNM sympathies" as well as an attempt to "destroy the SNM by denying them a civilian base of support".
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government. The deep water wells at Sab'ad refugee camp was also surrounded by a minefield. A report published by Mines
Advisory Group noted, "At Ina Guha, 42 out of 62 small water reservoirs were mined and unusable". At Tur Debe, government forces destroyed wells by using mines as demolition explosives. The water well at Selel-Derajog was "destroyed and cemented over by government forces...". Similarly "all water sources in Dalqableh were mined, as was the main watering point for nomads between Qorilugud and Qabri Huluul. Water reservoirs at War Ibraan and Beli Iidlay were mined."
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2556:. According to Rebecca Richards, the violence in the north and northwest was disproportionate but affected many communities, particularly Isaaq. The shelling, aerial bombing and associated mass deaths in many communities particularly targeted the members of the Isaaq clan, states Richards, and this systematic state violence was linked to the belief that these groups were obtaining assistance from the Ethiopian government. The harsh reprisals, widespread bombing and burning of villages followed every time there was an attack by SNM believed to be hiding in Ethiopia.
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prevent the Isaaq from "rais their heads again". He continued: "Today, we possess the right remedy for the virus in the Somali State." Some of the "remedies" he discussed included: "Balancing the well-to-do to eliminate the concentration of wealth ." In addition, he called for "the reconstruction of the Local
Council in such a way as to balance its present membership which is exclusively from a particular people ; as well as the dilution of the school population with an infusion of children from the Refugee Camps in the vicinity of Hargeisa".
1700:'s Africa Watch, the soldiers, upon entering the city, went on a rampage on 27 and 28 May. This included "dragging men out of their houses and shooting them at point blank range" and summary killing of civilians, the report also noted that "civilians of all ages who had gathered in the centre of town, or those standing outside their homes watching the events were killed on the spot. Among the victims were many students." There was also widespread looting by the soldiers, and some people were reportedly killed as a result.
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1696:(then the third largest city in the country) on Friday 27 May. They captured the town in two hours and immediately took over the military compound at the airport (where the largest number of soldiers were stationed), the Burao central police station and the prison, where they freed political prisoners (including schoolchildren) from the city's main jail. The government forces retreated, regrouped at Goon-Ad just outside the city, and in the late afternoon, entered the centre of town. According to reports by
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devoid of doors, window frames, appliances, clothes, and furniture. The looting has resulted in the opening of what are called "Hargeisa markets" throughout the region, including
Mogadishu and Ethiopia, were former residents have spotted their possessions. One observer remarked that Hargeisa is being dismantled piece by piece. We were told that long lines of trucks heavily laden with Hargeisa goods could be seen leaving the city, heading south towards Mogadishu after the heavy fighting had stopped.
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1021:) across the border to Somalia. By 1979, official figures reported 1.3 million refugees in Somalia, more than half of them were settled in Isaaq lands in the north. This has caused great deal of burden on both the local Isaaqs and state apparatus, especially coming off a costly war with Ethiopia, Somali studies scholar I. M. Lewis noted that "the stark fact remained that the economy of the country simply did not possess the resources to absorb so many uprooted people."
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violations". The report denounced the "lack of basic freedom and human rights" in
Somalia, which resulted in the agency's decision to leave Somalia due to what it described as a "drastic decline in security and human rights". The report noted that the agency's staff have reported "many violations of human rights for which they believe the Somali Government must take the main responsibility". In describing the government's response to the SNM offensive, the report observed:
1111:, as the military commander of the northern regions with headquarters in Hargeisa in 1980. Gani's rule was especially harsh against Isaaq, he removed them from all key economic positions, seized their properties and placed the northern regions under emergency laws. He also ordered the transfer of Afraad away from the border region, giving the WSLF complete control of the border region, thus leaving Isaaq nomads in the area without any protection against WSLF violence.
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Hargeisa. A majority of the refugees we interviewed stated that their homes were destroyed by shelling despite the absence of SNM combatants from their neighbourhoods....The refugees told similar stories of bombings, strafings, and artillery shelling in both cities and, in Burao, the use of armored tanks. The majority saw their houses either damaged or destroyed by the shelling. Many reported seeing members of their families killed in the barrage....
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2059:'s Africa Watch also reported the case of 11 Isaaq men, some of whom were nomads, being arrested by the government on the outskirts of Berbera. They were accused of helping the SNM. The Marine Commander of Berbera, Colonel Muse 'Biqil', along with two other senior military officers ordered the 11 nomads be burnt alive. The burnt nomads were buried in a spot about 10 kilometers east of Batalale, a communal beach and tourist spot in Berbera.
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the Isaaq. Clan animosity intersected with class hatred as rural
Ogadeni clansmen harassed Isaaq entrepreneurs with a visceral hatred, convinced that their wealth and urban commodities were undeserved. The Isaaq tell hilarious, but pathetic stories about Ogadenis who stole modern household appliances from homes in Hargeisa, Borama and Burao, then retreated with their βtrophiesβ to use them in the remote pasture lands devoid of electricity.
1042:) as him. Due to these ties, the Ogaden refugees enjoyed preferential access to "social services, business licenses and even government posts." As expressed animosity and discontent in the north grew, Barre armed the Ogaden refugees, and in doing so created an irregular army operating inside Isaaq territories. The regime's use of armed refugees against local Isaaq populations in the north is also referenced in an Africa Watch report:
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encouraged by the Barre regime) started a campaign of terror against the local Isaaqs as they raped women, murdered unarmed civilians, and prevented families from conducting proper burials. Barre ignored Isaaq complaints throughout the 1980s, this along with Barre's repression of criticism or discussions of the widespread atrocities in the north had the effect of turning the long-standing Isaaq disaffection into open opposition.
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killed inside mosques. A significant number of civilian deaths at the time occurred as a result of government soldiers robbing them, those who refused to hand valuables (watches, jewellery and money) or were not quick enough to comply with soldiers' demands were shot on the spot. Another major cause of civilian deaths was food robbery, this was reportedily because the soldiers were not being supplied by the government.
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the people of Mudug . However, for the
Northwest , this and even stronger terms (such as genocide) are regularly used. The scale and character of the collective clan-based violence committed against Isaaq civilians β who, although they were not the only civilians brutalized by the government, were especially targeted β suggest that this dimension of state-violence in the Northwest indeed amounts to clan cleansing.
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the camps' adult males are thought to have headed for the bush to avoid being drafted by the government... Many others are said to have accepted weapons from the government and left their camps in search of Isaaqs ... Recent travellers in the north added that many Ogaden
Somalis from the UN refugee camps β and a fair number of another pro-government group, the Oromo, have been seen carrying American M-16 rifles.
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essential supplies. Aid officials said that up to 800,000 people β almost all of them Issaq nomads β have been displaced as a result of the civil war. A quarter of these, and possibly as many as 300,000, were now struggling to survive in wretched conditions in refugee camps in
Ethiopia while a similar number had been forced to leave Africa. The fate of those who can no longer be traced remains largely unknown.
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homes. Upon discovering these stashes, soldiers removed the jewellery and other valuables and placed booby-traps or mines in these hiding places. After the fighting ceased, many of those who had fled returned to their homes in the first months of 1991 only to be injured or killed by these hidden explosives... Some families were said to be squatting outside their houses because they were afraid to enter.
1101:(the fourth unit) and became operational in 1979. The Isaaq movement of Afraad immediately came into conflict with the Ogaden clan's faction of WSLF in the form of a number of bloody encounters between the two groups. Afraad's objective was to push the WSLF out of their strongholds (Isaaq territory) whereas the WSLF responded by retaliating further against Isaaq civilians living in the border region.
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garrotting, the cutting of the back of the neck, and getting severely disabled by beating with clubs before getting shot. The killings took place near the airport at a site about 10 kilometers from Berbera, and were conducted at night. The victims were killed in batches of 30-40. Most of them were men of fighting age that "the army feared would join the SNM," a few women were also among the victims.
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6270:"Refworld | Somalia: 1) Detailed map of Somalia and map showing Somalia in the African continent; 2) Information regarding reprisals against Isaaq clan members throughout Somalia, particularly Mogadishu, and against Somali National Movement (SNM) members; 3) Information on the government's attack on Hargeisa in May 1988 and an SNM assault on Mohammed Siyaad Barre Prison in July 1988"
1004:, launched a war against Ethiopia in 1977, this war was referred to in Somalia as 'The War for Western Somalia'. The Soviet Union, which at the time was allied to both Somalia and Ethiopia turned against Barre, and (with their allies) provided enough support to the Ethiopian army to defeat the Somali forces and force a withdrawal from the Somali region of Ethiopia.
964:. The new regime outlawed political dissent and employed a heavy handed approach in managing the state. The United Nations Development Programme stated that "the 21-year regime of Siyad Barre had one of the worst human rights records in Africa." The new regime became a client state of the Soviet Union and on the first anniversary of the coup officially adopted
2477:... Siad Barre's forces deliberately mined wells and grazing lands in an effort to kill and terrorize nomadic herders whom the army viewed as protectors of the SNM. While direct evidence is not available, most observers agree that Siad Barre's forces undertook this extensive mining to prevent resettlement by the predominantly Isaak nomads and agriculturists.
2184:, government-armed Ogadeni refugees in the area as well as the army units stationed there started to kill civilians and loot their homes. The government continued to commit atrocities in Sheikh despite the lack of SNM activity there. There were also widespread arrests of Isaaq men in the area, they were usually detained at a nearby military compound.
2371:... Until about eight months ago, the urbanised population of Issaqi were concentrated in Hargeisa, Berbera and Burao. Although few journalists have been authorised to visit the area, tens of thousands of people are understood to have died during a series of bombing raids on the towns last August conducted mainly by mercenaries recruited in Zimbabwe.
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1822:). Arrests were done at such scale that, to make room for the Isaaqs detainees, all non-Isaaqs were released, including those sentenced to death or life imprisonment for murder and drug-related offences. Some of those released to make room for Isaaq detainees were given arms and made guards over Isaaq detainees whilst others joined the military.
2570:, while the violence under Barre affected many communities in Somalia, "no other Somali community faced such sustained and intense state-sponsored violence" as the Isaaq. African historian, Lidwien Kapteijns in discussing the targeting of Isaaq people as a distinct group in relation to other groups also targeted by the Barre government states:
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tribe. Following the SNM attacks on the major towns of Hargeisa and Burao, government forces bombed the towns β causing over 400,000 people to flee the atrocities across the border into Ethiopia, where they are now located in refugee camps, living in appalling conditions, with inadequate water, food, shelter and medical facilities.
851:); this unit conducted a "systematic pattern of attacks against unarmed, civilian villages, watering points and grazing areas of northern Somalia (Somaliland), killing many of their residents and forcing survivors to flee for safety to remote areas". This resulted in entire villages being depopulated and towns getting plundered.
1311:"The report is addressed to the President of the SDR, the Minister of Defence, and Minister of Interior. The latter, Major-General Ahmed Suleiman Abdalla is also a son-in-law of the President, and Third Deputy Prime Minister. Since President Barre is also the Minister of Defence -- the previous holder of that portfolio, General
1183:
Barre regime declared economic warfare on Somalis from the northwest and specifically the Isaaq. This was a major cause of the eventual fall of the Barre regime in 1991. It led a group of Isaaq businesspeople, students, former civil servants and former politicians who lived in the United Kingdom to found the
2574:
Collective clan-based violence against civilians always represents a violation of human rights. However, when its goal is to exterminate and expel large numbers of people based on their group identity alone, it becomes clan cleansing. No one has suggested this term for the collective brutalization of
2404:
The anti-personnel mines were used to target Isaaq civilians returning to cities and towns as they were planted in "streets, houses and livestock thoroughfares to kill, maim and deter return". Most of the mines were "scattered across pastoral lands or hidden near water holes or on secondary roads and
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In two months, from May to July 1988, between 50,000 and 100,000 people were massacred by the regime's forces. By then, any surviving urban Isaaks β that is to say, hundreds of thousands of members of the main northern clan community β had fled across the border into Ethiopia. They were pursued along
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diplomat who at the time was the second in command at the Italian Embassy in Mogadishu and was present in the city at the time, it was the commander of the armoured division of the Somali army, General Ibrahim Ali Barre "Canjeex", who personally oversaw the midnight arrests of the Isaaq men and their
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and other towns in the north, there was no SNM activity in Mogadishu, moreover, Mogadishu was geographically removed from the situation in the north of the country due to its position in the southern regions, nevertheless the Somali government committed to its policy of persecution of Isaaq civilians
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In Sanaag region access to villages by CAA staff was denied by the military and project resources such as vehicles and drugs misappropriated by government officials. This combined with poor security, made primary health work impossible and endangered the lives of staff, leading to a withdrawal by the
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were found in Erigavo in 2012. On 16 March 1989, SNM forces captured and held Erigavo for three hours before leaving the town. Despite an agreement between Somalian authorities and Isaaq elders that the Somalian military would not engage in reprisals against the civilian population, the Somalian army
2079:
The army started its campaign in Erigavo soon after the outbreak of fighting in Burao and Hargeisa. Hundreds of civilians were killed, and SNM forces did not reach that part of the country until 1989. One incident following a brief capture of the town in 1989 saw 60 Isaaq elders, who could not escape
2023:
Atrocities committed by government forces in Berbera are especially notable because no fighting between government forces and SNM had taken place there, and as such the government had no pretext to commit atrocities against Isaaq civilians in Berbera (and other Isaaq settlements not attacked by SNM).
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As news of the SNM advance on Burao reached government officials in Hargeisa, all banks were ordered to close, and army units surrounded the banks to prevent people from approaching. Both electricity and water-supply lines were cut from the city, and residents resorted to fetching water from streams,
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aircraft started intense aerial bombardment of Burao on Tuesday 31 May. Burao, then the third largest city in Somalia was "razed to the ground", and most of its inhabitants fled the country to seek refuge in Ethiopia. Foreign aid workers who fled the fighting confirmed that Burao was "emptied out" as
1352:
These killings started after the SNM escalated its incursions into the Isaaq majority cities in the north. On every encounter between the SNM and government forces, "the army would conduct a sweep of the area where the incident occurred. Massacres followed, as did the killing of livestock, the use of
1096:
The continued abuse of WSLF and the government's indifference to the suffering of Isaaq civilians and nomads prompted many Isaaq army officers to desert the army with a view to creating their own armed movement to fight Ethiopia, one that would also intimidate the WSLF and discourage further violence
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and the concept of 'Greater Somalia', a powerful sentiment many Somalis carried, as a core goal of the state. This particularly had strong support from the Isaaq clan who notably sent many volunteers, especially in 1976 as they joined WSLF guerrilla insurgencies and sent many volunteers a year before
2579:
According to Mohamed Haji Ingiriis, the vicious atrocities during the reign of Barre were not an isolated event nor unusual in Somalia's history. Barre also targeted the Hawiye. But, states Ingiriis, Barre extermination campaigns against other clan groups reflected the deep-seated historic cycles of
2471:
One of the cruelest β and clearly unlawful β tactics used by Siad Barre's troops was the deliberate mining of civilian homes. In 1988, government forces shelled and bombed the capital of Hargeisa. Before fleeing, many residents buried their valuables in holes dug in the floors or courtyards of their
2365:
The action has been concentrated on the three northern towns of Hargeisa, Berbera and Burao where some 20,000 people are believed to have died in recent bombing raids by the government ... Many thousands of others are being systematically denied food because Somali forces are deliberately holding up
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the Siyad Barre government was so eager to arm the Ogaden refugees that it enlisted workers of the civilian National Refugee Commission β which administers the Ogaden refugee camps β to help distribute weapons... 'Now all the camps are heavily armed' an experienced western aid official said. Some of
1975:
Government attacks on Berbera included mass arrests, wanton killing of civilians, confiscation of civilian property, especially cars, luggage and food at the city's port, which were taken to Mogadishu. Modes of transport belonging to Isaaq civilians were confiscated by force, only military transport
1939:
The Governor of Hargeisa estimates the present population to be around 70,000, down from a pre-conflict population figure of 370,000. However, the current residents of Hargeisa are not believed to be the former Issak residents. Observers believe that Hargeisa is now composed largely of dependents of
1788:
Anticipating fighting to start, people stock-piled food, coal and other essential supplies. Government forces looted all warehouses and shops, with the open market of the city being one of their prime targets. Soldiers raided mosques and looted its carpets and loudspeakers. Later, civilians would be
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they were also able to collect water from rooftops. All vehicles (including taxis) were confiscated to control the movement of civilian population, this also ensured sufficient transport was available for the use of military and government officials. Top government officials evacuated their families
1617:
General Mohammed Said 'Morgan', one of Siad Barre's sons-in-law, the opportunity to put into operation further elements of a pacification plan he had drawn up earlier. Government forces reacted with appalling savagery to the SNM seizure of Burao and near capture of Hargeisa. The response culminated
1243:
In addition to state-sponsored violence, other means of crushing the Isaaq uprising included the government's continuation of its policy of political repression and harsh economic measures, this included withholding international food aid donations to the Isaaq. This was especially harsh as food aid
1239:
operations on army positions within Isaaq territories before returning to Ethiopia. The SNM continued this pattern of attacks from 1982 and throughout the 1980s, at a time the Ogaden Somalis (some of whom were recruited refugees) made up the bulk of Barre's armed forces accused of committing acts of
1216:
The atmosphere of lawlessness has enabled soldiers to harass civilians for the purposes of extortion. Many Somalis have reported that military and security officers only respond to inquiries by detainees' relatives with promises to secure their release in exchange for cash payments. Civilians living
1210:
Since 1981, with the formation of the SNM, northern Somalia has seen the worst atrocities. Serious human right violations, including extra-judicial executions of unarmed civilians, detentions without trial, unfair trials, torture, rape, looting and extortion, have been a prominent feature of life in
1054:
Barre was essentially ensuring the loyalty of the Ogaden refugees through continued preferential treatment and protection at the expense of the local Isaaq who were not only bypassed for economic, social and political advancement but also forcefully suppressed by both the Somali Armed Forces and the
939:
The northern dissatisfaction with the constitution and terms of unification was a subject that the successive civilian governments continued to ignore. The northerners, especially the majority Isaaq, and Harti believed that the unified state would be divided federally (north and south) and that they
2421:
The Somali army mined and blew up many of Hargeisa's principal buildings such as "the Union Hotel and a private maternity clinic near the Sha'ab girls School", this was done in an attempt to clear the area between them and the SNM. Residential properties which were near important government offices
2241:
On 21 July 1989, following religious disturbances that occurred a week earlier, 47 middle-class Isaaq men living in the capital city of Mogadishu were taken from their homes in the middle of the night, they were then transported to Jasiira, a communal beach west of Mogadishu and summarily executed.
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headquarters, at Godka, another NSS facility (prison), at a military camp at Salaan Sharafta, at Laanta Bur Prison, a maximum security prison 50 kilometers from Mogadishu. They were taken out of their homes in Mogadishu in the middle of the night of 19 July 1989. Most of the detainees were released
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was the second largest city of the country, it was also strategically important due to its geographic proximity to Ethiopia (which made it central to military planning of successive Somali governments). Preventing the city from falling to the SNM became a critical goal of the government both from a
1732:
As soon as the fighting broke out, the government used loudspeakers to sort the civilians out into Darood and Isaak. They would shout, "Who is from Galkayo? Mogadishu? Las Anod? Garoe?" . They appealed to the non-Isaaks to leave so they could burn the town and all those who remained behind. Most of
1448:
became known to the government, all charges against the 43 Isaaq men were dropped, and they were all accused of association with the SNM. They were 'tried' before a Mobile Military Court and executed the same afternoon. Originally 45 Isaaq men were due to be executed; at the last minute two wealthy
1424:
A mobile military court sentenced 26 Isaaqs to death. The group was split into 9 civilians and 17 SNM fighters, and many of the victims were nomads. Their property and assets were also seized. A group of Hargeisa elders were also seized to witness the 'proceedings' of the court, so they would 'talk
1225:
have frequently been forbidden to hold funerals for relatives shot dead by the military and curfew patrols until they have paid a ransom. Rape, of young and older women, is routine. They will only be released from detention centers, even after being raped, if the family pays a ransom. No soldier or
1182:
By early 1978 the Barre regime had full control of the Somali state's economic apparatus, including large amounts of foreign aid which were deployed "using selective redistribution to ensure loyalty to the regime". The Barre regime's oppressive policies against the Isaaq continued when in 1981, the
1087:
In northern Somalia, the Isaaq clans confronted a massive influx of Ogadeni refugees from eastern Ethiopia whom Siyad encouraged to loot property, attack people, and destabilize cities. An instrument of oppression, the Ogadenis and the regular Somali army were viewed as alien forces sent to oppress
1024:
The presence of such a large number of refugees, especially when Somalia's total population at the time was 4.1 million (UN estimates) meant that virtually one out of every four people in Somalia was a refugee. The Barre regime exploited the presence of such a large number of refugees as means
2443:
The Siad Barre government also mined rural areas to disrupt the economy and the nomadic population, who were seen as the base of support of the SNM. Agarey, Jajabod, Dalqableh, Ubaaleh, Adadley and Farjano-Megasta were affected. Dry-season grazing land and areas close to permanent water sources at
2294:
Throughout this period, the whole civilian population appears to have become a target, in their homes and anywhere they sought refuge. Even during their long and harrowing exodus β on foot, without water or food, carrying the young and weak, giving birth on the way β across the border to Ethiopia,
1910:
Siad Barre focused his wrath (and American-supported military might) against his Northern opposition. Hargeisa, Somalia's second city and the former capital of British Somaliland was bombed, strafed and rocketed. Some 50,000 people are believed to have lost their lives there as a result of summary
1882:
In an attempt to dislodge the SNM, the government is using artillery and air bombardment, especially Hargeisa and Buroa, on a daily basis, aiming particularly at civilian population targets. Reports from eye witnesses speak of the town of Hargeisa as mere rubble, devastated to the point that it is
1723:
The Somali army reportedly responded to the SNM attacks in May 1988 with extreme force, inflicting heavy civilian casualties and damages to Hargeisa and Burao....The Somali military resorted to using artillery and aerial shelling in heavily populated urban centres in its effort to retake Burao and
1595:
Government forces responded with "appalling savagery", targeting the entire Isaaq civilian population with arrests, rape, mass executions, and indiscriminant shooting and bombing, Hundreds of thousands of Isaaq refugees fled for their lives across the Ethiopian border; government warplanes strafed
1402:
A farmer's wife was arrested in Gogol Wanaag, accused of sheltering an SNM fighter. In addition to arresting several others, six Isaaq men were executed on the spot, including two elderly brothers, their two sons and the son-in-law of one of the elderly man who was visiting from abroad. Their huts
871:
commissioned an investigation on past human rights violations in Somalia, specifically to find out if "crimes of international jurisdiction (i.e. war crimes, crimes against humanity or genocide) had been perpetrated during the country's civil war". The investigation was commissioned jointly by the
5858:
Somalia: expanding crisis in the Horn of Africa : joint hearing before the Subcommittee on Africa, Global Human Rights, and International Operations and the Subcommittee on International Terrorism and Nonproliferation of the Committee on International Relations, House of Representatives, One
2493:
The Barre government also mined water sources during its campaign against Isaaq civilians. This was especially harsh due to region's semi-arid climate and frequent water shortages. Hargeisa's main water supply, the Gedebley reservoir and its pumping station, were surrounded with minefields by the
2425:
The Somalia Handbook for U.S. armed forces notes that "the landmine problem in Somalia can be described as a general problem in the southern sectors of Somalia and a very serious problem in the northern sectors." In describing the prevalence of land-mines especially in the countryside surrounding
2089:
I was told that the SNM had attacked the town at the end of March and killed a lot of soldiers; the militias had fled; two days later, the militias returned and killed a lot of Isaak civilians. People were apparently shot even inside mosques. There are mass graves everywhere. I left Erigavo on 23
2035:
Between June and the end of September, government forces as well as armed Ethiopian (Ogadeni) refugees continued to raid the immediate vicinity of Berbera as well as the villages between Berbera and Hargeisa. The attacks included the burning of villages, the killing of villagers, raping of women,
1927:
Hargeisa, the second largest city in Somalia, has suffered extensive damage from artillery and aerial shelling. The most extensive damage appeared to be in the residential areas where the concentration of civilians was highest, in the marketplace, and in public buildings in the downtown area. The
1703:
Following the first two days of the conflict, angered by the extent to which Isaaqs welcomed the SNM incursion, and frustrated by their inability to contain the SNM advance, the military started attacking the civilian population without restraint "as if it was the enemy". The military used "heavy
1638:
government adopted a policy that "any able-bodied Isaaq who could help the SNM had to be killed. Those who could be of financial help or influence to the SNM, because of social status, were to be put in prison." Though this policy did not exclude children or the elderly, the result was that "more
1303:
More extreme recommendations included: "Rendering uninhabitable the territory between the army and the enemy, which can be done by destroying the water tanks and the villages lying across the territory used by them for infiltration"; and "removing from the membership of the armed forces and civil
1067:
The government started a program of creating paramilitary groups among the Ogaden refugees as well as conscripting them into the national army, it also encouraged the creation of armed militia groups among members of the Darod (the clan of Siad Barre). The Somali Army managed the training of both
1058:
The settlement of Ogaden refugees in Isaaq territory, and the arming of these groups (which effectively created a foreign army in the north), further antagonised local Isaaq population. The armed Ogaden refugees, together with members of the Marehan and Dhulbahanta soldiers (who were provoked and
2111:
The government response to the attack has been particularly brutal and without regard to civilian casualties β in fact there is ample evidence that civilian casualties have been deliberately inflicted so as to destroy the support base of the SNM, which is composed mainly of people from the Isaaq
2005:
after being imprisoned there before the war broke out. They were deported due to accusations by Saudi authorities of irregularities in their residence documents. Human Rights Watch reports that "out of about 400 passengers, 29 men identified themselves as Isaaks. There were many others, but they
1299:
The policy letter (also known as the Morgan Report) was officially a top secret report to the president on "implemented and recommended measures" for a "final solution" to Somalia's "Isaaq problem". Morgan writes that the Isaaq people must be "subjected to a campaign of obliteration" in order to
1037:
As the state became increasingly reliant on international aid, aid resources allocated for the refugees caused further resentment from the local Isaaq residents, especially as they felt no effort was made on the government's part to compensate them for bearing the burden of the war. Furthermore,
2140:
The report noted one case where a 13-year-old girl from Erigavo was raped by six government soldiers, it also stated that "looting, raping and bashing are commonplace." In a separate case, a man leaving Erigavo with money and food was "robbed, beaten and shot by the military". His body was then
2106:
region, withdrew its program after operating for eight years in Somalia. It published a report "to draw attention to recent events in Somalia which have resulted in civil war, a huge refugee problem, persecution of a large section of the population along tribal lines and widespread human rights
2047:
The genocide continued in Berbera as late into the conflict as August 1990, when a group of 20 civilians were executed by the military in reprisal for an SNM ambush that happened in Dubar, near Berbera, the incident demonstrated that "the genocide continued in Berbera longer than other cities."
