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450:, Clark was able to conduct the process of paleoenvironmental reconstruction. By studying pollen that settled on the earth during different environmental settings, Clark was able to form a general idea of what ecological factors affected the Kalambo Falls region at different times. In order to do this, Clark used a tool for drawing out
308:. Initially it was assumed that the height of falls exceeded 300 m, but measurements in the 1920s gave a more modest result, above 200 m. Later measurements, in 1956, gave a result of 221 m. After this several more measurements have been made, each with slightly different results. The width of the falls is 3.6–18 m.
757:. Luangwa Pottery is characteristic of necked pots and shallow bowls, with the most common comb-stamped decoration pressed in a horizontal pattern of delineated lines. There has yet to be found any evidence for an interface between this Luangwa tradition and the Early Iron Age tradition at Kalambo Falls, whereas sites at the
639:
woodworking tools and small, notched and denticulated tools, collected by Clark, were dated to have been made before 41,000 BC. This rapid change is predicted to be a result of population movement during this time period, as the "Acheulean man" who lived in open settlements were replaced by a culture associated with
791:
OSL results have led to the creation of a new chronology for the site, broken into six stages. Stage 1 ranges between approximately 500,000 to 300,000 years ago. Stage 2 ranges from 300,000 to 50,000 years ago. Stage 3 dates range from 50,000 to 30,000 years ago. Stage 4 deposits date to 1,500 to 500
729:
in Zambia is split into an earlier, regionally categorized period and a later period of materialistically differing traditions. Early assemblages of iron tools and pottery have been collected from the
Kalambo Falls and are categorized as being from the Kalambo Group tradition. At Kalambo falls, Early
499:
Clark was able to date this zone to approximately 27,000 to 30,000 years ago, because conditions were comparable to those dated in
European soils from this time. Evidence of an increase in rainfall and a temperature drop of 4.1 °C with a fringing forest that was well developed with the return of
638:
culture. This shift is considered by Clark as a result of an ecological shift to a cooler and wetter climate. It is at this time in the archaeological record that the large, Acheulean handaxe disappears and is replaced by the core axe and chopping tools characteristic of
Sangoan technologies. Heavy
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Clark indicates that the study of this zone was only on one sample drawn from the soil below, so the conclusions are not finite in his study. Plants indicated show a fringing forest that was poorly developed with a very open woodland. Within these woodland conditions, there seems to be an influence
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Today, both human and animal populations traverse the
Kalambo Falls area, which has a basin above the falls that attracts many of both populations as an important stopping place. On the Zambian border, the area is now a game preserve for the protection of many animals. The falls' cliff-face ledges
741:
wares. He indicated that
Kalambo and Mwabulambo pot traditions may also be included in these. David W. Phillipson used these conclusions to form a north to south chronology of artifacts and comprised many of the groups studied by Soper into one, Mwitu tradition. This tradition is exhibited by pots
464:
The bottom of Clark's core sample is the oldest layer. Pollen samples collected indicate that swamp vegetation and an abundance of grass grew on the
Kalambo River. The tests also indicated that the surrounding woodland grew during dry and hot climates. Clark concludes that the ground-water levels
131:
795:
Acheulean stone tools (Mode 2 and 3 technologies) were collected from stratigraphic layers corresponding to the first and second stages. More complex Mode 3 tools came from the first three stages and are also found in Stage 4, whose corresponding layers contain a mix of
670:, stone tools like core axes and double-ended points that were possibly for hafting as spearheads. Geological studies by J.D. Clark indicate that the frequency of these tools is possibly due to factors that exemplified the amount of large pieces of breakable, or
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Kalambo Falls is also considered one of the most important archaeological sites in Africa, with occupation spanning over 447,000 years. In 2023, archaeologists announced the discovery of wooden structures estimated to be 476,000 years old at the falls, predating
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who recognized archaeological activity around a small basin lake upstream of the falls. Excavations in 1953, 1956, 1959, and 1963 allowed Clark to make conclusions about the multiple different cultures inhabiting the area over thousands of years of time.
318:. Two worked wooden beams display evidence that burning was used to create an interlocking wooden structure, possibly a platform by what would have then been a water source for the early hominid residents. This is the earliest known hominid structure.
