1186:
1220:
288:
43:
2098:
1111:; that is, it has close to equal sensitivity to radio waves from any direction. It is used as a field measurement instrument to measure electromagnetic sources and calibrate antennas. The isotropic receiving antenna is usually approximated by three orthogonal antennas or sensing devices with a radiation pattern of the
1908:
796:
of the radiation pattern so that at that radius the wave over a reasonable area is essentially planar. In the far field the electric (and magnetic) field of a plane wave in free space is always perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave. So the electric field would have to be tangent
742:
at a constant temperature. In a cavity at equilibrium the power density of radiation is the same in every direction and every point in the cavity, meaning that the amount of power passing through a unit surface is constant at any location, and with the surface oriented in any direction. This
2276:
712:
2474:
2742:
1089:
2985:
2653:
2093:{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} P_{\text{A}}(\theta ,\phi )~=~A_{\text{e}}(\theta ,\phi )\ S_{\text{matched}}\ \Delta \nu \;{\text{d}}\Omega ~=~{\frac {\ 1\ }{2}}A_{\text{e}}(\theta ,\phi )\ B_{\nu }\ \Delta \nu \;\mathrm {d} \Omega }
2161:
1871:
140:
2544:
2375:
3056:
1168:
approximates an (incoherent) isotropic radiator of light. Certain munitions such as flares and chaff have isotropic radiator properties. Whether a radiator is isotropic is independent of whether it obeys
634:
2337:
743:
radiation field is different from that of an isotropic radiator, in which the direction of power flow is everywhere away from the source point, and decreases with the inverse square of distance from it.
1173:. As radiators, a spherical black body is both, a flat black body is Lambertian but not isotropic, a flat chrome sheet is neither, and by symmetry the Sun is isotropic, but not Lambertian on account of
1642:
992:
1791:
932:
2897:
2848:
593:
565:
461:
1569:
1211:, a coherent isotropic sound radiator is feasible; an example is a pulsing spherical membrane or diaphragm, whose surface expands and contracts radially with time, pushing on the air.
210:, shown by the declining contrast of the wavefronts. This diagram only shows the waves in one plane through the source; an isotropic source actually radiates in all three dimensions.
433:
2658:
1357:
1005:
3155:
2902:
858:
897:
1903:
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1393:
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to the surface of a sphere must fall to zero at one or more points on the sphere, which is inconsistent with the assumption of an isotropic radiator with linear polarization.
2803:
2127:
1820:
1521:
1422:
493:
257:
isotropic radiator of electromagnetic waves is theoretically impossible, but incoherent radiators can be built. An isotropic sound radiator is possible because sound is a
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1675:
626:
2156:
1139:
1717:
1319:
208:
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1743:
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1428:
and is dissipated as heat in the resistor. The rest is reflected by the filter back to the antenna and is reradiated into the cavity. The resistor also produces
537:
513:
3351:
The angle brackets indicate the average over a cycle, since the power radiated by a sinusoidal acoustic or electromagnetic source varies sinusoidally with time
2478:
3116:
The
Rayleigh-Jeans formula is a good approximation as long as the energy in a radio photon is small compared with the thermal energy per degree of freedom:
826:
Even though an exactly isotropic antenna cannot exist in practice, it is used as a base of comparison to calculate the directivity of actual antennas.
1825:
771:
in all directions. Since it is entirely non-directional, it serves as a hypothetical worst-case against which directional antennas may be compared.
1527:; there can be no net transfer of power between the cavities, otherwise one cavity would heat up and the other would cool down in violation of the
1359:
Both cavities are filled with blackbody radiation in equilibrium with the antenna and resistor. Some of this radiation is received by the antenna.
3692:
3548:
3237:
899:(power per unit area) of the radio power received at a given distance from the antenna (in the direction of maximum radiation) to the intensity
1581:
states. However any antenna with a single output is polarized, and can only receive one of two orthogonal polarization states. For example, a
1195:
in 1878. Note how the rings are even and of the same width all the way around each circle, though they fade as they move away from the source.
2271:{\displaystyle P_{\text{A}}={\frac {\ 1\ }{2}}\ \int \limits _{4\pi }A_{\text{e}}(\theta ,\phi )\ B_{\nu }\ \Delta \nu \;\mathrm {d} \Omega }
3571:
1596:
3528:
940:
3487:
1585:
antenna cannot receive components of radio waves with electric field perpendicular to the antenna's linear elements; similarly a right
707:{\displaystyle \quad \left\langle \mathbf {S} \right\rangle ={\left\langle P\right\rangle \over 4\pi r^{2}}{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}\;\;}
595:
in watts per square meter striking each point of the sphere is the same, it must equal the radiated power divided by the surface area
3800:
2992:
3540:
242:. It has no preferred direction of radiation, i.e., it radiates uniformly in all directions over a sphere centred on the source.
2808:
2281:
3603:
352:
107:
4063:
1534:
324:
79:
3416:
3389:
3362:
3264:
1589:
antenna cannot receive left circularly polarized waves. Therefore, the antenna only receives the component of power density
2469:{\displaystyle P_{\text{A}}={\frac {\ 1\ }{2}}A_{\text{e}}\ B_{\nu }\ \Delta \nu \ \int \limits _{4\pi }\mathrm {d} \Omega }
331:
245:
Isotropic radiators are used as reference radiators with which other sources are compared, for example in determining the
86:
305:
60:
3558:
3443:
3181:
3470:
3426:
1523:
passes through the filter and is radiated by the antenna. Since the entire system is at the same temperature it is in
270:
means a radiation field which has the same intensity in all directions at each point; thus an isotropic radiator does
4032:
3850:
3399:
3336:
3306:
3274:
3247:
3191:
1748:
902:
371:
126:
17:
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730:
is not usually used for the radiation from an isotropic radiator because it has a different meaning in physics. In
338:
93:
570:
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438:
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3372:
320:
309:
75:
64:
792:) in all directions simultaneously. Consider a large sphere surrounding the hypothetical point source, in the
3672:
3534:
1528:
735:
519:
striking a spherical surface enclosing the radiator, with the radiator at center, regardless of the radius
407:
1324:
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3596:
3119:
832:
874:
515:
from the source. Assuming it is located in empty space where there is nothing to absorb the waves, the
2547:
1876:
3545:
1464:
1365:
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3935:
2779:
2747:
2103:
1796:
1524:
1497:
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1398:
466:
139:
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3840:
1255:
147:. As they travel away from the source, the waves decrease in amplitude by the inverse of distance
2342:
1647:
1091:
The gain of any perfectly efficient antenna averaged over all directions is unity, or 0 dBi.
