553:
255:
937:
731:
1146:
616:
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canals, and the larynx, which seemed to be of feminine dimensions. Every trace of olfactory nerves was wanting, and the trigona olfactoria and the furrow on the under surface of the anterior lobes were absent. The perforations of the ethmoid plate were sparingly present, and occupied by nerveless processes of the dura instead of by nerves. In the mucous membrane of the nose there was also an absence of nerves.
607:
476:. This surge is particularly important in infant boys as it helps with testicular descent into the scrotum. The surge of GnRH/LH/FSH in non KS/HH children gives detectable levels of testosterone in boys and oestrogen and progesterone in girls. The lack of this surge can sometimes be used as a diagnostic tool if KS/HH is suspected in a newborn boy, but is not normally distinct enough for diagnosis in girls.
263:
720:
by the age of 16 then the person should be referred for endocrinological review. Post natal diagnosis of KS/CHH before the age of 6 months is sometimes possible as the normal post natal hormonal surge of gonadotropins along with testosterone or oestrogen is absent in babies with KS/CHH. This lack of detectable hormones in the blood can be used as a diagnostic indicator, especially in male infants.
444:(HPG axis) functions normally at birth and well into adult life, giving normal puberty and normal reproductive function. The HPG axis then either fails totally or is reduced to a very low level of GnRH release in adult life with no obvious cause (e.g. a pituitary tumour). This will lead to a fall in testosterone or oestrogen levels and infertility.
456:
congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (CHH) rather than KS cases and only found in people who have undergone some form of testosterone replacement therapy. It is only normally discovered when testicular volume increases while on testosterone treatment alone and testosterone levels return to normal
217:
The condition is more commonly diagnosed in males than in females. A 2011 study of the
Finnish population produced an estimated incidence of 1 in 48,000 people overall, with 1 in 30,000 for males and 1 in 125,000 for females. Kallmann syndrome was first described by name in a paper published in 1944
719:
In males, the use of age appropriate levels of testosterone can help to distinguish between a case of KS/CHH from a case of delayed puberty. If no puberty is apparent, especially no testicular development, then a review by a reproductive endocrinologist may be appropriate. If puberty is not apparent
530:
levels are essential for healthy bone density. Some people with KS/CHH will have their levels checked and may be prescribed extra vitamin D tablets or injections to try to prevent the condition getting worse. The role of vitamin D for general overall health is under close scrutiny at the moment with
1133:
The epidemiology of
Kallmann syndrome is not well understood. Individual studies include a 1986 report reviewing medical records in the Sardinian army which found a prevalence of 1 in 86,000 men and a 2011 report from Finland which found a prevalence of 1:30,000 for males and 1:125,000 for females.
1184:
A case mentioned by Heschl is remarkable, where the absence of both olfactory lobes was accompanied by imperfectly developed genitals. It was the case of a man aged 45, in all respects well developed, with the exception of the testicles, which were not larger than beans and contained no seminal
245:
Kallmann syndrome is caused by mutations in several genes involved in the development of the hypothalamus and olfactory bulbs, including KAL1, FGFR1, FGF8, PROKR2, and PROK2. These mutations disrupt the migration of GnRH-producing neurons from the olfactory placode to the hypothalamus during
507:
Even a short time with low oestrogen or testosterone, as in cases of delayed diagnosis of KS/CHH can lead to an increased risk of developing osteoporosis but other risk factors, such as smoking are involved so the risk of developing it will vary from person to person. Bone density scans are
1021:
For females, hormone replacement involves the use of oestrogen and progesterone. Firstly, oestrogen is used in tablet or gel form in order to maximise breast development, then a combination of oestrogen and progesterone is used. Cyclical progesterone is normally required to help keep the
209:(HRT) is the major form of treatment with the aim to replace the missing testosterone or oestrogen and progesterone. Specialised fertility treatments are also available. The Hormone replacement therapy is used to induce and maintain secondary sexual characteristics and fertility.
1219:, who, along with colleagues, described three family clusters of the syndrome in a 1944 paper, thus confirming a heritable, genetic basis of the syndrome. The cases described by Kallmann et al. also exhibited colour blindness, with some additionally exhibiting mental retardation.
1169:
A 1961 case report by the
Austrian pathologist Richard Ladislaus Heschl noted an association between male hypogonadism (including an unmasculinised larynx, and sparse body and pubic hair) and anatomical absence of the olfactory nerves, bulb, and tract. The case is later cited by
1090:). The time taken to achieve adequate sperm production for natural conception will vary from person to person. If the pre-treatment testes are very small and there has been a history of undescended testes it might take longer to achieve sperm production. In these cases,
196:
in females. Diagnosis normally occurs during teenage years when puberty fails to start. Diagnosis of
Kallmann syndrome is based on clinical evaluation, endocrine testing, and genetic analysis. Hormone levels typically show low levels of sex steroids and gonadotropins.
436:
The exact genetic nature of each particular case of KS/HH will determine which, if any, of the non-reproductive features will occur. The severity of the symptoms will also vary from case to case. Even family members will not show the same range or severity of symptoms.
610:
Shows the normal hormonal control of puberty from the hypothalamus down to the testes or ovaries and their negative feedback mechanisms. The negative feedback control allows just the right amount of hormone to be released according to the needs of the body at that
994:
The method and dose of treatment will vary depending on the individual being treated. Initial treatment is normally made with lower doses in younger patients in order to develop the secondary sexual characteristics before adult doses are reached.
998:
For males with KS/CHH the types of testosterone delivery include daily patches, daily gel use, daily capsules, subcutaneous or intramuscular injections or six-monthly implants. Different formulations of testosterone are used to ensure both the
2840:
Bry-Gauillard H, Trabado S, Bouligand J, Sarfati J, Francou B, Salenave S, Chanson P, Brailly-Tabard S, Guiochon-Mantel A, Young J (May 2010). "Congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism in females: clinical spectrum, evaluation and genetics".
1124:
Reversal cases have been seen in both KS and normosmic CHH but appear to be less common in cases of KS (where the sense of smell is also affected). Reversal is not always permanent and the precise genetic causes are not yet fully understood.
560:
To date at least 25 different genes have been implicated in causing
Kallmann syndrome or other forms of hypogonadotropic hypogonadism through a disruption in the production or activity of GnRH (37). These genes involved cover all forms of
1113:. Ovulation induction can be achieved either with pulsatile GnRH therapy or alternatively with gonadotropin injections (hCG, FSH, hMG) given at set intervals to trigger the maturation and release of the egg for natural conception.
1059:
Standard hormone replacement therapy will not normally induce fertility in either males or females, with no testicular growth in males. Early treatment as adolescents can help with psychological well-being of people with KS/CHH.
711:
Diagnosing KS and other forms of CHH is complicated by the difficulties in distinguishing between a normal constitutional delay of puberty or a case of KS/CHH. The diagnosis is often one of exclusion found during the workup of
451:
Some cases of KS/HH appear to reverse during adult life where the HPG axis resumes its normal function and GnRH, LH, and FSH levels return to normal levels. This occurs in an estimated 10 to 22% of people, primarily cases of
375:) or markedly reduced sense of smell (hyposmia). This is the defining feature of Kallmann syndrome; it is not seen in other cases of HH. Approximately 50% of HH cases occur with anosmia and can be termed as Kallmann syndrome.
460:
Affected individuals with KS and other forms of HH are almost invariably born with normal sexual differentiation; i.e., they are physically male or female. This is due to the human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) produced by
663:
in females. Hypogonadism can occur through a number of different mechanisms. The use of the term hypogonadotropic relates to the fact that the hypogonadism found in HH is caused by a disruption in the production of the
1278:
is a protein that regulates the release of GnRH from the hypothalamus, which in turn regulates the release of LH and, to a lesser extent, FSH from the anterior pituitary gland. Kisspeptin and its associated receptor
639:. The term isolated GnRH deficiency (IGD) has increasingly been used to describe this group of conditions as it highlights the primary cause of these conditions and distinguishes them from other conditions such as
3399:
3384:
971:
treatment. Females with KS/CHH normally do not require any treatment before adolescence. Currently, no treatments exist for the lack of sense of smell, mirror movement of the hands or the absence of one kidney.
703:. From there they migrate to what will become the hypothalamus. Any problems with the development of the olfactory nerve fibres will prevent the progression of the GnRH releasing neurons towards the brain.
447:
Functional hypothalamic amenorrhoea is seen in females where the HPG axis is suppressed in response to physical or psychological stress or malnutrition but is reversible with the removal of the stressor.
1508:
Boehm U, Bouloux PM, Dattani MT, de Roux N, Dodé C, Dunkel L, Dwyer AA, Giacobini P, Hardelin JP, Juul A, Maghnie M, Pitteloud N, Prevot V, Raivio T, Tena-Sempere M, Quinton R, Young J (September 2015).
754:
of sexual development. (Males with KS/CHH are normally at stage I or II with genitalia, females at stage I with breast development and both males and females at stage III with pubic hair development).
1283:
are known to be involved in the regulation of puberty. Studies have shown there is potential for kisspeptin to be used in the diagnosis and treatment of certain cases of
Kallmann syndrome and CHH.
1854:
Maestre de San Juan, Aureliano (1856). "Teratolagia: falta total de los nervios olfactorios con anosmia en un individuo en quien existia una atrofia congenita de los testiculos y miembro viril".