326:
Archaeologically, Kalambo Falls is one of the most important sites in Africa. It has produced a sequence of past human activity stretching over more than two hundred and fifty thousand years, with evidence of continuous habitation since the Late
485:
Pollen of plants that grow in more open areas with more rainfall were taken from Zone W. This indicates an increase in rainfall to about 75–100 cm and a woodland with an open canopy to allow that rainfall to reach the ground below.
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Archaeologists hypothesize that the technological progression over time can be examined in the morphological characteristics of tools that are associated with different eras of habitation. The earliest identified stone tools, made by
296:, Ethiopia's Jin Bahir Falls and others). Downstream of the falls is the Kalambo Gorge, which has a width of about 1 km and a depth of up to 300 m, running for about 5 km before opening out into the Lake Tanganyika
788:(OSL) on quartz artifacts has recently improved understanding of the site's chronology. OSL works by sending signals through a crystalline material and collects data on how long ago the stone was exposed to light or heat.
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In 1964, the archaeological site was gazetted as a national monument by Zambia's
National Heritage Conservation Commission. It has since been protected under Zambia's 1989 National Heritage Conservation Act.
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as well as the dietary evidence for fruit consumption. Tools excavated from
Kalambo Gorge have been analyzed and OSL dating of quartzite within the soil context to between 500,000 and 50,000 years ago, with
1178:
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Barham, L.; Duller, G. a. T.; Candy, I.; Scott, C.; Cartwright, C. R.; Peterson, J. R.; Kabukcu, C.; Chapot, M. S.; Melia, F.; Rots, V.; George, N.; Taipale, N.; Gethin, P.; Nkombwe, P. (October 2023).
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Barham, L.; Duller, G. a. T.; Candy, I.; Scott, C.; Cartwright, C. R.; Peterson, J. R.; Kabukcu, C.; Chapot, M. S.; Melia, F.; Rots, V.; George, N.; Taipale, N.; Gethin, P.; Nkombwe, P. (2023-09-20).
607:, of which a 300,000 year old skull was found at another Zambian site. The discovery was considered unusual because wood does not usually survive for so long. Archaeologists such as Larry Barham of
710:-speaking people began to farm and occupy the area. These Bantu-speaking people made ceramic vessels that have characteristics of East African pottery, which suggests a population movement from the
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J.D. Clark's work incorporated both questions of the cultures who lived at the
Kalambo Falls site as well as what their environment was like during times of occupation. Using plant (floral) and
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666:. Evidence suggests that the Sangoan tradition was replaced by the Lupemban industry around 250,000 years ago and continued through to 117,000 years ago. It is characterized by two-sided, or
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stone tools, along with hearths and well-preserved organic objects were found at
Kalambo Falls and documented by JD Clark. These organic artifacts collected included a wooden club and
777:. These studies underscore the difficulty in establishing a chronology for human habitation at the falls, which has led some archaeologists to disregard its significance in the
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Pollen collected from the next zone indicate an identical environment with the swamp and woodland vegetation that was not affected by climate conditions, such as the drop of 3°
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in order to observe and analyse the different layers below the surface of the earth today. He separated these layers into 6 different spectra, labeled zones U through Z. The
824:. Justifications for the inclusion are that the Kalambo Falls are the 2nd highest waterfalls in Africa, the evidence of one of the longest examples of human occupation in
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of Zambia exhibit this interrelationship. Exact dates for this transition in the Kalambo area are inconclusive, but the tradition has continued through to the present.
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Evidence of fire technologies, such as hearths, charred logs, reddened clay, and stone heat spalls were also collected and found in association with charcoal remains.
649:, the Sangoan culture. Evidence of Sangoan habitation has been collected from less open Rock Shelters and Cave areas, possibly due to the persisting, wetter climate.
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In 1971, Robert C. Soper studied different assemblages of Iron Age pottery in eastern and southern Africa and consolidated them into two major groups, known as
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so did the technology as more specialized stone tools were being developed, even tools that were used for making other tools, Mode 2 and 3 technologies.
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The cool, wet climates of the region were similar to that of the Congo, and similar cultural practices have been identified at Kalambo Falls, known as
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627:, dated at 280,000 years ago to roughly 40,000 years ago, is the period where the final stages of hominid evolution brought what is known today as "
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is important to note when discussing sedimentary layers; this law states that more recent layers of soil dispersal will overlie older ones.