3830:
3639:
3568:
3326:
1191:
1112:
298:
53:
598:
345:
100:
4012:
3950:
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3589:
3541:
U.S. Patent 4,130,023 – Method and apparatus for testing and evaluating loudspeaker performance
3091:
Acoustic isotropic radiators, however, are possible because sound waves in a gas or liquid are
2132:
789:
401:
3460:
1696:
1298:
1118:
3667:
2737:{\displaystyle P_{\text{A}}={\frac {\ 4\pi \ A_{\text{e}}\ kT\ }{\lambda ^{2}}}\ \Delta \nu }
1084:{\displaystyle G{\text{(dBi)}}=10\ \log _{10}\left({\frac {I}{~\ I_{\text{iso}}\ }}\right)~.}
178:
3495:
2980:{\displaystyle {\frac {\ 4\pi A_{\text{e}}kT\ }{\lambda ^{2}}}\ \Delta \nu =kT\ \Delta \nu }
2339:
in any direction. So the aperture can be moved outside the integral. Similarly the radiance
1258:
of the antenna, line and filter are all matched). Both cavities are at the same temperature
3975:
3875:
3747:
3722:
3104:
2753:
1722:
1586:
1578:
1435:
1261:
781:
384:
In physics, an isotropic radiator is a point radiation or sound source. At a distance, the
235:
404:. The waves travel in straight lines away from the source point, in the radial direction
8:
3895:
3787:
3742:
3072:
2648:{\displaystyle B_{\nu }={\frac {\ 2\nu ^{2}kT\ }{c^{2}}}={\frac {\ 2kT\ }{\lambda ^{2}}}}
1582:
1153:
869:
815:
802:
776:
726:
266:
254:
150:
31:
3207:
934:
received from a perfect lossless isotropic antenna at the same distance. This is called
797:
to the surface of the sphere everywhere, and continuous along that surface. However the
4058:
4037:
3885:
3825:
3820:
3717:
865:
798:
793:
785:
734:
it refers to the electromagnetic radiation pattern which would be found in a region at
718:
522:
498:
3563:
1681:
per hertz in the cavity; the power of black-body radiation per unit area (m) per unit
768:
4022:
3915:
3835:
3757:
3652:
3466:
3422:
3395:
3368:
3332:
3302:
3270:
3243:
3187:
3093:
3067:
1678:
1574:
1243:
1232:
1208:
1108:
998:(dB). When gain is calculated with respect to an isotropic antenna, these are called
397:
258:
1593:
in the cavity matched to its polarization, which is half of the total power density
1103:
applications, an isotropic receiver (also called isotropic antenna) is a calibrated
784:
can be shown to be impossible. Its radiation field could not be consistent with the
3996:
3810:
3772:
3737:
1247:
1228:
1170:
4002:
3965:
3940:
3865:
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3612:
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1219:
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1100:
752:
516:
250:
4027:
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3795:
3752:
3727:
3677:
2129:
the antenna receives, this is integrated over all directions (a solid angle of
1239:
1174:
1104:
739:
731:
1866:{\displaystyle \ \mathrm {d} \Omega =\mathrm {d} \theta \;\mathrm {d} \phi \ }
4052:
4007:
3900:
3890:
3845:
3732:
1185:
717:
Thus the power density radiated by an isotropic radiator decreases with the
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3762:
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827:
805:
246:
219:
3519:
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1200:
861:
764:
3157:
This is true throughout the radio spectrum at all ordinary temperatures.
2539:{\displaystyle P_{\text{A}}=2\pi \ A_{\text{e}}\ B_{\nu }\ \Delta \nu }
1204:
760:
435:. Since it has no preferred direction of radiation, the power density
312: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
231:
1793:
is the antenna's aperture, the amount of power in the frequency range
3860:
3767:
1686:
1432:
current due to the random motion of its molecules at the temperature
1292:
227:
2550:
gives a very close approximation of the blackbody spectral radiance
1152:
The parameter used to define accuracy in the measurements is called
287:
42:
4017:
3815:
3621:
1238:
Suppose an ideal (lossless) isotropic antenna A located within a
463:
of the waves at any point does not depend on the angular direction
1214:
1164:
In optics, an isotropic radiator is a point source of light. The
995:
808:
27:
Hypothetical wave source which radiates equally in all directions
3581:
3991:
3051:{\displaystyle \ A_{\text{e}}={~~\lambda ^{2}\ \over 4\pi }\ }
1531:. Therefore, the power flows in both directions must be equal
3970:
3546:
Non Lethal
Concepts – Implications for Air Force Intelligence
3239:
Radio Wave
Propagation: An introduction for the nonspecialist
1690:
1254:
to a matched resistor R in another thermal cavity CR (the
2332:{\displaystyle \ A_{\text{e}}(\theta ,\phi )=A_{\text{e}}\ }
1189:
A depiction of an isotropic radiator of sound, published in
1235:
can be derived by a thermodynamic argument, which follows.
223:
3391:
3295:
Howell, John R.; Menguc, M. Pinar; Siegal, Robert (2016).
759:
is a hypothetical antenna radiating the same intensity of
400:
of an isotropic radiator in empty space can be found from
3465:. Springer Science and Business Media. pp. 134–135.
2278:
Since the antenna is isotropic, it has the same aperture
1165:
567:
in watts emitted by the source. Since the power density
385:
1203:
radiating equal sound volume in all directions. Since
388:
is an isotropic radiator of electromagnetic radiation.
3085:
1822:
the antenna receives from an increment of solid angle
1637:{\displaystyle S_{\text{matched}}={\frac {\ 1\ }{2}}S}
1121:
906:
878:
836:
3122:
2995:
2905:
2856:
2811:
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2756:
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1911:
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1008:
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525:
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469:
441:
410:
181:
153:
143:
Animated diagram of waves from an isotropic radiator
3421:. Springer Science and Business Media. p. 534.
2850:
Since the cavities are in thermodynamic equilibrium
994:
Gain is often expressed in logarithmic units called
987:{\displaystyle G={\frac {I}{~\ I_{\text{iso}}\ }}~.}
67:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
3494:. Essential Radio Astronomy course. Archived from
3448:. London: Oxford University Press. pp. 23–24.
