Agustín de Iturbide

1497:, supported by the old Insurgent hero, Guadalupe Victoria. Santa Anna would later admit in his recollections that at the time, he did not know what a republic was. Iturbide had tried to stop Santa Anna by inviting him to Mexico City. Recognizing the danger of such an invitation, Santa Anna responded with his Plan de Veracruz, which called for the reinstatement of the old Constituent Congress, which would then have the right to decide the form of government of the new nation. Curiously, it did not specifically call for a republic or for the abdication of Iturbide. Santa Anna wrote to Iturbide, explaining his reasons and swearing to sacrifice his own life if it was necessary to ensure the safety of the Emperor. Iturbide's enemy-turned-ally, Vicente Guerrero, turned back to enemy when he and General Nicolás Bravo escaped México City and allied themselves with the rebels. In a proclamation that explained their reasons, they also called for the reinstatement of the disintegrated Congress, which would then decide the fate of the nation. Bravo and Guerrero wrote that they swore to abide by the Congress's decision, even if it decided to stay as a Constitutional Empire and it elected Iturbide again to lead them. 756:. Iturbide was also criticized for his arbitrariness and his treatment of civilians, in particular his jailing of the mothers, wives, and children of known insurgents. In 1814, he had captured 100 women and incarcerated them into different houses in order to be "re-educated. As for corruption, the Count of Pérez Galvez extensively testified that profiteering by many royalist officers, of whom Iturbide was the most visible, was draining the effectiveness of the royal army. Iturbide acquired a large personal fortune before 1816 by questionable dealings. Some of those shady practices included creating commercial monopolies in areas that he controlled militarily. Other accusations against Iturbide included sacking private property and embezzling military funds. In 1816, the viceroy relieved Iturbide of his command for corruption and cruelty. However, one year later, with the support of an auditor named Bataller, and staunch monarchists in the viceregal government, the charges were withdrawn. Iturbide's supporters further convinced the viceroy that he was needed to vanquish the last remaining rebel leader. However, Iturbide never forgot the humiliation of his dismissal. 1335:, which states that Iturbide held the first popular referendum in Mexico. According to the article, Iturbide sent out a questionnaire to military and civilian leaders as to whether the people preferred a republic or a monarchy. The answer came back in favor of a monarchy. Iturbide asked the demonstrators that night to give him the night to think it over, and to respect the wishes of the government. The Congress convened the next day to discuss the matter of Iturbide's election as Emperor. Iturbide's supporters filled the balconies overlooking the chamber. The Congress confirmed him and his title of Agustín I, Constitutional Emperor of Mexico, by a vast majority. After Iturbide's abdication, members would state that it had elected Iturbide out of fear for their lives, as the common folk were present during the vote and loudly proclaimed Iturbide, and no member voted against his crowning as Emperor. However, three days after Iturbide had been elected Emperor, Congress held a private session in which only it was present. It ratified the decision, created titles for the royal family, and declared Iturbide's title to be lifelong and hereditary. 1313:, wrote about the subject at the time: "If your excellency be not the Emperor, then our Independence be damned. We do not wish to be free if your excellency will not be at the lead of his countrymen." Timothy E. Anna points out that in the months between the achievement of Independence and his crowning as Emperor, Iturbide already practically ruled the nation, as he was president of the Regency, and the junta had granted him command over all land and sea forces. He was appointed protector of commerce, navigation, local order and ports and was given the right to expedite passports and navigation licenses even after the Emperor had been instated (and according to the Emperor's wishes). Iturbide had what he could have possibly wanted before becoming Emperor, Anna notes, and so it is not probable that Iturbide conspired to appoint himself Emperor. Iturbide himself notes in his memoirs written in exile: "I had the condescension–or, call it weakness—of allowing myself to be seated in a throne I had created for others." 772:. For more than a century, historians believed that Iturbide had first attempted to carry out his duty in destroying Guerrero but that he met with failure and so decided to strike an alliance with the rebel. However, in 2006, new evidence was discovered by Mexican historian Jaime del Arenal Fenochio: a letter between the two military leaders dated 20 November 1820, which also referenced a previous letter. Since communications had been proven to have existed between the two leaders before Iturbide ever set out to seek out Guerrero, it is now believed that both were then carrying out negotiations. Regardless, some encounters between the two military forces were unavoidable, as the troops of Guerrero and Pedro Ascencio (another insurgent leader) managed to force Iturbide's rear guard to withdraw from an ambush. In their further correspondence, Iturbide and Guerrero lament the clashes, and Iturbide further attempts to convince Guerrero of his intentions of liberating Mexico. 890: 1915: 836:. Therefore, he penned The Plan of Iguala, which held itself up on Three Guarantees: Freedom (from Spain), Religion (with Catholicism being the only accepted religion in the new country) and Union (with all inhabitants of México to be regarded as equals). In that manner, he was paving the road to gaining the support of the most powerful factions: the insurgents, the clergy and the Spaniards. The plan envisioned a monarchy, thus assuring the support of the royalists as well. Iturbide held a series of negotiations with Guerrero and made a number of demonstrations of his intentions to form an independent Mexico. Iturbide offered Guerrero a full pardon if he surrendered. Guerrero rejected the pardon but agreed to meet with Iturbide to discuss the independence of Mexico. In the " 1549:

he had made a mistake by not leading his armies himself. Iturbide recognized that although his provisional junta was working to call a new Congress, most of the nation had already accepted the Plan of Casa Mata. Recognizing the wishes of the country, Iturbide personally reopened the same Congress that he had closed in March 1823 and presented his abdication to them. He later wrote that he was choosing abdication over bloody civil war. However, Congress refused to accept his abdication, arguing that acceptance of abdication would imply that the existence of the throne was legitimate. Instead, they nullified their own election of Iturbide as emperor and refused to acknowledge the Plan of Iguala or the Treaty of Córdoba.

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had been before the Cadiz Constitution. Thus, Iturbide and the junta declared that they would not be bound by the Cadiz Constitution but kept the Congress that was convened. That led to division, which came to a head in February 1822. In its inauguration, Congress swore that it would never abide for all of the powers of the state to fall into the hands of a single person or entity. It, however, proceeded to assign sovereignty to itself, rather than to the people, and proclaimed that it held all three powers of the State. It also considered lowering military pay and decreasing the size of the army. Those moves threatened to reduce Iturbide's influence in current and future governments.

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Congress, believing itself to be sovereign over the Emperor and the people and the recipient of the executive, legislative, and judicial powers, antagonized Iturbide. The Congress refused to draw up a new monarchical Mexican Constitution with a role for the Emperor. Furthermore, people loyal to the Emperor became aware of a conspiracy that involved several members of the Congress who planned to kidnap the Emperor and his family and overthrow the Empire. As a response to this claimed threat to his life and to combat the resistance, Iturbide dismissed the Congress on 31 October 1822 and two days later created a new junta, the

447: 425: 1785:, Iturbide was cast in the novel as her paramour, having an illicit affair with her. Although the portrayal of her was as a libertine, the notion was based on uncorroborated rumors and innuendo, with nothing ever proven, and then exaggerated in fiction. As her post-humous reputation as a "heroine of Mexican independence" has risen beginning in the late twentieth century, Iturbide's has continued to be something much less than that of Mexico's Liberator. A two-volume work on Mexican independence contrasts Hidalgo and Iturbide, with the subtitle "the glory and the oblivion". 1876: 863: 1656:). He was initially greeted enthusiastically, but was soon arrested by General Felipe de la Garza, the local military commander. Felipe de la Garza had been the head of a short-lived revolt during Iturbide's reign. Iturbide chose to pardon the general and reinstate him in his old post. Perhaps it was because of this debt that de la Garza wavered in his resolve to detain Iturbide. On the way to his trial, de la Garza gave Iturbide command over the military escort that accompanied them and requested that Iturbide present himself to the nearby village of 1891: 1943: 1537: 1607:. When he was exiled, Iturbide was accorded a government pension, but it was never received by Iturbide. Congress also declared him a traitor and "outside of the law" to be killed if he ever returned to Mexico. Iturbide was unaware of the penalty. After his death, many an author decried the decree calling for Iturbide's death, as it was against all known precepts of the law at the time: it was unheard of that a law could be issued solely against a specific citizen, instead of issuing a general law that would be applied to particular cases. 918: 1765: 1069: 1509:, which called for the installation of a new Congress and declared the election of the emperor null and void. Casa Mata also called for giving provinces the right to govern themselves in the interim until the new Congress was formed, an attractive prospect for the provincial governments. They accepted the plan, with the exception of the province of Chiapas. Much of the area now known as Central America declared its opposition to Mexico City and Iturbide's rule. In 1823, authorities in what are now 875:

people. To attract the disparate parties involved in the scheme, the plan offered three guarantees: Mexico would be independent from Madrid, Roman Catholicism would be the official religion, and all inhabitants of the new nation, later México, would be considered equals, with no distinction being made between Spaniards, Creoles, Mestizos, etc., thus eliminating the complicated caste system that had been used until then and abolishing the use of slaves in the territory of the new nation as well.

