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664:. Despite its excellent reputation, by the end of the Revolution, the College was in a state of disrepair. On September 30, 1925, Amaro shut it down for a major overhaul that took ten months. In addition to new facilities, it also boasted a new curriculum that emphasized civic and moral virtues. Admission requirements were put into place, and included letters of recommendation that could vouch for an applicant's moral character.
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Gómez, who were also potential candidates for the post. While undersecretary, Amaro initiated a series of legal reforms to purge the armed forces of "the germ of immorality and corruption." After an initial convention of important military figures, the
Commission for Studies and Reforms of Military Laws and Regulations was formed. Ten months later, four new laws were promulgated.
595:
conspirators drafted Adolfo de la Huerta, then-Minister of
Finance, to run for president against Plutarco Elias Calles, Obregón's chosen successor. Facing a rebellion with armies in the North, South, and East, Obregón relied on loyal generals such as Amaro to block rebel access to resources and the northern border and to put down the insurrection. Amaro, aided by General
402:. With two incomes, the family was able to enjoy a comfortable existence. In 1910, his father sold his possessions and gave the money to his eldest son, advising him, "go to Durango with your mother and siblings, work for Mr. Calderón , learn the business, get to know the town, and when you feel able, open your own store." His father left for
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dealt with specific issues. One clarified the officer's duty to maintain order within his ranks; another prohibited soldiers from complaining about orders. One article prohibited servicemembers from interfering in politics. The final articles concerned decorum, and required subordinates to salute and give up their seats to superiors.
540:, the highest military rank. He became chief military officer of the third military zone, which included the states of Coahuila, Nuevo León and San Luis Potosí. In this capacity, he undertook to professionalize the unorganized ranks under him, gaining experience that would later benefit his reorganization of the entire military.
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to train an elite group of officers. To this end he sent a number of generals to study the militaries and military academies of
European and South American states. Amaro led the Heroic Military Academy from 1931 until 1935, and directed military education for the Secretariat of War from 1931 to 1936.
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a telegram ordering
Carranza on July 13, 1928 to begin immediately a non-stop flight from New York City to Mexico City, which ended with the captain's fatal crash in the New Jersey Pine Barrens. However, contemporary news reports in the Evening Courier, Camden, NJ and New York Times show the story of
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met with three other cabinet officials, convincing them to resign so as to make it appear that the "cabinet crisis" did not center around Amaro. They agreed, and the following day, Calles, Amaro, and the other three secretarys met at Amaro's estate. There, all four cabinet ministers agreed to resign.
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After the assassination of Pancho Villa in July 1923, Amaro was widely suspected as one of the planners of the operation. Today, most historians attribute Villa's death to a well planned conspiracy, most likely initiated by then
Minister of War Plutarco Elías Calles, who ordered Amaro to give support
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When
President Obregón was assassinated by pro-clergy forces sixteen days after his 1928 re-election, many generals and other important figures in Mexican politics urged Amaro to run for the office. He always politely declined, stating that he had "never thought to dedicate activities to politics."
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In 1927, Generals
Francisco Serrano and Arnulfo Gómez conspired with General Eugenio Martínez to seize Calles, Obregón, and Amaro in hopes of igniting a rebellion against the reelection of Obregón. Martínez informed Calles of the plot before it could be enacted, and Serrano and Gómez were caught and
635:
The purpose of the fourth law, the
Organic Law, was to organize the armed services. The first section sought to redefine the relationship between generals and the soldiers under them, demanding that all personnel be loyal to the nation and the constitution and take their orders from the President or
623:
The Court of Honor section was written for people who committed offenses that threatened the reputation of a unit or of the "dignity of the military." It established a system of courts martial to punish drunkenness, gambling, mismanagement of funds, and negligence. Punishments for those found guilty
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transformed the armed forces from a political partisan to an armed force loyal to the president and government. He accomplished this "through a process of cultural reeducation that replaced an entrenched tradition of militarism with one emphasizing such values as discipline, duty, honor, and loyalty
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Another example is the story that Amaro shot and killed a groom whom disobeyed his order to walk his polo pony and instead rode it to the stables, which the U.S. Ambassador to Mexico and his military attache passed to the
Department of State. However, there is good reason to believe that Ambassabor
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The second law, the Law of
Retirements and Pensions, allowed servicemembers who had given twenty to thirty-five years of service to retire at will. It also required retirement at a certain age that was dependent on rank. Finally, it provided for pensions for disabled servicemen and their families.
