Kyoto Protocol - Knowledge

636: 1506: 3697: 3711: 1493: 3639: 4082:, an agreement was reached to extend the Protocol to 2020 and to set a date of 2015 for the development of a successor document, to be implemented from 2020 (see lede for more information). The outcome of the Doha talks has received a mixed response, with small island states critical of the overall package. The Kyoto second commitment period applies to about 11% of annual global emissions of greenhouse gases. Other results of the conference include a timetable for a global agreement to be adopted by 2015 which includes all countries. At the Doha meeting of the parties to the UNFCCC on 8 December 2012, the European Union chief climate negotiator, Artur Runge-Metzger, pledged to extend the treaty, binding on the 27 European Member States, up to the year 2020 pending an internal ratification procedure. 321: 614: 3849: 4112: 1771:

Sulfur hexafluouride and Perfluorocarbons. Monitoring these gases can become quite a challenge. Methane can be monitored and measured from irrigated rice fields and can be measured by the seedling growing up to harvest. Future implications state that this can be affected by more cost effective ways to control emissions as changes in types of fertilizer can reduce emissions by 50%. In addition to this, many countries are unable to monitor certain ways of carbon absorption through trees and soils to an accurate level.

1033:(JI) was aligned with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, and did not start until January 2008 (Carbon Trust, 2009, p. 20). In November 2008, only 22 JI projects had been officially approved and registered. The total projected emission savings from JI by 2012 are about one tenth that of the CDM. Russia accounts for about two-thirds of these savings, with the remainder divided up roughly equally between Ukraine and the EU's New Member States. Emission savings include cuts in methane, HFC, and N 4168: 522:(which did not ratify). If they were to remain as a part of the protocol, Canada would be hit with a $ 14 billion fine, which would be devastating to their economy, hence the reluctant decision to exit. As of October 2020, 147 states had accepted the Doha Amendment. It entered into force on 31 December 2020, following its acceptance by the mandated minimum of at least 144 states, although the second commitment period ended on the same day. Of the 37 parties with binding commitments, 34 had ratified. 4154: 206: 39: 824: 3890:(2007) described the Kyoto first-round commitments as "modest", stating that they acted as a constraint on the treaty's effectiveness. It was suggested that subsequent Kyoto commitments could be made more effective with measures aimed at achieving deeper cuts in emissions, as well as having policies applied to a larger share of global emissions. In 2008, countries with a Kyoto cap made up less than one-third of annual global carbon dioxide emissions from fuel 11075: 11063: 2702:

world, including major population centers such as China and India, from compliance, and would cause serious harm to the U.S. economy. The Senate's vote, 95-0, shows that there is a clear consensus that the Kyoto Protocol is an unfair and ineffective means of addressing global climate change concerns." The administration also questioned the scientific certainty around climate change and cited potential harms of emissions reduction to the US economy.

303: 178: 4140: 11099: 11087: 4126: 3883:(2007) assessed the literature on climate change policy. They found that no authoritative assessments of the UNFCCC or its Protocol asserted that these agreements had, or will, succeed in solving the climate problem. In these assessments, it was assumed that the UNFCCC or its Protocol would not be changed. The Framework Convention and its Protocol include provisions for future policy actions to be taken. 1484:

agreement, the Clean Development Mechanism was designed to limit emissions in developing countries, but in such a way that developing countries do not bear the costs for limiting emissions. The general assumption was that developing countries would face quantitative commitments in later commitment periods, and at the same time, developed countries would meet their first round commitments.

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non-Annex I countries are still, for the most part, much lower than in industrialized countries. Non-Annex I countries do not have quantitative emission reduction commitments, but they are committed to mitigation actions. China, for example, has had a national policy programme to reduce emissions growth, which included the closure of old, less efficient coal-fired power plants.

4047:" agreed on 16 February 2007, heads of governments from Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom, the United States, Brazil, China, India, Mexico and South Africa agreed in principle on the outline of a successor to the Kyoto Protocol. They envisaged a global cap-and-trade system that would apply to both industrialized nations and 3655:

II countries (Annex I minus the EIT countries) have experienced a limited increase in emissions from 1990 to 2006, followed by stabilization and a more marked decrease from 2007 onwards. The emissions reductions in the early nineties by the 12 EIT countries who have since joined the EU, assist the present EU-27 in meeting its collective Kyoto target.

1576:(AOSIS) – pushed for deep uniform cuts by developed nations, with the goal of having emissions reduced to the greatest possible extent. Countries that had supported differentiation of targets had different ideas as to how it should be calculated, and many different indicators were proposed. Two examples include differentiation of targets based on 653:

original 1992 UN Framework Convention. According to the treaty, in 2012, Annex I Parties who have ratified the treaty must have fulfilled their obligations of greenhouse gas emissions limitations established for the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period (2008–2012). These emissions limitation commitments are listed in Annex B of the Protocol.

3906:., 2003, p. 9). In 2001, seventeen national science academies stated that ratification of the Protocol represented a "small but essential first step towards stabilising atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases." Some environmentalists and scientists have criticized the existing commitments for being too weak (Grubb, 2000, p. 5). 4567: 2747:

In 2011, Canada, Japan and Russia stated that they would not take on further Kyoto targets. The Canadian government announced its withdrawal—possible at any time three years after ratification—from the Kyoto Protocol on 12 December 2011, effective 15 December 2012. Canada was committed to cutting its

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In response to this criticism, Bush stated: "I was responding to reality, and reality is the nation has got a real problem when it comes to energy". The Tyndall Centre called this "an overstatement used to cover up the big benefactors of this policy reversal, i.e., the US oil and coal industry, which

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Article 4.2 of the UNFCCC commits industrialized countries to " the lead" in reducing emissions. The initial aim was for industrialized countries to stabilize their emissions at 1990 levels by 2000. The failure of key industrialized countries to move in this direction was a principal reason why Kyoto

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Under the GIS a party to the protocol expecting that the development of its economy will not exhaust its Kyoto quota, can sell the excess of its Kyoto quota units (AAUs) to another party. The proceeds from the AAU sales should be "greened", i.e. channelled to the development and implementation of the

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excess of allowances were viewed by the EITs as "headroom" to grow their economies. The surplus has, however, also been referred to by some as "hot air", a term which Russia (a country with an estimated surplus of 3.1 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent allowances) views as "quite offensive".

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If the enforcement branch determines that an Annex I country is not in compliance with its emissions limitation, then that country is required to make up the difference during the second commitment period plus an additional 30%. In addition, that country will be suspended from making transfers under

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OECD countries with a deficit could meet their Kyoto commitments by buying allowances from transition countries with a surplus. Unless other commitments were made to reduce the total surplus in allowances, such trade would not actually result in emissions being reduced (see also the section below on

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Stoddard, Isak; Anderson, Kevin; Capstick, Stuart; Carton, Wim; Depledge, Joanna; Facer, Keri; Gough, Clair; Hache, Frederic; Hoolohan, Claire; Hultman, Martin; Hällström, Niclas; Kartha, Sivan; Klinsky, Sonja; Kuchler, Magdalena; Lövbrand, Eva; Nasiritousi, Naghmeh; Newell, Peter; Peters, Glen P.;

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The United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen in December 2009 was one of the annual series of UN meetings that followed the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio. In 1997 the talks led to the Kyoto Protocol, and the conference in Copenhagen was considered to be the opportunity to agree a successor

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In several large developing countries and fast growing economies (China, India, Thailand, Indonesia, Egypt, and Iran) GHG emissions have increased rapidly (PBL, 2009). For example, emissions in China have risen strongly over the 1990–2005 period, often by more than 10% year. Emissions per-capita in