1933:
Much of Hargeisa appears to be a "ghost town," and many homes and building are virtually empty. Extensive looting has taken place even though the military has controlled the city since late July 1988. We were told that private property was taken from homes by the military in Hargeisa. Homes are
1918:
confirmed the large-scale targeting and killing of civilian population by Somali government troops. The campaign had completely destroyed Hargeisa, causing its population of 500,000 to flee across the border and the city was "reduced to a ghost town with 14,000 buildings destroyed and a further
1830:
The SNM attack on Hargeisa started at 2:15 a.m. on 31 May. The government forces took a day or two to devise a plan by which they could defeat the SNM. Their counter-attack started with use of heavy weapons. These included long-range artillery guns that were placed on the hilltops near the
1092:
As the WSLF, supported by the Barre regime, continued to attack and commit atrocities against the Isaaq, a delegation was sent to meet President Barre in 1979 to request making a stop to WSLF abuses. In spite of promises made to the Isaaq elders the violence against civilians and nomads by WSLF
2131:
The military occupation of Erigavo has resulted in widespread suffering for the people of that area forcing many people flee to the bush including most of the population of Erigavo. It is believed that the military gave the elders of the village money in payment for boys as young as twelve and
2031:
As soon as news of the SNM's attack on Burao reached government authorities in Berbera, the city was completely blocked and hundreds of people were arrested. "More than 700 experienced worse deaths than had occurred elsewhere in the region." Methods of killing included the slitting of throats,
1516:
What began as a counterinsurgency against the Somali National Movement rebels and their sympathizers, and escalated into genocidal onslaught against the Isaaq clan family, turned into the disintegration of both government and rebellion and the replacement of institutionalized armed forces with
827:
as refugees in what was described as "one of the fastest and largest forced movements of people recorded in Africa", which resulted in the creation of the world's largest refugee camp then (1988), with another 400,000 being displaced. The scale of destruction led to Hargeisa being known as the
2322:
Western diplomats here said they believed that the fighting in Somalia, which has gone largely unreported in the West, was continuing unabated. More than 10,000 people were killed in the first month after the conflict began in late May, according to reports reaching diplomats here. The Somali
1896:
The civil war left Hargeisa in ruins: 80 percent of the building in the town were destroyed, many of them by the aerial bombardment of General Siad Barre's Zimbabwean mercenary pilots. The view from the air is of a town without roofs. The exposed pale green and blue plaster walls reflect the
1344:
The system of indiscriminate killings employed by the government following SNM offensives had a galvanising effect on opposition to the government among both Isaaq nomads and city-dwellers. The military was operating under the assumption that if the SNM was active in a particular area, local
3409:
3294:
2400:
in Isaaq cities. An emblematic aspect of Siad Barre's government's "policy of genocide towards the Issak group of clans" was the laying of "over one-million unmarked mines, booby traps and other lethal devices in the Northern Region..." over the duration of the conflict. The exact number of
915:
gained independence, it was to form a hasty union with its southern neighbour to create the Somali Republic. Henceforth British Somaliland was referred to as the northern (or north western) region of the Somali Republic, whilst the former Italian colonial state was referred to as the south.
880:
Based on the totality of evidence collected in Somaliland and elsewhere both during and after his mission, the consultant firmly believes that the crime of genocide was conceived, planned and perpetrated by the Somali Government against the Isaaq people of northern Somalia between 1987 and
1560:
Barre's response to the SNM attacks was of unparalleled brutality, with explicit aims of handling the "Isaaq problem", he ordered "the shelling and aerial bombardment of the major cities in the northwest and the systematic destruction of Isaaq dwellings, settlements and water points". The
1630:
Within the first three months of the conflict, Isaaqs fled their cities on such a large scale that cities of the north became devoid of their population. Civilian Isaaqs were "killed, imprisoned under severe conditions, forced to flee across the border, or became displaced in the far-off
1403:
were burned and their animals killed. They were all accused of assisting the farmer's wife to shelter the SNM fighter. The sixth man was charged with being a member of the SNM and accompanying the SNM fighter who escaped. The villagers were not allowed to bury the dead men for five days.
1079:'s Africa Watch report states "The WSLF was ostensibly being trained to fight Ethiopia to regain the Ogaden, but, in fact, terrorized the Isaak civilian population living in the border region, which came to fear them more than the Ethiopian army. Killing, rape and looting became common."
3791:
1295:
General Morgan (later to be known as the Butcher of Hargeisa) was also responsible for the policy letter written to his father-in-law during his time as the military governor of the north, this letter came to be known as 'The Letter of Death', in which he "proposed the foundations for a
2416:
They are most prevalent in the countryside surrounding two of Somaliland's principal cities, Hargeisa and Burao, and in the pastoral and agricultural lands west of Burao. Now that the civil war has ended, the victims of mines have been principally civilians, many of whom are women and
1033:"Northerners were dismissed from and not allowed to work in government offices dealing with refugee affairs, so that they would not discover the truth about the government's policies. Instead refugees, registered with UNHCR were given jobs in the offices dealing with refugee matters."
1118:
inspection team that visited the area in 1988 reported that the Ethiopian refugees (Ogaden) were carrying weapons supplied by the Somali Army. The UN team reported that, with the Somali Army's encouragement, the Ogadeni refugees carried out extensive looting in several northern towns.
2170:
It is known that many people have fled from the town of Elafweyn following bombing attacks by the government forces. A "scorched earth" policy applied to the villages in the Elafweyn plains. These displaced people are hiding in the bush without adequate access to food and medical
1988:
Between 27 May and 1 June, planes which brought soldiers from Mogadishu carried Isaaq detainees on the return flight. The killing of detainees started when orders came from Mogadishu to cease the transfer of detainees. Arrests usually happened at night and were carried out by the
2075:
was an Isaaq inhabited city that the SNM did not attack, it has experienced no armed conflict between the SNM and the Somali army for at least several months, yet civilian Isaaqs have suffered both killings and arrests there at the hands of the army and other government forces.
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3370:
1944:
The report also stated that the city was without electricity or a functioning water system, and that the Somali government was "actively soliciting multilateral and bilateral donors for reconstruction assistance" of cities primarily destroyed by the government's own forces.
2444:
higher elevation were particularly hard hit. There are landmines at such high-altitude grazing areas between Burao and Erigavo. Large areas of grazing land in Zeyla were also mined... One consequence of landmines was the cessation of sheep exports to Saudi Arabia and Yemen.
2434:
The use of land-mines by government forces against civilians was especially damaging in this particular region due to majority of Isaaqs (and other northern Somalis) being pastoral nomads, reliant on the grazing of sheep, goats, and camels. A report commissioned by the
1784:
A curfew was imposed on 27 May starting at 6:00 p.m, the army began systematic house-to-house searches, looking for SNM fighters. On the following day the curfew started earlier at 4:00 pm; the third day at 2:00 pm; and on the fourth day at 11:00 am.
2014:
compound where their belongings and money were confiscated. Some were severely tortured and had become permanently paralyzed as a result of the torture. Eight of the passengers detained were killed, the remaining 21 were imprisoned in Berbera and later released.
1050:. The WSLF was ostensibly being trained to fight Ethiopia to regain the Ogaden , but, in fact, terrorized the Isaak civilian population living in the border region, which came to fear them more than the Ethiopian army. Killings, rape and looting became common."
2563:. According to Ali, "with funds and clan appeals, he was able to entice the bulk of SSDF fighters to return from Ethiopia and participate in his genocidal wars against the Isaq in the north and later against the Hawiye in the South, including Mogadisho".
2228:
On government orders, all Isaaq senior officials were proscribed from leaving the country for fear they would joining the SNM. One example of this is the case of Abdi Rageh, an Isaaq former military officer, was forcibly removed from a flight leaving for
1911:
executions, aerial bombardments and ground attacks. The city itself was destroyed. Streams of refugees fleeing the devastation were not spared by government planes. The term "genocide" came to be used more and more frequently by human rights observers.
1082:
As for the looting, the Ogaden refugees from Ethiopia ransacked homes that were vacated by Isaaq civilians out of clan hatred. The Isaaqs entrepreneurial disposition was also a factor of the large-scale looting, which the Ogadenis saw as 'undeserved':
2456:. It is reported that thousands of people were affected by mining in that area, by either abandoning their farmlands entirely due to land-mines or by severe restrictions on farming due to the presence of mines in their fields or the roads network.
1618:
in the bombing and artillery bombardment of Hargeisa to a point of virtual destruction. Civilian refugees fleeing towards the border were bombed and gunned indiscriminately. It was seen, probably rightly, as an attack on the whole Isaaq people...
1012:
All of Somalia felt the impact of the Ogaden War defeat, however the northern region (where Isaaqs live) experienced the majority of the physical and human destruction due to its geographical proximity to the fighting. Somalia's defeat in the
1315:, having been promoted Prime Minister on January 30, 1987 -- the report is seemingly confined to family members. This would explain its extreme frankness in specifying certain clans as targets for implemented and recommended punitive action."
1797:
The government, upon hearing of the SNM attack on Burao, began rounding up Isaaq men fearing they would assist an SNM attack on Hargeisa. Detainees were taken to a number of locations including Birjeeh (a former military headquarters of the
2192:
The government's victimisation of the Isaaq was not limited to northern regions susceptible to SNM attacks. During the period of unrest in the north of the country, the government started arresting civilian Isaaq residents of the capital,
2085:
reportedly bombarded the town and then went in, killing an estimated 500 remaining members of the Isaaq clan. A woman who had visited the town the following month, and who was interviewed by Africa Watch in London, described the incident:
1537:. Ethiopia was in agreement and a deal was signed on 3 April 1988 that included a clause confirming agreement not to assist rebel organisations based in each other's territories. The SNM felt the pressure to cease their activities on the
2551:
also became the victims of the violence and war. A US Country Study handbook describes the Barre regime retaliation against the Umar Mahmud following a failed coup attempt in 1978 which resulted in 2,000 Umar Mahmuud civilians dying in
1642:
Somali historian Mohamed Haji Ingiriis refers to "the state-sponsored genocidal campaigns leveled at the Isaaq clan-group", which he notes is "popularly known in public discourses as the 'Hargeisa Holocaust'" as a "forgotten genocide".
2274:
The Ogadeni refugees formed militant groups that hunted Isaaq civilians around Bioley, Adhi-Adais, Saba'ad, Las-Dhureh, Daamka and Agabar refugee camps. In many cases, the Isaaq victims were left unburied "to be eaten by wild beasts".
863:
would later turn into a system of governance where local officials would put the most hard-line policies into effect against the local Isaaq population. The Somali government also planted one million land mines within Isaaq territory.
1234:
in Ethiopia, as both Somalia and Ethiopia at the time offered safe havens of operation for resistance groups against each other. From there the SNM successfully launched a guerrilla war against the Barre regime through incursions and
926:
The union of the two states proved problematic early on when in a referendum held on 20 June 1961 to approve the provisional constitution that would govern the two ex-colonial territories was rejected by half of the population in the
3364:
2426:
cities inhabited by Isaaq, the Somalia Handbook states, "Large patterned minefields, exceeding 100,000 mines have been emplaced in sections surrounding the city. Extensive boobytrap activity has also been reported from Hargeysa."
1472:
A Mobile Military Court sentenced 25 Isaaq men to death; they were executed the same day. They were shot as a reprisal when a major military offensive against the SNM in the vicinity failed; some of the victims were very old men.
807:. The number of civilian deaths in this massacre is estimated to be between 50,000 and 100,000, according to various sources, whilst local reports estimate the total civilian deaths to be upwards of 200,000 Isaaq civilians. The
1984:
Immediately after the SNM attack on Burao, the government started a campaign of mass arrests in Berbera. Many Isaaq businessmen and elders were arrested as the government suspected they would support an SNM attack on Berbera.
992:
the war took place. Another factor behind the strong support from the Isaaq was the fact that the border that was drawn between Ethiopia and Somalia cut off important grazing grounds for Isaaq tribesmen. Barre along with the
6824:
2381:
Issaqis who survived the bombings are said to have been rounded up in the streets by Somali troops and summarily shot. Mass graves have since been found as well as corpses which were left to rot in the streets where they
2376:... "they just bombed and bombed and bombed," an agency man, recently returned from Somalia said. Hargeisa which originally had a population of 350,000, was 70 percent destroyed, Burao was "devastated" in the same raids.
4339:
2347:
In addition to the "systematic destruction of Isaaq dwellings, settlements and water points", bombing raids were conducted on major cities in the northwest regions inhabited mainly by Isaaq on orders of President Barre.
5916:
Reported Massacres and Indiscriminate Killings in Somalia: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Africa of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, One Hundredth Congress, Second Session, July 14,
4458:
Reported Massacres and Indiscriminate Killings in Somalia: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Africa of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, One Hundredth Congress, Second Session, July 14,
1814:'s Africa Watch, some 700 Isaaqs from the armed forces were brought to one prison, this particular prison was already overcrowded, an additional 70 military personnel were then also brought for detention (40 from
1517:
fragmented clan-based militia. The genocidal campaign ended in anarchy, and the state collapse that followed bred further genocidal campaigns by some of the militia groups that then seized power at a local level.
1612:
government did not stop there. In discussing the systematic way in which the government targeted Isaaq people with aim to inflict as much loss in property and life, Waldron and Hasci published the following
5414:
4028:
Generating Employment and Incomes in Somalia: Report of an Inter-disciplinary Employment and Project-identification Mission to Somalia Financed by the United Nations Development Programme and Executed by
2502:
During the government campaign against the Isaaq in 1988 and 1989, numerous credible reports by the US and international media reported that Somalia had received shipments of chemical weapons from Libya.
2360:
Hundred of Thousands of people have been killed, dispersed or bombed out of their homes in northern Somalia after government military operations which Western aid workers say are little short of genocide.
1968:
coast, at the time the principal port of Somalia after Mogadishu, was also targeted by government troops. Atrocities committed in Berbera by the government against Isaaq civilians were especially brutalβ
1596:
them as they fled. As many as fifty thousand Somalis died and the city of Hargeisa was virtually levelled in what outside analysts depicted as a genocidal campaign by the Barre regime against the Isaaq.
7041:
1541:, and decided to attack the northern territories of Somalia to take control of the major cities in the north. The brutal nature of the Siad Barre government response was unprecedented, and led to what
2080:
the city due to the difficult mountainous terrain, get taken out of their homes by government forces and were "shot by a firing squad against a wall of the public relations office". A number of large
4426:
Somalia: the case for action : hearing before the Select Committee on Hunger, House of Representatives, One Hundred Second Congress, second session, hearing held in Washington, DC, July 22, 1992
1902:
Many of the houses are boarded up because of the small anti-personnel mines scattered by Gen Siad Barre's forces when tens of thousands of Hargeisa residents fled. What was not destroyed was looted.
4089:
31:
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in the north of country, offered the Ethiopian government a deal in which they stop sheltering and giving support to the SNM in return for Somalia giving up its territorial claim over Ethiopia's
2233:. Another example of this policy is the arrest of Omar Mohamed Nimalleh, a businessman and a former colonel in the police who was arrested at the airport on his way to Kenya on a business trip.
11398:
956:
and the ensuing political parliamentary debate on succession which ended in a deadlock. The army banned political parties, suspended the constitution and closed the National Assembly, General
2535:
stated that the British Government was "deeply concerned" about authoritative reports that chemical weapons had been received in Somalia. The Somali government, represented by Prime Minister
2523:
reported that the government of Gen. Mohammed Siad Barre "is stockpiling chemical weapons in warehouses near its capital, Mogadishu". These reports state that canisters of the nerve gases
1292:, who was Barre's bodyguard before he married his daughter reportedly told Isaaq nomads at a waterhole "if you Isaaqs resist, we will destroy your towns, and you will inherit only ashes".
1198:' Africa Subcommittee on 14 July 1988 stated that the actions of the Barre government have "created a level of violence unprecedented in scope and duration in Somalia". The testimony of
10835:
7985:
2123:
Whilst human right have been deteriorating for some years in Somalia...we believe that the government must bear a particularly heavy responsibility for events over the last six months.
1831:
Hargeisa Zoo, artillery guns were also placed on the hilltops behind the Badhka (an open ground used for public executions by the government). They then began to shell the city. The
7407:
4926:
6370:
5586:
5436:
1176:
Summary executions of Hargeisa Isaaqs happened at Badhka, close to a hill in the outskirts of the city, where 25 soldiers shot blindfolded victims whose hands and feet were tied.
4843:
4321:
873:
2225:
The small hotels of Mogadishu were searched by the government at night and their guests were sorted into Isaaqs and non-Isaaqs; the Isaaqs would then be subsequently detained.
1708:, machine guns, hand grenades and other weapons of mass destruction were also directed against civilian targets in Hargeisa which had also been attacked as well as in Burao."
876:. The investigation concluded with a report confirming the crime of genocide to have taken place against the Isaaqs in Somalia. United Nations investigator Chris Mburu stated:
3699:
1282:
Letters of Death by General Mohammed Said Hersi Morgan, the son-in-law of dictator Siad Barre, a policy letter with the proposed "final solution" to Somalia's "Isaaq problem"
1940:
the military, which has a substantial, visible presence in Hargeisa, a significant number of Ogadeni refugees, and squatters who are using the properties of those who fled.
2262:
reported that the refugees often "rampaged through villages and nomadic encampments near their numerous camps and claimed the lives of thousands of others, mostly nomads".
5534:
1972:
reported that Berbera had suffered "some of the worst abuses of the war" even though the SNM had never launched an attack on Berbera like they did on Burao and Hargeisa.
10163:
7085:
2160:
region and its surrounding territory "over 300 persons were killed in October 1988 in revenge for the death of an army officer who was killed by a rebel-laid landmine."
3775:
2412:
sent a medical team to the region to examine the scale of the problem of land-mines left over from the 1988β1991 conflict, they have described the situation as follows:
1810:), the headquarters of the Military Police as well as other secret detention centres. Isaaq military officers were one of the first groups to be arrested. According to
9614:
2387:
The people now living in the three towns are believed to be totally non-Issaqi or military personnel who have been deputed to guard what has been retaken from the SNM.
11263:
3432:
3109:
2312:
Despite the government's continued refusal to grant international human rights organisations and foreign journalists access to the north to report on the situation,
2010:
forces at Berbera and his deputy, Calas and Dakhare respectively, "sorted out the passengers according to their clan". Those confirmed to be Isaaq were taken to the
7243:
3010:
1444:
Many of the 43 victims had been detained in the city's central prison for some time on different charges. In December as the SNM's presence in the mountains around
5396:
819:(70 percent destroyed), respectively, and had caused up to 500,000 Somalis of the region, primarily of the Isaaq clan, to flee their land and cross the border to
9932:
7921:
7815:
6845:
5517:
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to conduct de-mining activities has identified land-mines from 24 countries in Somalia. The majority were from the Czech Republic, Russia, Pakistan and Belgium.
7010:
5855:
Operations, United States Congress House Committee on International Relations Subcommittee on Africa, Global Human Rights, and International (1 January 2006).
5742:
Mburu, Chris; Rights, United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human; Office, United Nations Development Programme Somalia Country (1 January 2002).
4775:
Mburu, Chris; Rights, United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human; Office, United Nations Development Programme Somalia Country (1 January 2002).
4759:
4758:
Mburu, Chris; Rights, United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human; Office, United Nations Development Programme Somalia Country (1 January 2002).
3537:
Mburu, Chris; Rights, United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human; Office, United Nations Development Programme Somalia Country (1 January 2002).
2917:
Mburu, Chris; Rights, United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human; Office, United Nations Development Programme Somalia Country (1 January 2002).
1075:, officially created to fight Ethiopia and "reclaim ethnic Somali territory" in Ethiopia but it was used primarily against local Isaaq civilians and nomads. A
7610:
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What are Somalia's Development Perspectives?: Science Between Resignation and Hope? : Proceedings of the 6th SSIA Congress, Berlin 6-9 December 1996
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Ingiriis, Mohamed Haji (2016). "'We Swallowed the State as the State Swallowed Us': The Genesis, Genealogies, and Geographies of Genocides in Somalia".
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What are Somalia's development perspectives?: science between resignation and hope?: proceedings of the 6th SSIA Congress, Berlin 6-9 December 1996
2144:
In describing the Somali government policies in the region, Peter Kieseker, a spokesman for the CAA commented: "Genocide is the only word for it."
1728:
Refugee interviews conducted by Africa Watch described how the government separated the non-Isaaqs from the Isaaqs before the attack was initiated:
9593:
7119:
6159:
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2040:, which lies half-way between Hargeisa and Berbera; Dara-Godle, which lies 20 kilometers southwest of Berbera; Sheikh Abdal, near the central
1353:
landmines to blow up reservoirs, the burning of huts, arrests and detentions. The entire population in the area was regarded as 'the enemy'."
1068:
groups, and costs incurred including any expenditure for their arms and equipment, radio communications and fuel came from the army's budget.
10456:
9784:
9670:
7620:
7478:
5743:
2482:
2118:
agency. Project staff were frequently harassed by the military even when attending medical emergencies and on one occasion shots were fired.
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7118:
Omaar, Rakiya; Waal, Alexander De; McGrath, Rae; (Organization), African Rights; (Organization), Mines Advisory Group (1 January 1993).
7101:
Omaar, Rakiya; Waal, Alexander De; McGrath, Rae; (Organization), African Rights; (Organization), Mines Advisory Group (1 January 1993).
7084:
Omaar, Rakiya; Waal, Alexander De; McGrath, Rae; (Organization), African Rights; (Organization), Mines Advisory Group (1 January 1993).
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Omaar, Rakiya; Waal, Alexander De; McGrath, Rae; (Organization), African Rights; (Organization), Mines Advisory Group (1 January 1993).
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2401:
land-mines is unknown but estimated to be between one and two million, most of them planted in what was then known as northern Somalia.
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10258:
1226:
member of the security forces has ever been disciplined or prosecuted for abuses, which highlights the general lack of accountability.
367:
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4610:
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U.S. Embassy estimated that 70 percent of the city has been damaged or destroyed. Our rough visual inspection confirms this estimate.
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states that this unit, along with other branches of the military, were responsible for terrorising Isaaq nomads in the countryside.
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The scale of destruction was unprecedented, up to 90 percent of the city (then the second largest city in Somalia) was destroyed, (
3318:"The Heritage of War and State Collapse in Somalia and Somaliland: Local-Level Effects, External Interventions and Reconstruction"
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6597:
6570:
6539:
6505:
6466:
6403:
6393:
6219:
6169:
6123:
6009:
5978:
5897:
5839:
5813:
5770:
5714:
5619:
5379:
5340:
5278:
5216:
5189:
5162:
5135:
5094:
5025:
4979:
4803:
4742:
4708:
4649:
4584:
4553:
4520:
4434:
4407:
4376:
4297:
4259:
4232:
4186:
4129:
4064:
4010:
3983:
3956:
3908:
3881:
3851:
3824:
3742:
3709:
3682:
3655:
3509:
3442:
3403:
3288:
3246:
3199:
3119:
3092:
3060:
2949:
2820:
2723:
2609:
2308:
the way by British-made fighter-bombers piloted by mercenary South African and ex-Rhodesian pilots, paid $ 2,000 per sortie.