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educational materials, and his legacy remains controversial. No official acts or public events are typically held to commemorate his ascension or death . The rest of the 19th century in Mexico saw frequent shifts between political extremes, with various factions gaining power at different times. The old Mexican nobility remained influential, and members of the Iturbide family were involved in political intrigue against the Mexican government in Madrid, New York, Paris, and Rome into the 1890s

978: 1600:. Iturbide and his family struggled financially during this time despite claims by historians and some members of the Congress that deposed him that Iturbide had indulged in illegal enrichment throughout his military career and rule. In exile, Iturbide was approached by a Catholic coalition of nations that sought to enlist his help in a campaign to reconquer México for Spain. Iturbide declined. Spain pressured Tuscany to expel Iturbide, and the Iturbide family moved to England. 3523: 1623: 1091: 805:'s powers. There was serious concern in Mexico that the Bourbons would be forced to abandon Spain altogether. That led to the disintegration of viceregal authority in Mexico City, and a political vacuum developed that the Mexican nobility sought to fill, seeking limited representation and autonomy for themselves within the empire. An idea arose in the class that if Mexico became independent or autonomous, and Ferdinand were deposed, he could become king of Mexico. 1028: 1321: 1700:

constitutionally sanctioned monarchy was a logical solution to the problem of creating a new state as it seemed to be a compromise between those who pushed for a representative form of government and those who wished to keep Mexico's monarchist traditions. In their view, a republican, federalist government was virtually unheard of; for 300 years New Spain had lived in a monarchy, so a continuation of some form would have aided national stability .

814: 111: 1258: 3568: 3511: 3585: 1731:. This constitution would influence political thought on both sides of the Mexican political spectrum, with even Iturbide bending to it when he created the first congress of an independent Mexico. After Iturbide, there was wide general consensus, even among the landed elite, that some form of representative government was needed. The question was how much power would be in legislative hands and how much in an executive. 1270:

accounts stress that Iturbide initially rejected the offer, in favor of persuading Ferdinand VII to change his mind about ruling Mexico, but then reluctantly accepted. When the liberating army entered Mexico on 27 September 1821, the army sought to proclaim Iturbide as Emperor, which he himself stopped. A month later, on 28 October, he was publicly proclaimed Emperor by the people but again refused any such attempt.

476:. The combined forces under Iturbide brought about Mexican independence in September 1821. After securing the secession of Mexico from Spain, Iturbide was proclaimed president of the Regency in 1821; a year later, he was proclaimed Emperor, reigning from 19 May 1822 to 19 March 1823, when he abdicated. In May 1823 he went into exile in Europe. When he returned to Mexico in July 1824, he was arrested and executed. 3551: 1274: 38: 1581:

surrounded by the people, the horses dismissed and the people sought to drag the carriage themselves out of the city. That treatment was customary in the entrances or exits of great figures in or out of a city. The soldiers escorting Iturbide prevented that from happening and would henceforth lead the former emperor on hidden roads, as the government feared a popular rising in favor of Iturbide.

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of Mexican history that Santa Anna dominated. This regime would oscillate and finally be overcome by the Plan of Ayutla. The new Government would struggle between anti-clerical, reformist views and conservative views during the Reform War. During the French Intervention the country would face Civil War amongst conservative, Catholic, Europe-adherent monarchists led by the ironically liberal

768:. He was reinstated as colonel of the royalist army and general of the south of New Spain. For a couple of years after the defeat of Morelos at Puruarán, the independence movement had diminished significantly. However, Iturbide was given the task of putting down the remaining insurrectionist movement southwest of Mexico City led by Guerrero. Iturbide installed his headquarters at 1573: 1484: 3499: 1792:," or charismatic military leader, using a combination of widespread popularity and threat of violence toward opposition to rule and would be followed by army generals Antonio López de Santa Anna and Porfirio Díaz, who came to dominate their respective eras. During the 1910 centenary celebrations of independence, the remains of Iturbide were not placed at the 898:

viceregal government. Military leaders, soldiers, families, villages, and towns that had been fighting against one another for almost ten years found themselves joining forces to gain Mexican independence. However, their reasons for joining together were very different, and those differences would later foment the turmoil that occurred after independence.

1929: 1839:, the national anthem for the country. One stanza translates as follows: "If to battle against the foreign host, the warrior trumpet invokes us, Mexicans, the Sacred flag of Iturbide bravely follow. Let the conquered banners serve as a carpet to the brave steeds, may the laurels of triumph bring shade to the brow of the brave Captain." 1505:

believed him dead until he resurfaced months later. However, Echávarri and several other imperial officers turned on the empire; away from Mexico City, the loyalty of the imperial armies proved patchy. Santa Anna, joined by republicans Guerrero, and Bravo, and imperial generals Echávarri, Cortázar y Rábago, and Lobato, proclaimed the

666:. From the start, Iturbide was ambitious and compiled a brilliant record of victories against the insurgents, often against far larger numbers. He was also well known by contemporaries of all factions for his cruelty against his opponents, the insurgents themselves as well as their families, including women and children. 1777:

Hidalgo's call for rebellion against Spain. In modern Mexico, the liberal tendency has dominated, such that much writing about Iturbide is often hostile, seeing him as a fallen hero, who betrayed the nation by grasping for personal power after independence. Since the 1949 publication of a historical novel,

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was elected the first president, but in subsequent years, General Vicente Guerrero became the first in a long line of Presidents to gain the Presidency through a military revolt after losing an election. Guerrero was betrayed and assassinated, and Santa Anna would rise to avenge him, beginning an era

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but was stopped by Victoria. Santa Anna retreated and fortified himself in the city of Veracruz with his superior artillery. Victoria was separated from Veracruz, fighting behind Imperial lines. Bravo and Guerrero were defeated, with Guerrero suffering such a grievous injury in battle that the nation

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lodge in its struggle against Iturbide. Iturbide's government was notoriously harsh in turning down territorial negotiations with agents of the US government, as attested by Poinsett. The United States was itself a republic as well, meaning Iturbide's relations with the US were on shaky ground. The

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had hoped for a European ruler. Many of the landed classes supported Iturbide and those documents because they offered a sense of continuity with the past. Iturbide's election to the throne was against their wishes, and many of them withdrew their support for him and conspired against the new empire.

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Shortly after signing the Treaty of Córdoba, the Spanish government reneged. Ferdinand VII had regained the upper hand against the liberals in Spain and increased his influence outside the country. He even had credible plans for the reconquest of the old colony. For those reasons, no European noble

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Iturbide was named President of the Provisional Governing Junta, which selected the five-person regency that would temporarily govern the newly independent Mexico. The junta had 36 members who would have legislative power until the convocation of a congress. Iturbide controlled both the membership of

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to Mexico City. Essentially, the idea was to bring Ferdinand VII to Mexico City to rule. If he did not come to Mexico, another member of the Bourbon royal family would be chosen to rule there. If no European ruler would come to rule México, the nation would have the right to elect a ruler by its own

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The local legislature held a trial and sentenced Iturbide to death. When a local priest administered last rites, Iturbide said, "Mexicans! In the very act of my death, I recommend to you the love to the fatherland, and the observance to our religion, for it shall lead you to glory. I die having come

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Santa Anna's army marched toward Mexico City, winning small victories along the way. Iturbide gathered and sent troops to combat Santa Anna who did not put up a strong resistance. Many military leaders who Iturbide appointed turned on him upon contacting Santa Anna's forces. Iturbide later admitted

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Iturbide was convinced that independence for Mexico was the only way to protect the country from a republican tide. He decided to become the leader of the Criollo independence movement. However, to succeed, he would need to put together a very-unlikely coalition of Mexican liberal insurgents, landed

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of "El Dragón de Hierro" or "The Iron Dragon", in reference to his skill and position in the army. He was given an important charge in the army. However, he was accused by locals of using his authority for financial gain although he was recognized as valiant in combat. Those accusations could not be

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states that Iturbide's seizure of the crown "seems less cynical and idiosyncratic when it comes along at the end of the independence struggle." Van Young's assessment is that "he demonstrated moments of political brilliance clouded over in the long term by bad judgment and that in the end he was an