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As noted in the preceding section, between 1990 and 1999, there was a large reduction in the emissions of the EITs. The reduction in the EITs is largely responsible for the total (aggregate) reduction (excluding LULUCF) in emissions of the Annex I countries, excluding the US. Emissions of the Annex

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As of 2023, the US is the only signatory that has not ratified the Protocol. The US accounted for 36.1% of emissions in 1990. As such, for the treaty to go into legal effect without US ratification, it would require a coalition including the EU, Russia, Japan, and small parties. A deal, without the

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This policy reversal received a massive wave of criticism that was quickly picked up by the international media. Environmental groups blasted the White House, while Europeans and Japanese alike expressed deep concern and regret. ... Almost all world leaders (e.g. China, Japan, South Africa, Pacific

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Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and shipping. Although Belarus and Turkey are listed in the convention's Annex I, they do not have emissions targets as they were not Annex I Parties when the Protocol was adopted. Kazakhstan does not have a target, but has declared

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The "Green Investment Scheme" (GIS) is a plan for achieving environmental benefits from trading surplus allowances (AAUs) under the Kyoto Protocol. The Green Investment Scheme (GIS), a mechanism in the framework of International Emissions Trading (IET), is designed to achieve greater flexibility in

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The Protocol's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. All 36 countries that fully participated in the first commitment period complied with the Protocol. However, nine countries had to resort to the flexibility mechanisms by funding emission reductions in other countries because

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The 36 countries that were committed to emission reductions only accounted for 24% of the global greenhouse gas emissions in 2010. Even though these countries significantly reduced their emissions during the Kyoto commitment period, other countries increased their emissions so much that the global

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In total, the 36 countries that fully participated in the Protocol were committed to reducing their aggregate emissions by 4% from the 1990 base year. Their average annual emissions in 2008–2012 were 24.2% below the 1990 level. Hence, they surpassed their aggregate commitment by a large margin. If

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Belarus, Malta, and Turkey are Annex I Parties but did not have first-round Kyoto targets. The US had a Kyoto target of a 7% reduction relative to the 1990 level, but has not ratified the treaty. If the US had ratified the Kyoto Protocol, the average percentage reduction in total GHG emissions for

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seeking to identify his position on the Kyoto Protocol and climate change policy. In a letter dated March 13, 2001, President Bush responded that his "Administration takes the issue of global climate change very seriously", but that "I oppose the Kyoto Protocol because it exempts 80 percent of the

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The emissions limitations of Annex I Parties varies between different Parties. Some Parties have emissions limitations reduce below the base year level, some have limitations at the base year level (no permitted increase above the base year level), while others have limitations above the base year

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One of the environmental problems with IET is the large surplus of allowances that are available. Russia, Ukraine, and the new EU-12 member states (the Kyoto Parties Annex I Economies-in-Transition, abbreviated "EIT": Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania,

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A 2021 review considers both the institutional design and the political strategies that have affected the adoption of the Kyoto protocol. It concludes that the Kyoto protocol's relatively small impact on global carbon dioxide emissions reflects a number of factors, including "deliberate political

1627:(2007) suggest that Annex I emissions would need to be 25% to 40% below 1990 levels by 2020, and 80% to 95% below 1990 levels by 2050. The only Annex I Parties to have made voluntary pledges in line with this are Japan (25% below 1990 levels by 2020) and Norway (30–40% below 1990 levels by 2020). 1591:

who chaired the negotiations. The numbers given to each Party by Chairman Estrada were based on targets already pledged by Parties, information received on latest negotiating positions, and the goal of achieving the strongest possible environmental outcome. The final targets are weaker than those

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during negotiations. The G77 and China were in favour of strong uniform emission cuts across the developed world. The US originally proposed for the second round of negotiations on Kyoto commitments to follow the negotiations of the first. In the end, negotiations on the second period were set to

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The Berlin mandate was recognized in the Kyoto Protocol in that developing countries were not subject to emission reduction commitments in the first Kyoto commitment period. However, the large potential for growth in developing country emissions made negotiations on this issue tense. In the final

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Japan's national policy to meet their Kyoto target includes the purchase of AAUs sold under GISs. In 2010, Japan and Japanese firms were the main buyers of AAUs. In terms of the international carbon market, trade in AAUs are a small proportion of overall market value. In 2010, 97% of trade in the

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Binding commitments for the Annex I Parties. The main feature of the Protocol is that it established legally binding commitments to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases for Annex I Parties. The commitments were based on the Berlin Mandate, which was a part of UNFCCC negotiations leading up to the

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To achieve stabilization, global GHG emissions must peak, then decline. The lower the desired stabilization level, the sooner this peak and decline must occur. For a given stabilization level, larger emissions reductions in the near term allow for less stringent emissions reductions later. On the

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Royal Flemish Academy of Belgium for Sciences the Arts; Royal Society of Canada; German Academy of Natural Scientists Leopoldina; Indian National Science Academy; Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei (Italy); Academy Council of the Royal Society of New Zealand; Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences; Royal

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One of the arguments made in favour of the flexibility mechanisms is that they can reduce the costs incurred by Annex I Parties in meeting their Kyoto commitments. Criticisms of flexibility have, for example, included the ineffectiveness of emissions trading in promoting investment in non-fossil

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World Bank (2010) commented on how the Kyoto Protocol had only had a slight effect on curbing global emissions growth. The treaty was negotiated in 1997, but in 2006, energy-related carbon dioxide emissions had grown by 24%. World Bank (2010) also stated that the treaty had provided only limited

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countries have a deficit. Some of the EITs with a surplus regard it as potential compensation for the trauma of their economic restructuring. When the Kyoto treaty was negotiated, it was recognized that emissions targets for the EITs might lead to them having an excess number of allowances. This

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Emissions trading sets a quantitative total limit on the emissions produced by all participating emitters, which correspondingly determines the prices of emissions. Under emission trading, a polluter having more emissions than their quota has to purchase the right to emit more from emitters with

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Each Annex I country is required to submit an annual report of inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks under UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol. These countries nominate a person (called a "designated national authority") to create and manage its

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The CDM and JI are called "project-based mechanisms", in that they generate emission reductions from projects. The difference between IET and the project-based mechanisms is that IET is based on the setting of a quantitative restriction of emissions, while the CDM and JI are based on the idea of

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The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to reduce the onset of global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to "a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system" (Article 2). The Kyoto Protocol applied to the

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Monitoring emissions in international agreements is tough as in international law, there is no police power, creating the incentive for states to find 'ways around' monitoring. The Kyoto Protocol regulated six sinks and sources of Gases. Carbon dioxide, Methane, Nirous oxide, Hydroflurocarbons,

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Under the Protocol, only the Annex I Parties have committed themselves to national or joint reduction targets (formally called "quantified emission limitation and reduction objectives" (QELRO) – Article 4.1). Parties to the Kyoto Protocol not listed in Annex I of the convention (the non-Annex I

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Implementation. In order to meet the objectives of the Protocol, Annex I Parties are required to prepare policies and measures for the reduction of greenhouse gases in their respective countries. In addition, they are required to increase the absorption of these gases and utilize all mechanisms

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The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is the "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would stop dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system." Even if Annex I Parties succeed in meeting their first-round commitments, much greater emission

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The main goal of the Kyoto Protocol was to control emissions of the main anthropogenic (human-emitted) greenhouse gases (GHGs) in ways that reflect underlying national differences in GHG emissions, wealth, and capacity to make the reductions. The treaty follows the main principles agreed in the

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The Kyoto Protocol's first round commitments are the first detailed step taken within the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. The Protocol establishes a structure of rolling emission reduction commitment periods. It set a timetable starting in 2006 for negotiations to establish emission

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38 developed countries committed to limiting their greenhouse gas emissions. Because the United States did not ratify and Canada withdrew, the emission limits remained in force for 36 countries. All of them complied with the Protocol. However, nine countries (Austria, Denmark, Iceland, Japan,

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Annex I Parties can use a range of sophisticated "flexibility" mechanisms (see below) to meet their targets. Annex I Parties can achieve their targets by allocating reduced annual allowances to major operators within their borders, or by allowing these operators to exceed their allocations by

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Parties reported a high level of uncertainty in LUCF emissions, but in aggregate, there appeared to only be a small difference of 1.7% with and without LUCF. With LUCF, emissions were 11.9 billion tonnes, without LUCF, total aggregate emissions were 11.7 billion tonnes.