234:
6495:
6269:
1957:
A forensic investigator brushes away soil from the top of a mass grave containing 17 bodies buried 30 years prior in Berbera
1104:
The situation was further exacerbated by the appointment of Mohamed Hashi Gani, a cousin of President Siad Barre and fellow
11382:
10902:
10503:
10423:
9121:
7742:
6301:
Somalia : a government at war with its own people : testimonies about the killings and the conflict in the north
2547:
The Isaaq clan was not the only target of violence. Many other Somali communities, such as the Umar Mahmud sub-lineage of
2323:
Government has bombed towns and strafed fleeing residents and used artillery indiscriminately, according to the officials.
11458:
11448:
11138:
10474:
10237:
9543:
8877:
8831:
8715:
7250:
6614:
3019:
2614:
2519:
denied the account, but NBC stood by its story when questioned by a Congressional office. Two weeks later, on 25 January
2218:
1807:
1349:'s Africa Watch, hundreds of Isaaqs have been executed and subjected to other reprisals on the basis of such suspicions.
743:
5899:
Somalia: Observations Regarding the Northern Conflict and Resulting Conditions : Report to Congressional Requesters
5745:
Past human rights abuses in Somalia: report of a preliminary study conducted for the United Nations (OHCHR/UNDP-Somalia)
4778:
Past human rights abuses in Somalia: report of a preliminary study conducted for the United Nations (OHCHR/UNDP-Somalia)
4761:
Past human rights abuses in Somalia: report of a preliminary study conducted for the United Nations (OHCHR/UNDP-Somalia)
3540:
Past human rights abuses in Somalia: report of a preliminary study conducted for the United Nations (OHCHR/UNDP-Somalia)
2920:
Past human rights abuses in Somalia: report of a preliminary study conducted for the United Nations (OHCHR/UNDP-Somalia)
11488:
11433:
10179:
9743:
9195:
8327:
2869:""We Swallowed the State as the State Swallowed Us": The Genesis, Genealogies, and Geographies of Genocides in Somalia"
829:
3593:
Crisis Management and the Politics of Reconciliation in Somalia: Statements from the Uppsala Forum, 17-19 January 1994
10219:
9638:
8579:
8489:
7553:
7495:
6309:
6209:
5867:
5548:
4037:
3785:
3628:
3601:
3565:
2516:
1319:
Other aims of the policy included arming other clans in the region and encouraging them to fight the dominant Isaaq:
1167:
1158:
1147:
1138:
811:
also included the levelling and complete destruction of the second and third largest cities in the Somali Republic,
11313:
11271:
8350:
8267:
8248:
8024:
6562:
6531:
5268:
4368:
2982:
2941:
2599:
2332:
In addition to using both air and ground military capabilities against the Isaaq, the Somali government also hired
1716:
1356:
The following are a selection of the numerous episodes of extrajudicial executions of Isaaq civilians collected by
296:
26:
1025:
of seeking foreign aid, as well as a vehicle to displacing those deemed hostile to the state, notably the Isaaqs,
10351:
10326:
8698:
8426:
8322:
8160:
7885:
7722:
5487:"Is the conflict against the SNM in northern Somalia condemned by the international community? [SOM2850]"
3216:
3135:
2589:
2001:
On 21 June a ship called 'Emviyara' had docked at the port of Berbera. The passengers were Somalis deported from
1588:
1072:
1047:
7102:
11279:
10909:
10667:
10075:
9865:
9575:
8814:
8677:
8411:
8374:
8317:
8056:
7865:
6800:
5034:
4466:
2624:
1128:
899:, a former British protectorate that gained independence on 26 June 1960. The rest of what came to be known as
804:
736:
671:
385:
360:
269:
46:
11186:
5368:
Adedeji, Adebayo; Nigeria), African Centre for Development and Strategic Studies (Ijebu-Ode (1 January 1999).
2531:
were unloaded from a Libyan Airlines civilian flight to Mogadishu on 7 October. The British Foreign Secretary
10939:
10035:
9630:
9432:
9131:
9116:
9072:
8980:
8848:
8667:
8421:
8416:
8391:
8272:
7512:
7128:
3189:
2300:
2287:(i.e. machine gunning from aircraft) of fleeing refugees until they reached safety at the Ethiopian borders.
2036:
confiscation of livestock and the arrest and detention of elders in Berbera. Some of these villages included
1755:
1683:
1655:
1304:
service all those who are open to suspicion of aiding the enemy β especially those holding sensitive posts".
904:
249:
11239:
11106:
2467:
describe one tactic employed by Barre's troops used in their campaign against the Isaaq people of the north:
949:
11453:
10960:
10932:
10115:
10011:
9185:
9111:
9067:
8559:
8337:
8260:
8255:
8226:
7960:
7850:
7589:
6243:
4812:
4073:
3751:
2290:
African historian Lidwien Kapteijns describes the ordeal of Isaaqs refugees fleeing their homes as follows:
1851:
Artillery shelling of Hargeisa started on the third day of the fighting and was accompanied by large-scale
621:
199:
4054:
3674:
The Colonial Legacy in Somalia: Rome and Mogadishu: from Colonial Administration to Operation Restore Hope
2997:
2655:
2028:, the city had suffered "some of the worst abuses of the war even though the SNM never attacked Berbera".
636:
573:
532:
11247:
11122:
11114:
10407:
9993:
9242:
9205:
9200:
9190:
9018:
8860:
8740:
8735:
8708:
8431:
7916:
7911:
2508:
2464:
2409:
1605:
1538:
291:
5953:
5304:
415:
11473:
11468:
11463:
11162:
10359:
9306:
8180:
8150:
7935:
7825:
7715:
7346:
6333:
2804:
2715:
2567:
1289:
796:
665:
603:
405:
135:
68:
494:
11478:
11130:
11098:
10980:
10863:
9646:
9259:
9218:
9143:
9138:
8784:
8652:
8494:
8307:
8277:
8185:
5369:
2868:
1953:
1920:
591:
453:
353:
254:
7249:. Crisis Group Africa Report 110. International Crisis Group. 23 May 2016. p. 6. Archived from
5913:
Africa, United States Congress House Committee on Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on (1 January 1989).
4455:
Africa, United States Congress House Committee on Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on (1 January 1989).
3174:
10828:
10819:
10520:
9889:
9425:
9289:
8221:
8170:
7875:
7668:
7501:
6830:
5371:
Comprehending and mastering African conflicts: the search for sustainable peace and good governance
4734:
1852:
1689:
1601:
1578:
1530:
1493:
1184:
953:
683:
314:
225:
11287:
5856:
3618:
839:
In the countryside, the persecution of Isaaq included the creation of a mechanised section of the
10849:
10842:
9825:
9269:
9264:
9180:
9077:
9057:
8759:
8627:
8552:
8501:
8401:
8396:
8360:
8243:
8209:
8192:
8155:
8061:
7944:
7890:
7545:
7219:
5071:
2258:
The countryside was an area of operations for the government-armed Ethiopian (Ogadeni) refugees.
1806:), Malka-Durduro (a military compound), the Central Prison of Hargeisa, the headquarters of NSS (
1799:
852:
115:
6766:
5704:
2098:(at the time known as Community Aid Abroad), an aid agency which was based in Erigavo and ran a
919:
Within British Somaliland the Isaaq constituted the majority group within the protectorate with
11358:
10946:
10895:
10785:
10528:
10059:
9945:
9175:
9082:
8479:
8129:
7840:
4545:
3591:
2201:
staff, army officers, employees of relief agencies, and civil servants. Similar to the case in
1236:
1195:
660:
519:
259:
244:
219:
11194:
7213:
7138:
6974:
6926:
6865:
6707:
5803:
5609:
5330:
4965:
4728:
4694:
4641:
4570:
4506:
4393:
4249:
4176:
4026:
3973:
3871:
3841:
3814:
3734:
3672:
3645:
3495:
3278:
3236:
3050:
2675:
2265:
According to a foreign aid-agency official who was in the north after the fighting broke out:
1565:
regime targeted civilian members of the Isaaq group specifically, especially in the cities of
923:
and Harti groups also having sizeable populations to the west and east of Isaaq respectively.
11255:
11010:
10282:
9960:
9711:
9654:
9535:
8441:
8355:
8295:
8145:
8078:
7970:
7965:
7895:
7830:
7750:
7662:
7643:
7453:
7276:
6896:
5044:
5011:
4822:
4793:
4476:
4283:
4222:
4119:
4083:
3942:
3761:
3393:
3161:
3082:
2765:
2709:
1915:
1332:
609:
394:
3555:
2559:
Taisier M. Ali states that Barre assuaged the Majerteen, and targeted other groups like the
1996:
54:
11406:
11305:
10888:
10681:
10660:
10019:
9873:
9719:
9678:
9456:
9374:
9279:
9228:
9126:
9089:
9062:
8768:
8647:
8637:
8484:
8332:
7805:
5068:
Opportunities Missed, Opportunities Seized: Preventive Diplomacy in the Post-Cold War World
4600:
2604:
2536:
2136:
and sent to patrol the town, unsure and ignorant of how to use their newly acquired power.
1923:
team noted the extent to which residential districts were especially targeted by the army:
1312:
965:
545:
279:
194:
111:
2448:
One of the most densely mined areas in the north were the agricultural settlements around
1777:. The period between 27β31 May was marked by much looting by government forces as well as
1548:
8:
11223:
10925:
10792:
10741:
10439:
10335:
10306:
10266:
10250:
9897:
9849:
9815:
9807:
9776:
9551:
9364:
9349:
9329:
9301:
9106:
9036:
8794:
8523:
8469:
8464:
8449:
8342:
8068:
7975:
7860:
7820:
5401:
4971:
4326:
2520:
2397:
2166:(formerly known as Community Aid Abroad) described the situation in El Afweyn as follows:
1803:
1666:
1097:
against Isaaq civilians. Their new movement, supported and financed by Isaaqs, was named
928:
840:
648:
597:
422:
334:
239:
10051:
7664:
Making and Unmaking Nations: The Origins and Dynamics of Genocide in Contemporary Africa
5486:
5374:. Zed Books, in association with African Centre for Development and Stratetgic Studies.
10748:
10734:
10512:
10487:
10343:
10195:
9881:
9768:
9758:
9510:
9321:
9223:
9163:
9052:
8789:
8662:
8657:
8642:
8587:
8406:
8312:
7810:
7615:
7487:
6980:
6932:
6755:
6327:
5940:
5877:
5573:
5440:
5249:
5104:
4915:
Strategic Survey, 1989β1990 (1990), p.87, International Institute for Strategic Studies
4538:
4218:
3975:
State Collapse and Post-conflict Development in Africa: The Case of Somalia (1960β2001)
3816:
The Soviet Union in the Horn of Africa: The Diplomacy of Intervention and Disengagement
3345:
2896:
2687:
2314:
2259:
2210:
2181:
2099:
2056:
2025:
1969:
1875:
1832:
1811:
1769:
1697:
1671:
1357:
1346:
1203:
1191:
1076:
1026:
896:
856:
585:
209:
99:
7184:
Understanding Statebuilding: Traditional Governance and the Modern State in Somaliland
5013:
Understanding Statebuilding: Traditional Governance and the Modern State in Somaliland
4696:
Understanding Statebuilding: Traditional Governance and the Modern State in Somaliland
3944:
Understanding Statebuilding: Traditional Governance and the Modern State in Somaliland
2303:
also discusses this particular aspect of the Siad Barre's campaign against the Isaaq:
11050:
10713:
10639:
10560:
10147:
10027:
9985:
9857:
9841:
9519:
9461:
9402:
9369:
9339:
9284:
9254:
8804:
8533:
8529:
8214:
7845:
7800:
7785:
7693:
7672:
7647:
7595:
7574:
7549:
7526:
7491:
7463:
7438:
7413:
7392:
7371:
7350:
7339:
7309:
7282:
7223:
7192:
7158:
7047:
7020:
6984:
6936:
6902:
6875:
6804:
6770:
6713:
6674:
6647:
6620:
6593:
6566:
6535:
6501:
6462:
6399:
6315:
6305:
6215:
6165:
6119:
6005:
5974:
5863:
5835:
5809:
5766:
5710:
5615:
5578:
5544:
5406:
5375:
5336:
5274:
5253:
5212:
5185:
5158:
5131:
5090:
5021:
4975:
4799:
4738:
4704:
4645:
4634:
4580:
4549:
4540:
People and the Earth: Basic Issues in the Sustainability of Resources and Environment
4516:
4430:
4403:
4372:
4331:
4293:
4255:
4228:
4182:
4125:
4060:
4033:
4006:
3979:
3952:
3904:
3877:
3847:
3820:
3781:
3738:
3727:
3705:
3678:
3651:
3624:
3597:
3561:
3505:
3438:
3399:
3337:
3284:
3242:
3195:
3115:
3088:
3056:
2945:
2900:
2888:
2816:
2719:
1870:
embassy estimated 70 percent of the city was damaged or destroyed). The testimony of
1626:
The attack on Hargeysa combined the use of artillery shelling and aerial bombardment.
1509:
726:
343:
274:
189:
155:
11026:
10043:
9606:
7305:
The Suicidal State in Somalia: The Rise and Fall of the Siad Barre Regime, 1969β1991
5788:
Summary of World Broadcasts. Part 4, The Middle East, Africa, and Latin America: SWB
3843:
The Suicidal State in Somalia: The Rise and Fall of the Siad Barre Regime, 1969β1991
11170:
11058:
10856:
10812:
10727:
10448:
10431:
10131:
10123:
10107:
9833:
9735:
9727:
9396:
9359:
9354:
9311:
8703:
8690:
8622:
8612:
8474:
6304:. Africa Watch Committee. New York, NY: Africa Watch Committee. 1990. p. 162.
5540:
5241:
3329:
2880:
2808:
2594:
1860:
1856:
1742:
1733:
the people from these towns left; the government provided them with transportation.
1014:
833:
472:
324:
286:
229:
5245:
2884:
2396:
A particularly enduring aspect of the conflict was the Somali government's use of
11366:
11082:
11018:
10994:
10803:
10536:
10495:
10415:
10099:
10067:
9494:
9296:
9274:
9210:
8970:
8955:
8799:
8632:
8034:
8029:
8002:
7980:
7795:
7687:
7637:
7564:
7516:
7428:
7386:
7365:
7303:
7182:
7152:
6277:
6001:
4576:
4289:
2580:
repressions by the clan that gains dominant power then marginalizes other clans.
2512:
2253:
2198:
2163:
2095:
1651:
1584:
1574:
1445:
988:
900:
776:
768:
654:
539:
477:
204:
2318:
reported the strafing of Isaaq refugees as part of its coverage of the conflict:
1764:
military strategy standpoint and the psychological impact such loss would have.
11146:
10755:
10720:
10391:
10367:
9952:
9799:
9791:
9406:
9344:
8960:
8950:
8930:
8865:
8617:
8459:
7790:
2132:
thirteen years of age. Untrained and disciplined, these youths were armed with
2041:
2037:
1840:
1704:
artillery and tanks, causing severe damage, both to civilians and to property.
1307:
In discussing the unusually frank tone of the report, Hassan Abdi Madar states:
1115:
895:
The first Somali state to be granted its independence from colonial powers was
868:
513:
507:
214:
6736:
Simmons, M. (7 January 1989). "Thousands of somalis 'hit by genocide raids'".
2812:
11427:
11178:
11042:
11034:
11002:
10568:
10155:
8900:
8106:
8012:
5791:. Monitoring Service of the British Broadcasting Corporation. 1 January 1993.
5582:
5410:
4335:
3557:
Consider Somaliland: State-Building with Traditional Leaders and Institutions
3341:
2892:
2619:
2532:
2341:
1867:
1712:
1647:
1534:
997:
848:
22:
6319:
1719:
team reported the Somali government's response to the SNM attack as follows:
11154:
10688:
10598:
8905:
8853:
8607:
8386:
8091:
7775:
7570:
6762:
6738:
6028:
4423:
Hunger, United States Congress House Select Committee on (1 January 1992).
3333:
2352:
2333:
2002:
1888:
1660:
1505:
1244:
accounted for nearly half of all food consumption in Somalia in the 1980s.
1038:
Barre heavily favoured the Ogaden refugees, who belonged to the same clan (
1018:
501:
460:
174:
9693:
7689:
Genocide in the Twentieth Century: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts
7385:
Ford, Richard; Adam, Hussein Mohamed; Ismail, Edna Adan (1 January 2004).
6796:
Arms for the Horn: U.S. Security Policy in Ethiopia and Somalia, 1953β1991
6709:
Arms for the Horn: U.S. Security Policy in Ethiopia and Somalia, 1953β1991
6613:
Ford, Richard; Adam, Hussein Mohamed; Ismail, Edna Adan (1 January 2004).
6586:
Ford, Richard; Adam, Hussein Mohamed; Ismail, Edna Adan (1 January 2004).
6455:
Ford, Richard; Adam, Hussein Mohamed; Ismail, Edna Adan (1 January 2004).
6392:
Ford, Richard; Adam, Hussein Mohamed; Ismail, Edna Adan (1 January 2004).
6208:
Ford, Richard; Adam, Hussein Mohamed; Ismail, Edna Adan (1 January 2004).
6158:
Ford, Richard; Adam, Hussein Mohamed; Ismail, Edna Adan (1 January 2004).
6112:
Ford, Richard; Adam, Hussein Mohamed; Ismail, Edna Adan (1 January 2004).
5703:
Ford, Richard; Adam, Hussein Mohamed; Ismail, Edna Adan (1 January 2004).
5205:
Ford, Richard; Adam, Hussein Mohamed; Ismail, Edna Adan (1 January 2004).
5178:
Ford, Richard; Adam, Hussein Mohamed; Ismail, Edna Adan (1 January 2004).
5151:
Ford, Richard; Adam, Hussein Mohamed; Ismail, Edna Adan (1 January 2004).
5124:
Ford, Richard; Adam, Hussein Mohamed; Ismail, Edna Adan (1 January 2004).
4251:
Land ohne Staat: Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft im Krieg am Beispiel Somalias
3647:
Arms for the Horn: U.S. Security Policy in Ethiopia and Somalia, 1953β1991
3590:
Salih, Mohamed Abdel Rahim Mohamed; Wohlgemuth, Lennart (1 January 1994).
2777:
1878:, confirms the large-scale nature of government attacks against civilians:
11066:
10778:
10771:
10375:
9502:
8998:
8935:
7566:
The New Pirates: Modern Global Piracy from Somalia to the South China Sea
7334:
6299:
5087:
Somali Refugees in the Horn of Africa: State of the Art Literature Review
3395:
Insurgents, Terrorists, and Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat
2796:
2356:
reported the brutal campaign by the Somali government against the Isaaq:
1871:
1778:
1542:
1497:
1461:
1199:
107:
103:
1529:, frustrated by lack of success of the army against insurgents from the
11074:
10653:
10614:
10187:
10083:
9662:
9334:
9008:
8940:
8841:
8819:
8672:
8454:
8049:
8044:
8017:
7738:
7388:
War destroys, peace nurtures: reconciliation and development in Somalia
6616:
War destroys, peace nurtures: reconciliation and development in Somalia
6589:
War destroys, peace nurtures: reconciliation and development in Somalia
6458:
War destroys, peace nurtures: reconciliation and development in Somalia
6395:
War destroys, peace nurtures: reconciliation and development in Somalia
6211:
War destroys, peace nurtures: reconciliation and development in Somalia
6161:
War destroys, peace nurtures: reconciliation and development in Somalia
6115:
War destroys, peace nurtures: reconciliation and development in Somalia
5706:
War destroys, peace nurtures: reconciliation and development in Somalia
5208:
War destroys, peace nurtures: reconciliation and development in Somalia
5181:
War destroys, peace nurtures: reconciliation and development in Somalia
5154:
War destroys, peace nurtures: reconciliation and development in Somalia
5127:
War destroys, peace nurtures: reconciliation and development in Somalia
3349:
3317:
2845:
2803:. Vol. 1: Genocide in the Ancient, Medieval and Premodern Worlds.
2548:
2283:
Atrocities committed by the Barre's forces against Isaaqs included the
2081:
1635:
1609:
1562:
1522:
1017:
caused an influx of Ethiopian refugees (mostly ethnic Somalis and some
982:
957:
920:
912:
820:
800:
695:
466:
10383:
7707:
7591:
Stopping Mass Killings in Africa: Genocide, Airpower, and Intervention
7409:
Welcome Home to Nothing: Refugees Repatriate to a Forgotten Somaliland
3494:
Bahcheli, Tozun; Bartmann, Barry; Srebrnik, Henry (9 September 2004).
3431:
Bahcheli, Tozun; Bartmann, Barry; Srebrnik, Henry (9 September 2004).
3277:
Bahcheli, Tozun; Bartmann, Barry; Srebrnik, Henry (9 September 2004).
1622:
10632:
10621:
10091:
9750:
8910:
8836:
8602:
8039:
8007:
7770:
7765:
7522:
7459:
7430:
Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia
7188:
6438:
6436:
6434:
6432:
6430:
6417:
6415:
6191:
6189:
6187:
6185:
6183:
6181:
6141:
6139:
6137:
6135:
6084:
6082:
6080:
6078:
6076:
6074:
6072:
6070:
6068:
6055:
6053:
6051:
6049:
6047:
6045:
6043:
6030:
Observations Regarding the Northern Conflict and Resulting Conditiond
5686:
5684:
5682:
5669:
5667:
5654:
5652:
5650:
5637:
5635:
5633:
5631:
5536:
Lives in the Balance: Perspectives on Global Injustice and Inequality
5468:
5466:
5464:
5462:
5017:
4730:
Genocides by the Oppressed: Subaltern Genocide in Theory and Practice
4700:
4512:
3948:
3501:
2230:
2194:
2153:
1774:
1639:
than 90% of the people killed were between the ages of 15-35 years."
1288:
In January 1986, Barre's son-in-law and viceroy in the north General
1231:
987:
Successive Somali governments had continually supported the cause of
439:
433:
427:
329:
143:
6898:
Somalia β The Untold Story: The War Through the Eyes of Somali Women
4836:"Morgan's Death Letter-The Final Solution to Somalia's Isaq Problem"
1336:
Victims of extrajudicial execution by government soldiers left in a
1273:
1262:
847:(The Isaaq Exterminators) consisting entirely of non-Isaaqs (mainly
11399:
Defense for Children International β Palestine et al v. Biden et al
10695:
10674:
10646:
10591:
9448:
9013:
9003:
8988:
8965:
8895:
8824:
8544:
8111:
7990:
7434:
4863:
4861:
4605:
4399:
4155:
4153:
4151:
4149:
4147:
4145:
4143:
4141:
2504:
2453:
2337:
2284:
1863:
and then turned around to make repeated bombing runs on the city".
1819:
1760:
1566:
1553:
1412:
1390:
1337:
1222:
1001:
824:
812:
808:
788:
319:
163:
6949:
6475:
6427:
6412:
6340:
6178:
6132:
6065:
6040:
5723:
5679:
5664:
5647:
5628:
5459:
4925:
de Waal, Alex; Meierhenrich, Jens; Conley-Zilkic, Bridget (2012).
1449:
men were spared due to the size of the loans they owed the banks.
8993:
8575:
4967:
After The Storm: The Changing Military Balance in the Middle East
3620:
Somalia calling: the crisis of statehood, and the quest for peace
3475:
2795:
Jacobs, Steven Leonard (2023). "The ReligionβGenocide Nexus". In
2449:
2206:
2202:
2072:
2068:
2044:; Dubato; Dala, located east of Mandera Prison; and Lasa-Da'awo.
2011:
2007:
1990:
1965:
1961:
1846:
1836:
1835:
report includes testimony by foreign relief workers evacuated to
1815:
1705:
1526:
1457:
1105:
934:
555:
481:
6235:
4924:
4897:
4885:
4873:
4858:
4536:
Rogers, John James William; Feiss, P. Geoffrey (13 March 1998).
4138:
3780:. United Nations Development Programme, Somalia Country Office.
3463:
3084:
Getting Somalia Wrong?: Faith, War and Hope in a Shattered State
2127:
With regards to atrocities specific to Erigavo the report noted:
10762:
8925:
8890:
8101:
8096:
4056:
Understanding Somalia and Somaliland: Culture, History, Society
4002:
Understanding Somalia and Somaliland: Culture, History, Society
3623:. Ethiopian International Institute for Peace and Development.
2560:
2157:
2103:
1997:
Arrests and killings of Isaaq passengers on the ship "Emviyara"
1007:
874:
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
559:
7540:
Nafziger, E. Wayne; Stewart, Frances; VΓ€yrynen, Raimo (2002).