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He later became commander of the seventh military zone, which comprised Nuevo León. There he put down the July rebellion of Pablo González. When in 1922 political unrest threatened to destabilize Coahuila, Amaro positioned his troops to block the occupation of the state legislature and to protect
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Amaro's military reforms cut the Mexican military budget from one-third to one-quarter of the total Mexican government budget, and they resulted in the dismissal of numerous junior officers. The reforms, his involvement in suppressing leftists and the now-confirmed suspicion of his role in Pancho
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Upon his return to Mexico and the Secretariat in May, he found a situation in which Calles was still attempting to control national politics from behind the scenes. Pascual Ortiz Rubio, Portes Gil's successor, was suspicious of Amaro, as was Calles. Calles, purporting to have received information
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The first, the Law of Discipline, was divided into three sections: General Duties, Corrective Discipline, and Court of Honor. The first three articles of the General Duties defined military duty in terms of "self-sacrifice, loyalty, guardianship, and adherence to the law." The subsequent articles
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Following the election of Calles, Amaro was appointed Undersecretary of War. Francisco Serrano having been sent to Europe on a diplomatic mission late in Obregón's presidency, the Secretariat was unfilled. Calles may have been waiting to secure the support of generals Eugenio Martínez and Arnulfo
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Despite these sentiments, neither Calles nor Amaro hesitated in taking action against the extreme left-wing. When José Guadalupe Rodríguez tried to organise "soldier soviets" on the Bolshevist pattern, he was promptly arrested and shot along with some of his soldiers. Moreover, when a peasant and
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It further delineated the five military branches: high command, combat arms, auxiliary services, special corps, and for the first time, military education establishments, and specified the structures of each. It stratified servicemembers into three classifications: active, reserve, and retired.
631:
The third law, the Law of Promotions and Rewards, set up two distinct rubrics for promotion: one for peacetime and one for wartime. Peacetime promotions were tied directly to military education. Wartime promotions could be granted for heroic actions such as preventing enemy capture of artillery
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pieces, and could only be given by high-ranking officers. These promotions had to be approved by higher bodies. These reforms were an effort to end the practice of opportunistic and haphazard promotions which had inflated the number of generals in Mexico's officer corps during the Revolution.
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In 1923, Amaro's chief of staff José Álvarez learned of the plot between generals Enrique Estrada, Guadalupe Sánchez, and Fortunato Maycotte to overthrow Obregón. Álvarez immediately returned to Nuevo León and informed Amaro of the plot, who promptly related the information to Obregón. The
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loathed the Mexican Revolutionary leaders and would have passed on any rumor to discredit them regardless of its veracity. He used racial stereotypes to describe them, calling Calles "an Armenian and Indian" and "Amaro, Secretary of War, a pure blooded Indian and very cruel."
729:. During his three-month convalescence, which left him with a glass eye, Calles assumed the Secretariat, in which capacity he put down the Escobar rebellion against Emilio Portes Gil, who had been appointed interim president in the wake of Obregon's assassination.
599:, battled Estrada's forces, defeating them in the decisive battle of Ocotlán. Three days after the battle, Amaro's troops occupied Guadalajara, where Estrada's operation had been based. The rebellion crushed, the 1924 Mexican election was carried out peacefully.
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Prior to his appointment as Undersecretary of War, Amaro had laid plans for a Grand Military Academy of the Army. He made arrangements for the government to purchase to tracts of land, but the school never materialized. Rather, he focused his efforts on the
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Amaro never wavered from his support for Calles and Obregón, and he fully shared Calles' hatred of the clergy. Calles gave Amaro full support in continuing the latter's plan to reform the Mexican armed forces along anti-clerical and populist lines:
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Although Amaro sought to reform all branches of the Mexican military, he remained a political revolutionary general of the old school. As an army general, he understood little or nothing about aviation. He was slow to advance the progress of the
493:, a charge he narrowly escaped. Rather than damaging the reputation of Amaro, however, the incident did more to isolate Sánchez, who Amaro abandoned. The split finally came in 1915, when Amaro advanced the troops under his command on the
521:("military commander") of the 5th Division of the Army of the Northwest, and he was charged of ridding Michoacán of villista influence. At the end of 1915, the area under his command was expanded to include Guanajuato and Querétaro.
457:"Here is the man of the pendant earring! Here is the Indian!" He also supposedly emulated the fighting style of the Yaqui people. He also developed the reputation of a harsh disciplinarian who occasionally used his
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Amaro was appointed Secretary of War by President Calles on July 27, 1925. Upon his appointment to the Secretariat, Amaro moved to Rancho de la Hormiga, a 40,468 square meter (ten acre) ranch that later became the
398:. He learned to read and write, although probably without the benefit of formal schooling. Beginning in 1908, he worked in the office of the Saucillo hacienda where his father was employed, assisting with
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Amaro's efforts to reform the Mexican military and society extended beyond the realm of military education: he also founded publications that combatted the influence of the Catholic Church and of
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In 1916, he again fought the zapatistas in Morelos and Guerrero. In 1917, he was placed under the command of Murguía, and led expeditions against the remaining villistas of Durango and Chihuahua.
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656:. There his children Guillermo, Manuel, and Elisa were born. He installed recreational facilities such as stables, polo fields, and tennis courts, as well as a military school at the ranch.
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the governor's palace. In 1923, he was sent to maintain order during Nuevo León's gubernatorial elections. Following a series of violent incidents, Amaro disarmed groups of rural fighters.
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that Amaro was planning on assassinating him or overthrowing Ortiz Rubio, informed the President of the alleged plot. Ortiz Rubio deferred to Calles to take care of the situation, and the
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The Corrective Discipline section described the circumstances in which soldiers could be arrested for breaking the law, and required that such arrests be recorded in the offender's file.