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The European Union as a whole has, in accordance with this treaty, committed itself to a reduction of 8%. However, many member states (such as Greece, Spain, Ireland and Sweden) have not committed themselves to any reduction while France has committed itself not to expand its emissions (0%

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Emissions growth in Annex I Parties have also been limited due to policies and measures (PaMs). In particular, PaMs were strengthened after 2000, helping to enhance energy efficiency and develop renewable energy sources. Energy use also decreased during the economic crisis in 2007–2008.

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in 1992, which did not set any legally binding limitations on emissions or enforcement mechanisms. Only Parties to the UNFCCC can become Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted at the third session of the Conference of Parties to the UNFCCC in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan.

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A number of large emitters, including the US, Japan, Russia, and Canada, have signalled they will not sign up to Kyoto or to a second commitment period of Kyoto, while large emerging economies will only sign up to an agreement that does not impose binding emission reduction targets on

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have influenced public opinion and political action both within the United States and beyond it. The direct lobbying of fossil fuel companies and their funding of political actors have slowed political action to address climate change at regional, national, and international levels.

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The first-round Kyoto emissions limitation commitments were not sufficient to stabilize the atmospheric concentration of GHGs. Stabilization of atmospheric GHG concentrations will require further emissions reductions after the end of the first-round Kyoto commitment period in 2012.

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By May 2012, the US, Japan, Russia, and Canada had indicated they would not sign up to a second Kyoto commitment period. In November 2012, Australia confirmed it would participate in a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol and New Zealand confirmed that it would not.

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Total aggregate GHG emissions excluding emissions/removals from land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF, i.e., carbon storage in forests and soils) for all Annex I Parties (see list below) including the United States taken together decreased from 19.0 to 17.8 thousand

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Collectively the group of industrialized countries committed to a Kyoto target, i.e., the Annex I countries excluding the US, had a target of reducing their GHG emissions by 4.2% on average for the period 2008–2012 relative to the base year, which in most cases is 1990.

806:. Virtually all of the non-Annex I countries have also established a designated national authority to manage their Kyoto obligations, specifically the "CDM process". This determines which GHG projects they wish to propose for accreditation by the CDM Executive Board. 4520: 4602: 6104: 8591:

The poll comes as UN negotiations to agree a new global treaty to regulate carbon pollution gather pace in advance of a key meeting in Copenhagen in December. Officials will try to agree a successor to the Kyoto protocol, the first phase of which expires in

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New Zealand's climate minister Tim Groser said the 15-year-old Kyoto Protocol was outdated, and that New Zealand was "ahead of the curve" in looking for a replacement that would include developing nations. Non-profit environmental organisations such as the

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in late 2000, but it was unable to reach an agreement due to disputes between the European Union (who favoured a tougher implementation) and the United States, Canada, Japan and Australia (who wanted the agreement to be less demanding and more flexible).

1657:. "Business-as-usual" are projected non-Annex I emissions in the absence of any new policies to control emissions. Projections indicated that by 2050, emissions in all non-Annex I regions would need to be substantially reduced below "business-as-usual". 946:(EU ETS) implicitly allows for trade of national Kyoto obligations to occur between participating countries. The Carbon Trust found that other than the trading that occurs as part of the EU ETS, no intergovernmental emissions trading had taken place. 3723:

UNFCCC (2005) compiled and synthesized information reported to it by non-Annex I Parties. Most non-Annex I Parties belonged in the low-income group, with very few classified as middle-income. Most Parties included information on policies relating to

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The first period Kyoto emissions limitations can be viewed as a first-step towards achieving atmospheric stabilization of GHGs. In this sense, the first period Kyoto commitments may affect what future atmospheric stabilization level can be achieved.

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Robert T. Watson, Ian R. Noble, Bert Bolin, N. H. Ravindranath, David J. Verardo and David J. Dokken (editors), 2000, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Special Report on Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry, Cambridge University Press,

4818:. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This version: IPCC website. Archived from 984:

Latvia was one of the front-runners of GISs. World Bank (2011) reported that Latvia has stopped offering AAU sales because of low AAU prices. In 2010, Estonia was the preferred source for AAU buyers, followed by the Czech Republic and Poland.

2670:, expressing disapproval of any international agreement that did not require developing countries to make emission reductions and "would seriously harm the economy of the United States". The resolution passed 95–0. Therefore, even though the 1496:

Kyoto Parties with first period (2008–12) greenhouse gas emissions limitations targets, and the percentage change in their carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion between 1990 and 2009. For more detailed country/region information, see

1492: 3739:, stated their concern over how efforts to reduce emissions by Annex I Parties could adversely affect their economies. The economies of these countries are highly dependent on income generated from the production, processing, and export of 777:

The production of emission reductions generated by the CDM and JI can be used by Annex I Parties in meeting their emission limitation commitments. The emission reductions produced by the CDM and JI are both measured against a hypothetical

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Only emission reduction projects that do not involve using nuclear energy are eligible for accreditation under the CDM, in order to prevent nuclear technology exports from becoming the default route for obtaining credits under the CDM.

1674:, which has been established by the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change to finance concrete adaptation projects and programmes in developing countries that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. 4910:

Such a level should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable

1569:– with other gases such as HFCs regulated separately. The EU also wanted to have a "bubble" commitment, whereby it could make a collective commitment that allowed some EU members to increase their emissions, while others cut theirs. 517:

had participated in Kyoto's first-round but did not take on new targets in the second commitment period. Other developed countries without second-round targets were Canada (which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012) and the

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Some environmentalists have supported the Kyoto Protocol because it is "the only game in town", and possibly because they expect that future emission reduction commitments may demand more stringent emission reductions (Aldy

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The Protocol also reaffirms the principle that developed countries have to pay billions of dollars, and supply technology to other countries for climate-related studies and projects. The principle was originally agreed in

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may provide an alternative way forward. The Harper government claimed it would find a "Made in Canada" solution. Canada's decision received a generally negative response from representatives of other ratifying countries.

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GHG emissions, excluding land use change and forestry (LUCF), reported by 122 non-Annex I Parties for the year 1994 or the closest year reported, totalled 11.7 billion tonnes (billion = 1,000,000,000) of

6056: 4717: 1527: Non-Annex I Parties who are not obligated by caps or Annex I Parties with an emissions cap that allows their emissions to expand above their base year levels or countries that have not ratified the Kyoto Protocol 6096: 4595: 3728:. Sustainable development priorities mentioned by non-Annex I Parties included poverty alleviation and access to basic education and health care. Many non-Annex I Parties are making efforts to amend and update their 4062:

include voluntary pledges made by 76 developed and developing countries to control their emissions of greenhouse gases. In 2010, these 76 countries were collectively responsible for 85% of annual global emissions.