7117:
7100:
7083:
7066:
5569:"Over 300,000 Somalis, Fleeing Civil War, Cross into Ethiopia"
4927:"How Mass Atrocities End: An Evidence-Based Counter-Narrative"
2327:
2254:
Attacks on Isaaq nomads by Ogadeni refugees in the countryside
1737:
10319:
9977:
8945:
8885:
8809:
8086:
7780:
7016:
6871:
5332:
Genocide and Mass Atrocities in Asia: Legacies and Prevention
3018:. International Crisis Group. 2006. p. 5. Archived from
2553:
2528:
2524:
2481:
The British mine-clearing company Rimfire, contracted by the
2246:
2242:
These men included professionals, businessmen, and teachers.
1693:
1570:
1501:
1484:
1433:
1218:
1108:
1039:
816:
792:
551:
86:
7012:
After the Guns Fall Silent: The Enduring Legacy of Landmines
6867:
After the Guns Fall Silent: The Enduring Legacy of Landmines
5485:
Canada, Immigration and Refugee Board of (1 November 1989).
2511:"had information eight months earlier that Libyan President
1674:
among others, have referred to the case as one of genocide.
9417:
9094:
8920:
8915:
8197:
4395:
Civil Wars of the World: Major Conflicts Since World War II
3363:
Conference, European Association of Somali Studies (1993).
2497:
2344:
aircraft and carry out bombing missions over Isaaq cities.
2141:"dumped in the town and was eaten to the waist by hyenas".
2133:
1906:
Other descriptions of what took place in Hargeisa include:
7121:
Violent deeds live on: landmines in Somalia and Somaliland
7104:
Violent deeds live on: landmines in Somalia and Somaliland
7087:
Violent deeds live on: landmines in Somalia and Somaliland
7070:
Violent deeds live on: landmines in Somalia and Somaliland
5762:
Me Against My Brother: At War in Somalia, Sudan and Rwanda
4174:
3238:
Racism and Ethnicity: Global Debates, Dilemmas, Directions
2429:
1581:
against civilian populations belonging to the Isaaq clan.
1296:
scorched-earth policy to get rid of 'anti-Somali germs'".
1071:
One of the militias formed by the Ogaden refugees was the
11264:
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
7518:
Genocide, war crimes and the West: history and complicity
5831:
Congressional Record, October 26, 1999 to November 3 1999
4175:
FitzGerald, V.; Stewart, F.; Venugopal, R. (5 May 2006).
3191:
The Early Morning Phonecall: Somali Refugees' Remittances
2841:"In the Valley of Death: Somaliland's Forgotten Genocide"
1504:
took place between May 1988 and March 1989. According to
1500:, the Somali government's genocidal campaign against the
1345:
residents must be supporters of the rebels. According to
996:, to entrench their rule and in an attempt to regain the
59:
Exhumed skeletal remains of victims of the Isaaq genocide
4658:
4113:
4111:
4109:
4107:
3493:
3430:
3276:
2051:
1556:(2nd largest city of the Somali Republic) was destroyed.
7816:
Postage stamps and postal history of British Somaliland
7539:
7151:
Division, Library of Congress Federal Research (1993).
2686:
Geldenhuys (2009), Contested States in World Politics,
2663:
2180:
When news of the outbreak of fighting in Burao reached
1591:, describes the massacre of Isaaq civilians as follows:
7686:
Totten, Samuel; Parsons, William S. (1 January 1995).
7427:
Dumper, Michael; Stanleyc, Bruce E. (1 January 2007).
7040:(U.S.), Physicians for Human Rights (1 January 1993).
6973:(U.S.), Physicians for Human Rights (1 January 1993).
6925:(U.S.), Physicians for Human Rights (1 January 1993).
4216:
4178:
Globalization, Self-Determination and Violent Conflict
2439:
describes the ramifications of this tactic as follows:
2006:
claimed to be from other clans." The commander of the
1545:
described as one of the "worst civil wars in Africa".
1492:
During the ongoing conflict between the forces of the
960:
was chosen as the head of state and presided over the
11375:
International Criminal Court investigation in Ukraine
9906:
Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction
7301:
7278:
Clan Cleansing in Somalia: The Ruinous Legacy of 1991
6687:
6670:
Clan Cleansing in Somalia: The Ruinous Legacy of 1991
6558:
Clan Cleansing in Somalia: The Ruinous Legacy of 1991
6527:
Clan Cleansing in Somalia: The Ruinous Legacy of 1991
5859:
Hundred Ninth Congress, second session, June 29, 2006
5349:
4954:, p. ?: "in return for depriving the SNM of its"
4636:
Blood and Bone: The Call of Kinship in Somali Society
4364:
Clan Cleansing in Somalia: The Ruinous Legacy of 1991
4224:
Evil Days: Thirty Years of War and Famine in Ethiopia
4118:
Janzen, JΓΆrg; Vitzthum, Stella von (1 January 2001).
4104:
4094:
4092:
4032:. International Labour Organization. 1 January 1989.
2989:
2987:
2985:
2937:
Clan Cleansing in Somalia: The Ruinous Legacy of 1991
2488:
2340:
mercenaries to fly and maintain its fleet of British
1573:, and to that end employed the use of indiscriminate
1062:
836:
and have been referred to as a "forgotten genocide".
11343:
International Criminal Court investigation in Darfur
6497:
The New Africa: Dispatches from a Changing Continent
6363:"Aid agency alleged torture by U.S.-backed military"
6036:. United States General Accounting Office. May 1989.
4988:
3111:
The New Africa: Dispatches from a Changing Continent
702:
Peace treaties of the Somaliland War of Independence
7176:
7174:
6895:Gardner, Judith; Bushra, Judy El (1 January 2004).
6236:"UNPO: Somaliland: Large-scale Exhumations Started"
5533:Lauderdale, Pat; Amster, Randall (1 January 1997).
4727:Robins, Nicholas A.; Jones, Adam (1 January 2009).
2741:
2739:
2737:
2735:
1488:
Somali dictator Siad Barre, instigator of genocide.
1206:) explains the context in which the SNM was formed:
7476:
7338:
6955:
6754:
6481:
6442:
6421:
6346:
6195:
6145:
6088:
6059:
5729:
5690:
5673:
5658:
5641:
5519:The civil war in Somalia: its genesis and dynamics
5472:
4903:
4891:
4879:
4867:
4633:
4537:
4201:
4159:
3726:
3481:
3469:
3316:Ahmed, Ismail I.; Green, Reginald Herbold (1999).
3052:Eritrea and Ethiopia: From Conflict to Cooperation
2958:
2839:Einashe, Ismail; Kennard, Matt (22 October 2018).
1658:) as well as international media outlets, such as
1230:By 1982 the SNM transferred their headquarters to
7308:. University Press of America. pp. 236β239.
7009:Roberts, Shawn; Williams, Jody (1 January 1995).
6864:Roberts, Shawn; Williams, Jody (1 January 1995).
5741:
5395:Cyllah, Almami; Prendergast, John (1 July 1990).
5394:
5329:Mayersen, Deborah; Pohlman, Annie (3 June 2013).
4774:
4757:
3536:
2970:
2916:
11425:
11232:International Military Tribunal for the Far East
10978:
7856:List of colonial governors of British Somaliland
7480:Somalia: A Government at War with its Own People
7180:
7171:
6844:Drysdale, John Gordon Stewart (1 January 1991).
6268:Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for.
5532:
2732:
1859:. Somali government aircraft "took off from the
872:United Nations Coordination Unit (UNCU) and the
127:High estimates range between 100,000 and 200,000
10164:German atrocities committed against Soviet POWs
7244:"Somaliland: Time for African Union Leadership"
7008:
6863:
6643:The cost of dictatorship: the Somali experience
5367:
5328:
4322:"Somalia Fights Charges of Human Rights Abuses"
3589:
2391:
948:In October 1969 the military seized power in a
16:1987β1989 genocide of Isaaq in northern Somalia
7426:
7384:
6612:
6585:
6454:
6391:
6207:
6157:
6111:
5702:
5204:
5177:
5150:
5123:
5084:
4117:
3774:Programme, United Nations Development (2001).
2838:
2761:
2197:. Those arrested Isaaqs included businessmen,
1892:reported the scale of destruction as follows:
1847:Aerial bombardment and destruction of Hargeisa
1046:"any Ogadeni refugees were recruited into the
935:Social, political and economic marginalisation
147:Map of the sites related to the Isaaq genocide
10457:Massacres of Hutus during the First Congo War
9433:
8560:
7723:
7685:
6894:
5834:. Government Printing Office. 10 April 2017.
4170:
4168:
3012:Somaliland: Time for African Union Leadership
2647:
2507:reported a story on 12 January 1989 that the
2483:United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
2278:
832:of Africa'. The killings happened during the
744:
361:
5882:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
5109:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
5085:Waldron, Hasci, Sidney R, Naima Ali (1994).
4508:Encyclopedia of Conflicts Since World War II
4392:DeRouen, Karl Jr.; Heo, Uk (28 March 2007).
3869:
2708:Abdullahi, Mohamed Diriye (1 January 2001).
2542:
1883:barely recognizable even to its inhabitants.
1008:Displacement of Isaaq and arming of refugees
11351:International Crimes Tribunal of Bangladesh
11091:PostβWorld War II Romanian war crime trials
4726:
4535:
4202:Janzen, JΓΆrg; von Vitzthum, Stella (2001).
3936:
3934:
3932:
3930:
3928:
3926:
3924:
3922:
3920:
3392:Shultz, Richard H.; Dew, Andrea J. (2009).
3136:"Conflict in Somalia: Drivers and Dynamics"
2799:; Lemos, T. M.; Taylor, Tristan S. (eds.).
2539:has denied possession of chemical weapons.
2515:gave Somalia chemical weapons".< The US
2459:
2328:Use of mercenaries by the Somali government
1919:12,000 heavily damaged". The Congressional
1855:of the city carried out by aircraft of the
1792:
1738:Aerial bombardment and destruction of Burao
1327:
1247:
11298:International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
9440:
9426:
8567:
8553:
7730:
7716:
7367:Somalia: Issues, History, and Bibliography
7363:
7215:Civil Wars in Africa: Roots and Resolution
6781:recruited mercenary fighter-bomber pilots.
5854:
5801:
5293:
5040:
4569:Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (25 February 2003).
4472:
4391:
4282:Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (25 February 2003).
4206:. Berlin: Verlag Hans Schiler. p. 23.
4165:
3733:. University of California Press. p.
3697:
3497:De Facto States: The Quest for Sovereignty
3434:De Facto States: The Quest for Sovereignty
3369:. European Association of Somali Studies.
3366:First Conference, 23rd-25th September 1993
3362:
3315:
3280:De Facto States: The Quest for Sovereignty
3076:
3074:
3072:
1781:. Killings in Hargeisa started on 31 May.
855:was also used as a weapon against Isaaqs.
751:
737:
368:
354:
173:
9913:Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars
7274:
6666:
6554:
6523:
5065:
4963:
4840:finalsolutiontoisaqproblem.blogspot.co.uk
4722:
4720:
4360:
3865:
3863:
3773:
3391:
3218:Conflict in Somalia: Drivers and Dynamics
2933:
2707:
2703:
2701:
2699:
2697:
2695:
2236:
1646:A number of genocide scholars (including
952:following the assassination of President
8710:Ethiopian intervention (2006–2009)
7405:
7150:
6843:
6792:
6706:Lefebvre, Jeffrey A. (15 January 1992).
6705:
5758:
5515:
5231:
5009:
4964:Cordesman, Anthony H. (6 October 2016).
4692:
4682:. Dar es Salaam Limited. 1 January 1989.
4319:
3972:Mohamoud, Abdullah A. (1 January 2006).
3971:
3940:
3917:
3839:
3724:
3644:Lefebvre, Jeffrey A. (15 January 1992).
3643:
3585:
3583:
3581:
3579:
3577:
2912:
2910:
2866:
2834:
2832:
2757:
2566:According to some observers such as the
2498:Reported acquisition of chemical weapons
1952:
1825:
1621:
1547:
1483:
1340:street, June 1988, Amnesty International
1331:
142:
9785:Indigenous peoples in the United States
7737:
7451:
7341:The Cambridge Survey of World Migration
7275:Kapteijns, Lidwien (18 December 2012).
7004:
7002:
7000:
6968:
6966:
6964:
6920:
6918:
6859:
6857:
6793:Lefebvre, Jeffrey A. (1 January 1991).
6735:
6731:
6729:
6667:Kapteijns, Lidwien (18 December 2012).
6640:GhalΔ«b, Jama Mohamed (1 January 1995).
6555:Kapteijns, Lidwien (18 December 2012).
6524:Kapteijns, Lidwien (18 December 2012).
6519:
6517:
6357:
6355:
6263:
6261:
6107:
6105:
6103:
6101:
6099:
6097:
5607:
4795:WARQADDII GEERIDA (Dad-qalkii Hargeysa)
4792:Madar, Hassan Abdi (8 September 2015).
4568:
4361:Kapteijns, Lidwien (18 December 2012).
4281:
4247:
3896:
3840:Ingiriis, Mohamed Haji (1 April 2016).
3670:
3616:
3553:
3187:
3069:
2934:Kapteijns, Lidwien (18 December 2012).
2801:The Cambridge World History of Genocide
2659:
2430:Mining of grazing and agricultural land
2217:Over 300 Isaaq detainees were held the
1746:a result of the government's campaign.
903:was under Italian rule under the title
795:civilians between 1987 and 1989 by the
11426:
7836:Italian invasion of British Somaliland
7660:
7635:
7611:"Investigating genocide in Somaliland"
7587:
7562:
7364:Fitzgerald, Nina J. (1 January 2002).
7039:
6972:
6924:
6752:
6639:
6023:
6021:
5993:
5966:
5912:
5566:
5562:
5560:
5484:
5266:
5010:Richards, Rebecca (24 February 2016).
5005:
5003:
4818:
4717:
4693:Richards, Rebecca (24 February 2016).
4544:. Cambridge University Press. p.
4504:
4494:. Stellascope Limited. 1 January 1991.
4454:
4422:
4315:
4313:
4311:
4309:
4098:
4079:
3941:Richards, Rebecca (24 February 2016).
3870:Wiafe-Amoako, Francis (28 July 2016).
3860:
3812:
3777:Human development report, Somalia 2001
3757:
3725:Horowitz, Donald L. (1 January 1985).
3214:
3080:
3044:
3042:
3040:
2993:
2964:
2867:Ingiriis, Mohamed Haji (2 July 2016).
2794:
2692:
2671:
2651:
2643:
2437:Vietnam Veterans of America Foundation
787:, was the systematic, state-sponsored
11328:
11209:
10977:
10954:Mass killings under communist regimes
10471:
10234:
9929:
9590:
9470:
9421:
8548:
7711:
7608:
7511:
7333:
7134:
6847:Somaliland 1991: Report and Reference
6757:Africa's Wars and Prospects for Peace
6753:Copson, Raymond W. (1 January 1994).
6693:
6493:
5967:Cutter, Charles H. (1 January 2005).
5417:from the original on 16 February 2017
5355:
4994:
4951:
4846:from the original on 28 December 2017
4791:
4664:
4631:
4450:
4448:
4446:
4277:
4275:
4273:
4271:
4052:
3998:
3897:Leonard, Thomas M. (1 January 2006).
3794:from the original on 28 December 2017
3574:
3518:from the original on 8 September 2017
3451:from the original on 8 September 2017
3412:from the original on 8 September 2017
3297:from the original on 8 September 2017
3148:from the original on 26 December 2016
3107:
3048:
2976:
2907:
2829:
2788:
2745:
2667:
2664:Nafziger, Stewart & VΓ€yrynen 2002
2610:Mass killings under communist regimes
2052:Burning of Isaaq civilians in Berbera
1425:sense' to the residents of Hargeisa.
815:(which was 90 percent destroyed) and
235:Perpetrators, victims, and bystanders
10903:Terminology of the Armenian genocide
8574:
7281:. University of Pennsylvania Press.
6997:
6961:
6915:
6854:
6726:
6673:. University of Pennsylvania Press.
6514:
6352:
6267:
6258:
6094:
5437:"Somaliland: Kill All but the Crows"
5267:Charny, Israel W. (1 January 1999).
3900:Encyclopedia of the Developing World
3554:Renders, Marleen (20 January 2012).
1604:was unprecedented in the history of
11139:War crimes trials in Soviet Estonia
7477:Human Rights Watch (January 1990).
7211:
6494:Press, Robert M. (1 January 1999).
6018:
5557:
5000:
4306:
4248:Bakonyi, Jutta (16 February 2017).
3813:Patman, Robert G. (12 March 2009).
3234:
3108:Press, Robert M. (1 January 1999).
3037:
1749:
976:
890:
780:
13:
11499:20th-century mass murder in Africa
11484:War crimes in the Somali Civil War
7452:Gilbert, JΓ©rΓ©mie (26 March 2014).
7191:. pp. 98β100 with footnotes.
6373:from the original on 27 April 2017
6246:from the original on 27 April 2017
5997:The A to Z of Civil Wars in Africa
5920:. U.S. Government Printing Office.
5805:Contested States in World Politics
5589:from the original on 27 April 2017
5516:Bongartz, Maria (1 January 1991).
5497:from the original on 27 April 2017
4613:from the original on 14 April 2009
4601:"Analysis: Somalia's powerbrokers"
4462:. U.S. Government Printing Office.
4443:
4320:Battiata, Mary (25 January 1989).
4268:
3701:Contested States in World Politics
2489:Use of land-mines at water sources
2245:According to Claudio Pacifico, an
1692:attacked and captured the city of
1415:neighbouring a military compound)
1252:
1063:Creation of refugee Ogaden militia
14:
11510:
7588:Peifer, Douglas C. (1 May 2009).
7563:Palmer, Andrew (15 August 2014).
7406:Frushone, Joel (1 January 2001).
5994:Arnold, Guy (15 September 2009).
5930:
3617:Abraham, Knife (1 January 2002).
3373:from the original on 22 July 2018
3188:Lindley, Anna (15 January 2013).
2295:planes strafed them from the air.
1122:
11329:
11210:
10472:
10235:
9930:
9591:
9401:
9392:
9391:
8758:
8528:
8519:
8518:
7934:
7609:Reinl, James (6 February 2014).
7455:Nomadic Peoples and Human Rights
7295:
7268:
7236:
7205:
7144:
7111:
7094:
7077:
7060:
7033:
6888:
6837:
6817:
6786:
6746:
6712:. University of Pittsburgh Pre.
6699:
6660:
6633:
6606:
6579:
6563:University of Pennsylvania Press
6548:
6532:University of Pennsylvania Press
6487:
6448:
6385:
6292:
6228:
6201:
6151:
5987:
5960:
5924:
5906:
5890:
5848:
5822:
5802:Geldenhuys, D. (22 April 2009).
5795:
5779:
5759:Peterson, Scott (4 April 2014).
5752:
5735:
5696:
5608:Bridges, Peter (31 March 2017).
5601:
5526:
5509:
5478:
5429:
5397:"GENOCIDE IN THE HORN OF AFRICA"
5388:
5361:
5322:
5303:. Genocide Watch. Archived from
5287:
5260:
4572:Historical Dictionary of Somalia
4369:University of Pennsylvania Press
4342:from the original on 3 July 2018
4285:Historical Dictionary of Somalia
3698:Geldenhuys, D. (22 April 2009).
3650:. University of Pittsburgh Pre.
3081:Harper, Mary (9 February 2012).
2942:University of Pennsylvania Press
2600:Factions in the Somali Civil War
2405:former military installations".
2018:
1677:
1272:
1261:
1166:
1157:
1146:
1137:
720:
404:
53:
9744:Indigenous peoples in Australia
9471:
8678:Somaliland War of Independence
7661:Straus, Scott (24 March 2015).
7412:. U.S. Committee for Refugees.
7326:
6500:. University Press of Florida.
5614:. Kent State University Press.
5567:Perlez, Jane (13 August 1988).
5225:
5198:
5171:
5144:
5117:
5078:
5059:
5050:
4957:
4945:
4918:
4909:
4828:
4785:
4768:
4751:
4686:
4670:
4632:Lewis, I. M. (1 January 1994).
4625:
4593:
4562:
4529:
4505:Ciment, James (20 March 2015).
4498:
4482:
4416:
4385:
4354:
4241:
4210:
4195:
4053:Lewis, I. M. (1 January 2008).
4046:
4019:
3999:Lewis, I. M. (1 January 2008).
3992:
3965:
3890:
3833:
3806:
3767:
3718:
3691:
3664:
3637:
3610:
3547:
3530:
3487:
3424:
3385:
3356:
3309:
3270:
3255:
3228:
3208:
3181:
3128:
3114:. University Press of Florida.
3101:
3049:Tekle, Amare (1 January 1994).
3003:
2927:
2615:Somali Civil War (2009βpresent)
1979:
1589:Sanford School of Public Policy
11444:Somaliland War of Independence
10668:Genocide of indigenous peoples
10259:Indigenous peoples in Paraguay
9560:Mongols in the Delhi Sultanate
7302:Mohamed Haji Ingiriis (2016).
6801:University of Pittsburgh Press
5443:. 16 June 2016. Archived from
4931:Fetcher Forum of World Affairs
3819:. Cambridge University Press.
2860:
2770:
2751:
2711:Culture and Customs of Somalia
2680:
2637:
1364:Select extrajudicial killings
1129:Somaliland War of Independence
805:Somaliland War of Independence
672:Somaliland War of Independence
47:Somaliland War of Independence
1:
11383:Ukraine v. Russian Federation
10513:Tigrayans, Kunamas, and Irobs
9679:Jews in the Cossack Hetmanate
8668:Trust Territory of Somaliland
5973:. Stryker-Post Publications.
5902:. The Office. 1 January 1989.
5246:10.1080/19392206.2016.1208475
4640:. The Red Sea Press. p.
3671:Tripodi, P. (2 August 1999).
3398:. Columbia University Press.
2885:10.1080/19392206.2016.1208475
2630:
2222:only after bribes were paid.
2147:
1756:1988 Hargeisa-Burao offensive
1684:1988 Hargeisa-Burao offensive
1608:. The brutal response of the
994:Supreme Revolutionary Council
962:Supreme Revolutionary Council
905:Trust Territory of Somaliland
885:
781:Ψ§ΩΨ₯Ψ¨Ψ§Ψ―Ψ© Ψ§ΩΨ¬Ω
Ψ§ΨΉΩΨ© ΩΩΨ¨ΩΩΨ© Ψ₯Ψ³ΨΨ§Ω
11494:Discrimination in Somaliland
11439:Modern history of Somaliland
11314:CroatiaβSerbia genocide case
11115:Nuremberg Military Tribunals
10961:Anti-communist mass killings
9687:Indigenous peoples in Canada
9623:Indigenous peoples in Brazil
9447:
7851:1945 Sheikh Bashir Rebellion
7636:Rutter, Jill (1 June 2006).
5931:P, Biles (31 October 1991).
5522:. Nordiska Afrikainstitutet.
5294:Gregory H., Stanton (2012).
5066:Jentleson, Bruce W. (2000).
4254:(in German). Campus Verlag.
3876:. Rowman & Littlefield.
2392:Government use of land-mines
2187:
943:
799:, under the dictatorship of
7:
11248:Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal
10408:National Population Program
7881:Declaration of Independence
7542:War Hunger and Displacement
3978:. Purdue University Press.
3596:. Nordic Africa Institute.
3235:Law, Ian (1 January 2010).
2583:
2465:Physicians for Human Rights
2410:Physicians for Human Rights
2250:transfer to Jasiira beach.
1512:and Bridget Conley-Zilkic:
1479:
1411:Boqol Jirreh (a section of
690:Declaration of Independence
10:
11515:
11459:Ethnic cleansing in Africa
11449:Massacres of ethnic groups
11163:Frankfurt Auschwitz trials
11107:Hamburg RavensbrΓΌck trials
10933:Effects on young survivors
10360:Sabra and Shatila massacre
7826:Somaliland campaign (1920)
7639:Refugee Children in the Uk
7347:Cambridge University Press
7043:Landmines: A Deadly Legacy
6976:Landmines: A Deadly Legacy
6928:Landmines: A Deadly Legacy
6367:United Press International
5611:Safirka: An American Envoy
4937:(1): 15β31. Archived from
2805:Cambridge University Press
2762:Dumper & Stanleyc 2007
2716:Greenwood Publishing Group
2625:War in Somalia (2006β2009)
2568:International Crisis Group
2279:Strafing of Isaaq refugees
2062:
1948:
1753:
1681:
1290:Mohammed Said Hersi Morgan
1126:
980:
971:
797:Somali Democratic Republic
666:Somali Democratic Republic
136:Somali Democratic Republic
69:Somali Democratic Republic
11489:Discrimination in Somalia
11434:Modern history of Somalia
11337:
11218:
11131:Ulm Einsatzkommando trial
11099:Supreme National Tribunal
10989:
10970:
10880:
10802:
10705:
10583:
10482:
10245:
9940:
9702:Residential school system
9601:
9481:
9455:
9387:
9320:
9250:
9241:
9171:
9162:
9048:
9044:
9035:
8979:
8876:
8780:
8776:
8767:
8756:
8728:
8595:
8586:
8514:
8440:
8382:
8373:
8303:
8294:
8141:
8137:
8128:
8077:
7956:
7952:
7943:
7932:
7904:
7758:
7749:
7181:Rebecca Richards (2016).