572:
The number of genes known to cause cases of KS/CHH is still increasing. In addition it is thought that some cases of KS/CHH are caused by two separate gene defects occurring at the same time.
575:
Individual gene defects can be associated with specific symptoms which can help in identifying which genes to test for. Between 35 and 45% of cases of KS/CHH have an unknown genetic cause.
2965:"GENETICS IN ENDOCRINOLOGY: Genetic counseling for congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism and Kallmann syndrome: new challenges in the era of oligogenism and next-generation sequencing"
1018:(hCG) injections, with or without the use of FSH, can also be used in male patients to induce secondary sexual characteristic development alongside possible fertility induction.
278:. However, if puberty has not started by either age 14 (girls) or 15 (boys) years and one or more of the non-reproductive features mentioned below is present, then a referral to
684:
inside the hypothalamus. HH can occur as an isolated condition with just the LH and FSH production being affected or it can occur in combined pituitary deficiency conditions.
975:
Treatment for both males and females with KS/CHH normally consists of one of three options which can be used for both hormone replacement therapy and/or fertility treatment.
3683:
2876:
Bouvattier C, Maione L, Bouligand J, Dodé C, Guiochon-Mantel A, Young J (October 2011). "Neonatal gonadotropin therapy in male congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism".
519:
picture of the spine and hips and measuring the bone mineral density and comparing the result to the average value for a young healthy adult in the general population.
3004:
Sidhoum VF, Chan YM, Lippincott MF, Balasubramanian R, Quinton R, Plummer L, Dwyer A, Pitteloud N, Hayes FJ, Hall JE, Martin KA, Boepple PA, Seminara SB (March 2014).
1201:
In 1914, Franz
Weidenreich performed autopsies on cadavers of 10 people who had had anosmia, uncovering hypogonadism in three and postulating a syndromic association.
4175:
1996:
Mitchell AL, Dwyer A, Pitteloud N, Quinton R (July 2011). "Genetic basis and variable phenotypic expression of
Kallmann syndrome: towards a unifying theory".
4392:
274:
It is normally difficult to distinguish a case of
Kallmann syndrome (KS)/hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (HH) from a straightforward constitutional delay of
775:
691:
migrate from their original source in the nasal region and end up inside the hypothalamus. These neurons originate in an area of the developing head, the
738:
Diagnosis of KS/CHH normal involves a range of clinical, biochemical and radiological tests to exclude other conditions that can cause similar symptoms.
700:
635:
The underlying cause of
Kallmann syndrome or other forms of hypogonadotropic hypogonadism is a failure in the correct action of the hypothalamic hormone
4311:
2480:
Vezzoli V, Duminuco P, Bassi I, Guizzardi F, Persani L, Bonomi M (June 2016). "The complex genetic basis of congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism".
1082:. Sperm production can be achieved through either the use of GnRH administered via a microinfusion pump or through the use of gonadotropin injections (
5096:
4718:
1713:
Lima Amato LG, Latronico AC, Gontijo Silveira LF (June 2017). "Molecular and Genetic Aspects of Congenital Isolated Hypogonadotropic Hypogonadism".
4031:
3676:
1071:
Pulsatile GnRH therapy can also be used to induce fertility, especially in females, but its use is limited to a few specialist treatment centres.
3735:
1166:
who described a 40-year old male who, upon autopsy, exhibited absent olfactory bulbs, undeveloped testicles, micropenis, and lack of pubic hair.
3568:
1045:(PSA). If injections are used, trough levels are taken to ensure an adequate level of testosterone is achieved throughout the injection cycle.
940:
Testosterone gel sachets, Testosterone undecanoate injection (Nebido), Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) injection, Menotropin injection (hMG)
4774:
4638:
1511:"Expert consensus document: European Consensus Statement on congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism--pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment"
4674:
4485:
3776:
1223:
1137:
Kallmann syndrome occurs about 4 times more often in males than females, but is only 2.5 times more common among males in familial cases.
5101:
4192:
3669:
4188:
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4534:
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1247:
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2328:"Male Hypogonadism and Osteoporosis: The Effects, Clinical Consequences, and Treatment of Testosterone Deficiency in Bone Health"
547:
4981:
4863:
2813:
Dwyer AA, Jayasena CN, Quinton R (June 2016). "Congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism: implications of absent mini-puberty".
1254:
472:
People with KS/HH lack the surge of GnRH, LH, and FSH that normally occurs between birth and six months of age, referred to as
552:
4900:
4643:
4619:
4229:
4096:
2748:
4072:
3212:"Reproduction, smell, and neurodevelopmental disorders: genetic defects in different hypogonadotropic hypogonadal syndromes"
2428:"Reproduction, smell, and neurodevelopmental disorders: genetic defects in different hypogonadotropic hypogonadal syndromes"
647:
which share some similar symptoms but have a different etiology. The term hypogonadism describes a low level of circulating
457:
when treatment is stopped. This type of KS/HH rarely occurs in cases where males have had a history of un-descended testes.
285:
The features of KS and other forms of HH can be split into two different categories; "reproductive" and "non-reproductive".
4976:
4554:
4417:
4332:
4294:
3889:
3866:
3006:"Reversal and relapse of hypogonadotropic hypogonadism: resilience and fragility of the reproductive neuroendocrine system"
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3985:
3957:
3941:
3414:
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and general wellbeing. In males, testosterone replacement therapy is required for the maintenance of normal muscle mass.
582:
gene defect (previously known as KAL-1) was the first one discovered and the one most commonly tested for. It causes the
441:
440:
KS/HH is most often present from birth but adult onset versions are found in both males and females. In those cases, the
144:. To distinguish it from other forms of hypogonadotropic hypogonadism, Kallmann syndrome has the additional symptom of a
4609:
3561:
2720:
515:
scan (DEXA or DXA scan). It is a simple test, taking less than 15 minutes to perform. It involves taking a specialised
4067:
4853:
4679:
4404:
4180:
3740:
2189:
2138:
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testosterone delivery methods have been developed but their use in KS/CHH treatment has not been formally evaluated.
531:
some researchers claiming vitamin D deficiency is prevalent in many populations and can be linked to other diseases.
4895:
2248:"Bone mineral density, body composition and bone turnover in patients with congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism"
4824:
4759:
4478:
4265:
4253:
2287:
Wimalawansa SJ, Razzaque DM, Al-Daghri NM (December 2017). "Calcium and Vitamin D in Human Health: Hype or Real?".
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Gonadotropin therapy can be used in both male and female patients in order to achieve fertility for some people.
4986:
4928:
4508:
4203:
4047:
4019:
3808:
1087:
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Early treatment is sometimes required for male infants with suspected KS/CHH to correct undescended testes and
4789:
5010:
4524:
4387:
4350:
3634:
3554:
1163:
234:
141:
5116:
5106:
4529:
4316:
3099:"Kallmann Syndrome and Idiopathic Hypogonadotropic Hypogonadism: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology"
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in the brains of men with hypogonadism, proving that anosmia resulted from agenesis of the olfactory bulb.
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1015:
815:
677:
334:
279:
606:
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4991:
4885:
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1651:"Pulsatile Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Treatment of Men with Idiopathic Hypogonadotropic Hypogonadism"
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206:
104:
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Lack of testicle development in men (size < 4 ml, whereas the normal range is between 12 and 25 ml).
254:
2207:"Treatment of isolated hypogonadotropic hypogonadism effect on bone mineral density and bone turnover"
1448:
Balasubramanian R, Crowley WF Jr (2017). "Isolated Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) Deficiency".
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Teixeira L, Guimiot F, Dodé C, Fallet-Bianco C, Millar RP, Delezoide AL, Hardelin JP (October 2010).
1042:
598:. This defect is thought to be responsible for between 5 and 10% of all Kallmann syndrome/CHH cases.
3119:
1053:
168:. A range of other physical symptoms affecting the face, hands and skeletal system can also occur.
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Kallmann FJ, Schönfeld WA, Barrera SE (1943–1944). "The genetic aspects of primary eunuchoidism".
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Valdes-Socin H, Rubio Almanza M, Tomé Fernández-Ladreda M, Debray FG, Bours V, Beckers A (2014).
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Valdes-Socin H, Rubio Almanza M, Tomé Fernández-Ladreda M, Debray FG, Bours V, Beckers A (2014).
1968:
McCabe MJ, Bancalari RE, Dattani MT (February 2014). "Diagnosis and evaluation of hypogonadism".
71:
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Psychopathia Sexualis: With Especial Reference to Contrary Sexual Instinct: A Medico-Legal Study
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Laitinen EM, Vaaralahti K, Tommiska J, Eklund E, Tervaniemi M, Valanne L, Raivio T (June 2011).
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Maione L, Dwyer AA, Francou B, Guiochon-Mantel A, Binart N, Bouligand J, Young J (March 2018).
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In males, the monitoring of treatment normally requires the measurement of serum testosterone,
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The link between anosmia and hypogonadism was noted already in 1856 by the Spanish physician
504:. Overall this can lead to weakened, fragile bones which have a higher tendency to fracture.