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611:, one of the discoverers of the wooden structures, believes that wooden tools were potentially even more common than stone tools in the
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tools, and they consist of the basic large pounding stones and small pebble flakes, known as Mode 1 technology. As time progressed and
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Era of Africa, and generally refers to more recent hunter/gatherer sites. Around 10,000 years ago Kalambo Falls was occupied by the
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Attempts to date artifacts from Kalambo Falls have resulted in inconsistent results, ranging from 110,000 years ago with
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1329:"New investigations at Kalambo Falls, Zambia: Luminescence chronology, site formation, and archaeological significance"
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in both Tanzania and Zambia. The expedition which mapped the falls and the area around it was in 1928 and led by
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As of today, Kalambo Falls remains on the tentative list for recognition as a protected World Heritage site.
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The final zone indicates a much poorer fringing forest and a reduced shift of vegetation growth at the time.
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of the scattered charcoal indicate people were using fire systematically there some 60,000 years ago.
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The First Africans: African Archaeology From The Earliest Toolmakers to Most Recent Foragers
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and other wooden artifacts, which were determined to be at least 476,000 years old using
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is described by Barham and Mitchell as the time period where the ancient ancestors of
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as shaft grave burials, which are similar to those of the earlier cultures of the
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Duller, Geoff A.T.; Tooth, Stephen; Barham, Lawrence; Tsukamoto, Sumiko (2015).
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During this time, the Acheulean industry of Kalambo Falls was superseded by the
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Prehistoric Culture and Pleistocene Vegetation at Kalambo Falls, North Rhodesia
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1029:"These ancient whittled logs could be the earliest known wooden structure"
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Iron Age traditions are believed to have continued into the 11th century.
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1431:"Kalambo Falls". Encyclopædia Britannica. Accessed online, 17 June 2006.
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Phillipson, D.W. (1974). "Iron Age History and Archaeology of Zambia".
1142:"'Oldest wooden structure' discovered on border of Zambia and Tanzania"
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Shaw, Thurston; Sinclair, Paul; Andah, Bassey; Okpoko, Alex (1993).
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1446:"Recent excavations at Kalambo Falls, Zambia". Antiquity.ac.uk
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Gordon-Gallien, Enid (1929). "The Kalambo River and Falls".
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to 182,000 ±10,000 to 76,000 ±10,000 years ago with applied
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288:. The falls are some of the tallest uninterrupted falls in
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tradition, whose pottery is similar to the Early Iron Age
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must have been high in order for a swamp and fringing, or
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until modern times. It was first excavated in 1953 by
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Around the fourth century AD, a more industrialized
792:years ago and Stage 5 follows after 490 years ago.
587:In 2023, archaeologists announced the discovery of
500:swamp plants is indicated in the pollen collected.
374:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1311:The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals, and Towns
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601:, so the tools may have potentially been made by
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840:provide nesting places and breeding sites for a
714:. Burials from this period are characterized by
1225:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 117–120.
1208:Clark, JD & Van Zinderen Bakker, EM. 1964.
976:"How Scientists Determine Climates of the Past"
1436:"Kalambo Falls | Wondermondo". Wondermondo.com
1370:"Kalambo Falls – UNESCO World Heritage Centre"
860:
509:
1405:. Zambia Tourism Agency. 2016. Archived from
1313:. London: Routledge Press. pp. 484–485.
1002:Barham, Lawrence and Peter Mitchell (2008).
584:dating some contexts to 100,000 years ago.
16:Waterfalls on the Tanzania and Zambia border
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1006:. Cambridge University Press. p. 16.
547:2.6 million years ago to 280,000 years ago
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742:that range from the first millennium AD.
434:Learn how and when to remove this message
268:is a 235-metre (772 ft) single-drop
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
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340:Pleistocene environmental reconstruction
1516:Archaeological sites of Southern Africa
962:Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site Volume 1
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816:In 2009, Kalambo Falls was included on
1511:Archaeological sites of Eastern Africa
1506:Geography of Northern Province, Zambia
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1047:from the original on 21 September 2023
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745:The Kalambo group was replaced by the
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964:. London: Cambridge University Press.