3729:Ethnic Groups in Conflict
3224:. World Bank. p. 10.
2813:10.1017/9781108655989.005
2648:Totten & Parsons 1995
2543:Targeting of other groups
2398:anti-personnel land-mines
2219:National Security Service
2175:
1976:was allowed in the city.
1921:General Accounting Office
1808:National Security Service
1717:General Accounting Office
1587:, former director of the
1055:Ogaden refugee militias.
708:Constitutional referendum
131:
121:
93:
82:
74:
64:
52:
44:
39:
9994:Christians in Diyarbekir
8232:House of Representatives
7669:Cornell University Press
7212:Ali, Taisier M. (1999).
7154:Somalia: a country study
6831:Indiana University Press
5297:Countries at Risk Report
5270:Encyclopedia of genocide
5089:. University of Oxford.
5072:Rowman & Littlefield
4735:Indiana University Press
3903:. Taylor & Francis.
2460:Mining of civilian homes
1793:Mass arrests in Hargeisa
1768:and due to it being the
1690:Somali National Movement
1654:, Deborah Mayersen, and
1531:Somali National Movement
1494:Somali National Movement
1328:Extrajudicial executions
1248:Planning and preparation
1185:Somali National Movement
954:Abdirashid Ali Shermarke
315:Compulsory sterilization
10940:Politics of recognition
9487:Destruction of Carthage
8628:Sultanate of the Geledi
7891:2022 Waheen Market fire
7546:Oxford University Press
6956:Human Rights Watch 1990
6482:Human Rights Watch 1990
6443:Human Rights Watch 1990
6422:Human Rights Watch 1990
6347:Human Rights Watch 1990
6196:Human Rights Watch 1990
6146:Human Rights Watch 1990
6089:Human Rights Watch 1990
6060:Human Rights Watch 1990
5730:Human Rights Watch 1990
5691:Human Rights Watch 1990
5674:Human Rights Watch 1990
5659:Human Rights Watch 1990
5642:Human Rights Watch 1990
5473:Human Rights Watch 1990
4904:Human Rights Watch 1990
4892:Human Rights Watch 1990
4880:Human Rights Watch 1990
4868:Human Rights Watch 1990
4160:Human Rights Watch 1990
4124:. Verlag Hans Schiler.
3482:Human Rights Watch 1990
3470:Human Rights Watch 1990
1600:The use of large-scale
1539:EthiopiaβSomalia border
622:Sheikh Bashir Rebellion
116:crimes against humanity
27:Infobox civilian attack
20:
11391:South Africa v. Israel
11359:Rohingya genocide case
10896:Names of the Holocaust
10352:Chittagong Hill Tracts
10060:Kinder der Landstrasse
9946:Late Ottoman genocides
7841:Somaliland Camel Corps
7046:. Human Rights Watch.
6332:: CS1 maint: others (
4227:. Human Rights Watch.
3334:10.1080/01436599913947
3215:Gajraj, Priya (2005).
3169:Cite journal requires
2577:
2479:
2474:
2446:
2419:
2389:
2384:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2362:
2325:
2310:
2297:
2272:
2237:Jasiira beach massacre
2173:
2138:
2125:
2120:
2114:
2092:
1958:
1942:
1936:
1930:
1913:
1904:
1899:
1885:
1735:
1726:
1627:
1620:
1598:
1557:
1519:
1489:
1341:
1325:
1317:
1228:
1213:
1196:United States Congress
1090:
1052:
1035:
968:as its core ideology.
883:
772:
661:1961 revolt in Somalia
148:
32:considered for merging
11256:Bosnian genocide case
10910:Holocaust terminology
10553:Christians under ISIS
10283:1966 anti-Igbo pogrom
9712:1740 Batavia massacre
9536:Harrying of the North
7896:Outline of Somaliland
7831:1922 Burao Tax Revolt
7644:McGraw-Hill Education
3322:Third World Quarterly
3055:. The Red Sea Press.
2572:
2509:Reagan Administration
2475:
2469:
2441:
2414:
2385:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2363:
2358:
2320:
2305:
2292:
2267:
2168:
2129:
2121:
2115:
2109:
2087:
1956:
1937:
1931:
1925:
1916:Amnesty International
1908:
1900:
1894:
1880:
1826:The Hargeisa campaign
1730:
1721:
1625:
1615:
1593:
1551:
1514:
1487:
1335:
1321:
1309:
1214:
1208:
1194:testimony before the
1085:
1044:
1031:
878:
783:), also known as the
773:Xasuuqii beesha Isaaq
727:Somaliland portal
146:
11407:Nicaragua v. Germany
11306:Khmer Rouge Tribunal
10682:Utilitarian genocide
10661:Transgender genocide
10020:Osage Indian murders
9720:Great Gypsy Round-up
8717:(2009–present)
8648:Warsangali Sultanate
8638:Majeerteen Sultanate
8062:Sa'ad ad-Din Islands
7806:Habr Yunis Sultanate
7594:. DIANE Publishing.
7220:McGill-Queen's Press
6280:on 15 September 2023
4941:on 12 December 2023.
4842:. 13 February 2008.
4217:Waal, Alexander De;
2605:Genocides in History
2537:Mohammad Ali Samatar
2422:were also blown up.
1874:, the co-founder of
1606:African civil unrest
1313:Mohammad Ali Samatar
966:scientific socialism
546:Habr Yunis Sultanate
250:Recognition politics
195:Genocides in history
112:forced disappearance
11454:Genocides in Africa
10793:Settler colonialism
10742:Forced assimilation
10440:Srebrenica massacre
10212:Chechens and Ingush
9970:Thracian Bulgarians
9816:Sand Creek massacre
9777:Siege of Tripolitsa
9528:Ancestral Puebloans
8166:Diplomatic missions
7866:War of Independence
7861:State of Somaliland
7821:Somaliland campaign
7507:on 7 December 2012.
7370:. Nova Publishers.
7337:(2 November 1995).
6646:. L. Barber Press.
5402:The Washington Post
4972:Bloomsbury Academic
4667:, pp. 245β246.
4327:The Washington Post
2807:. pp. 86β102.
2778:"SOMALIA 1988β1989"
2590:Burundian genocides
2521:The Washington Post
1804:Somali Armed Forces
1667:The Washington Post
1525:, the president of
1389:Gogol Wanaag (near
1365:
929:State of Somaliland
861:Dabar Goynta Isaaqa
845:Dabar Goynta Isaaqa
841:Somali Armed Forces
649:State of Somaliland
604:Somaliland campaign
598:Somaliland campaign
480: •
473:Land of the Berbers
423:Caves in Somaliland
335:Forced assimilation
11272:Slobodan MiloΕ‘eviΔ
11123:Erich von Manstein
10735:Extermination camp
10488:Effacer le tableau
10251:Hyderabadi Muslims
10196:Nanshitou Massacre
10180:Muslims and Croats
9882:Hamidian massacres
9769:Al-Jawazi massacre
9759:Stolen Generations
9462:list by death toll
9019:South West Somalia
8663:British Somaliland
8658:Italian Somaliland
8643:Sultanate of Hobyo
8351:Telecommunications
7811:British Somaliland
7488:Human Rights Watch
7256:on 2 February 2017
6981:Human Rights Watch
6933:Human Rights Watch
5574:The New York Times
5447:on 20 January 2017
4609:. 8 January 2002.
4221:(1 January 1991).
4219:Human Rights Watch
3194:. Berghahn Books.
3025:on 2 February 2017
2688:Palgrave Macmillan
2408:In February 1992,
2315:The New York Times
2260:Human Rights Watch
2100:primary healthcare
2057:Human Rights Watch
2026:Human Rights Watch
1970:Human Rights Watch
1959:
1876:Human Rights Watch
1833:Human Rights Watch
1812:Human Rights Watch
1698:Human Rights Watch
1628:
1602:aerial bombardment
1579:aerial bombardment
1575:artillery shelling
1558:
1490:
1375:Number of victims
1363:
1358:Human Rights Watch
1347:Human Rights Watch
1342:
1192:Human Rights Watch
1077:Human Rights Watch
1027:Human Rights Watch
989:Somali irredentism
857:Human Rights Watch
785:Hargeisa Holocaust
586:British Somaliland
558: •
554: •
520:EthiopianβAdal war
149:
100:Genocidal massacre
11474:Conflicts in 1990
11469:Conflicts in 1989
11464:Conflicts in 1988
11421:
11420:
11417:
11416:
11324:
11323:
11205:
11204:
11051:Euthanasia trials
10971:Legal proceedings
10714:Cultural genocide
10640:Cultural genocide
10579:
10578:
10504:Masalit massacres
10467:
10466:
10368:Sri Lankan Tamils
10275:Arabs in Zanzibar
10230:
10229:
10148:Three Alls policy
9925:
9924:
9858:Putumayo genocide
9586:
9585:
9415:
9414:
9383:
9382:
9237:
9236:
9158:
9157:
9154:
9153:
9122:Political parties
9112:Political history
9068:Foreign relations
9031:
9030:
9027:
9026:
8805:Guardafui Channel
8754:
8753:
8693:(1986–1992)
8680:(1981–1991)
8542:
8541:
8510:
8509:
8369:
8368:
8290:
8289:
8286:
8285:
8239:Political parties
8215:Somaliland Police
8161:Foreign relations
8124:
8123:
8120:
8119:
7930:
7929:
7876:National Movement
7846:Somaliland Scouts
7801:Battle of Berbera
7786:Sultanate of Ifat
7699:978-0-8153-0309-1
7678:978-0-8014-5567-4
7653:978-0-335-21373-3
7601:978-1-4379-1281-4
7580:978-0-85773-493-8
7532:978-1-84277-191-4
7469:978-1-136-02016-2
7444:978-1-57607-919-5
7419:978-0-936548-12-8
7398:978-1-56902-186-6
7391:. Red Sea Press.
7377:978-1-59033-265-8
7356:978-0-521-44405-7
7315:978-0-7618-6720-3
7288:978-0-8122-0758-3
7229:978-0-7735-1883-4
7198:978-1-317-00466-0
7164:978-0-8444-0775-3
7124:. African Rights.
7107:. African Rights.
7090:. African Rights.
7073:. African Rights.
7053:978-1-56432-113-8
7026:978-0-85598-337-6
6990:978-1-56432-113-8
6942:978-1-56432-113-8
6908:978-0-7453-2208-7
6881:978-0-85598-337-6
6833:. 1 January 1989.
6810:978-0-8229-3680-0
6776:978-1-56324-300-4
6719:978-0-8229-7031-6
6680:978-0-8122-0758-3
6653:978-0-936508-30-6
6626:978-1-56902-186-6
6619:. Red Sea Press.
6599:978-1-56902-186-6
6592:. Red Sea Press.
6572:978-0-8122-0758-3
6541:978-0-8122-0758-3
6507:978-0-8130-1704-4
6468:978-1-56902-186-6
6461:. Red Sea Press.
6405:978-1-56902-186-6
6398:. Red Sea Press.
6221:978-1-56902-186-6
6214:. Red Sea Press.
6171:978-1-56902-186-6
6164:. Red Sea Press.
6125:978-1-56902-186-6
6118:. Red Sea Press.
6011:978-0-8108-6885-4
5980:978-1-887985-63-5
5948:Missing or empty
5841:978-0-16-073157-0
5815:978-0-230-23418-5
5772:978-1-135-95552-6
5716:978-1-56902-186-6
5709:. Red Sea Press.
5621:978-0-87338-658-6
5381:978-1-85649-762-6
5342:978-1-135-04770-2
5280:978-0-87436-928-1
5218:978-1-56902-186-6
5211:. Red Sea Press.
5191:978-1-56902-186-6
5184:. Red Sea Press.
5164:978-1-56902-186-6
5157:. Red Sea Press.
5137:978-1-56902-186-6
5130:. Red Sea Press.
5096:978-91-7106-363-2
5056:Geldenhuys, p.131
5027:978-1-317-00466-0
4981:978-1-4742-9257-3
4805:978-1-329-54033-0
4744:978-0-253-22077-6
4710:978-1-317-00466-0
4651:978-0-932415-93-6
4586:978-0-8108-6604-1
4555:978-0-521-56872-2
4522:978-1-317-47186-8
4491:The Weekly Review
4436:978-0-16-039742-4
4409:978-1-85109-919-1
4378:978-0-8122-0758-3
4299:978-0-8108-6604-1
4261:978-3-593-39528-9
4234:978-1-56432-038-4
4188:978-0-230-50237-6
4131:978-3-86093-230-8
4066:978-1-85065-898-6
4012:978-1-85065-898-6
3985:978-1-55753-413-2
3958:978-1-317-00466-0
3910:978-0-415-97664-0
3883:978-1-4758-2903-7
3853:978-0-7618-6720-3
3826:978-0-521-10251-3
3744:978-0-520-05385-4
3711:978-0-230-23418-5
3684:978-0-333-98290-7
3657:978-0-8229-7031-6
3511:978-1-135-77120-1
3444:978-1-135-77120-1
3405:978-0-231-12983-1
3290:978-1-135-77120-1
3248:978-1-4058-5912-7
3201:978-1-78238-328-4
3121:978-0-8130-1704-4
3094:978-1-78032-105-9
3087:. Zed Books Ltd.
3062:978-0-932415-97-4
2951:978-0-8122-0758-3
2822:978-1-108-65598-9
2725:978-0-313-31333-2
2299:Genocide scholar
2094:In January 1989,
1510:Jens Meierhenrich
1477:
1476:
1360:'s Africa Watch:
911:). Shortly after
761:
760:
641:
637:Modern Somaliland
578:
577:(1884–1960)
378:
377:
190:List of genocides
141:
140:
11506:
11479:1980s in Somalia
11410:
11402:
11394:
11386:
11378:
11370:
11362:
11354:
11346:
11332:
11326:
11325:
11317:
11309:
11301:
11291:
11283:
11280:Radovan KaradΕΎiΔ
11275:
11267:
11259:
11251:
11243:
11240:Belgrade Process
11235:
11227:
11213:
11207:
11206:
11198:
11190:
11182:
11174:
11171:Treblinka trials
11166:
11158:
11150:
11142:
11134:
11126:
11118:
11110:
11102:
11094:
11086:
11078:
11070:
11062:
11054:
11046:
11038:
11030:
11022:
11014:
11011:Γpuration lΓ©gale
11006:
10998:
10984:
10981:Holocaust trials
10975:
10974:
10963:
10956:
10949:
10942:
10935:
10928:
10921:
10912:
10905:
10898:
10891:
10873:
10866:
10859:
10852:
10845:
10838:
10831:
10822:
10815:
10795:
10788:
10781:
10774:
10765:
10758:
10751:
10744:
10737:
10730:
10728:Ethnic cleansing
10723:
10716:
10698:
10691:
10684:
10677:
10670:
10663:
10656:
10649:
10642:
10635:
10624:
10617:
10610:
10601:
10594:
10572:
10564:
10556:
10548:
10545:Shias under ISIS
10540:
10532:
10524:
10516:
10506:
10499:
10491:
10477:
10469:
10468:
10460:
10452:
10442:
10435:
10427:
10419:
10411:
10403:
10395:
10387:
10379:
10371:
10363:
10355:
10347:
10339:
10329:
10322:
10315:
10310:
10302:
10294:
10286:
10278:
10270:
10262:
10254:
10240:
10232:
10231:
10223:
10215:
10207:
10199:
10191:
10183:
10175:
10172:Serbs in Croatia
10167:
10159:
10151:
10143:
10135:
10132:Nanjing Massacre
10127:
10124:Parsley massacre
10119:
10116:Polish Operation
10111:
10108:Romani Holocaust
10103:
10095:
10087:
10079:
10071:
10063:
10055:
10052:NapalpΓ massacre
10047:
10039:
10031:
10023:
10015:
10005:
9997:
9989:
9981:
9973:
9963:
9956:
9948:
9935:
9927:
9926:
9916:
9908:
9901:
9893:
9885:
9877:
9869:
9861:
9853:
9845:
9837:
9829:
9819:
9811:
9803:
9795:
9787:
9780:
9772:
9762:
9754:
9746:
9739:
9731:
9723:
9715:
9705:
9697:
9689:
9682:
9674:
9666:
9658:
9650:
9642:
9634:
9626:
9618:
9610:
9596:
9588:
9587:
9579:
9571:
9563:
9555:
9547:
9544:Mongol conquests
9539:
9531:
9523:
9513:
9506:
9498:
9490:
9476:
9468:
9467:
9442:
9435:
9428:
9419:
9418:
9405:
9395:
9394:
9248:
9247:
9214:
9201:Mineral industry
9191:Economic history
9169:
9168:
9102:
9046:
9045:
9042:
9041:
8778:
8777:
8774:
8773:
8762:
8718:
8711:
8694:
8681:
8653:Dervish movement
8613:Walashma dynasty
8593:
8592:
8569:
8562:
8555:
8546:
8545:
8532:
8522:
8521:
8422:Independence Day
8380:
8379:
8346:
8301:
8300:
8205:
8139:
8138:
8135:
8134:
7954:
7953:
7950:
7949:
7938:
7756:
7755:
7732:
7725:
7718:
7709:
7708:
7703:
7682:
7657:
7632:
7630:
7628:
7619:. Archived from
7605:
7584:
7559:
7536:
7508:
7506:
7500:. Archived from
7485:
7473:
7448:
7423:
7402:
7381:
7360:
7344:
7320:
7319:
7299:
7293:
7292:
7272:
7266:
7265:
7263:
7261:
7255:
7248:
7240:
7234:
7233:
7209:
7203:
7202:
7178:
7169:
7168:
7157:. The Division.
7148:
7142:
7132:
7126:
7125:
7115:
7109:
7108:
7098:
7092:
7091:
7081:
7075:
7074:
7064:
7058:
7057:
7037:
7031:
7030:
7006:
6995:
6994:
6970:
6959:
6953:
6947:
6946:
6922:
6913:
6912:
6892:
6886:
6885:
6861:
6852:
6851:
6841:
6835:
6834:
6821:
6815:
6814:
6790:
6784:
6783:
6760:
6750:
6744:
6743:
6733:
6724:
6723:
6703:
6697:
6691:
6685:
6684:
6664:
6658:
6657:
6637:
6631:
6630:
6610:
6604:
6603:
6583:
6577:
6576:
6552:
6546:
6545:
6521:
6512:
6511:
6491:
6485:
6479:
6473:
6472:
6452:
6446:
6440:
6425:
6419:
6410:
6409:
6389:
6383:
6382:
6380:
6378:
6359:
6350:
6344:
6338:
6337:
6331:
6323:
6296:
6290:
6289:
6287:
6285:
6276:. Archived from
6265:
6256:
6255:
6253:
6251:
6232:
6226:
6225:
6205:
6199:
6193:
6176:
6175:
6155:
6149:
6143:
6130:
6129:
6109:
6092:
6086:
6063:
6057:
6038:
6037:
6035:
6025:
6016:
6015:
5991:
5985:
5984:
5964:
5958:
5957:
5951:
5946:
5944:
5936:
5928:
5922:
5921:
5910:
5904:
5903:
5894:
5888:
5887:
5881:
5873:
5852:
5846:
5845:
5826:
5820:
5819:
5799:
5793:
5792:
5783:
5777:
5776:
5756:
5750:
5749:
5739:
5733:
5727:
5721:
5720:
5700:
5694:
5688:
5677:
5671:
5662:
5656:
5645:
5639:
5626:
5625:
5605:
5599:
5598:
5596:
5594:
5564:
5555:
5554:
5530:
5524:
5523:
5513:
5507:
5506:
5504:
5502:
5482:
5476:
5470:
5457:
5456:
5454:
5452:
5433:
5427:
5426:
5424:
5422:
5392:
5386:
5385:
5365:
5359:
5353:
5347:
5346:
5326:
5320:
5319:
5317:
5315:
5310:on 27 April 2017
5309:
5302:
5291:
5285:
5284:
5264:
5258:
5257:
5234:African Security
5229:
5223:
5222:
5202:
5196:
5195:
5175:
5169:
5168:
5148:
5142:
5141:
5121:
5115:
5114:
5108:
5100:
5082:
5076:
5075:
5063:
5057:
5054:
5048:
5038:
5032:
5031:
5007:
4998:
4992:
4986:
4985:
4961:
4955:
4949:
4943:
4942:
4922:
4916:
4913:
4907:
4901:
4895:
4889:
4883:
4877:
4871:
4865:
4856:
4855:
4853:
4851:
4832:
4826:
4816:
4810:
4809:
4789:
4783:
4782:
4772:
4766:
4765:
4755:
4749:
4748:
4724:
4715:
4714:
4690:
4684:
4683:
4674:
4668:
4662:
4656:
4655:
4639:
4629:
4623:
4622:
4620:
4618:
4597:
4591:
4590:
4566:
4560:
4559:
4543:
4533:
4527:
4526:
4502:
4496:
4495:
4486:
4480:
4470:
4464:
4463:
4452:
4441:
4440:
4420:
4414:
4413:
4389:
4383:
4382:
4358:
4352:
4351:
4349:
4347:
4317:
4304:
4303:
4279:
4266:
4265:
4245:
4239:
4238:
4214:
4208:
4207:
4199:
4193:
4192:
4172:
4163:
4157:
4136:
4135:
4115:
4102:
4096:
4087:
4077:
4071:
4070:
4050:
4044:
4043:
4023:
4017:
4016:
3996:
3990:
3989:
3969:
3963:
3962:
3938:
3915:
3914:
3894:
3888:
3887:
3873:Africa 2016β2017
3867:
3858:
3857:
3837:
3831:
3830:
3810:
3804:
3803:
3801:
3799:
3771:
3765:
3755:
3749:
3748:
3732:
3722:
3716:
3715:
3695:
3689:
3688:
3668:
3662:
3661:
3641:
3635:
3634:
3614:
3608:
3607:
3587:
3572:
3571:
3551:
3545:
3544:
3534:
3528:
3527:
3525:
3523:
3491:
3485:
3479:
3473:
3467:
3461:
3460:
3458:
3456:
3428:
3422:
3421:
3419:
3417:
3389:
3383:
3382:
3380:
3378:
3360:
3354:
3353:
3313:
3307:
3306:
3304:
3302:
3274:
3268:
3267:
3262:"Africa Watch".