1762:." According to Grubb (2003), the explicit consequences of non-compliance of the treaty are weak compared to domestic law. Yet, the compliance section of the treaty was highly contested in the Marrakesh Accords. 2825:

equivalent, a decline of 6.0% during the 1990–2008 period. Several factors have contributed to this decline. The first is due to the economic restructuring in the Annex I Economies in Transition (the EITs – see

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Conference of the Parties - Sixteenth Session: Decision 1/CP.16: The Cancun Agreements: Outcome of the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention (English): Paragraph

2777:, the United States and, following their withdrawal on 15 December 2012, Canada are the only UNFCCC Parties that are not party to the Protocol. Furthermore, the Protocol is not applied to UNFCCC observer the 5633:. Climate Change 2001: Mitigation. A Contribution of Working Group III to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. p. 538. Archived from 4932:. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. Archived from 972:

reaching the targets of the Kyoto Protocol while preserving environmental integrity of IET. However, using the GIS is not required under the Kyoto Protocol, and there is no official definition of the term.

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Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ended in 2020. This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the

450:, and therefore placed the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. 774:"production" of emission reductions. The CDM is designed to encourage production of emission reductions in non-Annex I Parties, while JI encourages production of emission reductions in Annex I Parties. 5686:

Energy and Climate Change in Russia (note requested by the European Parliament's temporary committee on Climate Change, Policy Department Economy and Science, DG Internal Policies, European Parliament)

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Sixth compilation and synthesis of initial national communications from Parties not included in Annex I to the Convention. Note by the secretariat. Executive summary. Document code FCCC/SBI/2005/18

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Gupta, S.; et al. (2007). "13.3.1 Evaluations of existing climate change agreements. In (book chapter): Policies, instruments, and co-operative arrangements.". In B. Metz; et al. (eds.).

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Article 25 of the Protocol specifies that the Protocol enters into force "on the ninetieth day after the date on which not less than 55 Parties to the Convention, incorporating Parties included in

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The Protocol was based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities: it acknowledged that individual countries have different capabilities in combating climate change, owing to

4092:, called on world leaders to come to an agreement on halting global warming during the 69th Session of the UN General Assembly on 23 September 2014 in New York. The next climate summit was held 635: 1817:(which is required to become a party to the Protocol) started on 17 September with ratification by Fiji. Countries that did not sign acceded to the convention, which has the same legal effect. 8836: 4926:

Meehl, G. A.; et al. (2007). "FAQ 10.3 If Emissions of Greenhouse Gases are Reduced, How Quickly do Their Concentrations in the Atmosphere Decrease?". In Solomon, S.; et al. (eds.).

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emissions. The remaining signatory countries were not obliged to implement a common framework nor specific measures, but to reach an emission reduction target for which they can benefit of a

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available, such as joint implementation, the clean development mechanism and emissions trading, in order to be rewarded with credits that would allow more greenhouse gas emissions at home.

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Box 13.7 The range of the difference between emissions in 1990 and emission allowances in 2020/2050 for various GHG concentration levels for Annex I and non-Annex I countries as a group

4347: 9503: 9492: 9481: 7476:, The Hague, Netherlands: PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency; Institute for Environment and Sustainability (IES) of the European Commission's Joint Research Centre (JRC), 1612:

relative to the pre-industrial temperature level. One of the stabilization levels discussed in relation to this temperature target is to hold atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at 450

4749:. Synthesis and Assessment Product 5.2: Best practice approaches for characterizing, communicating, and incorporating scientific uncertainty in decision making. A Report by the U.S. 1005:(CDM) projects could be registered, and 2012, the end of the first Kyoto commitment period, the CDM is expected to produce some 1.5 billion tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO 7284: 6026: 4628: 1415:

For most state parties, 1990 is the base year for the national GHG inventory and the calculation of the assigned amount. However, five state parties have an alternative base year:

8775: 4038: 5760: 3696: 1505: 1021:(52% of total CERs) and India (16%). CERs produced in Latin America and the Caribbean make up 15% of the potential total, with Brazil as the largest producer in the region (7%). 6575: 5952:. Report of the Conference of the Parties on its third session, held at Kyoto from 1 to 11 December 1997, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. 25 March 1998. 3934:

Lichtenstein, Luxembourg, Norway, Spain and Switzerland) had to resort to the flexibility mechanisms because their national emissions were slightly greater than their targets.

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A second commitment period was agreed to in 2012 to extend the agreement to 2020, known as the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol, in which 37 countries had binding targets:

12190: 12080: 6955: 6130: 6052: 4721: 8949: 8608: 6641: 10799: 3917:) did not ratify the Kyoto treaty. According to Stern (2006), their decision was based on the lack of quantitative emission commitments for emerging economies (see also the 3646:

emissions from fuel combustion of Annex I Kyoto Protocol (KP) Parties, 1990–2009. Total Annex I KP emissions are shown, along with emissions of Annex II KP and Annex I EITs.

7553: 1746:; but, since the EU's member states each have individual obligations, much larger increases (up to 27%) are allowed for some of the less developed EU countries (see below 1587:

The final targets negotiated in the Protocol are the result of last minute political compromises. The targets closely match those decided by Argentinian Raul Estrada, the

1182: 9076: 4961:. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC. Cambridge University Press. Archived from 1081:

estimates that since 1750 a third of global warming has been caused by land use change. Particular criteria apply to the definition of forestry under the Kyoto Protocol.

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leading to low prices of allowances with almost no effect on fossil fuel combustion. Emission trade allowances currently cover a wide price range from €7 per tonne of CO

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Annual per capita carbon dioxide emissions (i.e., average emissions per person) from fuel combustion between 1990 and 2009 for the Kyoto Annex I and non-Annex I Parties

1119:-15, made up of 15 states at the time of the Kyoto negotiations) commit themselves to binding targets for GHG emissions. The targets apply to the four greenhouse gases 1073:(LULUCF) in meeting their targets. LULUCF activities are also called "sink" activities. Changes in sinks and land use can have an effect on the climate, and indeed the 7913: 7464: 3710: 1683: 8723: 4743:

Granger Morgan *, M.; Dowlatabadi, H.; Henrion, M.; Keith, D.; Lempert, R.; McBride, S.; Small, M.; Wilbanks, T. (2009). "BOX NT.1 Summary of Climate Change Basics".

12020: 10975: 7845: 509:. Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine stated that they may withdraw from the Kyoto Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets. Japan, 466:

reduced their emissions in the early 1990s. Even though the 36 developed countries reduced their emissions, the global emissions increased by 32% from 1990 to 2010.

10643: 10100: 8287:

Is the CDM fulfilling its environmental and sustainable development objectives? An evaluation of the CDM and options for improvement. A report prepared for the WWF

5583: 2798: 1713: 1634:(2007) also looked at what 450 ppm scenarios projected for non-Annex I Parties. Projections indicated that by 2020, non-Annex I emissions in several regions ( 9288: 7519: 6891: 5134: 4479: 739:" that can be used by Annex I Parties in meeting their emission limitation commitments. The flexibility mechanisms are International Emissions Trading (IET), the 12030: 8547: 7254: 2842:

countries. This led to a massive contraction of their heavy industry-based economies, with associated reductions in their fossil fuel consumption and emissions.

12065: 8923:

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Technical paper: Tracing the Origins of the Kyoto Protocol: An Article-by-Article Textual History

7315: 8053: 4744: 4020:

strategy, unequal power, and the absence of leadership" among and within nations. The efforts of fossil fuel interests and conservative think tanks to spread

4016:

Scheme (ETS) allowed countries to host polluting industries and to buy from other countries the property of their environmental merits and virtuous patterns.