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2044:
1882:"Congenital Hypogonadotropic Hypogonadism and Kallmann Syndrome: Past, Present, and Future"
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1562:"Sesquicentenary of the first Chair of Histology in Spain. Aureliano Maestre of San Juan"
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One possible side effect of having KS/CHH is the increased risk of developing secondary
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3311:
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3211:
3030:
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2558:"Defective migration of neuroendocrine GnRH cells in human arrhinencephalic conditions"
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2125:. Documenta Ophthalmologica Proceedings Series. Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 201–207.
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1750:"Incidence, phenotypic features and molecular genetics of Kallmann syndrome in Finland"
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1372:. National Institutes for Health. Genetic and Rare Diseases Information. June 26, 2016
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233:. The link between anosmia and hypogonadism had already been noted by Spanish doctor
38:
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2025:
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For both males and females, the initial aim for treatment is the development of the
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3312:"Kisspeptin and the hypothalamic control of reproduction: lessons from the human"
2921:"What is the optimal therapy for young males with hypogonadotropic hypogonadism?"
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while discussing the role of olfaction in the physiology of the sexual response:
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is required for both males and females to maintain sexual function, bone health,
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713:
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426:
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2766:"Adolescent development: advice in ABC of adolescence is potentially misleading"
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National Institutes for Health. US Library of Medicine. Genetics Home Reference
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2009:
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In females monitoring normally consists of measurement of oestrogen, FSH, LH,
727:
normally have to be investigated first before a case of KS/CHH is considered.
695:, that will give rise to the olfactory epithelium; they then pass through the
453:
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Gonadotropin therapy (medications that replicate the activity of FSH and LH).
936:
327:
227:
43:
3278:
2889:
2650:"Approach to the male patient with congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism"
2605:
Pitteloud N (December 2012). "Managing delayed or altered puberty in boys".
2088:
1527:
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1300:
680:(FSH). Failure in GnRH activity can otherwise be due to the absence of the
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form of Kallmann syndrome and is associated with the additional symptoms of
565:
and no one gene defect has been shown to be common to all cases which makes
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4272:
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3585:
3345:
3296:
3247:
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3055:"MANAGEMENT OF ENDOCRINE DISEASE: Reversible hypogonadotropic hypogonadism"
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The genetic and molecular basis of idiopathic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism
493:
492:. Oestrogen (females) or testosterone (males) is essential for maintaining
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473:
395:
382:
378:
352:
344:
340:
305:
193:
185:
181:
176:
The underlying cause is a failure in the correct production or activity of
165:
157:
108:
76:
2232:
496:. Deficiency in either testosterone or oestrogen can increase the rate of
4494:
3626:
3327:
3021:
2666:
2649:
2394:
1038:
1023:
724:
688:
681:
562:
358:
301:
267:
60:
3376:
3071:
3054:
2981:
2964:
1626:
1609:
1537:
1121:
Reversal of symptoms has been reported in between 10% and 22% of cases.
4043:
3546:
2739:
Jockenhovel F (2004). "Chapter 3: Diagnostic work up of hypogonadism".
2246:
Laitinen EM, Hero M, Vaaralahti K, Tommiska J, Raivio T (August 2012).
1650:
1275:
1238:
The terminology used when describing cases of HH vary and can include:
1216:
1004:
979:
Sex hormone replacement (testosterone or oestrogen & progesterone).
960:
922:
591:
489:
405:
314:
230:
133:
86:
3263:"The kisspeptin-GnRH pathway in human reproductive health and disease"
2618:
1666:
1301:"Antimullerian Hormone in Patients with Hypogonadotropic Hypogonadism"
730:
723:
In females, diagnosis is sometimes further delayed as other causes of
627:
4463:
4260:
4248:
4224:
3526:
2573:
1049:
1034:
896:
865:
842:
831:
827:
785:
656:
527:
466:
399:
348:
161:
3003:
2839:
2706:
2704:
1145:
1105:
In females with KS/CHH, infertility is primarily due to the lack of
4378:
4212:
4084:
1712:
1000:
768:
583:
538:
to preserve bone mass, in addition to hormone replacement therapy.
462:
422:
189:
149:
3362:
National Organisation for Rare Diseases page on Kallmann syndrome.
3166:
Krafft-Ebing, R. von (Richard); Chaddock, Charles Gilbert (1893).
1074:
In males with KS/CHH, infertility is primarily due to the lack of
615:
136:
disorder that prevents a person from starting or fully completing
3449:
2962:
2701:
1209:
1110:
948:
normally seen at puberty. Once this has been achieved, continued
587:
523:
372:
275:
258:
19 year old with Kallmann syndrome before diagnosis and treatment
223:
145:
137:
64:
56:
3485:
3482:
3479:
3476:
3473:
3470:
3467:
3464:
3461:
3458:
3455:
3452:
3446:
3443:
3440:
3437:
3434:
3431:
3428:
3425:
3422:
3419:
2555:
1747:
4424:
4130:
4088:
3388:
1280:
1079:
1027:
953:
2245:
1814:
699:, along with the fibres of the olfactory nerves, and into the
469:(pregnancy) which is normally unaffected by having KS or CHH.
262:
140:. Kallmann syndrome is a form of a group of conditions termed
4942:
4436:
4412:
4038:
3838:
3803:
2875:
2479:
1995:
1801:
1226:
and Gauthier reported the partial or complete absence of the
1075:
881:
516:
2286:
687:
In the first 10 weeks of normal embryonic development, the
4938:
4779:
4399:
4323:
4299:
3929:
3884:
3138:"Isolated Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) Deficiency"
2711:
Jones H, ed. (2008). "Chapter 9: Puberty & Fertility".
2147:
636:
579:
177:
3260:
1507:
837:
GnRH and/or hCG stimulation test to determine activity of
2734:
2732:
2289:
The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
2120:
914:
888:
534:
Some people with severe osteoporosis might be prescribed
391:
Absence of one of the kidneys (unilateral renal agenesis)
2691:"The Smallest Kid in School: Evaluating Delayed Puberty"
205:
Lifelong treatment for both sexes is normally required.
2051:. National Organisation for Rare Disorders (NORD). 2012
1829:
1827:
1825:
1823:
1821:
1819:
1817:
798:
Checking for mirror movements of the hands or signs of
3691:
3135:
2729:
1967:
1447:
4393:
Junctional epidermolysis bullosa with pyloric atresia
1715:
Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America
1648:
152:. If left untreated, people will have poorly defined
3366:
3165:
3052:
3010:
The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism
2812:
2654:
The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism
2383:
The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism
2211:
The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism
776:
University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test
270:(r), whose unusual voice was due to Kallman syndrome
1853:
1610:"Transition in endocrinology: induction of puberty"
3182:
2325:
2069:
1305:Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
2682:
2509:"Genetic counseling for isolated GnRH deficiency"
2072:"The eye as a window to rare endocrine disorders"
1649:Christiansen, Peter; Skakkebæk, Niels E. (2002).
508:recommended to monitor the bone mineral density.
184:. This results in low levels of the sex hormones
5083:
4032:Congenital insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis
2958:
2956:
2475:
2473:
2379:"Clinical genetic testing for Kallmann syndrome"
1503:
1501:
1499:
1497:
1495:
1493:
1491:
1489:
1487:
1443:
1441:
1439:
1437:
1435:
1433:
1431:
1429:
1427:
1425:
1423:
1421:
1419:
1417:
1415:
1413:
1411:
1409:
1407:
891:to rule out any structural abnormalities in the
757:Checking for micropenis and undescended testes (
500:while at the same time slowing down the rate of
311:Poorly defined secondary sexual characteristics.
4685:Danon disease/glycogen storage disease Type IIb
3261:Skorupskaite K, George JT, Anderson RA (2014).
3136:Balasubramanian R, Crowley WF (March 2, 2017).
2204:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1708:
1706:
1704:
1702:
1700:
1698:
1696:
1694:
1692:
1603:
1601:
1599:
1597:
1485:
1483:
1481:
1479:
1477:
1475:
1473:
1471:
1469:
1467:
1405:
1403:
1401:
1399:
1397:
1395:
1393:
1391:
1389:
1387:
1370:Genetics Home Reference. US Library of Medicine
774:Checking sense of smell using odorant panel or
3309:
3183:De Morsier G, Gauthier G (November 1963). "".
3131:
3129:
2121:Jaffe MJ, Sherins RJ, de Monasterio F (1989).
2076:Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism
989:
16:Genetic disorder which delays or stops puberty
4790:Color blindness (red and green, but not blue)
4775:Alpha-thalassemia mental retardation syndrome
4479:
3677:
3562:
3254:
3176:
3053:Dwyer AA, Raivio T, Pitteloud N (June 2016).
3046:
2953:
2806:
2757:
2598:
2549:
2506:
2500:
2470:
2419:
2370:
2319:
2280:
2205:Guo CY, Jones TH, Eastell R (February 1997).
1961:
1797:
1795:
1741:
1607:
1260:normosmic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (nHH)
906:Ultrasound of kidneys to rule out unilateral
212:
4675:Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency
3777:Gonadotropin-releasing hormone insensitivity
2912:
2869:
2833:
2641:
2239:
1984:
1928:
1689:
1594:
1464:
1384:
394:Skeletal defects including split hand/foot (
365:
4193:Congenital amegakaryocytic thrombocytopenia
3126:
2738:
2507:Au MG, Crowley WF, Buck CL (October 2011).
2198:
1875:
1873:
1871:
1869:
795:Checking for pigmentation of skin and hair.
767:Checking for breast development and age at
747:Comparing height to standard growth charts.