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1027:Callaway, Ewen (20 September 2023).
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493:of evergreen elements that emerged.
372:adding citations to reliable sources
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1223:African Archaeology. Third Edition
722:as opposed to the Kalambo region.
702:Iron Age and the Luangwa tradition
694:culture which in turn gave way to
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529:first emerged, branching from the
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1368:Centre, UNESCO World Heritage.
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359:needs additional citations for
300:. The Kalambo waterfall is the
34:needs additional citations for
1471:Archaeological sites in Zambia
1268:The Journal of African History
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808:Zambia and UNESCO significance
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1221:Phillipson, David W. (2005).
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1346:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.05.003
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1441:"Kalambo Falls". UNESCO.org
609:the University of Liverpool
510:Culture history of the site
10:
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1333:Journal of Human Evolution
1140:Sample, Ian (2023-09-20).
1081:10.1038/s41586-023-06557-9
1041:10.1038/d41586-023-02928-4
926:10.1038/s41586-023-06557-9
532:Australopithecus afarensis
1280:10.1017/s0021853700013219
595:. The discovery predates
333:John Desmond (J.D.) Clark
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1496:International waterfalls
863:The Geographical Journal
686:is the final age of the
284:at the southeast end of
246:Kalambo Falls (Tanzania)
582:amino acid racemization
1491:Tanzania–Zambia border
1481:Waterfalls of Tanzania
1236:Pavils, Gatis (2011).
779:African archaeological
765:Chronology of the site
292:(after South Africa's
775:uranium series dating
629:modern human behavior
1476:Waterfalls of Zambia
960:Clark, J.D. (1969).
835:Contemporary ecology
822:World Heritage Sites
604:Homo heidelbergensis
526:Homo sapiens sapiens
456:law of superposition
368:improve this article
249:Show map of Tanzania
43:improve this article
869:(1). JSTOR: 28–32.
593:luminescence dating
306:Enid Gordon-Gallien
173: /
826:sub-Saharan Africa
820:list of tentative
755:African Copperbelt
221:Show map of Zambia
177:8.5974°S 31.2396°E
1501:Plunge waterfalls
1013:978-0-521-61265-4
920:(7981): 107–111.
720:East African Rift
674:, raw materials.
654:Radiocarbon dates
642:Homo rhodesiensis
589:wooden structures
479:(C) in the area.
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32:This article
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1407:the original
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1162:. Retrieved
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366:Please help
361:verification
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315:Homo sapiens
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294:Tugela Falls
278:Rukwa Region
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146:Rukwa Region
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41:Please help
36:verification
33:
1339:: 111–125.
1274:(1): 1–25.
804:artifacts.
712:Rift Valley
688:Paleolithic
571:These Late
322:Archaeology
298:rift valley
180: /
156:Coordinates
1455:Categories
1413:2016-12-16
1384:2016-11-09
1252:2016-12-13
1195:2016-11-08
1164:2023-09-20
1126:2023-09-20
985:2023-09-26
848:References
698:activity.
664:industries
647:Kabwe mine
394:newspapers
168:31°14′23″E
69:newspapers
1296:163071964
1154:0261-3077
1116:262084949
1090:1476-4687
980:ThoughtCo
934:1476-4687
883:0016-7398
784:However,
672:knappable
645:found at
613:Stone Age
573:Acheulean
541:and then
270:waterfall
165:8°35′51″S
1378:Archived
1355:26073072
1246:Archived
1158:Archived
1120:Archived
1108:37730994
1099:10550827
1045:Archived
943:10550827
844:colony.
802:Iron Age
781:record.
727:Iron Age
692:Magosian
668:bifacial
661:Lupemban
282:Tanzania
150:Tanzania
138:Location
1074:: 1–5.
891:1784940
747:Luangwa
636:Sangoan
558:Oldowan
477:Celsius
408:scholar
264:on the
83:scholar
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274:Zambia
142:Zambia
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1284:JSTOR
1189:(PDF)
1182:(PDF)
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798:Stone
739:Kwale
735:Urewe
716:Clark
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415:JSTOR
401:books
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1351:PMID
1150:ISSN
1104:PMID
1086:ISSN
1053:2023
1008:ISBN
930:ISSN
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