1809:, when it was signed Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, the Maldives, Samoa, St. Lucia and Switzerland. At the end of the signature period, 82 countries and the 12040: 11880: 10816: 7413: 6951: 6464: 5925: 1794: 1046: 762:-eq for an Annex I/non-Annex I Party. At the time of the original Kyoto targets, studies suggested that the flexibility mechanisms could reduce the overall ( 552: 360: 8685: 7086: 976:

projects either acquiring the greenhouse gases emission reductions (hard greening) or building up the necessary framework for this process (soft greening).

11165: 5855: 8899: 8753: 8179: 5023: 4665: 1189:

Parties) are mostly low-income developing countries, and may participate in the Kyoto Protocol through the Clean Development Mechanism (explained below).

10252: 10068: 8578: 6696: 5657:, Paris, France: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Environment Directorate and International Energy Agency (IEA), p. 11, 5501: 5474: 4889: 1547:

open no later than 2005. Countries over-achieving in their first period commitments can "bank" their unused allowances for use in the subsequent period.

6837: 6231: 4956: 3774:

was the largest source of emissions for 70 Parties, whereas for 45 Parties the agriculture sector was the largest. Per capita emissions (in tonnes of CO

1480:

During negotiations, the G-77 represented 133 developing countries. China was not a member of the group but an associate. It has since become a member.

782:

of emissions that would have occurred in the absence of a particular emission reduction project. The emission reductions produced by the CDM are called

692:

other hand, less stringent near term emissions reductions would, for a given stabilization level, require more stringent emissions reductions later on.

12195: 11220: 10247: 8863: 11895: 8516: 7932: 6175: 12000: 10115: 8845: 1609: 1201:

Annex I countries under the Kyoto Protocol, their 2008–2012 commitments as % of base year, and 1990 emission levels (% of all Annex I countries)

6607: 4234: 857:

by creating a market with limited allowances for emissions. Carbon emissions trading is a common method that countries use to attempt to meet their

11215: 1839:

on 18 November 2004 satisfied the "55%" clause and brought the treaty into force, effective 16 February 2005, after the required lapse of 90 days.

7053: 7008:"Byrd-Hagel Resolution (S. Res. 98) Expressing the Sense of the Senate Regarding Conditions for the U.S. Signing the Global Climate Change Treaty" 4813: 4753:

and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. Washington D.C., USA.: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. p. 11. Archived from

4412: 12045: 11225: 10095: 10042: 9366: 9278: 9212: 9110: 8991: 8337: 7617: 4322: 9257: 7730: 7692: 6333: 5210: 4382: 2736: 12075: 9171: 6918: 6823:

Victor, David G. The Collapse of the Kyoto Protocol and the Struggle to Slow Global Warming. Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 2004.

6785: 4987: 4927: 1831:

The EU and its Member States ratified the Protocol in May 2002. Of the two conditions, the "55 parties" clause was reached on 23 May 2002 when

7158: 6486: 4355: 12095: 11210: 9751: 9500: 9489: 9478: 4695: 4093: 4079: 4059: 3667: 2802: 2757: 1605: 827:

Allowance prices for carbon emission trade in all major emission trading schemes in Euro per ton of CO2 emitted (from 2008 until August 2024)

539: 4955:

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2007). "Human and Natural Drivers of Climate Change". In Solomon, S.; et al. (eds.).

3638: 1515: Annex I Parties who have agreed to reduce their GHG emissions below their individual base year levels (see definition in this article) 11170: 9984: 7276: 2756:

cited Canada's liability to "enormous financial penalties" under the treaty unless it withdrew. He also suggested that the recently signed

9022: 6020: 306: 12025: 11325: 9868: 9465: 5066: 4775: 1654: 779: 8783: 6754: 5953: 11870: 10137: 10085: 9127: 8122: 5751: 5242: 4863: 2752:

government prioritized oil sands development in Alberta, and deprioritized the reduction of greenhouse emissions. Environment minister

567:– In December the parties conclude the Kyoto Protocol in Kyoto, Japan, in which they agree to the broad outlines of emissions targets. 9323: 8215:

Sec 10.4.4. Where Should the Response Take Place? The Relationship between Domestic Mitigation and the Use of International Mechanisms

7816: 6562: 2785:

approved the protocol for the whole Kingdom, it did not deposit an instrument of ratification for Aruba, Curaçao, Sint Maarten or the

1543: 1449: 12055: 11016: 10132: 9707: 8813: 8663: 8418: 7375: 6980: 1074: 561:– Parties to the UNFCCC meet in Berlin (the 1st Conference of Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC) to outline specific targets on emissions. 7426: 6944: 1099:

are all eligible LULUCF activities under the Protocol. Annex I Parties use of forest management in meeting their targets is capped.

12115: 12085: 11250: 10347: 10058: 9776: 9553: 8955: 8617: 6650: 6126: 4718:"A Climate Change Plan for the Purposes of the Kyoto Protocol Implementation Act 2012: Canada's Withdrawal from the Kyoto Protocol" 1728: 657:

reduction commitments for a second commitment period. The first period emission reduction commitments expired on 31 December 2012.

589: 543: 8084: 7545: 5266:

10.4.4. Where Should the Response Take Place? The Relationship between Domestic Mitigation and the Use of International Mechanisms

3789:

The Asia and Pacific region's aggregate emissions were 7.9 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 2.6 tonnes.

668:

For each of the different anthropogenic GHGs, different levels of emissions reductions would be required to meet the objective of

12100: 12015: 11195: 11185: 11180: 10703: 10492: 9650: 8152: 7894: 7348: 6514: 5531: 4089: 1078: 943: 924: 376: 156: 7651: 7576: 7180:

Weiner, John Barlow; Bankobeza, Gilbert; Block, Kitty; Fraenkel, Amy; Hobgood, Teresa; Mattice, Alice; Wagner, David W. (2003).

5288: 4446: 11490: 11445: 11190: 10352: 10315: 10169: 10154: 10063: 9712: 9656: 9443: 990: 916: 368: 9454: 8237: 8210: 7380: 7036: 6866: 6720: 5628: 5345: 5318: 5261: 5183: 4263: 12010: 11825: 11175: 11150: 11011: 10149: 9251: 9218: 9185: 9141: 9090: 8486: 8331: 7865: 7481: 7119: 6531: 6169: 5658: 5380: 5100: 3972: 1061:

National emission targets specified in the Kyoto Protocol exclude international aviation and shipping. Kyoto Parties can use

1017:, and fuel switching (World Bank, 2010, p. 262). By 2012, the largest potential for production of CERs are estimated in 324: 141: 8715: 7487: 7007: 3938:

the United States and Canada are included, the emissions decreased by 11.8%. The large reductions were mainly thanks to the

758:

cost of reducing (or abating) emissions differs among countries. "Marginal cost" is the cost of abating the last tonne of CO

12070: 12060: 11795: 11200: 11033: 9979: 9974: 8930: 5982: 4191: 1498: 6981:"Congressional Research Service Reports #98-349: Global Climate Change: Selected Legal Questions About the Kyoto Protocol" 5684: 4868:

Stabilizing atmospheric concentrations would depend upon emissions reductions beyond those agreed to in the Kyoto Protocol

11205: 11160: 10514: 10292: 10110: 10032: 10022: 10005: 9912: 9719: 9096: 5986: 5794: 858: 478: 145: 10037: 9522: 7512: 5589: 4468: 3716:

Annual carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion between 1990 and 2009 for the Kyoto Annex I and non-Annex I Parties

592:

to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The first conference was held in 1995 in Berlin (

11660: 11525: 10943: 10804: 10761: 10257: 9311: 8539: 7907: 5157: 4196: 1843: 1010: 929:

Other greenhouse gases can also be traded but are quoted as standard multiples of carbon dioxide with respect to their

8951:

Tyndall Centre Working Paper 12: The climate regime from The Hague to Marrakech: Saving or sinking the Kyoto Protocol?