398:), shortened middle finger (metacarpal) or
294:Failure to start or fully complete puberty.
4486:
4472:
4278:Autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome 1A
3761:Follicle-stimulating hormone insensitivity
3684:
3670:
3569:
3555:
3303:
2918:
2070:Chopra R, Chander A, Jacob JJ (May 2012).
1849:
1847:
1792:
784:Checking for missing teeth or presence of
4535:X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency
4442:X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency
4218:TNF receptor associated periodic syndrome
3335:
3286:
3237:
3227:
3092:
3090:
3070:
3029:
2980:
2936:
2789:
2665:
2604:
2581:
2532:
2453:
2443:
2402:
2353:
2343:
2263:
2222:
2184:. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 136.
2097:
2087:
1905:
1775:
1765:
1625:
1577:
1536:
1526:
1316:
1193:, Charles Gilbert Chaddock (translator),
814:Early morning hormonal testing including
5097:Syndromes affecting the endocrine system
3576:
3310:George JT, Seminara SB (November 2012).
2179:
1931:"Clinical genetics of Kallmann syndrome"
1866:
1248:congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism
1144:
935:
729:
614:
605:
551:
526:levels and, probably, more importantly,
288:
261:
253:
171:
164:and are at increased risk of developing
4929:X-linked nephrogenic diabetes insipidus
4854:Hypohidrotic ectodermal dysplasia (EDA)
4230:Selective immunoglobulin A deficiency 2
3821:Aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease
3097:Tritos, Nicholas A (October 10, 2016).
2763:
2688:
1844:
1559:
1063:
868:to check for chromosomal abnormalities.
548:Genetics of GnRH deficiency conditions.
432:Increased incidence of color-blindness
385:or other midline cranio-facial defects.
5084:
4864:X-linked endothelial corneal dystrophy
4507:
4493:
4405:EDAR hypohidrotic ectodermal dysplasia
4333:Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy 4
3890:Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy 1
3096:
3087:
2376:
1998:Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism
1929:Dodé, C.; Hardelin, J.-P. (May 2010).
1255:isolated hypogonadotropic hypogonadism
1007:effects of testosterone are achieved.
963:if present with the use or surgery or
569:and inheritance prediction difficult.
5009:
5008:
4820:Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease (CMTX2-3)
4644:Ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency
4620:X-linked adrenal hypoplasia congenita
4506:
4467:
4097:Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia
4073:Persistent MĂĽllerian duct syndrome II
3844:Jansen's metaphyseal chondrodysplasia
3665:
3550:
3161:
3159:
3144:. University of Washington, Seattle.
2710:
2647:
2562:The Journal of Clinical Investigation
2326:Golds G, Houdek D, Arnason T (2017).
1298:
1014:Gonadotropin therapy, in the form of
249:
119:1:30,000 (males), 1:125,000 (females)
4555:X-linked lymphoproliferative disease
4525:Chronic granulomatous disease (CYBB)
4418:Nevoid basal-cell carcinoma syndrome
3867:Familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia
2997:
2513:Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology
511:The bone density scan is known as a
414:Poor balance or coordination due to
4901:Emery–Dreifuss muscular dystrophy 1
4181:Surfactant metabolism dysfunction 4
2689:Lee PA, Houk CP (August 13, 2012).
1879:
442:hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis
13:
5102:Cell surface receptor deficiencies
4610:Spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy
4430:BMPR1A juvenile polyposis syndrome
4351:LDLR Familial hypercholesterolemia
3156:
2252:International Journal of Andrology
874:
668:hormones normally released by the
601:
14:
5128:
4680:Pyruvate dehydrogenase deficiency
3741:Luteinizing hormone insensitivity
3355:
3059:European Journal of Endocrinology
2969:European Journal of Endocrinology
1754:Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases
1614:European Journal of Endocrinology
1608:Dunkel L, Quinton R (June 2014).
741:
323:(undescended testicles) at birth.
4760:X-linked intellectual disability
3809:Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus 1
2938:10.1111/j.1365-2265.2009.03746.x
2919:Han TS, Bouloux PM (June 2010).
2715:. Oxford Endocrinology Library.
2265:10.1111/j.1365-2605.2011.01237.x
1100:intracytoplasmic sperm injection
1094:, such as sperm retrieval using
1092:assisted reproductive technology
946:secondary sexual characteristics
781:Checking for hearing impairment.
513:dual energy X-ray absorptiometry
465:at approximately 12 to 20 weeks
154:secondary sexual characteristics
4606:Androgen insensitivity syndrome
3749:Male-limited precocious puberty
3203:
2776:(7494): 789, author reply 789.
2173:
2114:
2063:
1970:Pediatric Endocrinology Reviews
1922:
1655:Hormone Research in Paediatrics
1128:
479:
4982:Simpson–Golabi–Behmel syndrome
4136:Leber's congenital amaurosis 1
4048:Gastrointestinal stromal tumor
3617:Tertiary adrenal insufficiency
2713:Testosterone Deficiency in Men
2182:Pediatric Endocrinology E-Book
1642:
1553:
1292:
1233:
931:
371:Total lack of sense of smell (
178:gonadotropin-releasing hormone
1:
4951:AMELX Amelogenesis imperfecta
4891:Centronuclear myopathy (MTM1)
4588:X-linked sideroblastic anemia
3635:Neurogenic diabetes insipidus
2878:Nature Reviews. Endocrinology
2123:Colour Vision Deficiencies IX
1515:Nature Reviews. Endocrinology
1286:
1164:Aureliano Maestre de San Juan
1153:
899:and to check for presence of
235:Aureliano Maestre de San Juan
142:hypogonadotropic hypogonadism
33:Kallmann's hereditary anosmia
4977:Smith–Fineman–Myers syndrome
4825:Pelizaeus–Merzbacher disease
4719:Purine–pyrimidine metabolism
2131:10.1007/978-94-009-2695-0_24
1972:. 11 Suppl 2 (Feb): 214–29.
1886:Endocrinology and Metabolism
1116:
1016:human chorionic gonadotropin
808:
764:Measuring testicular volume.
706:
678:follicle stimulating hormone
280:reproductive endocrinologist
200:
146:total lack of sense of smell
7:
5067:Craniofrontonasal dysplasia
4992:Nasodigitoacoustic syndrome
4540:X-linked agammaglobulinemia
3729:Congenital hypothyroidism 1
2297:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.009
1270:
1109:of eggs located within the
1102:(ICSI), might be required.
1096:testicular sperm extraction
990:Hormone replacement therapy
950:hormone replacement therapy
541:
408:(mirror movements of hands)
240:
207:Hormone replacement therapy
105:Hormone replacement therapy
10:
5133:
5062:Orofaciodigital syndrome 1
4896:Conradi–Hünermann syndrome
4649:Oculocerebrorenal syndrome
4388:Glanzmann's thrombasthenia
4368:Immunoglobulin superfamily
4020:Rabson–Mendenhall syndrome
3702:G protein-coupled receptor
3216:Frontiers in Endocrinology
2855:10.1016/j.ando.2010.02.024
2432:Frontiers in Endocrinology
1947:10.1016/j.ando.2010.02.005
1204:The syndrome is named for
1140:
545:
411:Missing teeth (hypodontia)
213:Epidemiology & History
5022:X-linked hypophosphatemia
5017:
5004:
4959:
4937:
4909:
4882:Becker muscular dystrophy
4872:
4838:
4749:
4628:
4596:
4568:
4545:Hyper-IgM syndrome type 1
4515:
4502:
4360:
4287:
4242:Hyper-IgM syndrome type 3
4202:
4149:
4120:
4057:
3919:
3903:
3876:
3853:
3830:
3715:
3700:
3643:
3625:
3607:
3584:
3517:
3370:
3267:Human Reproduction Update
2525:10.1016/j.mce.2011.05.041
2010:10.1016/j.tem.2011.03.002
1898:10.3803/EnM.2015.30.4.456
1727:10.1016/j.ecl.2017.01.010
1579:10.15568/am.2024.818.ed01
1263:hypothalamic hypogonadism
1043:prostate-specific antigen
388:Neural hearing impairment
366:Non-reproductive features
115:
100:
92:
82:
70:
49:
37:
29:
24:
4987:Mohr–Tranebjærg syndrome
4530:Wiskott–Aldrich syndrome
4317:Cenani–Lenz syndactylism
4159:Type I cytokine receptor
3797:Hirschsprung's disease 2
3599:Adiposogenital dystrophy
3229:10.3389/fendo.2014.00109
2843:Annales d'Endocrinologie
2782:10.1136/bmj.330.7494.789
2764:Quinton R (April 2005).
2445:10.3389/fendo.2014.00109
1935:Annales d'Endocrinologie
1880:Kim SH (December 2015).
1299:Young, J. (1999-08-01).
1266:olfacto-genital syndrome
1191:Richard von Krafft-Ebing
1172:Richard von Krafft-Ebing
800:neurodevelopmental delay
670:anterior pituitary gland
160:, almost invariably are
5027:Focal dermal hypoplasia
4741:Occipital horn syndrome
4670:Carbohydrate metabolism
3999:Thanatophoric dysplasia
3793:Waardenburg syndrome 4a
2890:10.1038/nrendo.2011.164
2815:Minerva Endocrinologica
2482:Minerva Endocrinologica
2180:Sperling, Mark (2014).