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Reports of a probable further Spanish attempt to retake Mexico reached Iturbide in England. He wrote in his memoirs that he was very worried about the future of Mexico. He continued to receive reports from Mexico and advice from supporters that if he returned he would be hailed as a liberator and a

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Iturbide's persistence against the rebels was widely known as well as his views against their liberal, anti-monarchical politics. In his diary, he refers to the insurgents as "perverse," "bandits," and "sacrilegious." In a letter to the viceroy in 1814, he wrote of how he had 300 rebels, to whom he

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had staged in 1910 to commemorate Hidalgo's revolt, considered the outbreak of the War of Independence. It was the first time since the mid-19th century that the date was commemorated. Given that Obregón himself was a military strong man, his 1921 commemoration of Mexican independence and Iturbide

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The situation did not last long. Soon, Iturbide was unable to pay his army, creating discontent in a significant portion of his power base. When criticism of the government grew strong, Iturbide censored the press, an act that backfired against him. Opposition groups began to band together against

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clergy supported him, the coronation dashed republican hopes, and while the Plan of Iguala and the Treaty of Córdoba directed that in the event of it being impossible to install a European on the Mexican throne, a national sovereign could be chosen, some of the royalists who had supported Iturbide

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objected and did not attend. Iturbide was crowned by Rafael Mangino y Mendivil, the head of the Congress, in itself a statement by Congress: the state, not the church or any other power, would be sovereign. The Congress decreed the crown to be hereditary with the title of "Prince of the Union." As

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In the meantime, the governing junta that Iturbide headed convened a constituent congress to set up the new government. The new government had indirect representation, based on the Cadiz model, but the Plan of Iguala and the Treaty of Córdoba were clear that the order of things would be kept as it

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assured the latter that they and their property would be safe in the new state. That was important because the Peninsulares owned a significant part of the valuable real estate and many of the businesses in Mexico. If the Spaniards had left, that would have been disastrous for the Mexican economy.

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in command of the rebel army, with over 600 insurgents killed and 700 captured. That marked a turn in the war as Morelos would never again achieve the same level of competency as he had before this defeat. Iturbide and other Spanish commanders relentlessly pursued Morelos, capturing and executing

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Most historical accounts mention the crowd that gathered outside what is now the Palace of Iturbide in Mexico City shouting "Viva Iturbide!" and insist for him to take the throne of Mexico in May 1822. The crowd included Iturbide's old regiment from Celaya. Some detractors of Iturbide insist that

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To show the military might of the alliance, Iturbide co-ordinated with associated royalist and insurgent commanders in the provinces, opting for a replay of the strategy of closing in on Mexico City from the periphery, which Morelos had attempted in 1811–14. However, Iturbide had the advantage of

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would replace the viceroy. All existing laws, including the 1812 Constitution, would remain in force until a new constitution for Mexico was written. A key element was added at O'Donojú's suggestion: if Spain refused its right to appoint a regent for the Mexican Empire, the Mexican congress would

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in Valladolid. It is known by his and Hidalgo's documents that he was a distant relative of Miguel Hidalgo, the initial leader of the Insurgent Army. Hidalgo wrote to Iturbide, offering him a higher rank in his army. Iturbide writes in his memoirs that he considered the offer, but that ultimately

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Some call Iturbide's decision a coup and state that the public support for him was orchestrated by him and his followers. Others insist that the people's offer of the throne was sincere, as there was no other candidate and the people were grateful to him for the liberation of Mexico. The latter

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Iturbide began to live extravagantly. He demanded preference for his army and also personally chose ministers. In the meantime, Ferdinand VII rejected the offer of the Mexican throne and forbade any of his family from accepting the position, and the Spanish Cortes rejected the Treaty of Córdoba,

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Early in the independence period of Mexico's history, the day used to mark Independence was based on one's political stance. Conservatives favored 27 September for celebration, when Iturbide entered Mexico City at the head of the conquering army, but Liberals preferred 16 September to celebrate

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Iturbide is often described as a reactionary rather than a revolutionary , a view supported by his initial refusal to join Miguel Hidalgo’s independence movement until it aligned with his own interests. His role in the independence movement is frequently shared with that of Vicente Guerrero in

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The plan gained wide support because it demanded independence without attacking the landed classes and did not threaten social dissolution. Therefore, Iturbide succeeded in bringing together old insurgents and royalist forces to fight against the new Spanish government and what was left of the

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Meanwhile, Mexico suffered as an independent country. Ferdinand's resurgence as a ruler in Spain and his clear intentions to reconquer Mexico meant that no European nation was willing to recognize Mexico's independence, and most broke off economic ties with the new state. Iturbide's economic

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The National Institutional Junta was directed to create much-needed legislation in economic matters, create a provisional set of laws for the Empire, and then issue a call for a new Constituent Congress. The formulation of the new Congress was changed in how many representatives each Mexican

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himself and in his native city of Valladolid. Iturbide led the defenders. He demonstrated his tactical skill and horsemanship by breaking Morelos's siege of the town with a well-executed cavalry charge that caused the insurgent forces to withdraw into the forest. For that action, Iturbide was

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Iturbide's reign as emperor lasted less than a year, but as leader of the coalition that brought about Mexican independence and then as its first ruler in the post-independence era, he remains an important figure not only in Mexico, but also in Europe . For a number of Mexican autonomists, a

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On his way to exile, Iturbide and his family were escorted by former insurgent leader Nicolás Bravo, who treated Iturbide harshly. Though the republican movement had triumphed, the people still held Iturbide in high regard and greatly admired him. On his way out of the city, his carriage was

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A number of prominent politicians and military leaders, many of whom had supported Agustín as emperor, turned against him for having "made a mockery of national representation" in the new Congress's composition. Among those were prominent Insurgent leaders Vicente Guerrero, Nicolás Bravo and

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The promise of independence convinced the insurgents to accept the proposal. The promise of the supremacy of the Roman Catholic Church was offered to the clergy, who were frightened by anticlerical policies of Spanish Liberalism. The offer of equality between Criollos and the Spanish-born

1002:(Scots). The plan of Iguala was a compromise of the differing factions, but after independence, it became clear that some of the promises it had made would prove very difficult, if not impossible, to accomplish. This state of affairs started to lead to turmoil, even among those in power. 909:, to Mexico. (Technically, the office of viceroy had been replaced by a "superior political chief" under the 1812 Spanish Constitution.) O'Donojú, however, arrived to witness a nation on the brink of achieving independence and knew that its consummation could not be stopped. 1457:

policies were draining resources as well. To increase his popularity, he abolished a number of colonial-era taxes. However, he still insisted on a large and very well-paid army and lived extravagantly himself. The elite turned against him when he imposed a 40% property tax.

1684:, that the order was confirmed and carried out. His ashes were received in Mexico City with much pomp and ceremony, and the same Congress that had been against him for so many years gave him honor as a hero of the War of Independence, if not the short imperial reign after. 1427:

The strongest opposition to Iturbide's reign came from the Congress, where a significant number of its members supported republican ideas. Many of these members also belonged to Masonic lodges, which provided an easy forum for communication. Those ideas found a voice when

1691:, where they remain. On the stand is an inscription in Spanish that translates to "Agustín de Iturbide. Author of the independence of Mexico. Compatriot, cry for him; passerby, admire him. This monument guards the ashes of a hero. His soul rests in the bosom of God." 1316:

Historians point out that Iturbide had quite possibly all the power, influence, and support he needed before redacting the Plan of Iguala, to crown himself Emperor, and he still wrote the Plan with the clear intention of creating a throne meant for a European noble.

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was compiled by novelist Enrique de Olavarría y Ferrari in "El cadalso de Padilla: "Done is the dark crime, for which we will doubtlessly be called Parricides." His body was buried and abandoned at the parish church of Padilla until 1833. In that year, President

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That led to political destabilization, which was resolved temporarily when Iturbide was elected Emperor of the Mexican nation. However, it is not clear whether he took the crown at the insistence of the people or simply took advantage of the political situation.

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have freedom to elect whomever it deemed worthy as emperor. That crucial clause was not in Iturbide's Plan de Iguala, a point against the argument that Iturbide entertained the notion of becoming the ruler when he started his campaign for Mexico's independence.

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Mexico owes the country's name "Mexico" to Iturbide, as opposed to "United Mexican States." While the latter is considered the official name, the inhabitants of the country refer to it by the name of Mexico. Another legacy that Iturbide left to Mexico was its

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Iturbide's fortunes reversed after his victory when a number of accusations of cruelty and corruption surfaced. The accusations could not be proved, but Iturbide considered his honor to be tarnished by them and expressed so in his memoirs, written in exile.