3259:
3253:
3252:
3232:
3226:
3225:
3223:
3212:
3206:
3205:
3185:
3179:
3178:
3172:
3167:
3165:
3157:
3155:
3153:
3147:
3140:
3132:
3126:
3125:
3105:
3099:
3098:
3078:
3067:
3066:
3046:
3035:
3034:
3032:
3030:
3024:
3017:
3007:
3001:
2991:
2980:
2974:
2968:
2962:
2956:
2955:
2931:
2925:
2924:
2914:
2905:
2904:
2873:African Security
2864:
2858:
2857:
2855:
2853:
2836:
2827:
2826:
2792:
2786:
2785:
2774:
2768:
2755:
2749:
2743:
2730:
2729:
2705:
2690:
2684:
2678:
2641:
2595:Rwandan genocide
2517:State Department
2102:program for the
1964:, a city on the
1861:Hargeisa airport
1857:Somali Air Force
1750:31 May: Hargeisa
1743:Somali Air Force
1421:17 November 1984
1366:
1362:
1276:
1265:
1170:
1161:
1150:
1141:
1015:Ethio-Somali War
977:Ethio-Somali War
909:Somalia Italiana
891:Postcolonial era
834:Somali Civil War
782:
753:
746:
739:
725:
724:
723:
639:
616:Italian invasion
610:Burao Tax Revolt
592:Dervish movement
576:
442:(5,000~3,500 BC)
408:
398:
380:
379:
370:
363:
356:
325:Ethnic cleansing
200:Effects on youth
177:
167:
151:
150:
57:
37:
36:
11514:
11513:
11509:
11508:
11507:
11505:
11504:
11503:
11424:
11423:
11422:
11413:
11405:
11397:
11389:
11381:
11373:
11367:Uyghur Tribunal
11365:
11357:
11349:
11341:
11333:
11330:
11320:
11312:
11304:
11296:
11286:
11278:
11270:
11262:
11254:
11246:
11238:
11230:
11222:
11214:
11211:
11201:
11193:
11187:Fedorenko trial
11185:
11177:
11169:
11161:
11153:
11145:
11137:
11129:
11121:
11113:
11105:
11097:
11089:
11083:Stutthof trials
11081:
11073:
11065:
11059:Nuremberg trial
11057:
11049:
11041:
11033:
11025:
11019:Majdanek trials
11017:
11009:
11001:
10995:Krasnodar trial
10993:
10985:
10979:
10966:
10959:
10952:
10945:
10938:
10931:
10924:
10917:
10908:
10901:
10894:
10887:
10876:
10869:
10862:
10855:
10848:
10841:
10834:
10827:
10818:
10811:
10798:
10791:
10784:
10777:
10770:
10761:
10754:
10747:
10740:
10733:
10726:
10719:
10712:
10701:
10694:
10687:
10680:
10673:
10666:
10659:
10652:
10645:
10638:
10631:
10620:
10613:
10606:
10597:
10590:
10575:
10567:
10559:
10551:
10543:
10535:
10527:
10521:Southern Kaduna
10519:
10511:
10502:
10494:
10486:
10478:
10473:
10463:
10455:
10447:
10438:
10430:
10422:
10414:
10406:
10398:
10390:
10382:
10374:
10366:
10358:
10350:
10342:
10334:
10325:
10318:
10313:
10305:
10297:
10289:
10281:
10273:
10265:
10257:
10249:
10241:
10236:
10226:
10218:
10210:
10202:
10194:
10186:
10178:
10170:
10162:
10154:
10146:
10138:
10130:
10122:
10114:
10106:
10100:Simele massacre
10098:
10090:
10082:
10074:
10066:
10058:
10050:
10042:
10034:
10026:
10018:
10010:
10000:
9992:
9984:
9976:
9968:
9959:
9951:
9944:
9936:
9931:
9921:
9911:
9904:
9896:
9890:Herero and Nama
9888:
9880:
9872:
9864:
9856:
9848:
9840:
9832:
9824:
9814:
9806:
9798:
9790:
9783:
9775:
9767:
9757:
9749:
9742:
9734:
9726:
9718:
9710:
9700:
9692:
9685:
9677:
9669:
9661:
9653:
9645:
9637:
9629:
9621:
9613:
9605:
9597:
9592:
9582:
9574:
9566:
9558:
9550:
9542:
9534:
9526:
9518:
9509:
9501:
9495:Asiatic Vespers
9493:
9485:
9477:
9472:
9459:
9451:
9446:
9416:
9411:
9379:
9316:
9307:Public holidays
9233:
9212:
9150:
9096:
9023:
8975:
8971:Woqooyi Galbeed
8956:Middle Shebelle
8872:
8832:Mountain ranges
8800:Greater Somalia
8763:
8750:
8724:
8716:
8709:
8692:
8679:
8633:Isaaq Sultanate
8582:
8573:
8543:
8538:
8506:
8436:
8417:Public holidays
8392:National emblem
8365:
8344:
8282:
8227:House of Elders
8199:
8116:
8073:
8003:Golis Mountains
7998:Mountain ranges
7981:Greater Somalia
7939:
7926:
7900:
7796:Isaaq Sultanate
7745:
7736:
7706:
7700:
7692:. Garland Pub.
7679:
7654:
7626:
7624:
7602:
7581:
7556:
7533:
7504:
7498:
7483:
7470:
7445:
7420:
7399:
7378:
7357:
7329:
7324:
7323:
7316:
7300:
7296:
7289:
7273:
7269:
7259:
7257:
7253:
7246:
7242:
7241:
7237:
7230:
7210:
7206:
7199:
7179:
7172:
7165:
7149:
7145:
7133:
7129:
7116:
7112:
7099:
7095:
7082:
7078:
7065:
7061:
7054:
7038:
7034:
7027:
7007:
6998:
6991:
6971:
6962:
6954:
6950:
6943:
6923:
6916:
6909:
6893:
6889:
6882:
6862:
6855:
6850:. Global-Stats.
6842:
6838:
6823:
6822:
6818:
6811:
6791:
6787:
6777:
6751:
6747:
6734:
6727:
6720:
6704:
6700:
6692:
6688:
6681:
6665:
6661:
6654:
6638:
6634:
6627:
6611:
6607:
6600:
6584:
6580:
6573:
6553:
6549:
6542:
6522:
6515:
6508:
6492:
6488:
6480:
6476:
6469:
6453:
6449:
6441:
6428:
6420:
6413:
6406:
6390:
6386:
6376:
6374:
6361:
6360:
6353:
6345:
6341:
6325:
6324:
6312:
6298:
6297:
6293:
6283:
6281:
6266:
6259:
6249:
6247:
6234:
6233:
6229:
6222:
6206:
6202:
6194:
6179:
6172:
6156:
6152:
6144:
6133:
6126:
6110:
6095:
6087:
6066:
6058:
6041:
6033:
6027:
6026:
6019:
6012:
6002:Scarecrow Press
5992:
5988:
5981:
5965:
5961:
5949:
5947:
5938:
5937:
5929:
5925:
5911:
5907:
5896:
5895:
5891:
5875:
5874:
5870:
5853:
5849:
5842:
5828:
5827:
5823:
5816:
5800:
5796:
5785:
5784:
5780:
5773:
5757:
5753:
5740:
5736:
5728:
5724:
5717:
5701:
5697:
5689:
5680:
5672:
5665:
5657:
5648:
5640:
5629:
5622:
5606:
5602:
5592:
5590:
5565:
5558:
5551:
5531:
5527:
5514:
5510:
5500:
5498:
5483:
5479:
5471:
5460:
5450:
5448:
5435:
5434:
5430:
5420:
5418:
5393:
5389:
5382:
5366:
5362:
5354:
5350:
5343:
5327:
5323:
5313:
5311:
5307:
5300:
5292:
5288:
5281:
5265:
5261:
5230:
5226:
5219:
5203:
5199:
5192:
5176:
5172:
5165:
5149:
5145:
5138:
5122:
5118:
5102:
5101:
5097:
5083:
5079:
5064:
5060:
5055:
5051:
5041:Fitzgerald 2002
5039:
5035:
5028:
5008:
5001:
4993:
4989:
4982:
4962:
4958:
4950:
4946:
4923:
4919:
4914:
4910:
4902:
4898:
4890:
4886:
4878:
4874:
4866:
4859:
4849:
4847:
4834:
4833:
4829:
4817:
4813:
4806:
4790:
4786:
4773:
4769:
4756:
4752:
4745:
4725:
4718:
4711:
4691:
4687:
4676:
4675:
4671:
4663:
4659:
4652:
4630:
4626:
4616:
4614:
4599:
4598:
4594:
4587:
4577:Scarecrow Press
4567:
4563:
4556:
4534:
4530:
4523:
4503:
4499:
4488:
4487:
4483:
4473:Fitzgerald 2002
4471:
4467:
4453:
4444:
4437:
4421:
4417:
4410:
4390:
4386:
4379:
4359:
4355:
4345:
4343:
4318:
4307:
4300:
4290:Scarecrow Press
4280:
4269:
4262:
4246:
4242:
4235:
4215:
4211:
4200:
4196:
4189:
4173:
4166:
4158:
4139:
4132:
4116:
4105:
4097:
4090:
4078:
4074:
4067:
4051:
4047:
4040:
4025:
4024:
4020:
4013:
3997:
3993:
3986:
3970:
3966:
3959:
3939:
3918:
3911:
3895:
3891:
3884:
3868:
3861:
3854:
3838:
3834:
3827:
3811:
3807:
3797:
3795:
3788:
3772:
3768:
3756:
3752:
3745:
3723:
3719:
3712:
3696:
3692:
3685:
3669:
3665:
3658:
3642:
3638:
3631:
3615:
3611:
3604:
3588:
3575:
3568:
3552:
3548:
3535:
3531:
3521:
3519:
3512:
3492:
3488:
3480:
3476:
3468:
3464:
3454:
3452:
3445:
3429:
3425:
3415:
3413:
3406:
3390:
3386:
3376:
3374:
3361:
3357:
3314:
3310:
3300:
3298:
3291:
3275:
3271:
3261:
3260:
3256:
3249:
3233:
3229:
3221:
3213:
3209:
3202:
3186:
3182:
3170:
3168:
3159:
3158:
3151:
3149:
3145:
3138:
3134:
3133:
3129:
3122:
3106:
3102:
3095:
3079:
3070:
3063:
3047:
3038:
3028:
3026:
3022:
3015:
3009:
3008:
3004:
2992:
2983:
2975:
2971:
2963:
2959:
2952:
2932:
2928:
2915:
2908:
2865:
2861:
2851:
2849:
2837:
2830:
2823:
2793:
2789:
2782:Combat Genocide
2776:
2775:
2771:
2756:
2752:
2744:
2733:
2726:
2706:
2693:
2685:
2681:
2670:, p. 246;
2666:, p. 191;
2642:
2638:
2633:
2586:
2545:
2513:Muammar Gaddafi
2500:
2491:
2462:
2432:
2394:
2330:
2281:
2256:
2239:
2199:Somali Airlines
2190:
2178:
2164:Oxfam Australia
2150:
2096:Oxfam Australia
2065:
2054:
2021:
1999:
1982:
1951:
1849:
1828:
1795:
1773:to the capital
1758:
1752:
1740:
1686:
1680:
1652:Gregory Stanton
1585:Bruce Jentleson
1482:
1399:15 October 1984
1330:
1286:
1285:
1284:
1283:
1279:
1278:
1277:
1268:
1267:
1266:
1255:
1253:Letter of Death
1250:
1202:(co-founder of
1180:
1179:
1178:
1177:
1173:
1172:
1171:
1163:
1162:
1153:
1152:
1151:
1143:
1142:
1131:
1125:
1065:
1010:
985:
979:
974:
946:
937:
907:(also known as
901:Somali Republic
893:
888:
757:
721:
719:
714:
713:
655:Somali Republic
644:
643:
638:
628:
627:
581:
580:
575:
574:Colonial period
565:
564:
540:Isaaq Sultanate
535:
525:
524:
502:Kingdom of Adal
497:
487:
486:
456:
446:
445:
418:
396:
389:
374:
270:Anti-Indigenous
224:In relation to
166:
164:
126:
96:
60:
35:
17:
12:
11:
5:
11512:
11502:
11501:
11496:
11491:
11486:
11481:
11476:
11471:
11466:
11461:
11456:
11451:
11446:
11441:
11436:
11419:
11418:
11415:
11414:
11412:
11411:
11403:
11395:
11387:
11379:
11371:
11363:
11355:
11347:
11338:
11335:
11334:
11322:
11321:
11319:
11318:
11310:
11302:
11294:
11293:
11292:
11284:
11276:
11260:
11252:
11244:
11236:
11228:
11219:
11216:
11215:
11203:
11202:
11200:
11199:
11191:
11183:
11175:
11167:
11159:
11151:
11147:Eichmann trial
11143:
11135:
11127:
11119:
11111:
11103:
11095:
11087:
11079:
11071:
11063:
11055:
11047:
11039:
11031:
11027:CheΕmno trials
11023:
11015:
11007:
10999:
10990:
10987:
10986:
10972:
10968:
10967:
10965:
10964:
10957:
10950:
10943:
10936:
10929:
10922:
10915:
10914:
10913:
10906:
10899:
10884:
10882:
10878:
10877:
10875:
10874:
10867:
10860:
10853:
10846:
10839:
10832:
10825:
10824:
10823:
10820:Trivialization
10808:
10806:
10800:
10799:
10797:
10796:
10789:
10782:
10775:
10768:
10767:
10766:
10759:
10756:Killing Fields
10745:
10738:
10731:
10724:
10717:
10709:
10707:
10703:
10702:
10700:
10699:
10692:
10685:
10678:
10671:
10664:
10657:
10650:
10643:
10636:
10629:
10628:
10627:
10626:
10625:
10604:
10603:
10602:
10587:
10585:
10581:
10580:
10577:
10576:
10574:
10573:
10565:
10557:
10549:
10541:
10533:
10525:
10517:
10509:
10508:
10507:
10492:
10483:
10480:
10479:
10465:
10464:
10462:
10461:
10453:
10445:
10444:
10443:
10428:
10420:
10412:
10404:
10396:
10388:
10384:Kuwaiti Bedoon
10380:
10372:
10364:
10356:
10348:
10340:
10332:
10331:
10330:
10323:
10311:
10303:
10295:
10287:
10279:
10271:
10263:
10255:
10246:
10243:
10242:
10228:
10227:
10225:
10224:
10220:Crimean Tatars
10216:
10208:
10200:
10192:
10184:
10176:
10168:
10160:
10152:
10144:
10136:
10128:
10120:
10112:
10104:
10096:
10088:
10080:
10072:
10064:
10056:
10048:
10044:KantΕ Massacre
10040:
10032:
10024:
10016:
10008:
10007:
10006:
9998:
9990:
9982:
9974:
9966:
9965:
9964:
9941:
9938:
9937:
9923:
9922:
9920:
9919:
9918:
9917:
9902:
9894:
9886:
9878:
9870:
9862:
9854:
9846:
9838:
9830:
9822:
9821:
9820:
9812:
9804:
9800:Trail of Tears
9796:
9792:Indian removal
9781:
9773:
9765:
9764:
9763:
9755:
9740:
9732:
9724:
9716:
9708:
9707:
9706:
9698:
9683:
9675:
9667:
9659:
9651:
9643:
9635:
9631:Kashmiri Shias
9627:
9619:
9611:
9602:
9599:
9598:
9584:
9583:
9581:
9580:
9572:
9564:
9556:
9548:
9540:
9532:
9524:
9516:
9515:
9514:
9499:
9491:
9482:
9479:
9478:
9465:
9453:
9452:
9445:
9444:
9437:
9430:
9422:
9413:
9412:
9410:
9409:
9399:
9388:
9385:
9384:
9381:
9380:
9378:
9377:
9372:
9367:
9362:
9357:
9352:
9347:
9342:
9337:
9332:
9326:
9324:
9318:
9317:
9315:
9314:
9309:
9304:
9299:
9294:
9293:
9292:
9282:
9277:
9272:
9267:
9262:
9260:Child marriage
9257:
9251:
9245:
9239:
9238:
9235:
9234:
9232:
9231:
9229:Transportation
9226:
9221:
9219:Communications
9216:
9208:
9203:
9198:
9193:
9188:
9183:
9178:
9172:
9166:
9160:
9159:
9156:
9155:
9152:
9151:
9149:
9148:
9147:
9146:
9139:Prime Minister
9136:
9135:
9134:
9124:
9119:
9114:
9109:
9104:
9092:
9087:
9086:
9085:
9075:
9070:
9065:
9060:
9055:
9049:
9039:
9033:
9032:
9029:
9028:
9025:
9024:
9022:
9021:
9016:
9011:
9006:
9001:
8996:
8991:
8985:
8983:
8977:
8976:
8974:
8973:
8968:
8963:
8961:Lower Shebelle
8958:
8953:
8948:
8943:
8938:
8933:
8928:
8923:
8918:
8913:
8908:
8903:
8898:
8893:
8888:
8882:
8880:
8874:
8873:
8871:
8870:
8869:
8868:
8866:Bajuni Islands
8858:
8857:
8856:
8846:
8845:
8844:
8839:
8829:
8828:
8827:
8822:
8812:
8807:
8802:
8797:
8792:
8787:
8781:
8771:
8765:
8764:
8757:
8755:
8752:
8751:
8749:
8748:
8743:
8738:
8732:
8730:
8726:
8725:
8723:
8722:
8721:
8720:
8713:
8701:
8696:
8688:
8686:Isaaq genocide
8683:
8675:
8670:
8665:
8660:
8655:
8650:
8645:
8640:
8635:
8630:
8625:
8620:
8618:Adal Sultanate
8615:
8610:
8605:
8599:
8597:
8590:
8584:
8583:
8572:
8571:
8564:
8557:
8549:
8540:
8539:
8537:
8536:
8526:
8515:
8512:
8511:
8508:
8507:
8505:
8504:
8499:
8498:
8497:
8492:
8482:
8477:
8472:
8467:
8462:
8457:
8452:
8446:
8444:
8438:
8437:
8435:
8434:
8429:
8424:
8419:
8414:
8409:
8404:
8399:
8394:
8389:
8383:
8377:
8371:
8370:
8367:
8366:
8364:
8363:
8358:
8353:
8348:
8340:
8335:
8330:
8325:
8320:
8315:
8310:
8304:
8298:
8292:
8291:
8288:
8287:
8284:
8283:
8281:
8280:
8275:
8270:
8265:
8264:
8263:
8256:Vice-President
8253:
8252:
8251:
8241:
8236:
8235:
8234:
8229:
8219:
8218:
8217:
8207:
8195:
8190:
8189:
8188:
8178:
8173:
8168:
8163:
8158:
8153:
8148:
8142:
8132:
8126:
8125:
8122:
8121:
8118:
8117:
8115:
8114:
8109:
8104:
8099:
8094:
8089:
8083:
8081:
8075:
8074:
8072:
8071:
8066:
8065:
8064:
8054:
8053:
8052:
8047:
8042:
8037:
8032:
8022:
8021:
8020:
8015:
8010:
8005:
7995:
7994:
7993:
7983:
7978:
7973:
7968:
7963:
7957:
7947:
7941:
7940:
7933:
7931:
7928:
7927:
7925:
7924:
7919:
7914:
7908:
7906:
7902:
7901:
7899:
7898:
7893:
7888:
7886:Border dispute
7883:
7878:
7873:
7871:Isaaq genocide
7868:
7863:
7858:
7853:
7848:
7843:
7838:
7833:
7828:
7823:
7818:
7813:
7808:
7803:
7798:
7793:
7791:Adal Sultanate
7788:
7783:
7778:
7773:
7768:
7762:
7760:
7753:
7747:
7746:
7735:
7734:
7727:
7720:
7712:
7705:
7704:
7698:
7683:
7677:
7658:
7652:
7633:
7623:on 13 May 2024
7606:
7600:
7585:
7579:
7560:
7554:
7537:
7531:
7509:
7496:
7474:
7468:
7449:
7443:
7424:
7418:
7403:
7397:
7382:
7376:
7361:
7355:
7330:
7328:
7325:
7322:
7321:
7314:
7294:
7287:
7267:
7235:
7228:
7204:
7197:
7170:
7163:
7143:
7127:
7110:
7093:
7076:
7059:
7052:
7032:
7025:
6996:
6989:
6960:
6958:, p. 169.
6948:
6941:
6914:
6907:
6887:
6880:
6853:
6836:
6816:
6809:
6785:
6775:
6745:
6725:
6718:
6698:
6696:, p. 246.
6686:
6679:
6659:
6652:
6632:
6625:
6605:
6598:
6578:
6571:
6547:
6540:
6513:
6506:
6486:
6484:, p. 199.
6474:
6467:
6447:
6445:, p. 166.
6426:
6424:, p. 164.
6411:
6404:
6384:
6351:
6349:, p. 160.
6339:
6310:
6291:
6257:
6227:
6220:
6200:
6198:, p. 158.
6177:
6170:
6150:
6148:, p. 157.
6131:
6124:
6093:
6091:, p. 154.
6064:
6062:, p. 150.
6039:
6017:
6010:
5986:
5979:
5959:
5923:
5905:
5889:
5868:
5862:. U.S. G.P.O.
5847:
5840:
5821:
5814:
5794:
5778:
5771:
5751:
5734:
5732:, p. 144.
5722:
5715:
5695:
5693:, p. 137.
5678:
5676:, p. 134.
5663:
5661:, p. 133.
5646:
5644:, p. 132.
5627:
5620:
5600:
5556:
5549:
5525:
5508:
5477:
5475:, p. 129.
5458:
5428:
5387:
5380:
5360:
5358:, p. 245.
5348:
5341:
5321:
5286:
5279:
5259:
5240:(3): 237β258.
5224:
5217:
5197:
5190:
5170:
5163:
5143:
5136:
5116:
5095:
5077:
5074:. p. 223.
5058:
5049:
5033:
5026:
4999:
4997:, p. 444.
4987:
4980:
4956:
4944:
4917:
4908:
4896:
4884:
4872:
4857:
4827:
4811:
4804:
4784:
4767:
4750:
4743:
4716:
4709:
4685:
4669:
4657:
4650:
4624:
4592:
4585:
4561:
4554:
4528:
4521:
4497:
4481:
4465:
4442:
4435:
4429:. U.S. G.P.O.
4415:
4408:
4384:
4377:
4353:
4305:
4298:
4292:. p. 99.
4267:
4260:
4240:
4233:
4209:
4194:
4187:
4164:
4137:
4130:
4103:
4088:
4072:
4065:
4045:
4038:
4018:
4011:
3991:
3984:
3964:
3957:
3951:. p. 90.
3916:
3909:
3889:
3882:
3859:
3852:
3832:
3825:
3805:
3786:
3766:
3750:
3743:
3717:
3710:
3690:
3683:
3663:
3656:
3636:
3629:
3609:
3602:
3573:
3566:
3546:
3529:
3510:
3486:
3484:, p. 115.
3474:
3462:
3443:
3423:
3404:
3384:
3355:
3328:(1): 113β127.
3308:
3289:
3269:
3254:
3247:
3227:
3207:
3200:
3180:
3171:|journal=
3127:
3120:
3100:
3093:
3068:
3061:
3036:
3002:
2981:
2969:
2957:
2950:
2926:
2906:
2879:(3): 237β258.
2859:
2828:
2821:
2787:
2769:
2750:
2731:
2724:
2691:
2679:
2662:, p. 40;
2646:, p. 23;
2635:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2628:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2585:
2582:
2544:
2541:
2499:
2496:
2490:
2487:
2461:
2458:
2431:
2428:
2393:
2390:
2329:
2326:
2280:
2277:
2255:
2252:
2238:
2235:
2214:in Mogadishu.
2189:
2186:
2177:
2174:
2149:
2146:
2064:
2061:
2053:
2050:
2042:Mandera Prison
2020:
2017:
1998:
1995:
1981:
1978:
1950:
1947:
1853:aerial bombing
1848:
1845:
1841:United Nations
1827:
1824:
1794:
1791:
1754:Main article:
1751:
1748:
1739:
1736:
1715:Congressional
1682:Main article:
1679:
1676:
1631:countryside".
1481:
1478:
1475:
1474:
1470:
1467:
1464:
1455:
1451:
1450:
1442:
1439:
1436:
1431:
1427:
1426:
1422:
1419:
1416:
1409:
1405:
1404:
1400:
1397:
1394:
1387:
1383:
1382:
1379:
1376:
1373:
1370:
1329:
1326:
1281:
1280:
1271:
1270:
1269:
1260:
1259:
1258:
1257:
1256:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1246:
1175:
1174:
1165:
1164:
1156:
1155:
1154:
1145:
1144:
1136:
1135:
1134:
1133:
1132:
1127:Main article:
1124:
1123:Isaaq uprising
1121:
1116:United Nations
1064:
1061:
1009:
1006:
981:Main article:
978:
975:
973:
970:
945:
942:
936:
933:
892:
889:
887:
884:
869:United Nations
765:Isaaq genocide
759:
758:
756:
755:
748:
741:
733:
730:
729:
716:
715:
712:
711:
705:
699:
693:
687:
681:
678:Isaaq genocide
675:
669:
663:
658:
652:
645:
635:
634:
633:
630:
629:
626:
625:
619:
613:
607:
601:
595:
589:
582:
572:
571:
570:
567:
566:
563:
562:
549:
548:(18th-19th c.)
543:
542:(17th-19th c.)
536:
531:
530:
527:
526:
523:
522:
517:
516:(15th-16th c.)
514:Adal Sultanate
511:
510:(12th-15th c.)