2089:10.4103/2230-8210.95659
1528:10.1038/nrendo.2015.112
985:GnRH pulsatile therapy.
317:in 5-10% of male cases.
246:embryonic development.
5112:Rare genetic syndromes
5092:Hypothalamus disorders
5042:Incontinentia pigmenti
4849:Dyskeratosis congenita
4693:Lipid storage disorder
4615:KAL1 Kallmann syndrome
4453:cell surface receptors
4305:Donnai–Barrow syndrome
3979:Jackson–Weiss syndrome
3967:Antley–Bixler syndrome
3951:KAL2 Kallmann syndrome
3905:Enzyme-linked receptor
3745:Leydig cell hypoplasia
3651:Hypothalamic hamartoma
3185:Pathologie et Biologie
3114:Cite journal requires
2925:Clinical Endocrinology
2648:Young J (March 2012).
2377:Layman LC (May 2013).
2224:10.1210/jcem.82.2.3758
1767:10.1186/1750-1172-6-41
1318:10.1210/jcem.84.8.5972
1199:
1159:
1078:production within the
1054:anti-MĂĽllerian hormone
941:
884:to determine bone age.
735:
689:GnRH releasing neurons
682:GnRH releasing neurons
632:
619:The structure of GNRH1
612:
557:
271:
259:
150:reduced sense of smell
4765:Coffin–Lowry syndrome
4706:Mucopolysaccharidosis
3765:XX gonadal dysgenesis
3693:Cell surface receptor
3279:10.1093/humupd/dmu009
1195:Psychopathia Sexualis
1182:
1177:Psychopathia Sexualis
1148:
939:
733:
618:
609:
555:
546:Further information:
343:due to low levels of
289:Reproductive features
265:
257:
172:Cause & Diagnosis
5057:Lujan–Fryns syndrome
4724:Lesch–Nyhan syndrome
4662:Adrenoleukodystrophy
4560:Properdin deficiency
4111:Loeys–Dietz syndrome
3578:Hypothalamic disease
3328:10.1210/en.2012-1429
3022:10.1210/jc.2013-2809
2667:10.1210/jc.2011-1664
2395:10.1210/jc.2013-1624
2345:10.1155/2017/4602129
1560:Garrosa, M. (2024).
1206:Franz Josef Kallmann
1064:Fertility treatments
641:Klinefelter syndrome
421:Eye defects such as
282:might be advisable.
220:Franz Josef Kallmann
5117:Intersex variations
5107:Pituitary disorders
4859:X-linked ichthyosis
3072:10.1530/EJE-15-1033
2982:10.1530/EJE-17-0749
2743:. Uni-Med Science.
2695:Medscape Pediatrics
2155:"Kallmann syndrome"
2045:"Kallmann syndrome"
1627:10.1530/EJE-13-0894
1366:"Kallmann syndrome"
913:Bone density scan (
860:inflammation marker
734:Tanner scale-female
674:luteinising hormone
5032:Fragile X syndrome
4842:and related tissue
4509:X-linked recessive
4081:TGF beta receptors
3518:External resources
1160:
942:
736:
633:
613:
558:
326:Low levels of the
304:(failure to start
272:
260:
250:Signs and symptoms
65:inability to smell
55:Absent or delayed
5079:
5078:
5075:
5074:
5011:X-linked dominant
5000:
4999:
4960:No primary system
4461:
4460:
4145:
4144:
3995:Hypochondroplasia
3971:Pfeiffer syndrome
3947:Pfeiffer syndrome
3899:
3898:
3659:
3658:
3594:Kallmann syndrome
3544:
3543:
2750:978-3-89599-748-8
2741:Male Hypogonadism
2619:10.1136/bmj.e7913
1667:10.1159/000057944
1566:Actualidad Medica
1450:SourceGeneReviews
1150:Franz J. Kallmann
880:Performing wrist
701:rostral forebrain
693:olfactory placode
126:Kallmann syndrome
123:
122:
25:Kallmann syndrome
19:Medical condition
5124:
5037:Aicardi syndrome
5006:
5005:
4504:
4503:
4488:
4481:
4474:
4465:
4464:
4015:Donohue syndrome
3975:Crouzon syndrome
3935:Robinow syndrome
3917:
3916:
3713:
3712:
3686:
3679:
3672:
3663:
3662:
3571:
3564:
3557:
3548:
3547:
3368:
3367:
3350:
3349:
3339:
3307:
3301:
3300:
3290:
3258:
3252:
3251:
3241:
3231:
3207:
3201:
3200:
3180:
3174:
3173:
3163:
3154:
3153:
3133:
3124:
3123:
3117:
3112:
3110:
3102:
3094:
3085:
3084:
3074:
3050:
3044:
3043:
3033:
3001:
2995:
2994:
2984:
2960:
2951:
2950:
2940:
2916:
2910:
2909:
2873:
2867:
2866:
2837:
2831:
2830:
2810:
2804:
2803:
2793:
2761:
2755:
2754:
2736:
2727:
2726:
2708:
2699:
2698:
2686:
2680:
2679:
2669:
2645:
2639:
2638:
2613:(Dec 3): e7913.
2602:
2596:
2595:
2585:
2574:10.1172/JCI43699
2553:
2547:
2546:
2536:
2504:
2498:
2497:
2477:
2468:
2467:
2457:
2447:
2423:
2417:
2416:
2406:
2374:
2368:
2367:
2357:
2347:
2332:Int J Endocrinol
2323:
2317:
2316:
2291:. Dec 16: 4–14.
2284:
2278:
2277:
2267:
2243:
2237:
2236:
2226:
2202:
2196:
2195:
2177:
2171:
2170:
2168:
2166:
2151:
2145:
2144:
2118:
2112:
2111:
2101:
2091:
2067:
2061:
2060:
2058:
2056:
2041:
2030:
2029:
1993:
1982:
1981:
1965:
1959:
1958:
1926:
1920:
1919:
1909:
1877:
1864:
1863:
1851:
1842:
1831:
1812:
1811:
1799:
1790:
1789:
1779:
1769:
1745:
1739:
1738:
1710:
1687:
1686:
1646:
1640:
1639:
1629:
1605:
1592:
1591:
1581:
1557:
1551:
1550:
1540:
1530:
1505:
1462:
1461:
1445:
1382:
1381:
1379:
1377:
1362:
1339:
1338:
1320:
1311:(8): 2696–2699.
1296:
1197:
1158:
1155:
750:Determining the
697:cribriform plate
630:
156:, show signs of
87:Present at birth
22:
21:
5132:
5131:
5127:
5126:
5125:
5123:
5122:
5121:
5082:
5081:
5080:
5071:
5013:
4996:
4972:McLeod syndrome
4955:
4933:
4919:Alport syndrome
4905:
4868:
4834:
4795:Ocular albinism
4745:
4711:Hunter syndrome
4624:
4592:
4564:
4511:
4498:
4492:
4462:
4457:
4361:Other/ungrouped
4356:
4337:Osteopetrosis 1
4283:
4198:
4141:
4116:
4053:
4003:Muenke syndrome
3909:
3907:
3895:
3872:
3849:
3826:
3704:
3696:
3690:
3660:
3655:
3639:
3621:
3603:
3580:
3575:
3545:
3540:
3539:
3513:
3512:
3379:
3358:
3353:
3308:
3304:
3259:
3255:
3208:
3204:
3181:
3177:
3164:
3157:
3134:
3127:
3115:
3113:
3104:
3103:
3095:
3088:
3051:
3047:
3002:
2998:
2961:
2954:
2917:
2913:
2874:
2870:
2838:
2834:
2811:
2807:
2762:
2758:
2751:
2737:
2730:
2723:
2709:
2702:
2687:
2683:
2646:
2642:
2603:
2599:
2568:(10): 3668–72.