959:. The army was received by a jubilant populace who had erected arches of triumph and decorated houses and themselves with the tricolor (red, white, and green) of the army. Cries of "¡Viva Iturbide I!" were heard first on that day. The next day, Mexico was 626:

He quickly grew in popularity amongst the royalists, whilst becoming a feared foe for the Insurgents. A peerless horseman and a valiant dragoon who acquired a reputation for achieving victory against numerical odds, his prowess in the field gained him the

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was similar in terms of its outcomes to the Plan de Iguala—the document tried to guarantee an independent monarchy for New Spain under the Bourbon dynasty. The successor state would invite Ferdinand VII to rule as emperor or, if he defaulted, his brother

789:'s right to rule New Spain and replace that regime with an independent government. He was solidly aligned with the Criollos. However, events in Spain caused problems, as the very monarchy for which that class was fighting was in serious trouble. The 1935:

Transfer of the remains of Iturbide to the Metropolitan Cathedral of Mexico City. Lithography from Ignacio complement of 1849, published in the book "Description of the funeral solemnity funeral with which the remains of the hero of Iguala were

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are an important source as a foreign view of Iturbide's regime. Poinsett also took advantage of the opportunity to proposition Iturbide's government on the issue of the US wish of acquiring Mexico's northern territories but was soundly refused.

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at the cathedral. The fifth child born to his parents, he was the only male to survive and eventually became head of the family. Iturbide's parents were part of the privileged landed class of Valladolid, owning agricultural land including the

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was an opportunity for him to assert his own state-building vision by appropriating a piece of Mexico's history. By overseeing the ceremonies, Obregón could shape and consolidate his own position in power, which was then relatively weak. The

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in Valladolid, enrolled in the program for secular officials, though he was not a distinguished student. After that, he worked as an overseer at one of his family's haciendas for a short time, discovering he was a very good horseman.

1406:. Central America only briefly was part of the Mexican Empire of Iturbide (from 1821 to 1823), because by 1823 the local patriots, both liberal and conservative, made a move for total and absolute independence from Mexico and Spain. 685:. Despite the loss by his side, Iturbide distinguished himself in this battle for valor and tenacity. He would later maintain in his memoirs that it was the only battle he considered to have lost (in which he was directly involved). 1449:

province was granted. The new Congress would also be in charge of issuing a new Mexican Constitution. Iturbide persecuted his enemies, arresting and jailing a score of former members of the Congress, but that did not bring peace.

1821:, still used today. The three colors of red, white, and green originally represented the three guarantees of the Plan of Iguala: Freedom, Religion, and Union. In the place of the Spanish emblem for Mexico, he resurrected the old 1751:

in the late 19th century would install a one-man rule which imposed upon México its first true period of relative peace, in exchange for freedom, and Díaz remaining for the next 30 years in power. He would be overthrown by the

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proved but cost him his post. He turned down the offer to reclaim his post since he felt that his honor had been damaged. He may have been involved in the initial conspiracy to declare independence in 1809 that was headed by

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This new government was overwhelmingly loyal to Iturbide. Opposition groups included the old insurgents as well as a number of progressives and those loyal to Ferdinand VII. Many liberals and progressives also belonged to

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the junta and the matters that it considered. The junta would be responsible for negotiating the offer of the throne of Mexico to a suitable royal. Members of the former insurgent movement were left out of the government.

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this demonstration was staged by Iturbide himself or his loyalists. From a balcony of the palace, Iturbide repeatedly denied his desire for the throne. One interesting twist to the story is reported by Mexico City daily

2961: 583:. She came from Valladolid, from a prosperous family of businessmen and landowners. She was the daughter of wealthy and powerful noble Isidro de Huarte, governor of the district, and the granddaughter of the 2643: 1576:

Agustín Jerónimo de Iturbide (firstborn son of Emperor of Mexico), a veteran of the battle of Ayacucho in Colombia, worked at the Mexican legation in London, UK, and later volunteered with the Papal Army.

1292:

was concerned about how popular and long-lasting the regime might be. Poinsett indicated the empire was not likely to be enduring, but the US still recognized Mexico as an independent country. Poinsett's

1611:

potential leader against the Spanish invasion. Iturbide sent word to congress in Mexico City on 13 February 1824 offering his services in the event of Spanish attack. Congress never replied.

1788:

Iturbide's strategy of defining a plan and using the military to back it began a tradition in Mexican politics that would dominate the country' history. He can be considered Mexico's first "

2385:

Imagining Identity in New Spain: Race, Lineage, and the Colonial Body in Portraiture and Casta Paintings (Joe R. and Teresa Lozano Long Series in Latin American and Latino Art and Culture)

3740: 1664:

here to help you, and I die merrily, for I die amongst you. I die with honor, not as a traitor; I do not leave this stain on my children and my legacy. I am not a traitor, no." He was

552:. Some sources state she came from a high-ranking family in Michoacán. In the Spanish colonial era, racial caste was important to advancement, including military rank, and having some 472:

he initially fought insurgent forces rebelling against the Spanish crown before changing sides in 1820 and leading a coalition of former royalists and long-time insurgents under his

730:, Michoacán, on 5 January 1814. In the battle, rebel forces were soundly defeated by forces led by Iturbide, forcing Morelos to retreat to the Hacienda of Santa Lucía and to leave 567:

Iturbide entered the royal army in 1805, commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Valladolid regiment of the provincial infantry. In 1806, he was promoted to full lieutenant.

1680:, deciding to rehabilitate the memory of Iturbide, ordered that his remains be transferred to the capital with honors. However, it was not until 1838, during the presidency of 651: 697: 1942: 172: 3700: 603:, who became leader of the insurgency for independence in 1810. Iturbide had a longstanding friendship and had business dealings with the wealthy Mexico City beauty 2647: 3574: 974:, and O'Donoju, who had been assured an important position in the government of the new empire, died shortly afterwards, dishonored by his Spaniard compatriots. 662:, offered Iturbide the rank of lieutenant general in the insurgent forces, which Iturbide rejected, remaining firmly a royal army officer at the outbreak of the 3157:

Lacy, Elaine C, "The 1921 Centennial Celebration of Mexico's Independence: State Building and Popular Negotiation," in William H. Beezley and David Lorey, eds.

1875: 925:

Iturbide met with O’Donojú and Field Marshall Francisco Novella to negotiate the final terms of capitulation at the landed estate of his longtime friend, Doña

604: 59: 840:", named after the locale, they agreed to implement the plan, which was made public on 24 February 1821 by Iturbide, Guerrero, and another insurgent leader, 2617: 1863: 3695: 619:

In the early 19th century, there was political unrest in New Spain. One of Iturbide's first military campaigns was to help put down a mutiny, headed by

2416: 2357: 1596:), accompanied by his wife, children, and some servants. There, he rented a small country house and began to write his memoirs, known under the name of 560: 3690: 1062:

A half-length portrait of Mexican Emperor Agustín I and Empress Ana María Huarte de Iturbide, both pictures attributed to Josephus Arias Huerta, 1822.

17: 960: 1908:

Copy of a portrait of Agustín I, Constitutional Emperor of Mexico, made for the Iturbide Gallery (current Ambassador's Hall) at the National Palace.

723:, where he continued to pursue the rebels with vigor in a strongly contested area, and was Morelos's principal military opponent from 1813 to 1815. 584: 3625: 1813:

benefited from the celebrations with new uniforms and equipment, and there was even a re-enactment of Iturbide's triumphal entry into Mexico City.

2481: 545:

to make his fortune there. While the aristocratic and Spanish lineage of Agustín's father was not in doubt, his mother's ancestry was less clear.

3630: 157: 1362: 3680: 2221: 556:

ancestry was often regarded as a disadvantage. Iturbide insisted throughout his life that he was criollo (native born of Spanish descent).

1500:

Iturbide sent his most trusted man, his protégé of sorts, General Echávarri, to combat the rebels. Santa Anna considered escaping to the

1232: 2145:

Ibañez, Alvaro (12 February 2005). "Mexico en sus Banderas/Bandera del Imperio de Iturbide" (in Spanish). Mexico City: Reforma. Notimex.

955:

having most of the former royalist army on his side. Iturbide marched into Mexico City on 27 September 1821, his own birthday, with the

889: 3670: 3620: 3473: 2182: 1469:

began to conspire against the imperial concept altogether and became convinced that a republican model was needed to combat despotism.

1127: 323: 2737: 46: 3665: 1302: 3705: 1782: 926: 3720: 3104: 3015: 2917: 2888: 2768: 2700: 2559: 2392: 2126: 2062: 538: 64:

His early life is glossed over, his actions as emperor are not described, and the reasons for his abdication are unspecified.