7246: 12130: 12050: 11940: 11920: 11900: 11350: 10870: 10746: 10563: 9756: 9160: 9116: 8635: 8417:

Sokona, Youba; Stirling, Andy; Stilwell, Matthew; Spash, Clive L.; Williams, Mariama; et al. (18 October 2021).

8389: 7885: 7307: 5414: 3898:

financial support to developing countries to assist them in reducing their emissions and adapting to climate change.

8062: 6097:"Proposal to amend Annexes I and II to remove the name of Turkey and to amend Annex I to add the name of Kazakhstan" 2855:

Percentage changes in emissions from the base year (1990 for most countries) for Annex I Parties with Kyoto targets

1758:

The protocol defines a mechanism of "compliance" as a "monitoring compliance with the commitments and penalties for

12005: 11995: 11970: 11945: 11875: 11790: 11765: 11590: 11440: 11230: 11135: 11103: 10741: 10721: 10668: 10620: 9672: 7209: 6703: 4754: 2720: 2452: 2012: 1473:

developing country emissions per-capita (i.e., average emissions per head of population) were still relatively low.

9513: 9381: 8677: 7078: 6079: 5714: 5588:, Washington, DC, USA: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank., archived from 5430: 1509:

Overview map of states committed to greenhouse gas (GHG) limitations in the first Kyoto Protocol period (2008–12):

12155: 12035: 11980: 11915: 11890: 11740: 11730: 11700: 11675: 11670: 11630: 11610: 11425: 11390: 11370: 11285: 11275: 11125: 10860: 10811: 10237: 10199: 10144: 9604: 8964: 7869: 3947: 3939: 3838: 2806: 1620:- eq. Stabilization at 450 ppm could be associated with a 26 to 78% risk of exceeding the 2 °C target. 1593: 1573: 573:– Russia and Canada ratify the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC bringing the treaty into effect on 16 February 2005. 463: 455: 5863: 1698:, where the required decisions were adopted. After some concessions, the supporters of the protocol (led by the 12165: 11955: 11925: 11770: 11705: 11665: 11560: 11515: 11265: 11255: 10928: 10212: 9959: 8905: 8570: 5034: 4750: 4657: 4292: 2318: 320: 8616:, Oxford, UK: Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment, University of Oxford, p. 12, archived from 6649:, Oxford, UK: Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment, University of Oxford, p. 12, archived from 5478: 4897: 2830:

for the list of EITs). Over the period 1990–1999, emissions fell by 40% in the EITs following the collapse of

2748:

greenhouse emissions to 6% below 1990 levels by 2012, but in 2009 emissions were 17% higher than in 1990. The

1727:

from 28 November to 9 December 2005, along with the 11th conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (COP11). See

1596:

and the G-77 and China, but stronger than the targets proposed by others, e.g., Canada and the United States.

726:

Compliance. Establishing a Compliance Committee to enforce compliance with the commitments under the Protocol.

12185: 11990: 11985: 11960: 11935: 11930: 11845: 11830: 11810: 11725: 11685: 11620: 11540: 11465: 11455: 11420: 11415: 11385: 11365: 11360: 11345: 11330: 11290: 11038: 10573: 10105: 9235: 9177: 7849: 7841: 6675: 6361: 5933: 4962: 2742: 1436:

offsetting any excess through a mechanism that is agreed by all the parties to the UNFCCC, such as by buying

388: 8871: 6833: 3815:. Their aggregate emissions were 0.1 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 5.1 tonnes. 2467: 1476:

and that the share of global emissions from developing countries would grow to meet their development needs.

12170: 12160: 12150: 12145: 12120: 11905: 11855: 11780: 11750: 11745: 11735: 11715: 11655: 11650: 11645: 11595: 11575: 11550: 11545: 11510: 11495: 11475: 11460: 11450: 11430: 11410: 11395: 11355: 11320: 11300: 11295: 11280: 11270: 11260: 11240: 11235: 11021: 10693: 10222: 10217: 10122: 9989: 9546: 9133: 9082: 8508: 7984:

Grubb, M. (April 2000). "The Kyoto Protocol: An Economic Appraisal. FEEM Working Paper No. 30 2000". SSRN.

7929: 7881: 6156: 3796:

region's aggregate emissions were 2 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 4.6 tonnes.

2678: 783: 9392:(3), Washington DC, USA: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank: 299, 12180: 12140: 12135: 12125: 11965: 11910: 11865: 11860: 11840: 11820: 11800: 11720: 11710: 11680: 11640: 11625: 11605: 11580: 11530: 11520: 11505: 11480: 11405: 11340: 11335: 11315: 11305: 11245: 10232: 10075: 7857: 6615: 6510: 4230: 4181: 3994: 3834: 1847: 1466:

developed nations had contributed most to the then-current concentrations of GHGs in the atmosphere (see

1177:

in determining reductions in emissions. These reduction targets are in addition to the industrial gases,

1002: 740: 12175: 12110: 11975: 11950: 11885: 11850: 11815: 11775: 11760: 11755: 11695: 11615: 11600: 11585: 11555: 11535: 11500: 11485: 11435: 11380: 11310: 11091: 10855: 10658: 10615: 10388: 10310: 10164: 8316: 7861: 7419:

Compilation and synthesis of fifth national communications. Executive summary. Note by the secretariat.

6311: 4819: 4314: 2818: 2782: 593: 8838:

Doha climate conference opens gateway to greater ambition and action on climate change (press release)

7625: 12105: 11835: 11805: 11785: 11690: 11635: 11570: 11565: 11470: 11400: 11375: 11155: 10960: 10635: 10610: 10583: 10545: 10462: 10280: 10127: 10080: 9830: 9599: 9594: 9589: 8445: 6571: 5217: 3729: 854: 717: 10475: 9229: 9191: 9013: 8036: 6922: 5627:

Hourcade, J.-C.; et al. (2001). "8.3.1.1 "Where Flexibility"". In B. Metz; et al. (eds.).

4995: 4933: 551:– The UN Conference on the Environment and Development is held in Rio de Janeiro. It results in the 10970: 10965: 10955: 10896: 10736: 10242: 10207: 10090: 10017: 9858: 9687: 9623: 9584: 5929: 3663: 1990: 1467: 1108: 950:

Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Ukraine) have a surplus of allowances, while many

930: 803: 364: 65: Annex B parties with binding targets in the first period but which withdrew from the Protocol 6468: 4001:

energy sources, and adverse impacts of CDM projects on local communities in developing countries.

1530:

For specific emission reduction commitments of Annex I Parties, see the section of the article on

530:, which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto Protocol. 11145: 11140: 11079: 11001: 10911: 10653: 10625: 10305: 9954: 9932: 9539: 7853: 6701:

Sixth Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change: Resumed Session

4687: 3986: 3976: 3725: 1828:

countries, have deposited their instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession."

