638:
37:
845:
A comparison between pre-Islamic documents and those of the
Islamic period reveals that conquering Arabs increased the land taxation without exception. Thus, raising taxes of each acre of wheat field to four dirhams and each acre of barley field to two dirhams, whereas during reign of
941:
N. V. Pigulevskaya, A. Yu. Yakubovski, I. P. Petrushevski, L. V. Stroeva, A. M. Belenitski. The
History of Iran from Ancient Times to the End of Eighteenth Century (in Persian), Tehran, 1967, p. 161.
791:, attempted to raise revenues by demanding from Muslims a full rate of taxation, but that measure met with opposition and resentment. To address these problems, Sulayman's successor
787:
in 717 brought the finances of the
Umayyads to the brink of collapse. Even before Sulayman's ascent to power, the powerful governor of Iraq,
1113:
815:
was also used as a general term describing all kinds of taxes: for example, the classic treatise on taxation by the 9th century jurist
728:
and denoted a lump-sum duty levied upon the lands of conquered provinces, which was collected by hold-over officials of the defeated
799:
was paid could not be transferred to
Muslims; instead, they could lease such land, but in that case they would be required to pay
768:
was a reciprocal 10% levy on agricultural land as well as merchandise imported from states that taxed
Muslims on their products.
411:
298:
960:
Cummings, John Thomas; Askari, Hossein; Mustafa, Ahmad. "Islam and Modern
Economic Change" in Esposito, 1980, pp. 25–47
1094:
776:
997:
Melis, Nicola, "Lo statuto giuridico degli ebrei dell'Impero
Ottomano", in M. Contu – N. Melis - G. Pinna (a cura di),
905:
807:
was levied on most land without regard for the cultivator's religion. The reforms of Umar II were finalized under the
1068:
1040:
476:
76:
895:
668:
613:
347:
970:
379:
426:
253:
1118:
466:
784:
561:
273:
850:
it used to be a single dirham for each acre of wheat or barley field. During the later stage of the
493:
293:
740:
refers to a land-tax levied by Muslim rulers on their non-Muslim subjects, collectively known as
88:
715:
542:
308:
537:
362:
146:
101:
854:, landowners were paying from one fourth to one third of their land produce to the state as
811:
and would thereafter form the model of tax systems in the
Islamic state. From that time on,
764:
748:
8:
788:
661:
547:
181:
81:
571:
528:
498:
481:
456:
401:
357:
69:
1023:
Landlord and
Peasant in Persia: A Study of Land Tenure and Land Revenue Administration
1064:
1036:
901:
851:
830:
20th-century
Russian orientalist, A. Yu. Yakubovski, compares the land tax system of
700:
622:
608:
576:
523:
436:
396:
258:
1058:
1049:
Poliak, A. N. "Classification of Lands in the Islamic Law and Its Technical Terms".
953:
Cooper, Richard S. "The Assessment and Collection of Kharaj Tax in Medieval Egypt",
1030:
729:
421:
416:
367:
352:
337:
246:
125:
1098:
733:
688:
603:
556:
372:
332:
321:
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206:
151:
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803:
from it. With the passage of time, the practical result of that reform was that
980:
863:
831:
772:
654:
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461:
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20:
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696:
581:
486:
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642:
588:
325:
57:
46:
384:
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266:
999:
Ebraismo e rapporti con le culture del Mediterraneo nei secoli XVIII-XX
992:
Dalla penna al mouse. Gli strumenti di diffusione del concetto di gihad
389:
795:
worked out a compromise in which, beginning from 719, land from which
847:
838:
834:
816:
288:
990:
Melis, Nicola, "Il concetto di ğihād", in P. Manduchi (a cura di),
598:
566:
280:
214:
874:, a form of poll tax on non-Muslim subjects. It was superseded by
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987:(Cambridge, MA : Belknap-Harvard University Press, 1991)
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162:
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36:
28:
1016:
The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661-750
707:, regardless of the religion of the owners, developed under
222:
130:
771:
Changes soon eroded the established tax base of the early
1051:
The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures
965:
Islam and Development: Religion and Sociopolitical Change
1006:
Trattato sulla guerra. Il Kitāb al-ğihād di Molla Hüsrev
957:, Vol. 96, No. 3. (Jul. – Sep., 1976), pp. 365–382.
1092:
The Institute of Ismaili Studies, Glossary H-K (kharaj)
1063:. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America.