2812: 1890: 3715: 3315: 1882: 1342:

on 21 July 1822, and his wife, Ana María, was crowned empress, in an elaborate ceremony. It was attended by the bishops of

3539: 2304: 1530: 1200: 3725: 3288: 2978: 1723:. Attacks on the Catholic Church by liberals in Spain and elsewhere in Europe were conducted also in Mexico during the 1688: 1626: 1375: 1032: 424: 196: 3557: 3241: 1715:

Liberal or republican ideas would continue to be embraced by people outside the Mexico City elite. These came out of

673:

in 1810 as it advanced toward Mexico City from Valladolid. Royalist and rebel forces engaged on the east bank of the

1205: 3675: 3635: 2361: 1973: 681:. Royalist forces, under the command of Colonel Torcuato Trujillo, withdrew from the area, allowing rebels to take 576: 311: 1195: 938:. If both refused, a suitable monarch would be sought among the various European royal houses. In the meantime, a 3685: 1225: 935: 343: 1743:, and liberal, masonic, anti-clerical, reformist and United States-adherent liberals led by the American-backed 541:

from the 15th century. As a younger son, Joaquín was not in line to inherit the family lands, so he migrated to

2621: 1968: 1671:

The aftermath of his execution was met with indignation by royalists. The sentiment of those horrified by this

1175: 1677: 1487: 1466: 1190: 2420: 1152: 1112: 678: 395: 349: 2008: 1462: 1147: 946: 339: 3710: 1983: 1442: 956: 845: 790: 3310: 1044: 3735: 3660: 1728: 1142: 1132: 1053: 870:

The plan was a rather vague document that sought the transition of the center of power in New Spain from

663: 553: 469: 353: 335: 327: 1005:

Iturbide moved back to Mexico City and settled himself in a large palatial home that now bears the name

3650: 3640: 3489: 3462: 2477: 1727:

period in the mid-nineteenth century. Ideals of the Constitution of Cadiz would find expression in the

1649: 1218: 1180: 1137: 331: 136: 3730: 3269:

Tenenbaum, Barbara A. "Taxation and Tyranny: Public Finance during the Iturbide Regime, 1821–23," in

3096: 2836:"La reclusión de mujeres rebeldes: el recogimiento en la guerra de independencia mexicana, 1810–1819" 1665: 1478: 785:

From 1810 to 1820, Iturbide had fought against those who sought to overturn the Spanish monarchy and

659: 600: 413: 2449: 1632: 633: 186: 1963: 1597: 735: 704: 253: 1921:

Declaration to the World (Manifiesto de Liorna) by Agustín de Iturbide or rather Notes for History

1687:

On 27 October 1839, his remains were placed in an urn in the Chapel of San Felipe de Jesús in the

537:

in the 1430s, and thereafter many in the family held political or administrative positions in the

3645: 2225: 1849: 1835: 1561: 1494: 798: 689: 51: 1804:

mounted a massive centenary celebration for Mexican independence, even larger than the one that

3655: 3389: 1740: 1593: 1170: 802: 637:

turned it down because he considered Hidalgo's uprising ill-executed and his methods barbaric.

580: 287: 162: 1923:, a manuscript tinged with his blood and found between his sash and shirt after his execution. 2436: 1793: 1572: 1552:

Executive leadership of the country was passed to the "triumvirate," made up of the generals

1339: 1285: 1277: 300: 226: 2186: 596: 3615: 3610: 3419: 3361: 2733: 1978: 1769: 1720: 1681: 1359: 1072: 1022: 837: 817: 765: 1640:

Iturbide returned to Mexico on 14 July 1824, accompanied by his wife, two children, and a

1090: 930: 8: 1949: 1801: 1657: 620: 468:

from 1822 until his abdication in 1823. An officer in the royal Spanish army, during the

279: 3409: 3007:

Battles That Changed the World: The Conflicts That Most Influenced the Course of History

1796:

with other leaders of independence, but stayed in the National Cathedral. Following the

1541: 1122: 971: 906: 862: 658:

After the outbreak of the War of Independence in 1810, leader of the insurgency, Father

3434: 3063: 3055: 2548: 1988: 1797: 1753: 1735: 1553: 1006: 841: 1829:

cactus holding a snake in its beak. With it, he hoped to link Mexican empire with the

1536: 3284: 3237: 3100: 3067: 3011: 3005: 2884: 2764: 2696: 2555: 2388: 2122: 2058: 1747:. Having prevailed, Juárez died after 15 years of forcefully remaining as president. 1636:

Coffin containing Agustín de Iturbide's remains in Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral

1506: 1185: 1082: 731: 524: 501: 485: 465: 385: 318: 121: 2116: 1009:. The mansion was lent to him by the family that owned it but was not living in it. 3503: 3047: 2259: 1605:

Statement of Some of the Principal Events in the Public Life of Agustín de Iturbide

1529:

convened a Congress to declare themselves independent from Mexico and Spain as the

1247: 917: 902: 821: 794: 786: 441: 2925: 2835: 1805: 1748: 1744: 1557: 1288:

as a special envoy to independent Mexico when Iturbide was declared emperor since

825: 2808: 1716: 1645: 1429: 1420: 833: 611:

Rodríguez ("Rodríguez the Fair"), who supported the insurgency for independence.

534: 1800:

1910–20, victorious revolutionary general and newly elected president of Mexico

1614:

Conservative political factions in Mexico finally convinced Iturbide to return.

726:

The next major encounter between Morelos and Iturbide occurred in a town called

3527: 3276: 2502: 1818: 1704: 1371: 1068: 857: 592: 549: 473: 3051: 2308: 764:

Iturbide was fully reinstated to military command in November 1820 by viceroy

3604: 3515: 1764: 1501: 1437: 995: 977: 670: 1324:

Lithography of the Oath of Iturbide Constitutional Emperor of Mexico (1822).

893:

General Iturbide receives the keys to the Mexico City of Colonel Hormaechea.

3327: 3188:

Almanach de Gotha: annuaire généalogique, diplomatique et statistique. 1865

1830: 1822: 1810: 1289: 1246:

would accept the offer of a Mexican crown. In Mexico itself, there was no

901:

Both the sitting viceroy and Fernando VII rejected the Plan of Iguala. The

881: 222: 83: 2905:

La Güera Rodríguez: The Life and Legends of a Mexican Independence Heroine

1672: 1622: 595:, the couple bought the Hacienda of San José de Apeo in the small town of 493: 262: 2761:

Tornel & Santa Anna: The Writer & the Caudillo, Mexico, 1795–1853

1514: 1347: 991: 753: 674: 458: 1734:

Iturbide's empire was replaced with the First Mexican Republic. General

1320: 1027: 848:, with Guerrero fully supporting him and recognizing him as his leader. 1724: 1653: 1522: 1403: 1379: 1331: 769: 720: 696:

As a captain, he pursued rebel forces in the area, managing to capture

529: 283: 3591: 3059: 3035: 1257: 813: 548:

His mother was of pure Spanish blood born in Mexico, and therefore, a

453:; 27 September 1783 – 19 July 1824), commonly known as 110: 3442: 2979:"Agustín de Iturbide convocó a la primera consulta popular en México" 1952:, who staged elaborate centennial commemorations of Iturbide in 1921. 1518: 1510: 542: 497: 1031:

Coronation of Iturbide in 1822 at the foot of the high altar of the

527:. One of his ancestors, Martín de Iturbide, was designated as Royal 115:

Posthumous portrait as Emperor of Mexico by Primitivo Miranda, 1865.

3209:

Anna, Timothy E. "The Role of Agustín de Iturbide: A Reappraisal."

2693:

Other Rebellion: Popular Violence and Ideology in Mexico, 1810–1821

1789: 1641: 1526: 1419:

The republicans were not happy with Iturbide as emperor. While the

1399: 967: 727: 520: 506: 3159:!Viva Mexico!!Viva la Independencia!: Celebrations of 16 September 1660:. Iturbide gave his word of honor and surrendered to authorities. 716: 512:

Iturbide's father, Joaquín de Iturbide, came from a family of the

496:, on 27 September 1783. He was baptized with the names of Saints 3221:. Vol. 5. Mexico City: Libros del Bachiller Sansón Carrasco. 2924:(in Spanish). Mexico City. Notimex. 19 April 2008. Archived from 1589: 1387: 1351: 708: 701: 688:

Iturbide's next major encounter with the rebels would be against

669:

One of Agustín's first encounters with the rebel army was in the

513: 489: 380: 258: 87: 3234:

Liberators: Latin America's Struggle For Independence, 1810–1830

37: 3374: 3321: 3257:, vol. 3, p. 303. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996. 2589:

Rodríguez: The Life and Legends of Mexican Independence Heroine

1395: 1367: 1355: 1343: 939: 871: 712: 682: 516: 3263:

Cronología del Proceso de la Independencia de México 1804–1824

2809:"Colección de Documentos Históricos – Don Agustín de Iturbide" 62:

of all important aspects of the article. The reason given is:

3533: 3320:, handwritten document by Agustín de Iturbide, hosted by the 3271:

The Independence of Mexico and the Creation of the New Nation

3046:(1). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press: 79–110. 1826: 1493:

Santa Anna publicly opposed Iturbide in December 1822 in the

1483: 1383: 1273: 1075:

8 reales portrait of Agustín de Iturbide, (Mexico City mint).