3294:
3149:
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455:
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202:
167:
1424:passes through the transmission line and filter F
4050:
1107:with an antenna which approximates an isotropic
3441:
3418:Advanced Thermal Design of Electronic Equipment
2546:Radio waves are low enough in frequency so the
2100:To find the total power in the frequency range
1786:{\displaystyle \ A_{\text{e}}(\theta ,\phi )\ }
927:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle \ I_{\text{iso}}\ }
175:and in power by the inverse square of distance
3555:Published Aerospace Power Journal, Winter 1994
3492:US National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO)
2892:{\displaystyle \ P_{\text{A}}=P_{\text{R}}\ ,}
1215:Derivation of aperture of an isotropic antenna
3597:
1199:An isotropic sound radiator is a theoretical
763:in all directions. It thus is said to have a
3485:
3458:
2843:{\displaystyle P_{\text{R}}=kT\ \Delta \nu }
2750:power produced by a resistor at temperature
588:{\displaystyle \left\langle S\right\rangle }
560:{\displaystyle \left\langle P\right\rangle }
456:{\displaystyle \left\langle S\right\rangle }
3320:
3318:
3200:
2372:in the cavity is the same in any direction
3604:
3590:
3564:Cosmic Microwave Background – Introduction
3266:Communications Standard Dictionary, 2nd Ed
3231:
3229:
2259:
2081:
1998:
1851:
703:
702:
3324:
1564:{\displaystyle P_{\text{A}}=P_{\text{R}}}
1223:Diagram of antenna and resistor in cavity
372:Learn how and when to remove this message
127:Learn how and when to remove this message
3414:
3408:
3315:
3290:
3288:
3286:
3235:
1218:
1184:
138:
3387:
3364:Microwave and Communications Technology
3298:Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer, 6th Ed
3226:
819:isotropic antennas are possible and do
238:, in which case it is also known as an
230:in all directions. It may be based on
14:
4051:
3578:Holon Academic Institute of Technology
3479:
3459:Rohlfs, Kristen; Wilson, T.L. (2013).
3452:
3442:Pawsey, J.L.; Bracewell, R.N. (1955).
3435:
3381:
3269:. Van Nostrand Reinhold. p. 555.
3214:. In Compliance magazine website. 2009
3175:
3173:
3585:
3462:Tools of Radio Astronomy, 4th Edition
3283:
1291:only allows through a narrow band of
1094:
769:0 dBi (dB relative to isotropic)
428:{\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {r} }}}
226:which radiates the same intensity of
3360:
3262:
3179:
1352:{\displaystyle \ \nu +\Delta \nu ~.}
391:
310:adding citations to reliable sources
281:
65:adding citations to reliable sources
36:
3486:Condon, J.J.; Ransom, S.M. (2016).
3394:. Oxford Univ. Press. p. 118.
3354:
3256:
3170:
3150:{\displaystyle \ h\nu <<kT~.}
853:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle \ G\ ,}
721:of the distance from the source.
24:
2971:
2953:
2834:
2786:
2728:
2530:
2463:
2459:
2436:
2265:
2261:
2253:
2110:
2087:
2083:
2075:
2004:
1992:
1913:
1853:
1844:
1837:
1833:
1803:
1504:
1405:
1337:
892:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle \ I\ }
25:
4080:
4033:Circularly disposed antenna array
3851:Folded inverted conformal antenna
3611:
3513:
3242:. Springer-Verlag. pp. 1–2.
1898:{\displaystyle \ \theta ,\phi \ }
1577:, containing an equal mixture of
1573:The radio noise in the cavity is
868:, is defined as the ratio of the
860:which is equal to the antenna's
746:
3183:Modern Dictionary of Electronics
1487:{\displaystyle \ P_{\text{R}}\ }
1388:{\displaystyle \ P_{\text{A}}\ }
692:
644:
415:
286:
41:
3212:Electronic engineering glossary
3110:
2798:{\displaystyle \ \Delta \nu \ }
2122:{\displaystyle \ \Delta \nu \ }
1815:{\displaystyle \ \Delta \nu \ }
1516:{\displaystyle \ \Delta \nu \ }
1417:{\displaystyle \ \Delta \nu \ }
1395:within the band of frequencies
1242:CA is connected via a lossless
638:
488:{\displaystyle (\theta ,\phi )}
297:needs additional citations for
52:needs additional citations for
3345:
2310:
2298:
2234:
2222:
2056:
2044:
1973:
1961:
1939:
1927:
1777:
1765:
823:violate Maxwell's equations.
696:
482:
470:
419:
13:
1:
4064:Radio frequency antenna types
3523:, Matzner and McDonald, arXiv
3328:Atoms, Molecules, and Photons
3164:
780:isotropic radiator of linear
274:produce isotropic radiation.
3673:Dielectric resonator antenna
3325:Demtroder, Wolfgang (2010).
3078:
2365:{\displaystyle \ B_{\nu }\ }
1670:{\displaystyle \ B_{\nu }\ }
1529:second law of thermodynamics
7:
3061:
495:, but only on the distance
10:
4085:
3388:Milonni, Peter W. (2019).
3236:Richards, John A. (2008).
1494:within the frequency band
621:{\displaystyle 4\pi r^{2}}
539:, must be the total power
277:
29:
3984:
3936:Regenerative loop antenna
3786:
3638:
3620:
3301:. CRC Press. p. 15.
3180:Graf, Rudolph F. (1999).
2151:{\displaystyle \ 4\pi \ }
1525:thermodynamic equilibrium
1461:The amount of this power
1362:The amount of this power
1159:
1134:{\textstyle \sin \theta }
736:thermodynamic equilibrium
3931:Reflective array antenna
3841:Corner reflector antenna
3415:Remsburg, Ralph (2011).
3361:Carr, Joseph J. (1996).
3331:. Springer. p. 83.
3263:Weik, Martin H. (1989).
1712:{\displaystyle \ \nu \ }
1314:{\displaystyle \ \nu \ }
1256:characteristic impedance
1180:
30:Not to be confused with
3831:Collinear antenna array
3367:. Newnes. p. 171.
3186:. Newnes. p. 398.