2554:
2550:
2505:
2501:
2478:
2471:
2424:
2420:
2375:
2371:
2324:
2320:
2285:
2281:
2244:
2240:
2203:
2199:
2192:
2178:
2174:
2164:
2162:
2161:. December 2017
2153:
2152:
2148:
2141:
2119:
2115:
2068:
2064:
2054:
2052:
2043:
2042:
2033:
1994:
1985:
1966:
1962:
1927:
1923:
1878:
1867:
1856:El Siglo MĂ©dico
1852:
1845:
1832:
1815:
1804:Am J Ment Defic
1800:
1793:
1746:
1742:
1711:
1690:
1647:
1643:
1606:
1595:
1558:
1554:
1506:
1465:
1446:
1385:
1375:
1373:
1364:
1363:
1342:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1273:
1243:GnRH deficiency
1236:
1198:
1189:
1174:in his seminal
1156:
1143:
1131:
1119:
1066:
1026:(lining of the
992:
934:
917:) to check for
901:olfactory bulbs
877:
875:Medical imaging
811:
744:
714:delayed puberty
709:
645:Turner syndrome
622:
620:
604:
602:Pathophysiology
567:genetic testing
550:
544:
536:bisphosphonates
498:bone resorption
482:
416:cerebral ataxia
368:
291:
252:
243:
215:
203:
174:
148:(anosmia) or a
107:
20:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5130:
5120:
5119:
5114:
5109:
5104:
5099:
5094:
5077:
5076:
5073:
5072:
5070:
5069:
5064:
5059:
5054:
5052:CHILD syndrome
5049:
5044:
5039:
5034:
5029:
5024:
5018:
5015:
5014:
5002:
5001:
4998:
4997:
4995:
4994:
4989:
4984:
4979:
4974:
4969:
4967:Barth syndrome
4963:
4961:
4957:
4956:
4954:
4953:
4947:
4945:
4935:
4934:
4932:
4931:
4926:
4924:Dent's disease
4921:
4915:
4913:
4907:
4906:
4904:
4903:
4898:
4893:
4888:
4878:
4876:
4870:
4869:
4867:
4866:
4861:
4856:
4851:
4845:
4843:
4836:
4835:
4833:
4832:
4827:
4822:
4813:
4812:
4807:
4805:Norrie disease
4802:
4792:
4787:Eye disorders:
4783:
4782:
4777:
4772:
4767:
4755:
4753:
4751:Nervous system
4747:
4746:
4744:
4743:
4737:Menkes disease
4727:
4726:
4714:
4713:
4701:
4700:
4688:
4687:
4682:
4677:
4665:
4664:
4652:
4651:
4646:
4634:
4632:
4626:
4625:
4623:
4622:
4617:
4612:
4602:
4600:
4594:
4593:
4591:
4590:
4585:
4580:
4574:
4572:
4566:
4565:
4563:
4562:
4557:
4552:
4547:
4542:
4537:
4532:
4527:
4521:
4519:
4513:
4512:
4500:
4499:
4491:
4490:
4483:
4476:
4468:
4459:
4458:
4456:
4455:
4450:
4446:
4445:
4433:
4421:
4396:
4395:
4390:
4385:
4375:
4374:
4364:
4362:
4358:
4357:
4355:
4354:
4341:
4340:
4329:Worth syndrome
4320:
4308:
4291:
4289:
4288:Lipid receptor
4285:
4284:
4282:
4281:
4269:
4257:
4245:
4233:
4221:
4208:
4206:
4200:
4199:
4197:
4196:
4185:
4184:
4172:
4169:Laron syndrome
4155:
4153:
4147:
4146:
4143:
4142:
4140:
4139:
4126:
4124:
4118:
4117:
4115:
4114:
4100:
4077:
4076:
4063:
4061:
4055:
4054:
4052:
4051:
4044:KIT Piebaldism
4035:
4023:
4017:
4006:
3991:Achondroplasia
3982:
3963:Apert syndrome
3954:
3938:
3925:
3923:
3914:
3901:
3900:
3897:
3896:
3894:
3893:
3880:
3878:
3874:
3873:
3871:
3870:
3857:
3855:
3851:
3850:
3848:
3847:
3834:
3832:
3828:
3827:
3825:
3824:
3812:
3800:
3780:
3768:
3752:
3732:
3719:
3717:
3710:
3698:
3697:
3689:
3688:
3681:
3674:
3666:
3657:
3656:
3654:
3653:
3647:
3645:
3641:
3640:
3638:
3637:
3631:
3629:
3623:
3622:
3620:
3619:
3613:
3611:
3605:
3604:
3602:
3601:
3596:
3590:
3588:
3582:
3581:
3574:
3573:
3566:
3559:
3551:
3542:
3541:
3538:
3537:
3522:
3521:
3519:
3515:
3514:
3511:
3510:
3499:
3488:
3411:
3396:
3380:
3375:
3374:
3372:
3371:Classification
3365:
3364:
3357:
3356:External links
3354:
3352:
3351:
3322:(11): 5130–6.
3302:
3273:(4): 485–500.
3253:
3202:
3175:
3155:
3125:
3116:|journal=
3086:
3065:(6): R267–74.
3045:
2996:
2975:(3): R55–R80.
2952:
2911:
2868:
2832:
2805:
2756:
2749:
2728:
2722:978-0199545131
2721:
2700:
2681:
2640:
2597:
2548:
2519:(1–2): 102–9.
2499:
2469:
2418:
2369:
2318:
2279:
2238:
2197:
2190:
2172:
2146:
2139:
2113:
2062:
2031:
1983:
1960:
1941:(3): 149–157.
1921:
1865:
1843:
1813:
1791:
1760:(Jun 17): 41.
1740:
1721:(2): 283–303.
1688:
1661:(1–2): 32–36.
1641:
1620:(6): R229–39.
1593:
1552:
1463:
1383:
1340:
1290:
1288:
1285:
1272:
1269:
1268:
1267:
1264:
1261:
1258:
1251:
1245:
1235:
1232:
1228:olfactory bulb
1187:
1142:
1139:
1130:
1127:
1118:
1115:
1098:(TESE) and/or
1065:
1062:
991:
988:
987:
986:
983:
980:
933:
930:
927:
926:
911:
908:renal agenesis
904:
885:
876:
873:
870:
869:
863:
856:renal function
852:Liver function
849:
846:
835:
810:
807:
804:
803:
796:
793:
782:
779:
772:
765:
762:
759:cryptorchidism
755:
748:
743:
742:Clinical tests
740:
708:
705:
603:
600:
596:renal agenesis
543:
540:
502:bone formation
481:
478:
434:
433:
430:
419:
412:
409:
402:
392:
389:
386:
376:
367:
364:
363:
362:
356:
338:
324:
321:Cryptorchidism
318:
312:
309:
298:
295:
290:
287:
251:
248:
242:
239:
214:
211:
202:
199:
173:
170:
121:
120:
117:
113:
112:
102:
98:
97:
94:
90:
89:
84:
80:
79:
74:
68:
67:
53:
47:
46:
41:
35:
34:
31:
27:
26:
18:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5129:
5118:
5115:
5113:
5110:
5108:
5105:
5103:
5100:
5098:
5095:
5093:
5090:
5089:
5087:
5068:
5065:
5063:
5060:
5058:
5055:
5053:
5050:
5048:
5047:Rett syndrome
5045:
5043:
5040:
5038:
5035:
5033:
5030:
5028:
5025:
5023:
5020:
5019:
5016:
5012:
5007:
5003:
4993:
4990:
4988:
4985:
4983:
4980:
4978:
4975:
4973:
4970:
4968:
4965:
4964:
4962:
4958:
4952:
4949:
4948:
4946:
4944:
4940:
4936:
4930:
4927:
4925:
4922:
4920:
4917:
4916:
4914:
4912:
4908:
4902:
4899:
4897:
4894:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4883:
4880:
4879:
4877:
4875:
4874:Neuromuscular
4871:
4865:
4862:
4860:
4857:
4855:
4852:
4850:
4847:
4846:
4844:
4841:
4837:
4831:
4828:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4818:
4815:
4814:
4811:
4810:Choroideremia
4808:
4806:
4803:
4800:
4796:
4793:
4791:
4788:
4785:
4784:
4781:
4778:
4776:
4773:
4771:
4770:MASA syndrome
4768:
4766:
4763:
4761:
4757:
4756:
4754:
4752:
4748:
4742:
4738:
4735:
4733:
4729:
4728:
4725:
4722:
4720:
4716:
4715:
4712:
4709:
4707:
4703:
4702:
4699:
4698:Fabry disease
4695:
4694:
4690:
4689:
4686:
4683:
4681:
4678:
4676:
4673:
4671:
4667:
4666:
4663:
4660:
4658:
4654:
4653:
4650:
4647:
4645:
4642:
4640:
4636:
4635:
4633:
4631:
4627:
4621:
4618:
4616:
4613:
4611:
4607:
4604:
4603:
4601:
4599:
4595:
4589:
4586:
4584:
4583:Haemophilia B
4581:
4579:
4578:Haemophilia A
4576:
4575:
4573:
4571:
4567:
4561:
4558:
4556:
4553:
4551:
4548:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4538:
4536:
4533:
4531:
4528:
4526:
4523:
4522:
4520:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4505:
4501:
4496:
4489:
4484:
4482:
4477:
4475:
4470:
4469:
4466:
4454:
4451:
4448:
4447:
4443:
4439:
4438:
4434:
4431:
4427:
4426:
4422:
4419:
4415:
4414:
4410:
4409:
4408:
4406:
4402:
4401:
4394:
4391:
4389:
4386:
4384:
4380:
4377:
4376:
4373:
4369:
4366:
4365:
4363:
4359:
4352:
4348:
4347:
4343:
4342:
4338:
4334:
4330:
4326:
4325:
4321:
4318:
4314:
4313:
4309:
4306:
4302:
4301:
4296:
4293:
4292:
4290:
4286:
4279:
4275:
4274:
4270:
4267:
4263:
4262:
4258:
4255:
4251:
4250:
4246:
4243:
4239:
4238:
4234:
4231:
4227:
4226:
4222:
4219:
4215:
4214:
4210:
4209:
4207:
4205:
4201:
4194:
4190:
4187:
4186:
4182:
4178:
4177:
4173:
4170:
4166:
4165:
4160:
4157:
4156:
4154:
4152:
4148:
4137:
4133:
4132:
4128:
4127:
4125:
4123:
4119:
4112:
4108:
4104:
4101:
4098:
4094:
4090:
4086:
4082:
4079:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4069:
4065:
4064:
4062:
4060:
4056:
4049:
4045:
4041:
4040:
4036:
4033:
4029:
4028:
4024:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4012:
4011:
4007:
4004:
4000:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3987:
3983:
3980:
3976:
3972:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3959:
3955:
3952:
3948:
3944:
3943:
3939:
3936:
3932:
3931:
3927:
3926:
3924:
3922:
3918:
3915:
3912:
3911:growth factor
3906:
3902:
3891:
3887:
3886:
3882:
3881:
3879:
3875:
3868:
3864:
3863:
3859:
3858:
3856:
3852:
3845:
3841:
3840:
3836:
3835:
3833:
3829:
3822:
3818:
3817:
3813:
3810:
3806:
3805:
3801:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3789:ABCD syndrome
3786:
3785:
3781:
3778:
3774:
3773:
3769:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3757:
3753:
3750:
3746:
3742:
3738:
3737:
3733:
3730:
3726:
3725:
3721:
3720:
3718:
3714:
3711:
3708:
3703:
3699:
3694:
3687:
3682:
3680:
3675:
3673:
3668:
3667:
3664:
3652:
3649:
3648:
3646:
3642:
3636:
3633:
3632:
3630:
3628:
3624:
3618:
3615:
3614:
3612:
3610:
3606:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3591:
3589:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3572:
3567:
3565:
3560:
3558:
3553:
3552:
3549:
3536:
3533:
3529:
3528:
3524:
3523:
3520:
3516:
3509:
3505:
3504:
3500:
3498:
3494:
3493:
3489:
3487:
3484:
3481:
3478:
3475:
3472:
3469:
3466:
3463:
3460:
3457:
3454:
3451:
3448:
3445:
3442:
3439:
3436:
3433:
3430:
3427:
3424:
3421:
3417:
3416:
3412:
3410:
3406:
3405:
3401:
3397:
3395:
3391:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3381:
3378:
3373:
3369:
3363:
3360:
3359:
3347:
3343:
3338:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3316:Endocrinology
3313:
3306:
3298:
3294:
3289:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3257:
3249:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3221:
3217:
3213:
3206:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3179:
3171:
3170:
3162:
3160:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3132:
3130:
3121:
3108:
3100:
3093:
3091:
3082:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3049:
3041:
3037:
3032:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3016:(3): 861–70.