793:, which was reinstated in Spain in 1820 after the successful 715:. Then, in 1814, he was named the commander of forces in the 588: 3146:

La otra historia: Hidalgo e Iturbide, la gloria y el olvido

1391: 650: 509:

of Apeo and Guaracha as well as lands in nearby Quirio.

27:

Mexican army general and politician, 1st emperor of Mexico

3281:

Stormy Passage: Mexico from Colony to Republic, 1750–1850

3265:. Mexico City: Archivo General de la Nación. p. 186. 1652:

on the coast of Nuevo Santander (the modern-day state of

1366:

emperor, Iturbide had sovereignty over lands bordered by

1869:

Coat of Arms of Agustín de Iturbide as Emperor of Mexico

1584:

On 11 May 1823, the ex-emperor boarded the British ship

1445:, to legislate in its place, answering only to himself. 1436:, essentially becoming the in-house publication for the 998:, leading these branches of the opposition to be called 3741:

Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo alumni

2950:, vol. 2, p. 1095. Chicago: Fitzroy and Dearborn 1997. 2918:"Forma Palacio de Iturbide parte de la historia patria" 844:. On 1 March 1821, Iturbide was proclaimed head of the 575:

In 1805, when he was twenty-two, Iturbide married Doña

2615: 3487: 1472: 3161:. Wilmington, DL: Scholarly Resources 2001, p. 199. 2907:. Oakland: University of California Press 2021, 69. 912: 579:, member of the House of Tagle of the family of the 2728: 2726: 2724: 2722: 2720: 2718: 2716: 2714: 2712: 3255:Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture 2547: 752:referred as excommunicates, executed to celebrate 677:at the end of October in what is now known as the 3701:People of the Latin American wars of independence 2946:Edward A. Riedinger, "Joel Roberts Poinsett," in 2883:. Westport, CN: Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. 2763:. Westport, CN: Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. 2376: 2121:. Westport, CN: Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. 2057:. Westport, CN: Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. 1374:in the north, including the current countries of 488:was born in what was then called Valladolid, now 3602: 3260: 3179:Lacy, "The 1921 Centennial Celebration," p. 203. 3170:Lacy, "The 1921 Centennial Celebration," p. 201. 3036:"The Rule of Agustin de Iturbide: A Reappraisal" 2709: 2591:. Austin: University of Texas Press 2021, 67–68 2554:. Port Chester, NY: Cambridge University Press. 2360:(in Spanish). Mexico Desconocido. Archived from 966:What remained of the royalist army retreated to 559:Agustín studied at the Catholic seminary called 3148:, 2 vols. 2008; repr. Mexico City: Planeta 2014 2299: 2297: 921:Flag of the Mexican Empire Regency (1821–1822). 405:María Josefa de Arámburu y Carrillo de Figueroa 94: and the second or maternal family name is 3298:(2nd ed.). Mexico City: Editorial Porrúa. 3253:Rodríguez O., Jaime. "Agustín de Iturbide" in 3229:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1986. 3227:Roots of Insurgency: Mexican Regions 1750–1824 3029: 3027: 2295: 2293: 2291: 2289: 2287: 2285: 2283: 2281: 2279: 2277: 1825:symbol for Mexico City, an eagle perched on a 3206:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1990. 2052: 1694: 1226: 929:(La Güera Rodríguez). The hastily negotiated 3332: 2695:. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press. 950:Iturbide's triumphal entrance to Mexico City 3024: 2686: 2684: 2682: 2680: 2678: 2636: 2541: 2539: 2537: 2535: 2274: 2260:"Agustín de Iturbide, Libertador de México" 2110: 2108: 2106: 2104: 2102: 2100: 2098: 2096: 2094: 1781:about Iturbide's aristocratic friend, Doña 1250:that the populace would accept as royalty. 434:Agustín Cosme Damián de Iturbide y Arámburu 371:Agustín Cosme Damián de Iturbide y Arámburu 324:Agustín Jerónimo, Prince Imperial of Mexico 241:Agustín Cosme Damián de Iturbide y Arámburu 3696:People executed for treason against Mexico 2874: 2872: 2802: 2800: 2533: 2531: 2529: 2527: 2525: 2523: 2521: 2519: 2517: 2515: 2410: 2408: 2406: 2404: 2216: 2214: 2212: 2210: 2208: 2206: 2204: 2092: 2090: 2088: 2086: 2084: 2082: 2080: 2078: 2076: 2074: 1414: 1233: 1219: 109: 3691:People executed by Mexico by firing squad 3010:. Franklin Lakes, NJ: Career Press, Inc. 2881:Mexico in the Age of Proposals, 1821–1853 2870: 2868: 2866: 2864: 2862: 2860: 2858: 2856: 2854: 2852: 2798: 2796: 2794: 2792: 2790: 2788: 2786: 2784: 2782: 2780: 2734:"Biografías y Vidas- Agustín de Iturbide" 2690: 2620:(in Spanish). Mexico City. Archived from 2611: 2609: 2607: 2605: 2603: 2601: 2599: 2597: 2419:. Historical Text Archive. Archived from 2387:. University of Texas Press. p. 12. 2352: 2350: 2348: 2346: 2305:"Casa Imperial – Don Agustín de Iturbide" 2253: 2251: 2249: 2247: 2245: 2243: 2048: 2046: 2044: 2042: 2040: 2038: 2036: 2034: 2032: 2030: 1261:Half-length portrait as Emperor of Mexico 981:Proclamation of Iturbide the 19 May 1822. 808: 711:and put him in charge of the regiment in 700:, leading to another promotion. In 1813, 577:Ana María Josefa Ramona de Huarte y Muñiz 312:Ana María Josefa Ramona de Huarte y Muñiz 3086: 3084: 2675: 2344: 2342: 2340: 2338: 2336: 2334: 2332: 2330: 2328: 2326: 2257: 2180: 2176: 2174: 2172: 2140: 2138: 2114: 1763: 1631: 1621: 1571: 1535: 1482: 1363:Pedro José de Fonte y Hernández Miravete 1319: 1272: 1256: 1067: 1026: 976: 945: 916: 888: 861: 812: 649: 599:, not far from property owned by Father 479: 3626:19th-century Mexican military personnel 2959: 2910: 2752: 2545: 2512: 2471: 2469: 2467: 2465: 2463: 2461: 2459: 2401: 2382: 2201: 2170: 2168: 2166: 2164: 2162: 2160: 2158: 2156: 2154: 2152: 2071: 1850:National Order of Our Lady of Guadalupe 1759: 1617: 1603:There, he published his autobiography, 1358:. According to the author Pérez Memen, 1309:("the Mexican Thinker"), the author of 640: 14: 3631:19th-century monarchs in North America 3603: 3293: 3250:. Durham: Duke University Press 1952. 3216: 3093:Heroes and Hero Cults in Latin America 2976: 2970: 2878: 2849: 2777: 2758: 2594: 2240: 2144: 2055:Dictionary of Mexican Rulers 1325–1997 2027: 1338:Iturbide's coronation was held at the 742: 570: 58:Please consider expanding the lead to 3331: 3090: 3081: 2644:"Arts and History – Agustin Iturbide" 2484:from the original on 21 December 2008 2323: 2135: 1881:Throne of Agustín de Iturbide in the 440: 3540: 3123:. Mexico: 1949; Mexico: Porrúa 1950 3033: 3003: 2997: 2833: 2815:from the original on 21 October 2008 2740:from the original on 6 December 2008 2475: 2456: 2149: 1883:Museo Nacional de las Intervenciones 1016: 970:and was cornered in the fortress of 866:Oil portrait of Agustín de Iturbide. 