2776:over a frequency range
1192:Popular Science Monthly
786:Helmholtz wave equation
203:{\displaystyle 1/r^{2}}
4013:Reconfigurable antenna
3976:Yagi–Uda antenna
3951:Short backfire antenna
3688:Folded unipole antenna
3488:"Antenna fundamentals"
3151:
3052:
2981:
2893:
2844:
2799:
2770:
2738:
2649:
2548:Rayleigh–Jeans formula
2540:
2470:
2366:
2333:
2272:
2152:
2123:
2094:
1899:
1867:
1816:
1787:
1739:
1713:
1689:) per unit frequency (
1671:
1638:
1565:
1517:
1488:
1455:
1418:
1389:
1353:
1315:
1281:
1224:
1196:
1135:
1085:
988:
928:
893:
854:
708:
622:
589:
561:
533:
509:
489:
457:
429:
402:conservation of energy
211:
204:
169:
3668:Crossed field antenna
3152:
3105:electromagnetic waves
3053:
2982:
2894:
2845:
2800:
2771:
2769:{\displaystyle \ T\ }
2748:Johnson–Nyquist noise
2739:
2650:
2541:
2471:
2367:
2334:
2273:
2153:
2124:
2095:
1900:
1868:
1817:
1788:
1740:
1738:{\displaystyle \ T\ }
1714:
1672:
1639:
1566:
1518:
1489:
1456:
1454:{\displaystyle \ T~.}
1430:Johnson–Nyquist noise
1419:
1390:
1354:
1316:
1282:
1280:{\displaystyle \ T~.}
1222:
1188:
1136:
1086:
989:
929:
894:
855:
709:
623:
590:
562:
534:
510:
490:
458:
430:
236:electromagnetic waves
205:
170:
142:
3985:Application-specific
3876:Log-periodic antenna
3748:Rubber ducky antenna
3723:Inverted vee antenna
3698:Ground-plane antenna
3208:"Isotropic radiator"
3120:
2993:
2903:
2854:
2809:
2780:
2754:
2659:
2554:
2479:
2376:
2343:
2282:
2162:
2133:
2104:
1909:
1877:
1826:
1797:
1749:
1723:
1697:
1648:
1597:
1587:circularly polarized
1535:
1498:
1465:
1436:
1399:
1366:
1325:
1299:
1262:
1119:
1006:
941:
903:
875:
833:
635:
599:
571:
543:
523:
499:
467:
439:
408:
321:"Isotropic radiator"
306:improve this article
179:
151:
76:"Isotropic radiator"
61:improve this article
3896:Offset dish antenna
3743:Random wire antenna
3569:Isotropic Radiators
3521:Isotropic Radiators
3498:on 1 September 2018
3073:E-plane and H-plane
1154:isotropic deviation
790:Maxwell's equations
727:isotropic radiation
267:isotropic radiation
168:{\displaystyle 1/r}
32:isotropic radiation
4038:Television antenna
3886:Microstrip antenna
3826:Choke ring antenna
3821:Cassegrain antenna
3718:Inverted-F antenna
3630:Isotropic radiator
3574:2014-08-19 at the
3551:2007-04-30 at the
3535:isotropic radiator
3147:
3094:longitudinal waves
3048:
2977:
2889:
2840:
2795:
2766:
2734:
2645:
2536:
2466:
2457:
2362:
2329:
2268:
2211:
2148:
2119:
2090:
1895:
1863:
1812:
1783:
1745:in the cavity. If
1735:
1709:
1667:
1634:
1583:linearly polarized
1561:
1513:
1484:
1451:
1414:
1385:
1349:
1311:
1277:
1225:
1209:longitudinal waves
1197:
1131:
1095:Isotropic receiver
1081:
1000:decibels isotropic
984:
924:
923:
889:
888:
866:antenna efficiency
864:multiplied by the
850:
849:
799:hairy ball theorem
704:
618:
585:
557:
529:
505:
485:
453:
425:
216:isotropic radiator
212:
200:
165:
4046:
4045:
4023:Reference antenna
3916:Parabolic antenna
3836:Conformal antenna
3758:Turnstile antenna
3653:Biconical antenna
3143:
3125:
3068:Radiation pattern
3047:
3043:
3033:
3020:
3017:
3006:
2998:
2970:
2952:
2948:
2936:
2925:
2911:
2885:
2880:
2867:
2859:
2833:
2819:
2794:
2785:
2765:
2759:
2727:
2723:
2711:
2702:
2697:
2689:
2680:
2669:
2643:
2631:
2619:
2609:
2597:
2575:
2529:
2516:
2511:
2503:
2489:
2445:
2444:
2435:
2422:
2417:
2408:
2403:
2397:
2386:
2361:
2348:
2328:
2323:
2295:
2287:
2252:
2239:
2219:
2199:
2198:
2194:
2189:
2183:
2172:
2147:
2138:
2118:
2109:
2074:
2061:
2041:
2032:
2027:
2021:
2015:
2009:
2002:
1991:
1986:
1978:
1958:
1950:
1944:
1924:
1894:
1882:
1873:in the direction
1862:
1831:
1811:
1802:
1782:
1762:
1754:
1734:
1728:
1708:
1702:
1679:spectral radiance
1666:
1653:
1629:
1624:
1618:
1607:
1558:
1545:
1512:
1503:
1483:
1478:
1470:
1447:
1441:
1413:
1404:
1384:
1379:
1371:
1345:
1330:
1310:
1304:
1273:
1267:
1244:transmission line
1233:isotropic antenna
1109:reception pattern
1077:
1069:
1067:
1062:
1054:
1051:
1025:
1015:
980:
976:
974:
969:
961:
958:
922:
917:
909:
887:
881:
845:
839:
757:isotropic antenna
699:
686:
532:{\displaystyle r}
508:{\displaystyle r}
422:
392:Radiation pattern
382:
381:
374:
356:
259:longitudinal wave
240:isotropic antenna
218:is a theoretical
137:
136:
129:
111:
18:Isotropic antenna
16:(Redirected from
4076:
4069:Antennas (radio)
3997:Corner reflector
3811:Beverage antenna
3773:Umbrella antenna
3738:Monopole antenna
3693:Franklin antenna
3606:
3599:
3592:
3583:
3582:
3508:
3507:
3505:
3503:
3483:
3477:
3476:
3456:
3450:
3449:
3439:
3433:
3432:
3412:
3406:
3405:
3385:
3379:
3378:
3358:
3352:
3349:
3343:
3342:
3322:
3313:
3312:
3292:
3281:
3280:
3260:
3254:
3253:
3233:
3224:
3223:
3221:
3219:
3204:
3198:
3197:
3177:
3158:
3156:
3154:
3153:
3148:
3141:
3123:
3114:
3108:
3100:transverse waves
3089:
3057:
3055:
3054:
3049:
3045:
3044:
3042:
3034:
3031:
3030:
3029:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3008:
3007:
3004:
2996:
2986:
2984:
2983:
2978:
2968:
2950:
2949:
2947:
2946:
2937:
2934:
2927:
2926:
2923:
2909:
2907:
2898:
2896:
2895:
2890:
2883:
2882:
2881:
2878:
2869:
2868:
2865:
2857:
2849:
2847:
2846:
2841:
2831:
2821:
2820:
2817:
2804:
2802:
2801:
2796:
2792:
2783:
2775:
2773:
2772:
2767:
2763:
2757:
2743:
2741:
2740:
2735:
2725:
2724:
2722:
2721:
2712:
2709:
2700:
2699:
2698:
2695:
2687:
2678:
2676:
2671:
2670:
2667:
2654:
2652:
2651:
2646:
2644:
2642:
2641:
2632:
2629:
2617:
2615:
2610:
2608:
2607:
2598:
2595:
2588:
2587:
2573:
2571:
2566:
2565:
2545:
2543:
2542:
2537:
2527:
2526:
2525:
2514:
2513:
2512:
2509:
2501:
2491:
2490:
2487:
2475:
2473:
2472:
2467:
2462:
2456:
2442:
2433:
2432:
2431:
2420:
2419:
2418:
2415:
2409:
2404:
2401:
2395:
2393:
2388:
2387:
2384:
2371:
2369:
2368:
2363:
2359:
2358:
2357:
2346:
2338:
2336:
2335:
2330:
2326:
2325:
2324:
2321:
2297:
2296:
2293:
2285:
2277:
2275:
2274:
2269:
2264:
2250:
2249:
2248:
2237:
2221:
2220:
2217:
2210:
2196:
2195:
2190:
2187:
2181:
2179:
2174:
2173:
2170:
2157:
2155:
2154:
2149:
2145:
2136:
2128:
2126:
2125:
2120:
2116:
2107:
2099:
2097:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2072:
2071:
2070:
2059:
2043:
2042:
2039:
2033:
2028:
2025:
2019:
2017:
2013:
2007:
2003:
2000:
1989:
1988:
1987:
1984:
1976:
1960:
1959:
1956:
1948:
1942:
1926:
1925:
1922:
1916:
1904:
1902:
1901:
1896:
1892:
1880:
1872:
1870:
1869:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1847:
1836:
1829:
1821:
1819:
1818:
1813:
1809:
1800:
1792:
1790:
1789:
1784:
1780:
1764:
1763:
1760:
1752:
1744:
1742:
1741:
1736:
1732:
1726:
1719:and temperature
1718:
1716:
1715:
1710:
1706:
1700:
1676:
1674:
1673:
1668:
1664:
1663:
1662:
1651:
1643:
1641:
1640:
1635:
1630:
1625:
1622:
1616:
1614:
1609:
1608:
1605:
1592:
1570:
1568:
1567:
1562:
1560:
1559:
1556:
1547:
1546:
1543:
1522:
1520:
1519:
1514:
1510:
1501:
1493:
1491:
1490:
1485:
1481:
1480:
1479:
1476:
1468:
1460:
1458:
1457:
1452:
1445:
1439:
1423:
1421:
1420:
1415:
1411:
1402:
1394:
1392:
1391:
1386:
1382:
1381:
1380:
1377:
1369:
1358:
1356:
1355:
1350:
1343:
1328:
1320:
1318:
1317:
1312:
1308:
1302:
1286:
1284:
1283:
1278:
1271:
1265:
1248:band-pass filter
1140:
1138:
1137:
1132:
1090:
1088:
1087:
1082:
1075:
1074:
1070:
1068:
1065:
1064:
1063:
1060:
1052:
1049:
1044:
1035:
1034:
1023:
1016:
1013:
993:
991:
990:
985:
978:
977:
975:
972:
971:
970:
967:
959:
956:
951:
933:
931:
930:
925:
920:
919:
918:
915:
907:
898:
896:
895:
890:
885:
879:
859:
857:
856:
851:
843:
837:
738:, as in a black
713:
711:
710:
705:
701:
700:
695:
690:
687:
685:
684:
683:
667:
656:
651:
647:
627:
625:
624:
619:
617:
616:
594:
592:
591:
586:
584:
566:
564:
563:
558:
556:
538:
536:
535:
530:
514:
512:
511:
506:
494:
492:
491:
486:
462:
460:
459:
454:
452:
434:
432:
431:
426:
424:
423:
418:
413:
377:
370:
366:
363:
357:
355:
314:
290:
282:
209:
207:
206:
201:
199:
198:
189:
174:
172:
171:
166:
161:
132:
125:
121:
118:
112:
110:
69:
45:
37:
21:
4084:
4083:
4079:
4078:
4077:
4075:
4074:
4073:
4049:
4048:
4047:
4042:
4003:Evolved antenna
3980:
3966:Vivaldi antenna
3941:Rhombic antenna
3866:Helical antenna
3856:Fractal antenna
3801:AS-2259 Antenna
3782:
3713:Helical antenna
3683:Discone antenna
3663:Coaxial antenna
3648:Batwing antenna
3640:Omnidirectional
3634:
3616:
3610:
3576:Wayback Machine
3553:Wayback Machine
3516:
3511:
3501:
3499:
3484:
3480:
3473:
3457:
3453:
3445:Radio Astronomy
3440:
3436:
3429:
3413:
3409:
3402:
3386:
3382:
3375:
3359:
3355:
3350:
3346:
3339:
3323:
3316:
3309:
3293:
3284:
3277:
3261:
3257:
3250:
3234:
3227:
3217:
3215:
3206:
3205:
3201:
3194:
3178:
3171:
3167:
3162:
3161:
3121:
3118:
3117:
3115:
3111:
3090:
3086:
3081:
3064:
3059:
3035:
3025:
3021:
3014:
3012:
3003:
2999:
2994:
2991:
2990:
2942:
2938:
2922:
2918:
2908:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2900:
2877:
2873:
2864:
2860:
2855:
2852:
2851:
2816:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2806:
2781:
2778:
2777:
2755:
2752:
2751:
2717:
2713:
2694:
2690:
2677:
2675:
2666:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2656:
2637:
2633:
2616:
2614:
2603:
2599:
2583:
2579:
2572:
2570:
2561:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2551:
2521:
2517:
2508:
2504:
2486:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2476:
2458:
2449:
2427:
2423:
2414:
2410:
2394:
2392:
2383:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2373:
2353:
2349:
2344:
2341:
2340:
2320:
2316:
2292:
2288:
2283:
2280:
2279:
2260:
2244:
2240:
2216:
2212:
2203:
2180:
2178:
2169:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2159:
2134:
2131:
2130:
2105:
2102:
2101:
2082:
2066:
2062:
2038:
2034:
2018:
2016:
1999:
1983:
1979:
1955:
1951:
1921:
1917:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1906:
1878:
1875:
1874:
1852:
1843:
1832:
1827:
1824:
1823:
1798:
1795:
1794:
1759:
1755:
1750:
1747:
1746:
1724:
1721:
1720:
1698:
1695:
1694:
1693:) at frequency
1658:
1654:
1649:
1646:
1645:
1615:
1613:
1604:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1594:
1590:
1555:
1551:
1542:
1538:
1536:
1533:
1532:
1499:
1496:
1495:
1475:
1471:
1466:
1463:
1462:
1437:
1434:
1433:
1427:
1400:
1397:
1396:
1376:
1372:
1367:
1364:
1363:
1326:
1323:
1322:
1300:
1297:
1296:
1290:
1263:
1260:
1259:
1253:
1217:
1183:
1162:
1120:
1117:
1116:
1113:omnidirectional
1101:EMF measurement
1097:
1059:
1055:
1048:
1043:
1039:
1030:
1026:
1012:
1007:
1004:
1003:
966:
962:
955:
950:
942:
939:
938:
914:
910:
904:
901:
900:
876:
873:
872:
834:
831:
830:
749:
715:
691:
689:
688:
679:
675:
668:
657:
655:
643:
639:
636:
633:
632:
612:
608:
600:
597:
596:
574:
572:
569:
568:
546:
544:
541:
540:
524:
521:
520:
500:
497:
496:
468:
465:
464:
442:
440:
437:
436:
414:
412:
411:
409:
406:
405:
398:radiation field
394:
378:
367:
361:
358:
315:
313:
303:
291:
280:
194:
190:
185:
180:
177:
176:
157:
152:
149:
148:
133:
122:
116:
113:
70:
68:
58:
46:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4082:
4072:
4071:
4066:
4061:
4044:
4043:
4041:
4040:
4035:
4030:
4028:Spiral antenna
4025:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3994:
3988:
3986:
3982:
3981:
3979:
3978:
3973:
3968:
3963:
3961:Sterba antenna
3958:
3953:
3948:
3946:Sector antenna
3943:
3938:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3921:Plasma antenna
3918:
3913:
3908:
3903:
3898:
3893:
3888:
3883:
3878:
3873:
3868:
3863:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3833:
3828:
3823:
3818:
3813:
3808:
3803:
3798:
3796:Adcock antenna
3792:
3790:
3784:
3783:
3781:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3753:Sloper antenna
3750:
3745:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3728:J-pole antenna
3725:
3720:
3715:
3710:
3705:
3700:
3695:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3678:Dipole antenna
3675:
3670:
3665:
3660:
3655:
3650:
3644:
3642:
3636:
3635:
3633:
3632:
3626:
3624:
3618:
3617:
3609:
3608:
3601:
3594:
3586:
3580:
3579:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3543:
3538:
3532:
3526:
3515:
3514:External links
3512:
3510:
3509:
3478:
3472:978-3662053942
3471:
3451:
3434:
3428:978-1441985095
3427:
3407:
3400:
3380:
3373:
3353:
3344:
3337:
3314:
3307:
3282:
3275:
3255:
3248:
3225:
3199:
3192:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3160:
3159:
3146:
3140:
3137:
3134:
3131:
3128:
3109:
3083:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3076:
3075:
3070:
3063:
3060:
3041:
3038:
3028:
3024:
3011:
3002:
2988:
2976:
2973:
2967:
2964:
2961:
2958:
2955:
2945:
2941:
2933:
2930:
2921:
2917:
2914:
2888:
2876:
2872:
2863:
2839:
2836:
2830:
2827:
2824:
2815:
2791:
2788:
2762:
2733:
2730:
2720:
2716:
2708:
2705:
2693:
2686:
2683:
2674:
2665:
2640:
2636:
2628:
2625:
2622:
2613:
2606:
2602:
2594:
2591:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2569:
2564:
2560:
2535:
2532:
2524:
2520:
2507:
2500:
2497:
2494:
2485:
2465:
2461:
2455:
2452:
2448:
2441:
2438:
2430:
2426:
2413:
2407:
2400:
2391:
2382:
2356:
2352:
2319:
2315:
2312:
2309:
2306:
2303:
2300:
2291:
2267:
2263:
2258:
2255:
2247:
2243:
2236:
2233:
2230:
2227:
2224:
2215:
2209:
2206:
2202:
2193:
2186:
2177:
2168:
2144:
2141:
2115:
2112:
2089:
2085:
2080:
2077:
2069:
2065:
2058:
2055:
2052:
2049:
2046:
2037:
2031:
2024:
2012:
2006:
1997:
1994:
1982:
1975:
1972:
1969:
1966:
1963:
1954:
1947:
1941:
1938:
1935:
1932:
1929:
1920:
1915:
1891:
1888:
1885:
1859:
1855:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1839:
1835:
1808:
1805:
1779:
1776:
1773:
1770:
1767:
1758:
1731:
1705:
1661:
1657:
1633:
1628:
1621:
1612:
1603:
1554:
1550:
1541:
1509:
1506:
1474:
1450:
1444:
1425:
1410:
1407:
1375:
1348:
1342:
1339:
1336:
1333:
1307:
1288:
1276:
1270:
1251:
1240:thermal cavity
1216:
1213:
1182:
1179:
1175:limb darkening
1161:
1158:
1130:
1127:
1124:
1105:radio receiver
1096:
1093:
1080:
1073:
1058:
1047:
1042:
1038:
1033:
1029:
1022:
1019:
1011:
983:
965:
954:
949:
946:
936:isotropic gain
913:
884:
848:
842:
788:(derived from
774:In reality, a
748:
747:Antenna theory
745:
740:thermal cavity
732:thermodynamics
719:inverse square
698:
694:
682:
678:
674:
671:
666:
663:
660:
654:
650:
646:
642:
630:
628:of the sphere
615:
611:
607:
604:
583:
580:
577:
555:
552:
549:
528:
504:
484:
481:
478:
475:
472:
451:
448:
445:
421:
417:
393:
390:
380:
379:
362:September 2017
294:
292:
285:
279:
276:
197:
193:
188:
184:
164:
160:
156:
135:
134:
49:
47:
40:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4081:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4056:
4054:
4039:
4036:
4034:
4031:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4008:Ground dipole