3015:
3011:
3007:
3000:
2992:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2959:
2957:
2948:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2915:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2884:(3): 172–82.
2883:
2879:
2872:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2849:(3): 158–62.
2848:
2844:
2836:
2828:
2824:
2821:(2): 188–95.
2820:
2816:
2809:
2801:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2760:
2752:
2746:
2742:
2735:
2733:
2724:
2718:
2714:
2707:
2705:
2696:
2692:
2685:
2677:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2660:(3): 707–18.
2659:
2655:
2651:
2644:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2601:
2593:
2589:
2584:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2552:
2544:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2503:
2495:
2491:
2488:(2): 223–39.
2487:
2483:
2476:
2474:
2465:
2461:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2422:
2414:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2389:(5): 1860–2.
2388:
2384:
2380:
2373:
2365:
2361:
2356:
2351:
2346:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2322:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2283:
2275:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2258:(4): 534–40.
2257:
2253:
2249:
2242:
2234:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2217:(2): 658–65.
2216:
2212:
2208:
2201:
2193:
2191:9781455759736
2187:
2183:
2176:
2160:
2156:
2150:
2142:
2140:9789401077156
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2117:
2109:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2066:
2050:
2049:Rare Diseases
2046:
2040:
2038:
2036:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2004:(7): 249–58.
2003:
1999:
1992:
1990:
1988:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1964:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1925:
1917:
1913:
1908:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1892:(4): 456–66.
1891:
1887:
1883:
1876:
1874:
1872:
1870:
1861:
1857:
1850:
1848:
1841:
1840:Who Named It?
1837:
1836:
1830:
1828:
1826:
1824:
1822:
1820:
1818:
1809:
1805:
1798:
1796:
1787:
1783:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1744:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1709:
1707:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1699:
1697:
1695:
1693:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1645:
1637:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1604:
1602:
1600:
1598:
1589:
1585:
1580:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1556:
1548:
1544:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1524:
1521:(9): 547–64.
1520:
1516:
1512:
1504:
1502:
1500:
1498:
1496:
1494:
1492:
1490:
1488:
1486:
1484:
1482:
1480:
1478:
1476:
1474:
1472:
1470:
1468:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1444:
1442:
1440:
1438:
1436:
1434:
1432:
1430:
1428:
1426:
1424:
1422:
1420:
1418:
1416:
1414:
1412:
1410:
1408:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1400:
1398:
1396:
1394:
1392:
1390:
1388:
1371:
1367:
1361:
1359:
1357:
1355:
1353:
1351:
1349:
1347:
1345:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1319:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1295:
1291:
1284:
1282:
1277:
1265:
1262:
1259:
1256:
1252:
1249:
1246:
1244:
1241:
1240:
1239:
1231:
1229:
1225:
1222:In the 1954,
1220:
1218:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1202:
1196:
1192:
1186:
1181:
1179:
1178:
1173:
1167:
1165:
1151:
1147:
1138:
1135:
1126:
1122:
1114:
1112:
1108:
1103:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1072:
1069:
1061:
1057:
1055:
1051:
1046:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1031:
1029:
1025:
1019:
1017:
1012:
1010:
1006:
1002:
996:
984:
981:
978:
977:
976:
973:
970:
966:
962:
957:
955:
951:
947:
938:
929:
924:
920:
916:
912:
909:
905:
902:
898:
894:
890:
886:
883:
879:
878:
872:
867:
864:
861:
857:
853:
850:
847:
844:
840:
836:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
812:
806:
801:
797:
794:
791:
787:
783:
780:
777:
773:
770:
766:
763:
760:
756:
753:
749:
746:
745:
739:
732:
728:
726:
721:
717:
715:
704:
702:
698:
694:
690:
685:
683:
679:
675:
671:
667:
662:
658:
655:in males and
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
629:
625:
617:
608:
599:
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
576:
573:
570:
568:
564:
554:
549:
539:
537:
532:
529:
525:
520:
518:
514:
509:
505:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
477:
475:
470:
468:
464:
458:
455:
449:
445:
443:
438:
431:
428:
424:
420:
417:
413:
410:
407:
403:
401:
397:
393:
390:
387:
384:
380:
377:
374:
370:
369:
360:
357:
354:
350:
346:
342:
339:
336:
332:
329:
328:gonadotropins
325:
322:
319:
316:
313:
310:
307:
303:
299:
296:
293:
292:
286:
283:
281:
277:
269:
264:
256:
247:
238:
236:
232:
229:
225:
221:
210:
208:
198:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
169:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
118:
114:
110:
106:
103:
99:
95:
91:
88:
85:
81:
78:
75:
73:
72:Complications
69:
66:
62:
58:
54:
52:
48:
45:
44:Endocrinology
42:
40:
36:
32:
28:
23:
4816:
4786:
4758:
4730:
4717:
4704:
4691:
4668:
4657:Dyslipidemia
4655:
4637:
4614:
4435:
4423:
4411:
4398:
4397:
4344:
4322:
4310:
4298:
4271:
4259:
4247:
4235:
4223:
4211:
4204:TNF receptor
4174:
4162:
4129:
4066:
4037:
4025:
4008:
3984:
3956:
3950:
3940:
3928:
3883:
3860:
3837:
3814:
3802:
3782:
3770:
3754:
3734:
3722:
3695:deficiencies
3593:
3586:Gonadotropin
3525:
3501:
3490:
3413:
3398:
3383:
3319:
3315:
3305:
3270:
3266:
3256:
3219:
3215:
3205:
3188:
3184:
3178:
3168:
3141:
3107:cite journal
3101:. eMedicine.
3062:
3058:
3048:
3013:
3009:
2999:
2972:
2968:
2931:(6): 731–7.
2928:
2924:
2914:
2881:
2877:
2871:
2846:
2842:
2835:
2818:
2814:
2808:
2773:
2769:
2759:
2740:
2712:
2694:
2684:
2657:
2653:
2643:
2610:
2606:
2600:
2565:
2561:
2551:
2516:
2512:
2502:
2485:
2481:
2438:(109): 109.
2435:
2431:
2421:
2386:
2382:
2372:
2335:
2331:
2321:
2288:
2282:
2255:
2251:
2241:
2214:
2210:
2200:
2181:
2175:
2165:December 17,
2163:. Retrieved
2158:
2149:
2122:
2116:
2082:(3): 331–8.
2079:
2075:
2065:
2055:December 16,
2053:. Retrieved
2048:
2001:
1997:
1969:
1963:
1938:
1934:
1924:
1889:
1885:
1859:
1855:
1833:
1807:
1803:
1757:
1753:
1743:
1718:
1714:
1658:
1654:
1644:
1617:
1613:
1572:(818): 7–8.