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689:(Magazine of the Army and the Navy), took a new editorial stance under the direction of Professor Ignacio Richkarday, who Amaro had appointed editor, to moralize the army. While
489:, who, while also a Constitutionalists, was a rival of Sánchez. While initially successful, Murguía's troops eventually prevailed, and Murguía sought to have Amaro executed for
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I have fought without rest against clericalism, large landowners, the militarism of the ex-Federals, the Spanish, and in general all those that do not contribute to the
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It was under the command of General Sánchez that Amaro developed the reputation of a fierce warrior. It was rumored that he wore an earring and used the
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Villa's assassination, made Amaro very unpopular in some circles and a target of vicious, false rumors. One example is the tale that Amaro sent Captain
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in the early 1920s. However, 1925 saw a large increase in the number of military journals published in Mexico. Those already in existence, such as the
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In February 1929, Amaro was injured during a game of fronton. He took a leave of absence from the Secretariat to seek medical attention at the
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in November of that year, and although Amaro never saw him again, he read about his exploits with the revolutionary army of Colonel Luis Moya.
812:. In 1966, his body was exhumed and reburied in Panteón Francés de San Joaquín. In the 1960s, a statue of Amaro on horseback was erected in
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485:. Shortly after Sánchez and Amaro joined the Constitutionalists, Sánchez ordered Amaro to attack a column of troops commanded by General
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in Morelos, engaging them at least nineteen times. In one of these engagements, the battle of Jojutla de Juárez, he earned the "
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to mete out corporal punishments to his subordinates. He may have even shot men in his charge or employ for disobeying orders.
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964:"Mexican Lindy Killed As Plane Falls in South Jersey Pines During Storm, " Evening Courier, July 14, 1928 (Camden, NJ)
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On September 3, 1921, while chief of operations of the third military zone, Amaro wed Elisa Izaguirre, originally of
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The Man Who Tamed Mexico's Tiger: General Joaquin Amaro And The Professionalization Of Mexico's Revolutionary Army
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973:"Carranza Killed In Crash As He Flies Into Storm In Mexico Hop," The New York Times, July 14, 1928
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against Carranza in 1920, Amaro remained loyal to Obregón, and was rewarded with the rank of
502:, leaving Sánchez in Michoacán. By this time, he had already professed allegiance to General
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After the fall of Huerta, while still under the command of Sánchez, he briefly supported the
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427:. Shortly after Amaro enlisted, his father was killed in battle. After five months as a
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Jurgen Buchenau, Plutarco Elias Calles and the Mexican Revolution 117-18 (2007).
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in the public consciousness. He had already founded two publications,
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labor bloc of the Communist International was formed under the artist
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enrichment of our beloved homeland and the betterment of the working
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Amaro was succeeded by Calles, who appointed him director of the
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314:, Military reformer, Military educational reformer, Publisher
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to the assassins. Amaro was later instrumental in freeing
547:. There the couple had two children, Joaquín and Leonor.
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323:(August 16, 1889 – March 15, 1952) was a Mexican
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792:, he was responsible for defending the region of the
559:, the leader of the group of assassins, from jail.
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
624:ranged from transfer to demotion to imprisonment.
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640:Another section of the law structured the navy.
509:In April 1915, he led his troops, known as the "
477:, before breaking with Sánchez to ally with the
846:(PhD). University of New Mexico. Archived from
144: and the second or maternal family name is
693:was aimed at the officer corps, Amaro founded
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1113:Mexican people of indigenous peoples descent
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759:the "fateful telegram" to be a fabrication.
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419:On February 28, 1911, Amaro enlisted in the
370:Amaro was born in Corrales de Abrego in the
1011:General de División Joaquín Amaro Domínguez
517:. Following the battle, Obregón named him
386:ancestry, although they were probably not
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808:Amaro died in 1952 and was buried in the
679:, as well as publishing a tract entitled
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357:. His ambitious reforms of the fractious
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
1013:from the Secretariat of National Defense
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330:and military reformer. He served as
58:adding citations to reliable sources
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919:, Da Capo Press (1995), pp. 572-572
917:Fire and Blood: A History of Mexico
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686:Revista del Ejército y de la Marina
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45:needs additional citations for
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247:Years of service
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727:Rochester, Minnesota
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853:on February 8, 2012
651:presidential palace
557:Jesús Salas Barraza
538:General de división
534:Plan of Agua Prieta
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814:Mexico City
735:Jefe Máximo
723:Mayo Clinic
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400:bookkeeping
170:Nickname(s)
1097:Categories
1079:1931–1935
857:2007-07-05
824:References
709:executed.
695:El Soldado
440:Zapatistas
433:lieutenant
384:Indigenous
376:Sombrerete
366:Early life
340:Presidents
209:Allegiance
187:Sombrerete
110:March 2015
80:newspapers
703:Gladiador
654:Los Pinos
455:battlecry
380:Zacatecas
250:1911–1936
191:Zacatecas
146:Domínguez
495:Villista
481:army of
421:Maderist
396:hacienda
336:cabinets
227:Service/
174:El Indio
132:In this
1018:Offices
788:During
691:Revista
681:El Gato
511:Rayados
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392:Durango
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