508:Ifat Sultanate
505:
498:
493:
492:
489:
488:
485:
484:
475:
470:
464:
463:(2500~2000 BC)
457:
452:
451:
448:
447:
444:
443:
437:
431:
425:
419:
414:
413:
410:
409:
401:
400:
391:
390:
383:
376:
375:
373:
372:
365:
358:
350:
347:
346:
340:
339:
338:
337:
332:
327:
322:
317:
309:
308:
307:Related topics
304:
303:
302:
301:
300:
299:
294:
284:
283:
282:
277:
272:
264:
263:
262:
252:
247:
242:
237:
232:
222:
217:
212:
207:
202:
197:
192:
184:
183:
179:
178:
170:
169:
160:
159:
139:
138:
133:
129:
128:
125:50,000β100,000
123:
119:
118:
97:
94:
91:
90:
84:
80:
79:
76:
72:
71:
66:
62:
61:
58:
50:
49:
42:
41:
40:Isaaq genocide
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
11511:
11500:
11497:
11495:
11492:
11490:
11487:
11485:
11482:
11480:
11477:
11475:
11472:
11470:
11467:
11465:
11462:
11460:
11457:
11455:
11452:
11450:
11447:
11445:
11442:
11440:
11437:
11435:
11432:
11431:
11429:
11408:
11404:
11400:
11396:
11392:
11388:
11384:
11380:
11376:
11372:
11368:
11364:
11360:
11356:
11352:
11348:
11344:
11340:
11339:
11336:
11327:
11315:
11311:
11307:
11303:
11299:
11295:
11289:
11285:
11281:
11277:
11273:
11269:
11268:
11265:
11261:
11257:
11253:
11249:
11245:
11241:
11237:
11233:
11229:
11225:
11221:
11220:
11217:
11208:
11196:
11192:
11188:
11184:
11180:
11179:Sobibor trial
11176:
11172:
11168:
11164:
11160:
11156:
11152:
11148:
11144:
11140:
11136:
11132:
11128:
11124:
11120:
11116:
11112:
11108:
11104:
11100:
11096:
11092:
11088:
11084:
11080:
11076:
11072:
11068:
11064:
11060:
11056:
11052:
11048:
11044:
11043:Belsen trials
11040:
11036:
11035:Dachau trials
11032:
11028:
11024:
11020:
11016:
11012:
11008:
11004:
11003:Kharkov trial
11000:
10996:
10992:
10991:
10988:
10982:
10976:
10973:
10969:
10962:
10958:
10955:
10951:
10948:
10947:Justification
10944:
10941:
10937:
10934:
10930:
10927:
10923:
10920:
10916:
10911:
10907:
10904:
10900:
10897:
10893:
10892:
10890:
10886:
10885:
10883:
10879:
10872:
10868:
10865:
10861:
10858:
10854:
10851:
10847:
10844:
10840:
10837:
10833:
10830:
10826:
10821:
10817:
10816:
10814:
10813:The Holocaust
10810:
10809:
10807:
10805:
10801:
10794:
10790:
10787:
10783:
10780:
10776:
10773:
10772:Death marches
10769:
10764:
10760:
10757:
10753:
10752:
10750:
10746:
10743:
10739:
10736:
10732:
10729:
10725:
10722:
10718:
10715:
10711:
10710:
10708:
10704:
10697:
10693:
10690:
10686:
10683:
10679:
10676:
10672:
10669:
10665:
10662:
10658:
10655:
10651:
10648:
10644:
10641:
10637:
10634:
10630:
10623:
10619:
10618:
10616:
10612:
10611:
10609:
10605:
10600:
10596:
10595:
10593:
10589:
10588:
10586:
10582:
10570:
10566:
10562:
10558:
10554:
10550:
10546:
10542:
10538:
10534:
10530:
10529:Iraqi Turkmen
10526:
10522:
10518:
10514:
10510:
10505:
10501:
10500:
10497:
10493:
10489:
10485:
10484:
10481:
10476:
10470:
10458:
10454:
10450:
10446:
10441:
10437:
10436:
10433:
10429:
10425:
10421:
10417:
10413:
10409:
10405:
10401:
10397:
10393:
10389:
10385:
10381:
10377:
10373:
10369:
10365:
10361:
10357:
10353:
10349:
10345:
10341:
10337:
10333:
10328:
10324:
10321:
10317:
10316:
10312:
10308:
10304:
10300:
10296:
10292:
10288:
10284:
10280:
10276:
10272:
10268:
10264:
10260:
10256:
10252:
10248:
10247:
10244:
10239:
10233:
10221:
10217:
10213:
10209:
10205:
10201:
10197:
10193:
10189:
10185:
10181:
10177:
10173:
10169:
10165:
10161:
10157:
10156:The Holocaust
10153:
10149:
10145:
10141:
10137:
10133:
10129:
10125:
10121:
10117:
10113:
10109:
10105:
10101:
10097:
10093:
10089:
10085:
10081:
10077:
10073:
10069:
10065:
10061:
10057:
10053:
10049:
10045:
10041:
10038:(1920sβ1930s)
10037:
10036:Ingrian Finns
10033:
10029:
10025:
10021:
10017:
10013:
10009:
10003:
9999:
9995:
9991:
9987:
9983:
9979:
9975:
9971:
9967:
9962:
9961:Pontic Greeks
9958:
9957:
9954:
9950:
9949:
9947:
9943:
9942:
9939:
9934:
9928:
9914:
9910:
9909:
9907:
9903:
9899:
9895:
9891:
9887:
9883:
9879:
9876:(1890sβ1900s)
9875:
9871:
9867:
9863:
9859:
9855:
9851:
9847:
9843:
9839:
9835:
9831:
9827:
9823:
9817:
9813:
9809:
9805:
9801:
9797:
9793:
9789:
9788:
9786:
9782:
9778:
9774:
9770:
9766:
9760:
9756:
9752:
9748:
9747:
9745:
9741:
9737:
9733:
9729:
9725:
9721:
9717:
9713:
9709:
9703:
9699:
9696:(1700sβ1800s)
9695:
9691:
9690:
9688:
9684:
9680:
9676:
9672:
9668:
9664:
9660:
9656:
9652:
9648:
9644:
9640:
9636:
9632:
9628:
9624:
9620:
9616:
9612:
9608:
9604:
9603:
9600:
9595:
9589:
9577:
9573:
9569:
9565:
9561:
9557:
9553:
9549:
9546:(1200sβ1360s)
9545:
9541:
9537:
9533:
9529:
9525:
9521:
9517:
9512:
9508:
9507:
9504:
9500:
9496:
9492:
9488:
9484:
9483:
9480:
9475:
9469:
9466:
9463:
9458:
9454:
9450:
9443:
9438:
9436:
9431:
9429:
9424:
9423:
9420:
9408:
9404:
9400:
9398:
9390:
9389:
9386:
9376:
9373:
9371:
9368:
9366:
9363:
9361:
9358:
9356:
9353:
9351:
9348:
9346:
9343:
9341:
9338:
9336:
9333:
9331:
9328:
9327:
9325:
9323:
9319:
9313:
9310:
9308:
9305:
9303:
9300:
9298:
9295:
9291:
9290:Mental health
9288:
9287:
9286:
9283:
9281:
9278:
9276:
9273:
9271:
9268:
9266:
9263:
9261:
9258:
9256:
9253:
9252:
9249:
9246:
9244:
9240:
9230:
9227:
9225:
9222:
9220:
9217:
9215:
9209:
9207:
9204:
9202:
9199:
9197:
9194:
9192:
9189:
9187:
9184:
9182:
9179:
9177:
9174:
9173:
9170:
9167:
9165:
9161:
9145:
9142:
9141:
9140:
9137:
9133:
9130:
9129:
9128:
9125:
9123:
9120:
9118:
9115:
9113:
9110:
9108:
9105:
9103:
9100:
9093:
9091:
9088:
9084:
9081:
9080:
9079:
9076:
9074:
9071:
9069:
9066:
9064:
9061:
9059:
9056:
9054:
9051:
9050:
9047:
9043:
9040:
9038:
9034:
9020:
9017:
9015:
9012:
9010:
9007:
9005:
9002:
9000:
8997:
8995:
8992:
8990:
8987:
8986:
8984:
8982:
8978:
8972:
8969:
8967:
8964:
8962:
8959:
8957:
8954:
8952:
8949:
8947:
8944:
8942:
8939:
8937:
8934:
8932:
8929:
8927:
8924:
8922:
8919:
8917:
8914:
8912:
8909:
8907:
8904:
8902:
8899:
8897:
8894:
8892:
8889:
8887:
8884:
8883:
8881:
8879:
8875:
8867:
8864:
8863:
8862:
8859:
8855:
8852:
8851:
8850:
8847:
8843:
8840:
8838:
8835:
8834:
8833:
8830:
8826:
8823:
8821:
8818:
8817:
8816:
8813:
8811:
8808:
8806:
8803:
8801:
8798:
8796:
8793:
8791:
8788:
8786:
8783:
8782:
8779:
8775:
8772:
8770:
8766:
8761:
8747:
8744:
8742:
8739:
8737:
8734:
8733:
8731:
8727:
8719:
8714:
8712:
8707:
8706:
8705:
8702:
8700:
8697:
8695:
8689:
8687:
8684:
8682:
8676:
8674:
8671:
8669:
8666:
8664:
8661:
8659:
8656:
8654:
8651:
8649:
8646:
8644:
8641:
8639:
8636:
8634:
8631:
8629:
8626:
8624:
8623:Ajuran Empire
8621:
8619:
8616:
8614:
8611:
8609:
8606:
8604:
8601:
8600:
8598:
8594:
8591:
8589:
8585:
8581:
8577:
8570:
8565:
8563:
8558:
8556:
8551:
8550:
8547:
8535:
8531:
8527:
8525:
8517:
8516:
8513:
8503:
8500:
8496:
8493:
8491:
8488:
8487:
8486:
8483:
8481:
8478:
8476:
8473:
8471:
8468:
8466:
8463:
8461:
8458:
8456:
8453:
8451:
8448:
8447:
8445:
8443:
8439:
8433:
8432:Supreme Court
8430:
8428:
8425:
8423:
8420:
8418:
8415:
8413:
8410:
8408:
8405:
8403:
8400:
8398:
8395:
8393:
8390:
8388:
8385:
8384:
8381:
8378:
8376:
8372:
8362:
8359:
8357:
8354:
8352:
8349:
8347:
8341:
8339:
8336:
8334:
8331:
8329:
8326:
8324:
8321:
8319:
8316:
8314:
8311:
8309:
8306:
8305:
8302:
8299:
8297:
8293:
8279:
8276:
8274:
8271:
8269:
8266:
8262:
8259:
8258:
8257:
8254:
8250:
8247:
8246:
8245:
8242:
8240:
8237:
8233:
8230:
8228:
8225:
8224:
8223:
8220:
8216:
8213:
8212:
8211:
8208:
8206:
8203:
8196:
8194:
8191:
8187:
8184:
8183:
8182:
8179:
8177:
8174:
8172:
8169:
8167:
8164:
8162:
8159:
8157:
8154:
8152:
8149:
8147:
8144:
8143:
8140:
8136:
8133:
8131:
8127:
8113:
8110:
8108:
8105:
8103:
8100:
8098:
8095:
8093:
8090:
8088:
8085:
8084:
8082:
8080:
8076:
8070:
8067:
8063:
8060:
8059:
8058:
8055:
8051:
8048:
8046:
8043:
8041:
8038:
8036:
8033:
8031:
8028:
8027:
8026:
8023:
8019:
8016:
8014:
8013:Ogo Mountains
8011:
8009:
8006:
8004:
8001:
8000:
7999:
7996:
7992:
7989:
7988:
7987:
7984:
7982:
7979:
7977:
7974:
7972:
7969:
7967:
7964:
7962:
7959:
7958:
7955:
7951:
7948:
7946:
7942:
7937:
7923:
7920:
7918:
7915:
7913:
7910:
7909:
7907:
7903:
7897:
7894:
7892:
7889:
7887:
7884:
7882:
7879:
7877:
7874:
7872:
7869:
7867:
7864:
7862:
7859:
7857:
7854:
7852:
7849:
7847:
7844:
7842:
7839:
7837:
7834:
7832:
7829:
7827:
7824:
7822:
7819:
7817:
7814:
7812:
7809:
7807:
7804:
7802:
7799:
7797:
7794:
7792:
7789:
7787:
7784:
7782:
7779:
7777:
7774:
7772:
7769:
7767:
7764:
7763:
7761:
7757:
7754:
7752:
7748:
7744:
7740:
7733:
7728:
7726:
7721:
7719:
7714:
7713:
7710:
7701:
7695:
7691:
7690:
7684:
7680:
7674:
7670:
7666:
7665:
7659:
7655:
7649:
7645:
7641:
7640:
7634:
7622:
7618:
7617:
7612:
7607:
7603:
7597:
7593:
7592:
7586:
7582:
7576:
7572:
7568:
7567:
7561:
7557:
7555:9780198297390
7551:
7547:
7543:
7538:
7534:
7528:
7524:
7520:
7519:
7514:
7510:
7503:
7499:
7497:0-929692-33-0
7493:
7489:
7482:
7481:
7475:
7471:
7465:
7461:
7457:
7456:
7450:
7446:
7440:
7436:
7432:
7431:
7425:
7421:
7415:
7411:
7410:
7404:
7400:
7394:
7390:
7389:
7383:
7379:
7373:
7369:
7368:
7362:
7358:
7352:
7348:
7343:
7342:
7336:
7332:
7331:
7317:
7311:
7307:
7306:
7298:
7290:
7284:
7280:
7279:
7271:
7252:
7245:
7239:
7231:
7225:
7221:
7217:
7216:
7208:
7200:
7194:
7190:
7186:
7185:
7177:
7175:
7166:
7160:
7156:
7155:
7147:
7140:
7136:
7131:
7123:
7122:
7114:
7106:
7105:
7097:
7089:
7088:
7080:
7072:
7071:
7063:
7055:
7049:
7045:
7044:
7036:
7028:
7022:
7018:
7014:
7013:
7005:
7003:
7001:
6992:
6986:
6982:
6978:
6977:
6969:
6967:
6965:
6957:
6952:
6944:
6938:
6934:
6930:
6929:
6921:
6919:
6910:
6904:
6900:
6899:
6891:
6883:
6877:
6873:
6869:
6868:
6860:
6858:
6849:
6848:
6840:
6832:
6828:
6827:
6820:
6812:
6806:
6802:
6798:
6797:
6789:
6782:
6778:
6772:
6768:
6764:
6759:
6758:
6749:
6741:
6740:
6732:
6730:
6721:
6715:
6711:
6710:
6702:
6695:
6690:
6682:
6676:
6672:
6671:
6663:
6655:
6649:
6645:
6644:
6636:
6628:
6622:
6618:
6617:
6609:
6601:
6595:
6591:
6590:
6582:
6574:
6568:
6564:
6560:
6559:
6551:
6543:
6537:
6533:
6529:
6528:
6520:
6518:
6509:
6503:
6499:
6498:
6490:
6483:
6478:
6470:
6464:
6460:
6459:
6451:
6444:
6439:
6437:
6435:
6433:
6431:
6423:
6418:
6416:
6407:
6401:
6397:
6396:
6388:
6372:
6368:
6364:
6358:
6356:
6348:
6343:
6335:
6329:
6321:
6317:
6313:
6311:0-929692-33-0
6307:
6303:
6302:
6295:
6279:
6275:
6271:
6264:
6262:
6245:
6241:
6237:
6231:
6223:
6217:
6213:
6212:
6204:
6197:
6192:
6190:
6188:
6186:
6184:
6182:
6173:
6167:
6163:
6162:
6154:
6147:
6142:
6140:
6138:
6136:
6127:
6121:
6117:
6116:
6108:
6106:
6104:
6102:
6100:
6098:
6090:
6085:
6083:
6081:
6079:
6077:
6075:
6073:
6071:
6069:
6061:
6056:
6054:
6052:
6050:
6048:
6046:
6044:
6032:
6031:
6024:
6022:
6013:
6007:
6003:
5999:
5998:
5990:
5982:
5976:
5972:
5971:
5963:
5955:
5942:
5934:
5927:
5919:
5918:
5909:
5901:
5900:
5893:
5885:
5879:
5871:
5869:9780160773211
5865:
5861:
5860:
5851:
5843:
5837:
5833:
5832:
5825:
5817:
5811:
5807:
5806:
5798:
5790:
5789:
5782:
5774:
5768:
5765:. Routledge.
5764:
5763:
5755:
5747:
5746:
5738:
5731:
5726:
5718:
5712:
5708:
5707:
5699:
5692:
5687:
5685:
5683:
5675:
5670:
5668:
5660:
5655:
5653:
5651:
5643:
5638:
5636:
5634:
5632:
5623:
5617:
5613:
5612:
5604:
5588:
5584:
5580:
5576:
5575:
5570:
5563:
5561:
5552:
5550:9789004108752
5546:
5542:
5538:
5537:
5529:
5521:
5520:
5512:
5496:
5493:(in German).
5492:
5488:
5481:
5474:
5469:
5467:
5465:
5463:
5446:
5442:
5438:
5432:
5416:
5412:
5408:
5404:
5403:
5398:
5391:
5383:
5377:
5373:
5372:
5364:
5357:
5352:
5344:
5338:
5335:. Routledge.
5334:
5333:
5325:
5306:
5299:
5298:
5290:
5282:
5276:
5272:
5271:
5263:
5255:
5251:
5247:
5243:
5239:
5235:
5228:
5220:
5214:
5210:
5209:
5201:
5193:
5187:
5183:
5182:
5174:
5166:
5160:
5156:
5155:
5147:
5139:
5133:
5129:
5128:
5120:
5112:
5106:
5098:
5092:
5088:
5081:
5073:
5069:
5062:
5053:
5046:
5042:
5037:
5029:
5023:
5019:
5015:
5014:
5006:
5004:
4996:
4991:
4983:
4977:
4973:
4969:
4968:
4960:
4953:
4948:
4940:
4936:
4932:
4928:
4921:
4912:
4906:, p. 66.
4905:
4900:
4894:, p. 65.
4893:
4888:
4882:, p. 64.
4881:
4876:
4870:, p. 63.
4869:
4864:
4862:
4845:
4841:
4837:
4831:
4824:
4820:
4815:
4807:
4801:
4797:
4796:
4788:
4780:
4779:
4771:
4763:
4762:
4754:
4746:
4740:
4736:
4732:
4731:
4723:
4721:
4712:
4706:
4702:
4698:
4697:
4689:
4681:
4680:
4679:Africa Events
4673:
4666:
4661:
4653:
4647:
4643:
4638:
4637:
4628:
4612:
4608:
4607:
4602:
4596:
4588:
4582:
4578:
4574:
4573:
4565:
4557:
4551:
4547:
4542:
4541:
4532:
4524:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4509:
4501:
4493:
4492:
4485:
4478:
4474:
4469:
4461:
4460:
4451:
4449:
4447:
4438:
4432:
4428:
4427:
4419:
4411:
4405:
4401:
4397:
4396:
4388:
4380:
4374:
4370:
4366:
4365:
4357:
4341:
4337:
4333:
4329:
4328:
4323:
4316:
4314:
4312:
4310:
4301:
4295:
4291:
4287:
4286:
4278:
4276:
4274:
4272:
4263:
4257:
4253:
4252:
4244:
4236:
4230:
4226:
4225:
4220:
4213:
4205:
4198:
4190:
4184:
4180:
4179:
4171:
4169:
4162:, p. 31.
4161:
4156:
4154:
4152:
4150:
4148:
4146:
4144:
4142:
4133:
4127:
4123:
4122:
4114:
4112:
4110:
4108:
4100:
4095:
4093:
4085:
4081:
4076:
4068:
4062:
4058:
4057:
4049:
4041:
4039:9789221060574
4035:
4031:
4030:
4022:
4014:
4008:
4004:
4003:
3995:
3987:
3981:
3977:
3976:
3968:
3960:
3954:
3950:
3946:
3945:
3937:
3935:
3933:
3931:
3929:
3927:
3925:
3923:
3921:
3912:
3906:
3902:
3901:
3893:
3885:
3879:
3875:
3874:
3866:
3864:
3855:
3849:
3845:
3844:
3836:
3828:
3822:
3818:
3817:
3809:
3793:
3789:
3787:9789966973801
3783:
3779:
3778:
3770:
3763:
3759:
3754:
3746:
3740:
3736:
3731:
3730:
3721:
3713:
3707:
3703:
3702:
3694:
3686:
3680:
3676:
3675:
3667:
3659:
3653:
3649:
3648:
3640:
3632:
3630:9789163119835
3626:
3622:
3621:
3613:
3605:
3603:9789171063564
3599:
3595:
3594:
3586:
3584:
3582:
3580:
3578:
3569:
3567:9789004222540
3563:
3559:
3558:
3550:
3542:
3541:
3533:
3517:
3513:
3507:
3503:
3499:
3498:
3490:
3483:
3478:
3472:, p. 89.
3471:
3466:
3450:
3446:
3440:
3437:. Routledge.
3436:
3435:
3427:
3411:
3407:
3401:
3397:
3396:
3388:
3372:
3368:
3367:
3359:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3339:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3312:
3296:
3292:
3286:
3283:. Routledge.
3282:
3281:
3273:
3265:
3258:
3250:
3244:
3240:
3239:
3231:
3220:
3219:
3211:
3203:
3197:
3193:
3192:
3184:
3176:
3163:
3144:
3137:
3131:
3123:
3117:
3113:
3112:
3104:
3096:
3090:
3086:
3085:
3077:
3075:
3073:
3064:
3058:
3054:
3053:
3045:
3043:
3041:
3021:
3014:
3013:
3006:
2999:
2995:
2990:
2988:
2986:
2978:
2973:
2966:
2961:
2953:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2938:
2930:
2922:
2921:
2913:
2911:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2863:
2848:
2847:
2842:
2835:
2833:
2824:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2791:
2783:
2779:
2773:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2758:Frushone 2001
2754:
2747:
2742:
2740:
2738:
2736:
2727:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2712:
2704:
2702:
2700:
2698:
2696:
2689:
2683:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2640:
2636:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2620:War in Darfur
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2587:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2569:
2564:
2562:
2557:
2555:
2550:
2540:
2538:
2534:
2533:Geoffrey Howe
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2495:
2486:
2484:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2466:
2457:
2455:
2451:
2445:
2440:
2438:
2427:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2411:
2406:
2402:
2399:
2388:
2383:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2361:
2357:
2355:
2354:
2349:
2345:
2343:
2342:Hawker Hunter
2339:
2335:
2334:South African
2324:
2319:
2317:
2316:
2309:
2304:
2302:
2296:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2251:
2248:
2243:
2234:
2232:
2226:
2223:
2220:
2215:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2185:
2183:
2172:
2167:
2165:
2161:
2159:
2155:
2145:
2142:
2137:
2135:
2128:
2124:
2119:
2113:
2108:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2091:
2086:
2083:
2077:
2074:
2070:
2060:
2058:
2049:
2045:
2043:
2039:
2033:
2029:
2027:
2024:According to
2019:Mass killings
2016:
2013:
2009:
2004:
1994:
1992:
1986:
1977:
1973:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1955:
1946:
1941:
1935:
1929:
1924:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1907:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1891:
1890:
1884:
1879:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1868:United States
1864:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1844:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1823:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1800:26th Division
1790:
1786:
1782:
1780:
1776:
1771:
1765:
1762:
1757:
1747:
1744:
1734:
1729:
1725:
1720:
1718:
1714:
1713:United States
1709:
1707:
1701:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1685:
1678:27 May: Burao
1675:
1673:
1669:
1668:
1663:
1662:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1648:Israel Charny
1644:
1640:
1637:
1632:
1624:
1619:
1614:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1597:
1592:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1555:
1552:Up to 90% of
1550:
1546:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1535:Somali Region
1532:
1528:
1524:
1518:
1513:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1486:
1471:
1469:14 March 1988
1468:
1465:
1463:
1459:
1456:
1453:
1452:
1447:
1443:
1441:December 1984
1440:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1429:
1428:
1423:
1420:
1417:
1414:
1410:
1407:
1406:
1401:
1398:
1395:
1392:
1388:
1385:
1384:
1380:
1377:
1374:
1371:
1368:
1367:
1361:
1359:
1354:
1350:
1348:
1339:
1334:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1314:
1308:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1291:
1275:
1264:
1245:
1241:
1238:
1233:
1227:
1224:
1220:
1212:
1207:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1188:
1186:
1169:
1160:
1149:
1140:
1130:
1120:
1117:
1112:
1110:
1107:
1102:
1100:
1094:
1089:
1084:
1080:
1078:
1074:
1069:
1060:
1056:
1051:
1049:
1043:
1041:
1034:
1030:
1028:
1022:
1020:
1016:
1005:
1003:
999:
998:Somali Region
995:
990:
984:
969:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
941:
932:
930:
924:
922:
917:
914:
910:
906:
902:
898:
882:
877:
875:
870:
867:In 2001, the
865:
862:
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
837:
835:
831:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
803:, during the
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
778:
774:
770:
766:
754:
749:
747:
742:
740:
735:
734:
732:
731:
728:
718:
717:
709:
706:
703:
700:
697:
694:
691:
688:
685:
684:Peace process
682:
679:
676:
673:
670:
667:
664:
662:
659:
656:
653:
650:
647:
646:
642:
632:
631:
623:
620:
617:
614:
611:
608:
605:
602:
599:
596:
593:
590:
587:
584:
583:
579:
569:
568:
561:
557:
553:
550:
547:
544:
541:
538:
537:
534:
529:
528:
521:
518:
515:
512:
509:
506:
504:(9th-12th c.)