1437: 830: 816: 787: 596:). The first Meeting of Parties of the Kyoto Protocol (CMP) was held in 2005 in conjunction with 387:, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. There were 192 parties ( 9289:"Conventions of climate change: constructions of danger and the dispossession of the atmosphere" 5585:

Development and Climate Change: A Strategic Framework for the World Bank Group: Technical Report

5135:"Conventions of climate change: constructions of danger and the dispossession of the atmosphere" 1824:

which accounted in total for at least 55% of the total carbon dioxide emissions for 1990 of the

11130: 10678: 10498: 10440: 10357: 10342: 10227: 9863: 9809: 9804: 9799: 9794: 9789: 9784: 9061: 9008: 3982: 2671: 1944: 1577: 767: 736: 9473: 9462: 7412: 6463: 6154: 5092: 5057: 4790: 794:" because they are emission reductions credited against a hypothetical baseline of emissions. 181: 11067: 10713: 10590: 10398: 9848: 9771: 8377: 8023: 8015: 6750: 5936:. These figures are used for converting the various greenhouse gas emissions into comparable 5404: 4117: 4025: 2786: 2667: 2444: 2016: 1682:

The protocol left several issues open to be decided later by the sixth Conference of Parties

748: 20: 9147: 8660: 8114: 5692:, Brussels, Belgium: Institute for European Environmental Policy, p. 11, archived from 4921: 4919: 4871: 10906: 10784: 10445: 10010: 9937: 9393: 9354: 9180:(AR4) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Cambridge University Press, 9136:(TAR) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Cambridge University Press, 9037: 7877: 7784: 7769: 6521: 4535: 3990: 2663: 2588: 1151: 1030: 1014: 744: 447: 436: 344: 9514:

Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at Law-Ref.org

8805: 8437: 7942:

Society (UK) (18 May 2001), "Joint statement: The Science of Climate Change (editorial)",

6984: 5373:

Kyoto Protocol, Emissions Trading and Reduction Technologies for Climate Change Mitigation

3786:

emissions were 1.6 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 2.4 tonnes.

1521: Annex I Parties who have agreed to cap their GHG emissions at their base year levels 8: 10923: 10698: 9922: 9917: 7873: 7417: 6338: 5946: 5350:

6.3.2 Project-based Mechanisms (Joint Implementation and the Clean Development Mechanism)

5312: 5310: 4916: 4629:"Environmental issues: Time to abandon blame-games and become proactive - Economic Times" 4072: 3808: 2560: 1882: 1671: 1292: 833:(also called carbon market, emission trading scheme (ETS) or cap and trade) is a type of 443:. Nitrogen trifluoride was added for the second compliance period during the Doha Round. 428: 9397: 9372: 9041: 8314: 7788: 4539: 3862:

Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.

1608:

held in 2010, Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited

684:

in the atmosphere would ultimately require the effective elimination of anthropogenic CO

579:– Canada became the first signatory to announce its withdrawal from the Kyoto Protocol. 10751: 10683: 10600: 10450: 10415: 10372: 10367: 10362: 9927: 9479:

List of countries who have ratified, accepted, approved, or accessed the Kyoto Protocol

9409: 9346: 9053: 8457: 8092: 8003: 7967: 7808: 7201: 4559: 4159: 4048: 2770: 2662:

presidency. To become binding in the US, however, the treaty had to be ratified by the

2063: 1810: 1363: 1178: 1112: 755: 8419:"Three Decades of Climate Mitigation: Why Haven't We Bent the Global Emissions Curve?" 8144: 7340: 6537: 6312:"Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change: Annex B" 5307: 3997:(CDM). The flexibility mechanisms have attracted both positive and negative comments. 10985: 10648: 10393: 10159: 9942: 9905: 9692: 9646: 9413: 9272: 9247: 9206: 9181: 9137: 9104: 9086: 9057: 8985: 8461: 8449: 8395: 8385: 8382:

Sustainable Business: Theory and Practice of Business Under Sustainability Principles

8327: 8011: 7971: 7959: 7903: 7812: 7664: 7589: 7477: 7193: 7115: 6527: 6355: 6165: 5527: 5410: 5386: 5376: 5236: 4776:"Kyoto and the Future of International Climate Change Responses: From Here to Where?" 4563: 4551: 4438: 4186: 4013: 2125: 2083: 1613: 1162: 1084: 834: 645:, emissions worldwide would need to be dramatically reduced from their present level. 420: 336: 9440: 9350: 8007: 1462:

was able to push for a mandate (the "Berlin mandate") where it was recognized that:

11028: 10595: 10578: 10519: 10410: 10174: 9888: 9761: 9697: 9451: 9401: 9338: 9303: 9045: 8864:"Event: 69th Session of the UN General Assembly (UNGA 69) | SDG Knowledge Hub" 8441: 8433: 8245: 8218: 7993: 7985: 7951: 7800: 7792: 7408: 7406: 7404: 7402: 7400: 7398: 7033: 6859: 6784:. Institute for Sustainable Development and International Relations. Archived from 6728: 5634: 5353: 5326: 5296: 5269: 5191: 5149: 4543: 4256: 4009: 2764: 2404: 2302: 1581: 885: 766:) cost of meeting the targets. Studies also showed that national losses in Annex I 665:

reductions will be required in future to stabilize atmospheric GHG concentrations.

424: 8482: 7955: 5793:, Tokyo, Japan: Ministry of the Environment, Government of Japan, pp. 81–82, 5649: 5477:. Mercator Research Institute on Global Commons and Climate Change. Archived from 5094: 4547: 4348:"7 .a Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change" 2727:

US Administration, was reached in the Bonn climate talks (COP-6.5), held in 2001.

1850:) have ratified the agreement, representing over 61.6% of the 1990 emissions from 723:

Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity of the Protocol.

10980: 10901: 10865: 10794: 10768: 10756: 10673: 10605: 10480: 10337: 9949: 9900: 9878: 9526: 9507: 9496: 9485: 9469: 9458: 9447: 7936: 7796: 7109: 7040: 7011: 6707: 5716:

Carbon Finance - Glossary of Terms: Definition of "Green Investment Scheme" (GIS)

4201: 4097: 3812: 2831: 2503: 2380: 1647: 1166: 1066: 862: 527: 53: Annex B parties with binding targets in the first period but not the second 9368:

Stern Review Report on the Economics of Climate Change (pre-publication edition)

9170:(2007), Metz, B.; Davidson, O. R.; Bosch, P. R.; Dave, R.; Meyer, L. A. (eds.), 8921: 8289:, Berlin, Germany: Institute for Applied Ecology, pp. 72–73, archived from 7896:

The Science of Climate Change (Joint statement by 17 National Science Academies)

7395: 4954: 4521:"Compliance of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol in the first commitment period" 4167: 4111: 10933: 10731: 10726: 10568: 10457: 10189: 10184: 10179: 10027: 9964: 9702: 9682: 9641: 9562: 8324:

World Economic and Social Survey 2009: Promoting Development, Saving the Planet

5759:, Washington, DC, USA: World Bank Environment Department, Carbon Finance Unit, 5693: 4413:"Nigeria, Jamaica bring closure to the Kyoto Protocol era, in last-minute dash" 4131: 4021: 3910: 3783: 3778:-eq, excluding LUCF) averaged 2.8 tonnes for the 122 non-Annex I Parties. 3596: 3020: 2839: 2749: 2706: 2698: 2103: 2044: 1759: 1739: 1699: 1398: 1244: 1120: 1116: 1054: 908: 904: 881: 870: 846: 838: 763: 673: 624: 585:– On 31 December 2012, the first commitment period under the Protocol expired. 474: 396: 372: 9519: 9342: 9307: 9085:

of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press,

8399: 6158:

Kyoto Protocol Reference Manual On Accounting of Emissions and Assigned Amount

6150: 6148: 5978: 5708: 5706: 5319:"8. Global, Regional, and National Costs and Ancillary Benefits of Mitigation" 5153: 3683:

the Annex I group would have been a 5.2% reduction relative to the base year.