780: 31: 2414: 1896:Iturbide in a 19th-century painting 1531:United Provinces of Central America 759: 24: 3195: 2806: 1783:María Ignacia Rodríguez de Velasco 1689:Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral 1627:Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral 1473:Veracruz and the Plan of Casa Mata 1089: 1013:granting Mexico its independence. 927:María Ignacia Rodríguez de Velasco 775: 614: 396:José Joaquín de Iturbide y Arreguí 197:President of the Regency of Mexico 25: 3752: 3681:Military personnel from Michoacán 3671:Mexican people of Spanish descent 3621:19th-century executions by Mexico 3304: 3283:. Rowman & Littlefield 2022. 3211:Journal of Latin American Studies 3040:Journal of Latin American Studies 2963:El Amigo de la paz y de la patria 2358:"Agustín de Iturbide (1783–1824)" 2222:"Agustín de Iturbide (1783–1824)" 1719:in Europe that were based on the 1303:José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi 913:Independence and early transition 851: 3666:Mexican people of Basque descent 3583: 3566: 3549: 3521: 3509: 3497: 3261:Sugawara Hikichi, Masae (1985). 3144:Fuentes Aguirre Catón, Armando, 1974:List of heads of state of Mexico 1941: 1928: 1913: 1901: 1889: 1874: 1862: 1052: 1043: 423: 36: 3273:, Jaime E. Rodríguez O. (1989) 3182: 3173: 3164: 3151: 3138: 3126: 3113: 2953: 2940: 2897: 2827: 2662: 2581: 2568: 2496: 206:28 September 1821 – 18 May 1822 50:may be too short to adequately 18:Iturbide, Agustín de, 1783-1824 3706:Mexican independence activists 3236:. John Murray, London (2000). 3204:The Mexican Empire of Iturbide 2977:Aviles, Jaime (26 July 2008). 2587:Silvia Marina Arrom, La Güera 2001: 1969:History of democracy in Mexico 1280:, U.S. Special Envoy to Mexico 1206:Maximilian von Götzen-Iturbide 961:declared an independent empire 820:, between Iturbide (left) and 60:provide an accessible overview 13: 1: 3468:19 March 1823 – 19 July 1824 2053:Vazquez-Gomez, Juana (1997). 1994: 679:Battle of Monte de las Cruces 442:[aɣusˈtindeituɾˈbiðe] 347:Princess María de los Dolores 3424:19 May 1822 – 19 March 1823 2616:INEHRM-Unidad Bicentenario. 2307:(in Spanish). Archived from 1984:Army of the Three Guarantees 1648:). He landed at the port of 1443:National Institutional Junta 1284:The US government appointed 957:Army of the Three Guarantees 846:Army of the Three Guarantees 645: 492:, the provincial capital of 86:, the first or paternal 7: 3716:18th-century Mexican people 3366:19 May 1822 –19 March 1823 3294:Vergés, José María (1980). 3246:Robertson, William Spence. 2383:Carrera, Magali M. (2003). 2181:Hamue-Medina, Rocio Elena. 1957: 1833:. Iturbide is noted in the 1729:1824 Constitution of Mexico 1488:Antonio López de Santa Anna 1467:Antonio López de Santa Anna 1409: 470:Mexican War of Independence 131:19 May 1822 – 19 March 1823 10: 3757: 3721:Politicians from Michoacán 3296:Diccionario de Insurgentes 2670:Mexico: Biography of Power 2576:Mexico: Biography of Power 2507:Mexico: Biography of Power 1855: 1848:Knight Grand Cross of the 1842: 1695:Iturbide's role in history 1592:, Italy (then part of the 1476: 1020: 855: 81: 3726:Roman Catholic Freemasons 3470: 3453: 3448: 3441: 3426: 3414: 3401: 3396: 3381: 3359: 3348: 3343: 3338: 3097:University of Texas Press 3052:10.1017/S0022216X00009202 2985:(in Spanish). Mexico City 2550:Concise History of Mexico 2115:Kirkwood, Burton (2000). 1479:Casa Mata Plan Revolution 660:Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla 419: 409: 401: 391: 379: 370: 365: 361: 317: 307: 293: 269: 237: 233: 218: 210: 202: 195: 170: 153: 145: 135: 127: 120: 108: 103: 3333:Offices and distinctions 3311:Imperial House of Mexico 2691:Van Young, Eric (2001). 1964:Declaration to the world 1666:executed by firing squad 1567: 1033:Cathedral of Mexico City 801:, which greatly limited 484:Agustín Cosme Damián de 254:Viceroyalty of New Spain 3676:Mexican revolutionaries 3636:Executed Mexican people 3354:Independence from Spain 3322:Portal to Texas History 2546:Hamnett, Brian (1999). 2262:(in Spanish). Euskonews 1836:Himno Nacional Mexicano 1562:Pedro Celestino Negrete 1415:Dissolution of Congress 1311:El Periquillo Sarniento 799:constitutional monarchy 791:1812 Cadiz Constitution 605:María Ignacia Rodríguez 344:Princess María de Jesús 223:Juan Nepomuceno Almonte 3686:Monarchs who abdicated 3217:Alamán, Lucas (1986). 3119:Artemio Valle Arizpe, 3091:Brunk, Samuel (2006). 3034:Anna, Timothy (1985). 3004:Weir, William (2001). 2960:Lizardi, José (1822). 2948:Encyclopedia of Mexico 2444:Cite journal requires 2417:"Iturbide, Agustin de" 1773: 1741:Maximilian I of Mexico 1637: 1629: 1594:Grand Duchy of Tuscany 1577: 1545: 1490: 1432:founded the newspaper 1325: 1281: 1262: 1095: 1076: 1036: 982: 951: 922: 905:sent a new "viceroy," 894: 867: 828: 809:Alliance with Guerrero 698:Albino Licéaga y Rayón 655: 634:José Mariano Michelena 561:Colegio de San Nicolás 533:in the High Valley of 525:King Juan II of Aragon 519:who were confirmed in 438:Spanish pronunciation: 332:Princess Juana de Dios 187:José Manuel de Herrera 158:Provisional Government 3456:— TITULAR — 3416:Mexican head of state 2879:Fowler, Will (1998). 2759:Fowler, Will (2000). 2258:Rosainz Unda, Gorka. 2009:"Agustín de Iturbide" 1767: 1635: 1625: 1575: 1539: 1486: 1463:Valentín Gómez Farías 1461:him. Leaders such as 1378:and the US states of 1370:in the south and the 1340:Mexico City Cathedral 1323: 1301:Famed Mexican author 1286:Joel Roberts Poinsett 1278:Joel Roberts Poinsett 1276: 1260: 1176:Franz Karl of Austria 1093: 1071: 1030: 980: 949: 920: 892: 865: 816: 707:promoted Iturbide to 693:promoted to captain. 653: 581:Marquises of Altamira 480:Family and early life 350:Prince Salvador María 301:Mexico City Cathedral 227:Second Mexican Empire 3317:Manifiesto o Memoria 1979:Embrace of Acatempan 1770:First Mexican Empire 1760:In historical memory 1682:Anastasio Bustamante 1618:Execution and burial 1598:Manifiesto de Liorna 1453:Guadalupe Victoria. 1360:Archbishop of Mexico 1248:Mexican noble family 1201:María Josepha Sophia 1073:First Mexican Empire 1023:First Mexican Empire 838:Embrace of Acatempán 818:Embrace of Acatempan 766:Juan Ruiz de Apodaca 641:Combating insurgency 357:Prince Agustín Cosme 214:Monarchy established 149:Monarchy established 3711:People from Morelia 3536:Agustín de Iturbide 3370:Monarchy abolished 2834:Robinson, Barry M. 2807:Manfut, Eduardo P. 2650:on 27 February 2009 2618:"Iturbide, Agustín" 2478:"Augustin Iturbide" 2423:on 27 February 2009 743:Relieved of command 736:Ignacio López Rayón 705:Félix María Calleja 621:Gabriel J. de Yermo 585:Marquis of Altamira 571:Marriage and family 486:Iturbide y Arámburu 455:Agustín de Iturbide 3736:Dethroned monarchs 3661:Emperors of Mexico 3443:Titles in pretence 3435:Guadalupe Victoria 3431:Title next held by 3406:Title last held by 3397:Political offices 3386:Title next held by 3248:Iturbide of Mexico 3225:Hamnett, Brian R. 3219:Historia de Méjico 3213:17 (1985), 79–110. 