503:
500:
499:
496:
491:
490:
483:
479:
476:
474:
471:
468:
465:
462:
459:
458:
455:
450:
449:
441:
438:
435:
432:
429:
426:
424:
421:
420:
417:
412:
411:
407:
403:
402:
399:
393:
392:
387:
382:
381:
371:
366:
364:
359:
357:
352:
351:
349:
348:
345:
342:
341:
336:
333:
331:
328:
326:
323:
321:
318:
316:
313:
312:
311:
310:
306:
305:
298:
295:
293:
290:
289:
288:
285:
281:
278:
276:
273:
271:
268:
267:
265:
261:
258:
257:
256:
253:
251:
248:
246:
243:
241:
238:
236:
233:
231:
227:
223:
221:
218:
216:
213:
211:
208:
206:
203:
201:
198:
196:
193:
191:
188:
187:
186:
185:
181:
180:
176:
172:
171:
168:
162:
161:
157:
153:
152:
145:
137:
134:
130:
124:
120:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
98:
92:
88:
85:
81:
77:
73:
70:
67:
63:
56:
51:
48:
43:
38:
33:
29:
28:
24:
19:
11331:21st century
11288:Ratko MladiΔ
11212:20th century
11155:Belzec trial
10919:Genocide law
10779:Death squads
10689:Mass killing
10599:Autogenocide
10475:21st century
10399:
10238:1946 to 1999
10110:(1935β1945)
10068:Libyan Arabs
9933:1913 to 1945
9594:1490 to 1913
9330:Architecture
9270:Demographics
9265:Coat of arms
9206:Oil industry
9181:Central Bank
9098:
9078:Human rights
9058:Constitution
8685:
8608:Land of Punt
8450:Architecture
8427:Calling code
8397:Demographics
8313:Central Bank
8201:
8181:Human rights
8151:Constitution
8092:Maroodi Jeex
7870:
7776:Land of Punt
7688:
7663:
7638:
7625:. Retrieved
7621:the original
7614:
7590:
7571:I. B. Tauris
7565:
7541:
7517:
7502:the original
7479:
7454:
7429:
7408:
7387:
7366:
7340:
7335:Cohen, Robin
7327:Bibliography
7304:
7297:
7277:
7270:
7258:. Retrieved
7251:the original
7238:
7214:
7207:
7183:
7153:
7146:
7130:
7120:
7113:
7103:
7096:
7086:
7079:
7069:
7062:
7042:
7035:
7011:
6975:
6951:
6927:
6897:
6890:
6866:
6846:
6839:
6826:Africa Today
6825:
6819:
6795:
6788:
6780:
6763:M. E. Sharpe
6756:
6748:
6739:The Guardian
6737:
6708:
6701:
6689:
6669:
6662:
6642:
6635:
6615:
6608:
6588:
6581:
6557:
6550:
6526:
6496:
6489:
6477:
6457:
6450:
6394:
6387:
6375:. Retrieved
6366:
6342:
6300:
6294:
6282:. Retrieved
6278:the original
6273:
6248:. Retrieved
6239:
6230:
6210:
6203:
6160:
6153:
6114:
6029:
5996:
5989:
5970:Africa, 2005
5969:
5962:
5950:|title=
5933:The Guardian
5932:
5926:
5915:
5908:
5898:
5892:
5857:
5850:
5830:
5824:
5808:. Springer.
5804:
5797:
5787:
5781:
5761:
5754:
5744:
5737:
5725:
5705:
5698:
5610:
5603:
5591:. Retrieved
5572:
5535:
5528:
5518:
5511:
5499:. Retrieved
5490:
5480:
5449:. Retrieved
5445:the original
5431:
5419:. Retrieved
5400:
5390:
5370:
5363:
5351:
5331:
5324:
5312:. Retrieved
5305:the original
5296:
5289:
5273:. ABC-CLIO.
5269:
5262:
5237:
5233:
5227:
5207:
5200:
5180:
5173:
5153:
5146:
5126:
5119:
5086:
5080:
5067:
5061:
5052:
5036:
5012:
4990:
4966:
4959:
4947:
4939:the original
4934:
4930:
4920:
4911:
4899:
4887:
4875:
4848:. Retrieved
4839:
4830:
4814:
4798:. Lulu.com.
4794:
4787:
4777:
4770:
4760:
4753:
4729:
4695:
4688:
4678:
4672:
4660:
4635:
4627:
4615:. Retrieved
4604:
4595:
4571:
4564:
4539:
4531:
4507:
4500:
4490:
4484:
4468:
4457:
4425:
4418:
4394:
4387:
4363:
4356:
4344:. Retrieved
4325:
4284:
4250:
4243:
4223:
4212:
4203:
4197:
4181:. Springer.
4177:
4120:
4075:
4055:
4048:
4027:
4021:
4001:
3994:
3974:
3967:
3943:
3899:
3892:
3872:
3842:
3835:
3815:
3808:
3796:. Retrieved
3776:
3769:
3753:
3728:
3720:
3704:. Springer.
3700:
3693:
3677:. Springer.
3673:
3666:
3646:
3639:
3619:
3612:
3592:
3556:
3549:
3539:
3532:
3520:. Retrieved
3496:
3489:
3477:
3465:
3453:. Retrieved
3433:
3426:
3414:. Retrieved
3394:
3387:
3375:. Retrieved
3365:
3358:
3325:
3321:
3311:
3299:. Retrieved
3279:
3272:
3263:
3257:
3237:
3230:
3217:
3210:
3190:
3183:
3162:cite journal
3150:. Retrieved
3130:
3110:
3103:
3083:
3051:
3027:. Retrieved
3020:the original
3011:
3005:
2972:
2960:
2936:
2929:
2919:
2876:
2872:
2862:
2852:24 September
2850:. Retrieved
2844:
2800:
2797:Kiernan, Ben
2790:
2781:
2772:
2753:
2710:
2682:
2660:Gilbert 2014
2639:
2578:
2573:
2565:
2558:
2546:
2501:
2492:
2480:
2476:
2470:
2463:
2447:
2442:
2433:
2424:
2420:
2415:
2407:
2403:
2395:
2386:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2364:
2359:
2353:The Guardian
2351:
2350:
2346:
2331:
2321:
2313:
2311:
2306:
2298:
2293:
2289:
2282:
2273:
2268:
2264:
2257:
2244:
2240:
2227:
2224:
2216:
2191:
2179:
2169:
2162:
2151:
2143:
2139:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2116:
2110:
2093:
2088:
2078:
2066:
2055:
2046:
2034:
2030:
2022:
2003:Saudi Arabia
2000:
1987:
1983:
1980:Mass arrests
1974:
1960:
1943:
1938:
1932:
1926:
1914:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1895:
1889:The Guardian
1887:
1886:
1881:
1865:
1850:
1829:
1818:and 30 from
1796:
1787:
1783:
1779:mass arrests
1770:rainy season
1766:
1759:
1741:
1731:
1727:
1722:
1710:
1702:
1687:
1665:
1661:The Guardian
1659:
1645:
1641:
1633:
1629:
1616:
1599:
1594:
1583:
1559:
1520:
1515:
1506:Alex de Waal
1491:
1355:
1351:
1343:
1322:
1318:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1287:
1242:
1229:
1215:
1209:
1189:
1181:
1113:
1103:
1098:
1095:
1091:
1086:
1081:
1070:
1066:
1057:
1053:
1045:
1036:
1032:
1029:noted that:
1023:
1011:
986:
947:
938:
925:
918:
908:
894:
879:
866:
860:
844:
838:
784:
764:
762:
677:
640:(since 1960)
533:Early modern
461:Land of Punt
297:Bibliography
255:Risk factors
228: /
132:Perpetrators
78:1987 to 1989
25:
18:
11401:(2023β2024)
11369:(2020β2021)
11316:(1999β2015)
11308:(1997β2022)
11300:(1994β2015)
11290:(2011β2017)
11282:(2008β2016)
11274:(2002β2006)
11266:(1993β2017)
11258:(1993β2007)
11250:(1946β1948)
11234:(1946β1948)
11224:Budak trial
11195:Finta trial
11181:(1965β1966)
11173:(1964β1970)
11165:(1963β1989)
11157:(1963β1965)
11141:(1961β1962)
11117:(1946β1949)
11109:(1946β1948)
11101:(1946β1948)
11093:(1946β1953)
11085:(1946β1947)
11069:(1945β1946)
11067:Minsk trial
11061:(1945β1946)
11053:(1945β1949)
11045:(1945β1948)
11037:(1945β1947)
11029:(1945β2001)
11021:(1944β1989)
11013:(1944β1951)
10983:(1943β2022)
10889:Definitions
10539:(2014β2017)
10531:(2014β2017)
10523:(2011β2023)
10490:(2002β2003)
10459:(1996β1997)
10434:(1992β1995)
10426:(1991β2003)
10410:(1987β2002)
10402:(1987β1989)
10394:(1986β1989)
10378:(1983β1987)
10376:Gukurahundi
10370:(1983β2009)
10354:(1977β1997)
10346:(1975β1979)
10338:(1974β1999)
10301:(1970β2003)
10299:Feyli Kurds
10293:(1966β1970)
10269:(1962β1996)
10261:(1956β1989)
10222:(1944β1948)
10214:(1944β1948)
10206:(1943β1945)
10198:(1942β1945)
10182:(1941β1945)
10174:(1941β1945)
10166:(1941β1945)
10158:(1941β1945)
10150:(1940β1942)
10142:(1939β1945)
10134:(1937β1938)
10118:(1937β1938)
10094:(1932β1933)
10078:(1930β1933)
10070:(1929β1932)
10062:(1926β1973)
10030:(1919β1933)
10022:(1918β1931)
10014:(1916β1917)
10004:(1916β1934)
9988:(1915β1917)
9980:(1915β1919)
9955:(1913β1922)
9915:(1912β1913)
9900:(1905β1907)
9892:(1904β1907)
9884:(1894β1896)
9868:(1888β1893)
9860:(1879β1913)
9850:Circassians
9844:(1850β1864)
9810:(1846β1873)
9802:(1830β1850)
9794:(1830β1847)
9761:(1869β1977)
9753:(1825β1832)
9738:(1785β2017)
9704:(1874β1996)
9681:(1648β1657)
9673:(1640β1649)
9665:(1636β1638)
9633:(1548β1872)
9609:(1492β1514)
9578:(1402β1496)
9570:(1393β1394)
9554:(1209β1229)
9538:(1069β1070)
9474:Before 1490
9176:Agriculture
9083:LGBT rights
8999:Hirshabelle
8936:Middle Juba
8308:Agriculture
8278:Visa policy
7513:Jones, Adam
4850:10 February
4819:Palmer 2014
4617:10 February
4101:, p. .
4099:Palmer 2014
4080:Palmer 2014
3798:28 December
3758:Palmer 2014
3522:8 September
3455:8 September
3416:8 September
3377:8 September
3301:8 September
3241:. Longman.
2994:Straus 2015
2965:Peifer 2009
2672:Rutter 2006
2652:Straus 2015
2644:Peifer 2009
2082:mass graves
2038:Da'ar-buduq
1872:Aryeh Neier
1543:Robin Cohen
1498:Somali Army
1462:Tog Wajaale
1237:hit and run
1200:Aryeh Neier
1093:continued.
821:Hartasheikh
704:(1991-1997)
680:(1982-1990)
674:(1981-1991)
668:(1969-1991)
657:(1960-1969)
600:(1901-1910)
594:(1884-1920)
588:(1884-1960)
495:Middle Ages
430:(10,000 BC)
395:History of
280:Utilitarian
226:Colonialism
108:mass murder
104:state crime
95:Attack type
21:βΉ The
11428:Categories
11075:Riga trial
10926:Prevention
10871:Indigenous
10786:Incitement
10654:Gendercide
10615:Classicide
10608:Politicide
10569:Gaza Strip
10336:East Timor
10307:Bangladesh
10267:Guatemalan
10188:Sook Ching
10084:La Matanza
9808:California
9520:Bar Kokhba
9350:Literature
9213:(currency)
9117:Parliament
9073:Government
9009:Somaliland
8941:Lower Juba
8842:Buur Dhaab
8820:Iskushuban
8815:Waterfalls
8691:Rebellion
8673:Ogaden War
8596:Chronology
8465:Literature
8345:(currency)
8222:Parliament
8171:Government
8050:Dul Madoba
8045:Buur Dhaab
8018:Buur Dhaab
7986:Waterfalls
7759:Chronology
7739:Somaliland
7627:21 January
7616:Al Jazeera
7260:24 January
7137:, p.
7135:Jones 2004
6765:. p.
6694:Jones 2004
5451:21 January
5441:Al Jazeera
5421:17 January
5356:Jones 2004
5043:, p.
4995:Cohen 1995
4952:Cohen 1995
4821:, p.
4665:Jones 2004
4475:, p.
4082:, p.
3760:, p.
3266:: 4. 1993.
3152:14 January
3029:24 January
2996:, p.
2977:Jones 2004
2846:The Nation
2764:, p.
2746:Reinl 2014
2674:, p.
2668:Jones 2004
2654:, p.
2631:References
2549:Majeerteen
2301:Adam Jones
2148:El Afweyne
1897:sunlight.
1672:Al Jazeera
1656:Adam Jones
1636:Siad Barre
1610:Siad Barre
1563:Siad Barre
1523:Siad Barre
983:Ogaden War
958:Siad Barre
913:Somaliland
897:Somaliland
886:Background
843:dubbed as
801:Siad Barre
696:Somaliland
467:Macrobians
436:(5,000 BC)
416:Prehistory
397:Somaliland
245:Psychology
240:Prevention
220:Incitement
89:population
10864:Cambodian
10857:Holodomor
10749:Massacres
10633:Ethnocide
10622:Eliticide
10344:Cambodian
10092:Holodomor
9986:Armenians
9978:Assyrians
9751:Black War
9639:Huguenots
9522:(132β136)
9505:(50s BCE)
9489:(146 BCE)
9457:Genocides
9375:Languages
9280:Education
9211:Shilling
9186:Companies
9127:President
9090:Judiciary
9063:Elections
8911:Galguduud
8849:Mountains
8837:Cal Madow
8769:Geography
8704:Civil War
8603:Laas Geel
8502:Languages
8402:Education
8361:Transport
8343:Shilling
8323:Companies
8268:Ministers
8244:President
8193:Judiciary
8176:Embassies
8156:Elections
8040:Cal Madow
8030:Shimbiris
8025:Mountains
8008:Cal Madow
7945:Geography
7771:Dhambalin
7766:Laas Geel
7523:Zed Books
7460:Routledge
7189:Routledge
6328:cite book
5941:cite news
5878:cite book
5583:0362-4331
5411:0190-8286
5254:148145948
5105:cite book
5018:Routledge
4701:Routledge
4513:Routledge
4336:0190-8286
4059:. Hurst.
4029:ILO/JASPA
4005:. Hurst.
3949:Routledge
3560:. BRILL.
3502:Routledge
3342:0143-6597
2901:148145948
2893:1939-2206
2417:children.
2338:Rhodesian
2231:Frankfurt
2195:Mogadishu
2188:Mogadishu
2171:supplies.
2154:El Afweyn
1775:Mogadishu
1521:In 1987,
1372:Location
1232:Dire Dawa
944:1969 coup
440:Dhaymoole
434:Dhambalin
428:Laas Gaal
330:Ethnocide
30:is being
10829:Armenian
10696:Domicide
10675:Policide
10647:Eugenics
10592:Democide
10561:Rohingya
10204:Volhynia
10028:Cossacks
9874:Selk'nam
9736:Chechens
9728:Dzungars
9655:Lameyans
9647:Kalinago
9617:(1500sβ)
9576:Guanches
9511:Eburones
9497:(88 BCE)
9449:Genocide
9397:Category
9365:Religion
9302:Polygamy
9275:Diaspora
9107:Military
9037:Politics
9014:Puntland
9004:Jubaland
8989:Galmudug
8966:Togdheer
8896:Banaadir
8825:Lamadaya
8795:Wildlife
8741:Military
8736:Maritime
8729:By topic
8580:articles
8524:Category
8480:Religion
8318:Airports
8210:Military
8130:Politics
8112:Togdheer
7991:Lamadaya
7976:Wildlife
7917:Military
7912:Maritime
7905:By topic
7743:articles
7515:(2004).
7435:ABC-CLIO
7222:β MQUP.
6901:. CIIR.
6377:15 April
6371:Archived
6320:24108168
6284:13 March
6274:Refworld
6250:15 April
6244:Archived
6240:unpo.org
5593:13 April
5587:Archived
5501:31 March
5495:Archived
5491:ecoi.net
5415:Archived
5314:26 April
4844:Archived
4611:Archived
4606:BBC News
4400:ABC-CLIO
4340:Archived
3792:Archived
3516:Archived
3449:Archived
3410:Archived
3371:Archived
3295:Archived
3264:Volume 5
3143:Archived
2584:See also
2505:NBC News
2454:Arabsiyo
2285:strafing
1993:forces.
1820:Hargeisa
1761:Hargeisa
1706:Bazookas
1613:account:
1567:Hargeisa
1554:Hargeisa
1496:and the
1480:Genocide
1413:Hargeisa
1391:Arabsiyo
1381:Details
1338:Hargeisa
1223:Hargeisa
1002:Ethiopia
825:Ethiopia
813:Hargeisa
809:genocide
789:genocide
469:(525 BC)
386:a series
384:Part of
344:Category
320:Democide
275:Cultural
210:Massacre
165:Genocide
156:a series
154:Part of
65:Location
45:Part of
34:. βΊ
23:template
11393:(2023β)
11385:(2022β)
11377:(2022β)
11361:(2019β)
11353:(2012β)
11345:(2005β)
10850:Rwandan
10843:Bosnian
10836:Serbian
10763:Pogroms
10706:Methods
10571:(2023β)
10563:(2017β)
10555:(2014β)
10547:(2014β)
10537:Yazidis
10515:(2003β)
10498:(2003β)
10449:Rwandan
10432:Bosnian
10424:Ahwaris
10418:(1990β)
10386:(1985β)
10314:Burundi
10076:Kazakhs
9866:Hazaras
9852:(1860s)
9842:Manchus
9834:Moriori
9826:CharrΓΊa
9730:(1750s)
9694:Beothuk
9663:Pequots
9625:(1500β)
9568:Assyria
9552:Cathars
9345:Cuisine
9322:Culture
9243:Society
9224:Tourism
9164:Economy
9053:Cabinet
8994:Khatumo
8878:Regions
8790:Climate
8588:History
8576:Somalia
8460:Cuisine
8442:Culture
8412:Library
8375:Society
8356:Tourism
8296:Economy
8146:Cabinet
8079:Regions
8057:Islands
7971:Geology
7966:Climate
7751:History
3846:. UPA.
3350:3993185
2450:Gabiley
2247:Italian
2207:Erigavo
2203:Berbera
2156:in the
2073:Erigavo
2069:Berbera
2063:Erigavo
2012:Hangash
2008:Hangash
1991:Hangash
1966:Red Sea
1962:Berbera
1949:Berbera
1839:by the
1837:Nairobi
1816:Gabiley
1802:of the
1527:Somalia
1458:Gabiley
1106:Marehan
972:Prelude
830:Dresden
556:Berbera
482:Mosylon
454:Ancient
292:Outline
287:Studies
11409:(2024)
11242:(1946)
11226:(1945)
11197:(1994)
11189:(1986)
11149:(1961)
11133:(1958)
11125:(1949)
11077:(1946)
11005:(1943)
10997:(1943)
10881:Issues
10804:Denial
10496:Darfur
10451:(1994)
10416:Amhara
10362:(1982)
10309:(1971)
10291:Biafra
10285:(1966)
10277:(1964)
10253:(1948)
10190:(1942)
10126:(1937)
10102:(1933)
10086:(1932)
10054:(1924)
10046:(1923)
10012:Kyrgyz
9996:(1915)
9972:(1913)
9953:Greeks
9836:(1835)
9828:(1831)
9818:(1864)
9779:(1821)
9771:(1816)
9722:(1749)
9714:(1740)
9657:(1636)
9649:(1626)
9641:(1572)
9562:(1311)
9530:(800s)
9407:Portal
9370:Sports
9340:Cinema
9285:Health
9255:Anthem
8981:States
8926:Sanaag
8891:Bakool
8861:Island
8854:Bahaya
8785:Cities
8746:Postal
8699:Piracy
8578:
8534:Portal
8485:Sports
8387:Anthem
8333:Energy
8273:Mayors
8102:Sanaag
8097:Saaxil
7961:Cities
7922:Postal
7741:
7696:
7675:
7650:
7646:(UK).
7598:
7577:
7552:
7529:
7494:
7466:
7441:
7416:
7395:
7374:
7353:
7312:
7285:
7226:
7195:
7161:
7050:
7023:
6987:
6939:
6905:
6878:
6807:
6773:
6716:
6677:
6650:
6623:
6596:
6569:
6538:
6504:
6465:
6402:
6318:
6308:
6218:
6168:
6122:
6008:
5977:
5866:
5838:
5812:
5769:
5748:. s.n.
5713:
5618:
5581:
5547:
5409:
5378:
5339:
5277:
5252:
5215:
5188:
5161:
5134:
5093:
5024:
4978:
4802:
4781:. s.n.
4764:. s.n.
4741:
4707:
4648:
4583:
4552:
4519:
4433:
4406:
4375:
4346:3 July
4334:
4296:
4258:
4231:
4185:
4128:
4063:
4036:
4009:
3982:
3955:
3907:
3880:
3850:
3823:
3784:
3741:
3708:
3681:
3654:
3627:
3600:
3564:
3543:. s.n.
3508:
3441:
3402:
3348:
3340:
3287:
3245:
3198:
3141:: 10.
3118:
3091:
3059:
2948:
2923:. s.n.
2899:
2891:
2819:
2722:
2561:Hawiye
2211:Sheikh
2182:Sheikh
2176:Sheikh
2158:Sanaag
2104:Sanaag
1446:Sheikh
1099:Afraad
849:Ogaden
777:Arabic
769:Somali
710:(2001)
698:(1991)
692:(1991)
686:(1991)
651:(1960)
624:(1945)
618:(1941)
612:(1922)
606:(1920)
560:Bulhar
388:on the
266:Types
260:Stages
205:Denial
182:Issues
122:Deaths
83:Target
10584:Terms
10400:Isaaq
10392:Anfal
10140:Poles
10002:Kurds
9898:Ukame
9671:Huron
9607:TaΓno
9503:Gauls
9360:Music
9355:Media
9312:Women
8951:Nugal
8946:Mudug
8931:Hiran
8886:Awdal
8810:Hafun
8495:Games
8475:Music
8470:Media
8338:Ports
8087:Awdal
8069:Caves
8035:Golis
7781:Malao
7505:(PDF)
7484:(PDF)
7254:(PDF)
7247:(PDF)
7017:Oxfam
6872:Oxfam
6034:(PDF)
5541:Brill
5308:(PDF)
5301:(PDF)
5250:S2CID
3346:JSTOR
3222:(PDF)
3146:(PDF)
3139:(PDF)
3023:(PDF)
3016:(PDF)
2897:S2CID
2554:Mudug
2529:Sarin
2525:Soman
2382:fell.
2134:AK47s
2067:Like
1694:Burao
1571:Burco
1502:Isaaq
1434:Burao
1378:Date
1219:Burao
1109:Darod
1040:Darod
1019:Oromo
881:1989.
817:Burao
793:Isaaq
552:Zeila
478:Malao
87:Isaaq
10721:Rape
10327:1993
10320:1972
9615:Ainu
9297:Flag
9144:List
9132:List
9099:Xeer
9095:Law
8921:Sool
8916:Gedo
8901:Bari
8490:Team
8407:Flag
8261:List
8249:List
8202:Xeer
8198:Law
8186:LGBT
8107:Sool
7694:ISBN
7673:ISBN
7648:ISBN
7629:2017
7596:ISBN
7575:ISBN
7550:ISBN
7527:ISBN
7492:ISBN
7464:ISBN
7439:ISBN
7414:ISBN
7393:ISBN
7372:ISBN
7351:ISBN
7310:ISBN
7283:ISBN
7262:2017
7224:ISBN
7193:ISBN
7159:ISBN
7048:ISBN
7021:ISBN
6985:ISBN
6937:ISBN
6903:ISBN
6876:ISBN
6805:ISBN
6771:ISBN
6714:ISBN
6675:ISBN
6648:ISBN
6621:ISBN
6594:ISBN
6567:ISBN
6536:ISBN
6502:ISBN
6463:ISBN
6400:ISBN
6379:2017
6334:link
6316:OCLC
6306:ISBN
6286:2022
6252:2017
6216:ISBN
6166:ISBN
6120:ISBN
6006:ISBN
5975:ISBN
5954:help
5917:1988
5884:link
5864:ISBN
5836:ISBN
5810:ISBN
5767:ISBN
5711:ISBN
5616:ISBN
5595:2017
5579:ISSN
5545:ISBN
5503:2017
5453:2017
5423:2017
5407:ISSN
5376:ISBN
5337:ISBN
5316:2017
5275:ISBN
5213:ISBN
5186:ISBN
5159:ISBN
5132:ISBN
5111:link
5091:ISBN
5022:ISBN
4976:ISBN
4852:2017
4800:ISBN
4739:ISBN
4705:ISBN
4646:ISBN
4619:2017
4581:ISBN
4550:ISBN
4517:ISBN
4459:1988
4431:ISBN
4404:ISBN
4373:ISBN
4348:2018
4332:ISSN
4294:ISBN
4256:ISBN
4229:ISBN
4183:ISBN
4126:ISBN
4061:ISBN
4034:ISBN
4007:ISBN
3980:ISBN
3953:ISBN
3905:ISBN
3878:ISBN
3848:ISBN
3821:ISBN
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