897:
The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought
756:
on land, which carried a lower rate of taxation, and
1060:The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book
1105:
1053:, Vol. 57, No. 1. (Jan., 1940), pp. 50–62.
967:(Syracuse, NY, Syracuse University Press, 1980)
779:against the Byzantine Empire undertaken by the
1081:(Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 1980)
1079:Islamic Political Thought: The Basic Concepts
746:. Muslim landowners, on the other hand, paid
662:
900:. Princeton University Press. p. 545.
669:
655:
1056:
955:Journal of the American Oriental Society
919:
917:
893:
1025:(London, Oxford University Press, 1953)
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994:, Angeli, Milano 2006, pp. 23–54.
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926:
914:
736:in the east; later and more broadly,
1035:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
777:large, but unsuccessful, expedition
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13:
1114:Arabic words and phrases in Sharia
14:
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1085:
977:(London, Allen & Unwin, 1950)
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35:
894:Böwering, Gerhard, ed. (2013).
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837:with that of the post-Islamic
722:initially was synonymous with
1:
985:A History of the Arab Peoples
971:Gaudefroy-Demombynes, Maurice
947:
7:
210:("Stories of the Prophets")
10:
1135:
695:) is a type of individual
1057:Stillman, Norman (1979).
1018:(London, Routledge, 2000)
1001:, Giuntina, Firenze 2003.
973:(tr. John P. MacGregor).
963:Esposito, John L. (ed.).
881:
718:in the 7th century, the
299:Medieval Islamic science
1029:Lewis, Bernard (2002).
1008:, Aipsa, Cagliari 2002.
932:Lewis (2002), p. 79–80
860:
716:first Muslim conquests
309:Succession to Muhammad
1077:Watt, W. Montgomery.
843:
1032:The Arabs in History
825:The Book On Taxation
732:in the west and the
348:Association football
1021:Lambton, Ann K. S.
975:Muslim Institutions
923:Lewis (2002), p. 72
789:al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf
681:Type of Islamic tax
109:Profession of Faith
82:Day of Resurrection
1097:2006-02-09 at the
848:Khosro Anushiravan
775:. Additionally, a
1119:Taxation in Islam
852:Umayyad Caliphate
701:agricultural land
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819:was called
709:Islamic law
697:Islamic tax
267:Ahl al-Bayt
152:Foundations
1108:Categories
948:References
457:Philosophy
194:(exegesis)
131:Pilgrimage
121:Almsgiving
839:Caliphate
835:Sassanids
817:Abu Yusuf
714:With the
577:terrorism
529:Criticism
482:Sexuality
452:Mysticism
422:Festivals
402:Education
397:Economics
333:Academics
289:Caliphate
102:Practices
1095:Archived
809:Abbasids
785:Sulayman
703:and its
623:Glossary
599:Jihadism
572:Violence
567:Islamism
538:Muhammad
524:Apostasy
467:Politics
417:Feminism
412:Exorcism
373:Diaspora
358:Children
353:Calendar
281:Rashidun
259:Muhammad
254:Timeline
215:Mathnawi
77:Prophets
21:a series
19:Part of
862:In the
832:Persian
823:, i.e.
793:Umar II
783:caliph
781:Umayyad
705:produce
494:Slavery
477:Science
432:Madrasa
427:Finance
338:Animals
326:society
322:Culture
294:Imamate
274:Sahabah
247:History
217:(Poems)
202:(creed)
126:Fasting
54:Oneness
47:Beliefs
1067:
1039:
904:
868:kharaj
856:kharaj
813:kharaj
805:kharaj
801:kharaj
797:kharaj
743:dhimmi
738:kharaj
725:jizyah
720:kharaj
689:Arabic
685:Kharāj
548:Hadith
462:Poetry
442:Mosque
407:Ethics
232:Sharia
200:Aqidah
192:Tafsir
176:Hadith
170:Sunnah
114:Prayer
65:Angels
882:Notes
876:cizye
872:haraç
841:era:
759:zakat
754:tithe
594:Jihad
543:Quran
504:Women
447:Music
385:Sunni
234:(law)
182:Sirah
163:Quran
147:Texts
29:Islam
1065:ISBN
1037:ISBN
902:ISBN
765:Ushr
749:ushr
693:خراج
487:LGBT
390:Shia
324:and
224:Fiqh
699:on
582:war
343:Art
58:God
56:of
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