3134:La Güera Rodríguez 3121:La Güera Rodríguez 2624:on 24 October 2008 2311:on 14 October 2008 2183:"Agustín Iturbide" 1989:Palace of Iturbide 1798:Mexican Revolution 1779:La Güera Rodríguez 1774: 1754:Mexican Revolution 1736:Guadalupe Victoria 1638: 1630: 1578: 1554:Guadalupe Victoria 1546: 1491: 1326: 1282: 1263: 1096: 1077: 1037: 1007:Palace of Iturbide 983: 952: 923: 903:Spanish parliament 895: 868: 842:Guadalupe Victoria 832:nobility, and the 829: 739:him in late 1815. 690:José María Morelos 656: 502:Cosmas, and Damian 3651:House of Iturbide 3641:Executed monarchs 3485: 3484: 3480: 3479: 3471:Succeeded by 3463:Emperor of Mexico 3458: 3420:Emperor of Mexico 3375:Republic declared 3362:Emperor of Mexico 3202:Anna, Timothy E. 3106:978-0-292-71437-3 3017:978-1-56414-491-1 2890:978-0-313-30427-9 2770:978-0-313-30914-4 2702:978-0-8047-3740-1 2561:978-0-521-58120-2 2394:978-0-292-71245-4 2128:978-0-313-30351-7 2118:History of Mexico 2064:978-0-313-30049-3 1668:on 19 July 1824. 1540:Iturbide meeting 1507:Plan of Casa Mata 1243: 1242: 1181:Sophie of Bavaria 1083:House of Iturbide 1017:Emperor Agustín I 931:Treaty of Córdoba 781:Criollo rebellion 732:Mariano Matamoros 466:Emperor of Mexico 457:and later by his 431: 430: 414:Roman Catholicism 375: 374: 250:27 September 1783 160:(Chronologically) 122:Emperor of Mexico 80: 79: 16:(Redirected from 3748: 3731:Mexican nobility 3596: 3588: 3587: 3586: 3579: 3571: 3570: 3569: 3562: 3554: 3553: 3552: 3542: 3526: 3525: 3524: 3514: 3513: 3512: 3502: 3501: 3500: 3493: 3454: 3341: 3340: 3329: 3328: 3299: 3266: 3232:Harvey, Robert. 3222: 3189: 3186: 3180: 3177: 3171: 3168: 3162: 3155: 3149: 3142: 3136: 3130: 3124: 3117: 3111: 3110: 3088: 3079: 3078: 3076: 3074: 3031: 3022: 3021: 3001: 2995: 2994: 2992: 2990: 2974: 2968: 2967: 2957: 2951: 2944: 2938: 2937: 2935: 2933: 2928:on 23 April 2008 2914: 2908: 2901: 2895: 2894: 2876: 2847: 2846: 2840: 2831: 2825: 2824: 2822: 2820: 2804: 2775: 2774: 2756: 2750: 2749: 2747: 2745: 2730: 2707: 2706: 2688: 2673: 2666: 2660: 2659: 2657: 2655: 2646:. 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Archived from 2178: 2147: 2146: 2142: 2133: 2132: 2112: 2069: 2068: 2050: 2025: 2024: 2022: 2020: 2005: 1945: 1932: 1917: 1905: 1893: 1878: 1866: 1495:Plan of Veracruz 1235: 1228: 1221: 1128:Agustin Jerónimo 1123:Ana María Huarte 1079: 1078: 1056: 1047: 972:San Juan de Ulúa 797:, established a 760:Against Guerrero 464:, was the first 452: 451: 450: 444: 439: 427: 363: 362: 276: 249: 247: 175: 113: 101: 100: 75: 72: 66: 40: 32: 21: 3756: 3755: 3751: 3750: 3749: 3747: 3746: 3745: 3601: 3600: 3599: 3589: 3584: 3582: 3578:from Wikisource 3572: 3567: 3565: 3555: 3550: 3548: 3545: 3541:sister projects 3538:at Knowledge's 3532: 3522: 3520: 3510: 3508: 3498: 3496: 3488: 3486: 3481: 3476: 3467: 3459: 3432: 3423: 3417: 3407: 3387: 3377: 3372: 3365: 3357: 3356:Empire declared 3355: 3352: 3334: 3307: 3302: 3277:Van Young, Eric 3198: 3196:Further reading 3193: 3192: 3187: 3183: 3178: 3174: 3169: 3165: 3156: 3152: 3143: 3139: 3131: 3127: 3118: 3114: 3107: 3089: 3082: 3072: 3070: 3032: 3025: 3018: 3002: 2998: 2988: 2986: 2975: 2971: 2958: 2954: 2945: 2941: 2931: 2929: 2916: 2915: 2911: 2902: 2898: 2891: 2877: 2850: 2843:www.redalyc.org 2838: 2832: 2828: 2818: 2816: 2805: 2778: 2771: 2757: 2753: 2743: 2741: 2732: 2731: 2710: 2703: 2689: 2676: 2667: 2663: 2653: 2651: 2642: 2641: 2637: 2627: 2625: 2614: 2595: 2586: 2582: 2573: 2569: 2562: 2544: 2513: 2501: 2497: 2487: 2485: 2474: 2457: 2445: 2443: 2434: 2433: 2426: 2424: 2415:Raggett, Kari. 2413: 2402: 2395: 2381: 2377: 2367: 2365: 2356: 2355: 2324: 2314: 2312: 2303: 2302: 2275: 2265: 2263: 2256: 2241: 2231: 2229: 2220: 2219: 2202: 2192: 2190: 2179: 2150: 2143: 2136: 2129: 2113: 2072: 2065: 2051: 2028: 2018: 2016: 2007: 2006: 2002: 1997: 1960: 1953: 1946: 1937: 1933: 1924: 1918: 1909: 1906: 1897: 1894: 1885: 1879: 1870: 1867: 1858: 1845: 1762: 1717:Bourbon Reforms 1697: 1646:Joseph A. Lopez 1620: 1570: 1481: 1475: 1430:Manuel Codorniu 1417: 1412: 1376:Central America 1295:Notes on Mexico 1239: 1210: 1157: 1099: 1066: 1065: 1064: 1063: 1059: 1058: 1057: 1049: 1048: 1025: 1019: 915: 860: 854: 811: 787:Bourbon dynasty 783: 778: 776:Switching sides 762: 745: 648: 643: 617: 615:Military career 573: 482: 446: 445: 437: 356: 352: 348: 346: 342: 338: 336:Princess Josefa 334: 330: 328:Princess Sabina 326: 303: 299: 298:26 October 1838 278: 274: 256: 251: 245: 243: 242: 191: 183: 182: 173:Prime Ministers 171: 165: 161: 116: 99: 76: 70: 67: 57: 45:This article's 41: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3754: 3744: 3743: 3738: 3733: 3728: 3723: 3718: 3713: 3708: 3703: 3698: 3693: 3688: 3683: 3678: 3673: 3668: 3663: 3658: 3653: 3648: 3646:Flag designers 3643: 3638: 3633: 3628: 3623: 3618: 3613: 3598: 3597: 3580: 3563: 3534: 3531: 3530: 3518: 3506: 3483: 3482: 3478: 3477: 3472: 3469: 3452: 3446: 3445: 3439: 3438: 3430: 3425: 3413: 3405: 3399: 3398: 3394: 3393: 3385: 3379: 3378: 3373: 3367: 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1725:Liberal Reform 1708:opportunist." 1705:Eric Van Young 1696: 1693: 1650:Soto la Marina 1619: 1616: 1569: 1566: 1474: 1471: 1416: 1413: 1411: 1408: 1372:Oregon Country 1241: 1240: 1238: 1237: 1230: 1223: 1215: 1212: 1211: 1209: 1208: 1203: 1198: 1193: 1188: 1183: 1178: 1173: 1167: 1164: 1163: 1159: 1158: 1156: 1155: 1150: 1145: 1140: 1135: 1130: 1125: 1120: 1115: 1109: 1106: 1105: 1101: 1100: 1097: 1086: 1085: 1061: 1060: 1051: 1050: 1042: 1041: 1040: 1039: 1038: 1018: 1015: 992:Masonic lodges 914: 911: 858:Plan of Iguala 856:Main article: 853: 852:Plan of Iguala 850: 810: 807: 782: 779: 777: 774: 761: 758: 744: 741: 647: 644: 642: 639: 616: 613: 601:Miguel Hidalgo 572: 569: 539:Basque Country 481: 478: 474:Plan of Iguala 429: 428: 421: 417: 416: 411: 407: 406: 403: 399: 398: 393: 389: 388: 383: 377: 376: 373: 372: 368: 367: 359: 358: 321: 315: 314: 309: 305: 304: 297: 295: 291: 290: 277:(aged 40) 271: 267: 266: 239: 235: 234: 231: 230: 220: 216: 215: 212: 208: 207: 204: 200: 199: 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