1569:
1565:
1555:
1538:11567/821921
1518:
1514:
1449:
1376:December 17,
1374:. Retrieved
1369:
1308:
1304:
1294:
1274:
1237:
1221:
1203:
1200:
1183:
1176:
1168:
1161:
1136:
1132:
1129:Epidemiology
1123:
1120:
1104:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1058:
1047:
1032:
1020:
1013:
997:
993:
974:
965:gonadotropin
958:
943:
928:
919:osteoporosis
893:hypothalamus
871:
839:hypothalamus
824:testosterone
805:
790:cleft palate
752:Tanner stage
737:
722:
718:
710:
686:
666:gonadotropin
661:progesterone
653:testosterone
649:sex hormones
634:
577:
574:
571:
559:
533:
521:
510:
506:
494:bone density
486:osteoporosis
483:
480:Osteoporosis
474:mini-puberty
471:
459:
450:
446:
439:
435:
396:ectrodactyly
379:Cleft palate
353:progesterone
345:testosterone
341:Hypogonadism
306:menstruation
284:
273:
244:
216:
204:
194:progesterone
188:in males or
186:testosterone
182:hypothalamus
175:
166:osteoporosis
158:hypogonadism
129:
125:
124:
109:Gonadotropin
77:Osteoporosis
4570:Hematologic
3705:(including
3627:Vasopressin
3191:: 1267–72.
3142:GeneReviews
2338:: 4602129.
1253:idiopathic/
1234:Terminology
1157: 1950
1039:haematocrit
1030:) healthy.
1024:endometrium
771:in females.
761:) in males.
725:amenorrhoea
590:, bimanual
563:inheritance
359:Infertility
302:amenorrhoea
268:Jimmy Scott
83:Usual onset
61:infertility
30:Other names
5086:Categories
4639:Amino acid
3908:(including
3503:DiseasesDB
1862:: 211–221.
1810:: 203–236.
1287:References
1276:Kisspeptin
1224:De Morsier
1217:geneticist
1107:maturation
1005:androgenic
961:micropenis
923:osteopenia
848:Sperm test
592:synkinesis
490:osteopenia
406:synkinesis
347:in men or
315:Micropenis
231:geneticist
4630:Metabolic
4598:Endocrine
4497:disorders
4261:TNFRSF13B
4249:TNFRSF13C
4225:TNFRSF13B
3527:eMedicine
1955:0003-4266
1835:synd/2549
1675:1663-2818
1588:2605-2083
1327:0021-972X
1117:Prognosis
1050:inhibin B
1035:inhibin B
932:Treatment
897:pituitary
866:Karyotype
843:pituitary
832:prolactin
828:oestrogen
809:Lab tests
786:cleft lip
707:Diagnosis
676:(LH) and
672:known as
657:oestrogen
528:vitamin D
522:Adequate
467:gestation
454:normosmic
400:scoliosis
383:cleft lip
355:in women.
349:oestrogen
237:in 1856.
201:Treatment
162:infertile
116:Frequency
101:Treatment
39:Specialty
4911:Urologic
4886:Duchenne
4495:X-linked
4449:See also
4379:Integrin
4213:TNFRSF1A
4151:JAK-STAT
4085:Endoglin
3535:med/1342
3532:med/1216
3346:23015291
3297:24615662
3248:25071724
3197:14099201
3150:20301509
3081:26792935
3040:24423288
2991:29330225
2947:19912242
2898:22009162
2863:20363464
2827:27213784
2800:15802728
2676:22392951
2627:23207503
2592:20940512
2543:21664415
2494:26934720
2464:25071724
2413:23650337
2364:28408926
2313:11467429
2305:29258769
2274:22248317
2108:22629495
2026:23578201
2018:21511493
1978:24683946
1916:26790381
1786:21682876
1735:28476224
1683:12006717
1636:24836550
1547:26194704
1458:20301509
1335:10443662
1271:Research
1214:American
1188:—
1001:anabolic
862:testing.
769:menarche
631:)
584:x-linked
542:Genetics
463:placenta
423:coloboma
300:Primary
241:Etiology
228:American
190:estrogen
96:Lifelong
93:Duration
51:Symptoms
4732:Mineral
4372:AGM3, 6
4273:TNFRSF6
4237:TNFRSF5
3877:Class F
3854:Class C
3831:Class B
3716:Class A
3707:hormone
3644:General
3497:D017436
3450:1527600
3337:3473216
3288:4063702
3239:4088923
3222:: 109.
3031:3942233
2906:4564169
2635:5159169
2583:2947242
2534:3185214
2455:4088923
2404:3644595
2355:5376477
2233:9024272
2099:3354836
1907:4722398
1777:3143089
1141:History
1111:ovaries
1086:, FSH,
1056:(AMH).
788:and/or
778:(UPSIT)
588:anosmia
524:calcium
404:Manual
373:anosmia
276:puberty
266:Singer
180:by the
138:puberty
134:genetic
132:) is a
111:therapy
57:puberty
4817:Other:
4517:Immune
4425:BMPR1A
4176:CSF2RA
4131:GUCY2D
4107:TGFBR2
4103:TGFBR1
3816:PTGER2
3486:607984
3483:602748
3480:606807
3477:603725
3474:604808
3471:613301
3468:603286
3465:300473
3462:608892
3459:608137
3456:164160
3453:162330
3447:614880
3444:615270
3441:615271
3438:136350
3435:146110
3432:607002
3429:138850
3426:244200
3423:147950
3420:308700
3344:
3334:
3295:
3285:
3246:
3236:
3195:
3148:
3079:
3038:
3028:
2989:
2945:
2904:
2896:
2861:
2825:
2798:
2791:555895
2788:
2747:
2719:
2674:
2633:
2625:
2590:
2580:
2541:
2531:
2492:
2462:
2452:
2411:
2401:
2362:
2352:
2311:
2303:
2272:
2231:
2188:
2137:
2106:
2096:
2024:
2016:
1976:
1953:
1914:
1904:
1784:
1774:
1733:
1681:
1673:
1634:
1586:
1545:
1456:
1333:
1325:
1281:KISS1R
1210:German
1080:testes
1028:uterus
954:libido
887:Brain
621:(from
427:ptosis
224:German
4943:tooth
4830:SMAX2
4437:IL2RG
4413:PTCH1
4266:CVID2
4254:CVID4
4093:SMAD4
4089:Alk-1
4068:AMHR2
4027:NTRK1
3986:FGFR3
3958:FGFR2
3942:FGFR1
3839:PTH1R
3804:AVPR2
3784:EDNRB
3772:GnRHR
3736:LHCGR
3409:253.4
3394:E23.0
2902:S2CID
2631:S2CID
2309:S2CID
2022:S2CID
1257:(IHH)
1250:(CHH)
1076:sperm
1009:Nasal
882:x-ray
611:time.
580:ANOS1
517:X-ray
4939:Bone
4840:Skin
4780:PHF8
4550:IPEX
4400:EDAR
4383:LAD1
4346:LDLR
4324:LRP5
4312:LRP4
4300:LRP2
4059:STPK
4010:INSR
3930:ROR2
3885:FZD4
3862:CASR
3756:FSHR
3724:TSHR
3508:7091
3492:MeSH
3415:OMIM
3404:9-CM
3342:PMID
3293:PMID
3244:PMID
3193:PMID
3146:PMID
3120:help
3077:PMID
3036:PMID
2987:PMID
2943:PMID
2894:PMID
2859:PMID
2823:PMID
2796:PMID
2745:ISBN
2717:ISBN
2672:PMID
2623:PMID
2588:PMID
2539:PMID
2490:PMID
2460:PMID
2409:PMID
2360:PMID
2336:2017
2301:PMID
2270:PMID
2229:PMID
2186:ISBN
2167:2017
2135:ISBN
2104:PMID
2057:2017
2014:PMID
1974:PMID
1951:ISSN
1912:PMID
1782:PMID
1731:PMID
1679:PMID
1671:ISSN
1632:PMID
1584:ISSN
1543:PMID
1454:PMID
1378:2017
1331:PMID
1323:ISSN
1208:, a
1052:and
1041:and
1003:and
858:and
841:and
830:and
659:and
637:GnRH
628:1YY1
594:and
578:The
333:and
222:, a
192:and
4295:LRP
4189:MPL
4039:KIT
3921:RTK
3609:CRH
3400:ICD
3385:ICD
3332:PMC
3324:doi
3320:153
3283:PMC
3275:doi
3234:PMC
3224:doi
3067:doi
3063:174
3026:PMC
3018:doi
2977:doi
2973:178
2933:doi
2886:doi
2851:doi
2786:PMC
2778:doi
2774:330
2770:BMJ
2662:doi
2615:doi
2611:345
2607:BMJ
2578:PMC
2570:doi
2566:120
2529:PMC
2521:doi
2517:346
2450:PMC
2440:doi
2399:PMC
2391:doi
2350:PMC
2340:doi
2293:doi
2260:doi
2219:doi
2127:doi
2094:PMC
2084:doi
2006:doi
1943:doi
1902:PMC
1894:doi
1838:at
1772:PMC
1762:doi
1723:doi
1663:doi
1622:doi
1618:170
1574:doi
1570:109
1533:hdl
1523:doi
1313:doi
1088:hMG
1084:hCG
969:DHT
967:or
921:or
915:DXA
895:or
889:MRI
816:FSH
643:or
624:PDB
488:or
425:or
335:FSH
218:by
5088::
4696::
4407:)
4381::
4370::
4335:,
4331:,
4297::
4164:GH
4161::
4122:GC
4083::
4046:,
4001:,
3997:,
3993:,
3977:,
3973:,
3969:,
3965:,
3949:,
3795:,
3791:,
3763:,
3747:,
3743:,
3530::
3506::
3495::
3418::
3407::
3392::
3389:10
3340:.
3330:.
3318:.
3314:.
3291:.
3281:.
3271:20
3269:.
3265:.
3242:.
3232:.
3218:.
3214:.
3189:11
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