4006:
4004:
4001:
3998:
3995:
3993:
3990:
3989:
3987:
3983:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3949:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3901:Patch antenna
3899:
3897:
3894:
3892:
3891:Moxon antenna
3889:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3879:
3877:
3874:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3846:Curtain array
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3797:
3794:
3793:
3791:
3789:
3785:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3733:Mast radiator
3731:
3729:
3726:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3645:
3643:
3641:
3637:
3631:
3628:
3627:
3625:
3623:
3619:
3614:
3607:
3602:
3600:
3595:
3593:
3588:
3587:
3584:
3577:
3573:
3570:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3554:
3550:
3547:
3544:
3542:
3539:
3536:
3533:
3530:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3518:
3517:
3497:
3493:
3489:
3482:
3474:
3468:
3464:
3463:
3455:
3447:
3446:
3438:
3430:
3424:
3420:
3419:
3411:
3403:
3401:9780192566119
3397:
3393:
3392:
3384:
3376:
3370:
3366:
3365:
3357:
3348:
3340:
3338:9783642102974
3334:
3330:
3329:
3321:
3319:
3310:
3308:9781498757744
3304:
3300:
3299:
3291:
3289:
3287:
3278:
3276:9781461566748
3272:
3268:
3267:
3259:
3251:
3249:9783540771241
3245:
3241:
3240:
3232:
3230:
3213:
3209:
3203:
3195:
3193:9780750698665
3189:
3185:
3184:
3176:
3174:
3169:
3144:
3138:
3135:
3132:
3129:
3126:
3113:
3106:
3102:
3101:
3096:
3095:
3088:
3084:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3065:
3058:
3039:
3036:
3026:
3022:
3009:
3000:
2987:
2974:
2965:
2962:
2959:
2956:
2943:
2939:
2931:
2928:
2919:
2915:
2912:
2886:
2874:
2870:
2861:
2837:
2828:
2825:
2822:
2813:
2789:
2760:
2749:
2744:
2731:
2718:
2714:
2706:
2703:
2691:
2684:
2681:
2672:
2663:
2638:
2634:
2626:
2623:
2620:
2611:
2604:
2600:
2592:
2589:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2567:
2562:
2558:
2549:
2533:
2522:
2518:
2505:
2498:
2495:
2492:
2483:
2453:
2450:
2446:
2439:
2428:
2424:
2411:
2405:
2398:
2389:
2380:
2354:
2350:
2317:
2313:
2307:
2304:
2301:
2289:
2256:
2245:
2241:
2231:
2228:
2225:
2213:
2207:
2204:
2200:
2191:
2184:
2175:
2166:
2142:
2139:
2113:
2078:
2067:
2063:
2053:
2050:
2047:
2035:
2029:
2022:
2010:
1995:
1980:
1970:
1967:
1964:
1952:
1945:
1936:
1933:
1930:
1918:
1889:
1886:
1883:
1857:
1848:
1840:
1806:
1774:
1771:
1768:
1756:
1729:
1703:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1659:
1655:
1631:
1626:
1619:
1610:
1601:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1571:
1552:
1548:
1539:
1530:
1526:
1507:
1472:
1448:
1442:
1431:
1408:
1373:
1360:
1346:
1340:
1334:
1331:
1305:
1294:
1287:The filter F
1274:
1268:
1257:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1236:
1234:
1230:
1221:
1212:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1194:
1193:
1187:
1178:
1176:
1172:
1171:Lambert's law
1167:
1157:
1155:
1150:
1148:
1147:loop antennas
1144:
1143:short dipoles
1128:
1125:
1122:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1092:
1078:
1071:
1056:
1045:
1040:
1036:
1031:
1027:
1020:
1017:
1009:
1001:
997:
981:
963:
952:
947:
944:
937:
911:
882:
871:
867:
863:
846:
840:
829:
824:
822:
818:
817:
812:
810:
807:
804:
801:shows that a
800:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
778:
772:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
744:
741:
737:
733:
729:
728:
722:
720:
714:
680:
676:
672:
669:
664:
661:
658:
652:
648:
640:
629:
613:
609:
605:
602:
581:
578:
575:
553:
550:
547:
526:
518:
502:
479:
476:
473:
449:
446:
443:
403:
399:
389:
387:
376:
373:
365:
354:
351:
347:
344:
340:
337:
333:
330:
326:
323: –
322:
318:
317:Find sources:
311:
307:
301:
300:
295:This section
293:
289:
284:
283:
275:
273:
269:
268:
262:
260:
256:
252:
248:
243:
241:
237:
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
195:
191:
186:
182:
162:
158:
154:
146:
141:
131:
128:
120:
117:February 2013
109:
106:
102:
99:
95:
92:
88:
85:
81:
78: –
77:
73:
72:Find sources:
66:
62:
56:
55:
50:This article
48:
44:
39:
38:
33:
19:
3956:Slot antenna
3926:Quad antenna
3911:Planar array
3906:Phased array
3881:Loop antenna
3871:Horn antenna
3778:Whip antenna
3763:T2FD antenna
3708:Halo antenna
3703:G5RV antenna
3629:
3537:AMS Glossary
3520:
3500:. Retrieved
3496:the original
3491:
3481:
3461:
3454:
3444:
3437:
3417:
3410:
3390:
3383:
3363:
3356:
3347:
3327:
3297:
3265:
3258:
3238:
3216:. Retrieved
3211:
3202:
3182:
3112:
3098:
3092:
3087:
2989:
2745:
1579:polarization
1572:
1361:
1237:
1226:
1198:
1190:
1163:
1151:
1098:
999:
935:
828:Antenna gain
825:
820:
814:
813:
806:vector field
782:polarization
775:
773:
756:
750:
725:
723:
716:
631:
395:
383:
368:
359:
349:
342:
335:
328:
316:
304:Please help
299:verification
296:
271:
265:
263:
244:
239:
220:point source
215:
213:
144:
123:
114:
104:
97:
90:
83:
71:
59:Please help
54:verification
51:
3806:AWX antenna
3788:Directional
3658:Cage aerial
3531:D.Jefferies
3218:28 February
1683:solid angle
1575:unpolarized
1293:frequencies
1205:sound waves
1201:loudspeaker
862:directivity
765:directivity
761:radio waves
755:theory, an
232:sound waves
4053:Categories
3374:0750697075
3165:References
2655:Therefore
1246:through a
816:Incoherent
803:continuous
332:newspapers
87:newspapers
4059:Radiation
3999:(passive)
3861:Gizmotchy
3768:T-antenna
3622:Isotropic
3502:22 August
3130:ν
3079:Footnotes
3040:π
3023:λ
2975:ν
2972:Δ
2957:ν
2954:Δ
2940:λ
2916:π
2838:ν
2835:Δ
2790:ν
2787:Δ
2732:ν
2729:Δ
2715:λ
2685:π
2635:λ
2581:ν
2563:ν
2534:ν
2531:Δ
2523:ν
2499:π
2464:Ω
2454:π
2447:∫
2440:ν
2437:Δ
2429:ν
2355:ν
2308:ϕ
2302:θ
2266:Ω
2257:ν
2254:Δ
2246:ν
2232:ϕ
2226:θ
2208:π
2201:∫
2143:π
2114:ν
2111:Δ
2088:Ω
2079:ν
2076:Δ
2068:ν
2054:ϕ
2048:θ
2005:Ω
1996:ν
1993:Δ
1971:ϕ
1965:θ
1937:ϕ
1931:θ
1890:ϕ
1884:θ
1858:ϕ
1849:θ
1838:Ω
1807:ν
1804:Δ
1775:ϕ
1769:θ
1704:ν
1687:steradian
1660:ν
1508:ν
1505:Δ
1409:ν
1406:Δ
1341:ν
1338:Δ
1332:ν
1306:ν
1145:or small
1129:θ
1126:
1037:
870:intensity
794:far field
724:The term
697:^
673:π
606:π
480:ϕ
474:θ
420:^
264:The term
228:radiation
145:(red dot)
4018:Rectenna
3816:Cantenna
3572:Archived
3559:Glossary
3549:Archived
3529:Antennas
3525:Antennas
3133:<<
3097:and not
3062:See also
1644:Suppose
1229:aperture
1141:such as
996:decibels
777:coherent
665:⟩
659:⟨
649:⟩
641:⟨
582:⟩
576:⟨
554:⟩
548:⟨
450:⟩
444:⟨
255:coherent
251:antennas
3613:Antenna
1985:matched
1677:is the
1606:matched
1002:(dBi)
809:tangent
753:antenna
346:scholar
278:Physics
101:scholar
3992:ALLISS
3469:
3425:
3398:
3371:
3335:
3305:
3273:
3246:
3190:
3142:
3124:
3046:
3032:
3019:
3016:
2997:
2969:
2951:
2935:
2910:
2884:
2858:
2832:
2793:
2784:
2764:
2758:
2726:
2710:
2701:
2688:
2679:
2630:
2618:
2596:
2574:
2528:
2515:
2502:
2443:
2434:
2421:
2402:
2396:
2360:
2347:
2327:
2286:
2251:
2238:
2197:
2188:
2182:
2146:
2137:
2117:
2108:
2073:
2060:
2026:
2020:
2014:
2008:
1990:
1977:
1949:
1943:
1893:
1881:
1861:
1830:
1810:
1801:
1781:
1753:
1733:
1727:
1707:
1701:
1665:
1652:
1623:
1617:
1511:
1502:
1482:
1469:
1446:
1440:
1412:
1403:
1383:
1370:
1344:
1329:
1309:
1303:
1272:
1266:
1231:of an
1160:Optics
1076:
1066:
1053:
1050:
1024:
979:
973:
960:
957:
921:
908:
886:
880:
844:
838:
348:
341:
334:
327:
319:
253:. A
103:
96:
89:
82:
74:
3971:WokFi
3615:types
3107:are).
1691:hertz
1295:from
1181:Sound
1115:type
1014:(dBi)
517:power
353:JSTOR
339:books
224:waves
108:JSTOR
94:books
3504:2018
3467:ISBN
3423:ISBN
3396:ISBN
3369:ISBN
3333:ISBN
3303:ISBN
3271:ISBN
3244:ISBN
3220:2024
3188:ISBN
3103:(as
2899:so
2746:The
1227:The
1207:are
396:The
325:news
247:gain
80:news
2805:is
1905:is
1321:to
1166:Sun
1123:sin
1099:In
1061:iso
1028:log
968:iso
916:iso
821:not
767:of
751:In
386:Sun
308:by
272:not
249:of
234:or
222:of
214:An
63:by
4055::
3490:.
3317:^
3285:^
3228:^
3210:.
3172:^
2158:)
1177:.
1156:.
1149:.
1032:10
1021:10
261:.
3605:e
3598:t
3591:v
3506:.
3475:.
3431:.
3404:.
3377:.
3341:.
3311:.
3279:.
3252:.
3222:.
3196:.
3145:.
3139:T
3136:k
3127:h
3037:4
3027:2
3010:=
3005:e
3001:A
2966:T
2963:k
2960:=
2944:2
2932:T
2929:k
2924:e
2920:A
2913:4
2887:,
2879:R
2875:P
2871:=
2866:A
2862:P
2829:T
2826:k
2823:=
2818:R
2814:P
2761:T
2719:2
2707:T
2704:k
2696:e
2692:A
2682:4
2673:=
2668:A
2664:P
2639:2
2627:T
2624:k
2621:2
2612:=
2605:2
2601:c
2593:T
2590:k
2585:2
2577:2
2568:=
2559:B
2519:B
2510:e
2506:A
2496:2
2493:=
2488:A
2484:P
2460:d
2451:4
2425:B
2416:e
2412:A
2406:2
2399:1
2390:=
2385:A
2381:P
2351:B
2322:e
2318:A
2314:=
2311:)
2305:,
2299:(
2294:e
2290:A
2262:d
2242:B
2235:)
2229:,
2223:(
2218:e
2214:A
2205:4
2192:2
2185:1
2176:=
2171:A
2167:P
2140:4
2084:d
2064:B
2057:)
2051:,
2045:(
2040:e
2036:A
2030:2
2023:1
2011:=
2001:d
1981:S
1974:)
1968:,
1962:(
1957:e
1953:A
1946:=
1940:)
1934:,
1928:(
1923:A
1919:P
1914:d
1887:,
1854:d
1845:d
1841:=
1834:d
1778:)
1772:,
1766:(
1761:e
1757:A
1730:T
1685:(
1656:B
1632:S
1627:2
1620:1
1611:=
1602:S
1591:S
1557:R
1553:P
1549:=
1544:A
1540:P
1477:R
1473:P
1449:.
1443:T
1426:ν
1378:A
1374:P
1347:.
1335:+
1289:ν
1275:.
1269:T
1252:ν
1250:F
1079:.
1072:)
1057:I
1046:I
1041:(
1018:=
1010:G
982:.
964:I
953:I
948:=
945:G
912:I
883:I
847:,
841:G
693:r
681:2
677:r
670:4
662:P
653:=
645:S
614:2
610:r
603:4
579:S
551:P
527:r
503:r
483:)
477:,
471:(
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416:r
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369:(
364:)
360:(
350:·
343:·
336:·
329:·
302:.
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155:1
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124:(
119:)
115:(
105:·
98:·
91:·
84:·
57:.
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