1854:

countries. One of the 191 ratifying states—Canada—has renounced the protocol.

1531: 680:) is the most important anthropogenic GHG. Stabilizing the concentration of CO 613: 391:

withdrew from the protocol, effective December 2012) to the Protocol in 2020.

11119: 11006: 10938: 10663: 10485: 10470: 10405: 10300: 8540:"Why the Copenhagen climate change cliffhanger could drag on a little longer" 8453: 7889: 7371:"Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change" 7197: 5785: 5390: 5208:

Clifford Chance LLP (2012). "Clean Development Mechanism: CDM and the UNFCC"

5059:

Impact of the Kyoto Protocol on Stabilization of Carbon Dioxide Concentration

4555: 4257:"Kyoto Protocol on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change" 4153: 4145: 3771: 3760: 3615: 3269: 2266: 2151: 1805:. It was opened on 16 March 1998 for signature during one year by parties to 1735: 1635: 1403: 1315: 1139: 907:

below the critical thresholds of 1.5 °C or "well below" 2 °C, with

900: 791: 588:

The official meeting of all states party to the Kyoto Protocol is the annual

519: 494: 412: 77: Other UN member states and observers that are not party to the Protocol 8644: 5630:

8. Global, Regional, and National Costs and Ancillary Benefits of Mitigation

458:

reduced emissions. The greatest emission reductions were seen in the former

10891: 10688: 10332: 10322: 9969: 9853: 9766: 9405: 9049: 8711: 8633: 8178:. Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (PBL) website. Archived from 7963: 7458: 7456: 7454: 7452: 7450: 7448: 7446: 6145: 5703: 4173: 3943: 2835: 2659: 2572: 2487: 2471: 2020: 1964: 1814: 1096: 1050: 850: 459: 97: 5719:, Washington, DC, US: World Bank Carbon Finance Unit (CFU), archived from 3950:

significantly reduced emissions during the first Kyoto commitment period.

2674:

signed the treaty, it was never submitted to the Senate for ratification.

1723:

The first Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (MOP1) was held in

205: 10918: 10435: 10427: 9677: 9243: 4085: 3914: 3740: 3558: 3364: 3345: 2774: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2532: 2448: 2416: 2358: 2227: 2223: 2079: 2028: 1866: 1686:

of the UNFCCC, which attempted to resolve these issues at its meeting in

1639: 1459: 1388: 1335: 1330: 893: 877: 510: 502: 38: 9075:(2001), Metz, B.; Davidson, O.; Swart, R.; Pan, J.; et al. (eds.), 8999:

Grubb, M. (July–September 2003), "The Economics of the Kyoto Protocol",

7998: 7989: 7804: 7770:"Thirteen Plus One: A Comparison of Global Climate Policy Architectures" 7443: 7205: 7181: 6700: 5247:. Advocates for International Development. Retrieved: 19 September 2013. 10950: 10327: 6239:

Table A1: Energy-related emissions: Indicator: per capita (metric tons)

6155:

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (2008),

5093:

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (2011),

4742: 4004:

China, India, Indonesia and Brazil were not required to reduce their CO

3922: 3891: 3804: 3659: 3307: 2753: 2600: 2540: 2483: 2460: 2342: 2334: 2306: 2278: 2274: 2235: 2211: 2071: 2024: 1986: 1912: 1900: 1694:

In 2001, a continuation of the previous meeting (COP6-bis) was held in

1325: 889: 823: 490: 454:

their national emissions were slightly greater than their targets. The

310: 185: 19:

This article is about the international treaty. For the rock band, see

5409:. International Business Publications, USA. 3 March 2008. p. 14. 5088: 5086: 148:

except Andorra, Canada, South Sudan, and the United States as of 2022)

9895: 9417: 8610:

International climate change negotiations: Key lessons and next steps

8571:"World will not meet 2C warming target, climate change experts agree" 8238:"Ch 1: Setting the Stage: Climate Change and Sustainable Development" 7502:

PBL publication number 500253004. JRC Technical Note number JRC65918.

6643:

International climate change negotiations: Key lessons and next steps

6294: 6292: 6290: 6080:"UK to seek pact on shipping and aviation pollution at climate talks" 6047: 6045: 6043: 5720: 3793: 3288: 2903: 2608: 2516: 2491: 2364: 2310: 2270: 2179: 2143: 1886: 1717: 1687: 1643: 1320: 1209: 470: 8901:

Global Carbon Mechanisms: Emerging lessons and implications (CTC748)

4288: 884:. Instead, carbon emissions trading may accelerate investments into 8176:"Industrialised countries will collectively meet 2010 Kyoto target" 5255: 5253: 5083: 3501: 3482: 3423: 2960: 2778: 2641: 2624: 2548: 2544: 2524: 2499: 2495: 2424: 2408: 2392: 2330: 2290: 2286: 2219: 2163: 2099: 2095: 2056: 2052: 2004: 1980: 1976: 1960: 1948: 1916: 1747: 1724: 1707: 1588: 1373: 1368: 1350: 1229: 1070: 1062: 8970: 7618:"Chapter 13: Policies, instruments, and co-operative arrangements" 7043:. All Politics (CNN). 11 December 1997. Retrieved 5 November 2006. 6667: 6608:"Chapter 13: Policies, instruments, and co-operative arrangements" 6564:

Working Paper: Comparability of Annex I Emission Reduction Pledges

6396: 6394: 6392: 6287: 6164:, Bonn, Germany: Climate Change Secretariat (UNFCCC), p. 55, 6040: 6014: 6012: 6010: 6008: 6006: 6004: 5979:"Industrialized countries to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2%" 3981:

Another area which has been commented on is the role of the Kyoto

3925:, has since ratified the treaty, which took effect in March 2008. 9873: 9531: 9228:(2007), Core Writing Team; Pachauri, R.K.; Reisinger, A. (eds.), 8315:

United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2009),

7574: 6509: 6482: 5018: 5016: 4139: 4012:

for carbon credits multilaterally exchanged from each other. The

3800: 3756: 3577: 3442: 3191: 3172: 3153: 3115: 3077: 3058: 3039: 3001: 2941: 2922: 2714:

Islands, etc.) expressed their disappointment at Bush's decision.

2636: 2612: 2604: 2596: 2584: 2564: 2507: 2475: 2432: 2372: 2346: 2338: 2322: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2201: 2171: 2167: 2139: 2111: 2091: 2087: 2067: 2048: 2032: 2008: 1972: 1968: 1940: 1924: 1920: 1908: 1904: 1896: 1890: 1874: 1870: 1851: 1832: 1825: 1821: 1743: 1393: 1355: 1287: 1282: 1272: 1262: 1254: 1249: 1239: 1224: 1219: 1214: 1128: 1092: 770:(GDP) could be reduced by the use of the flexibility mechanisms. 506: 486: 482: 404: 5787:

Kyoto Protocol Target Achievement Plan (Provisional Translation)

5745: 5743: 5741: 5739: 5737: 5712: 5250: 3666:

would withdraw from the Kyoto accord a day after the end of the

2765:

Other states and territories where the treaty was not applicable

2737:

Kyoto Protocol and government action § Withdrawal of Canada

1009:

e) in emission reductions. Most of these reductions are through

10886: 9382:"World Development Report 2010: Development and Climate Change" 9239: 9238:(AR4) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 8828: 8678:"Bonn climate talks: EU plays down talk of Kyoto protocol rift" 8199: 8197: 7537: 7518:. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. 2012. 6389: 6199: 6197: 6195: 6001: 3539: 3461: 3404: 3385: 3326: 3250: 3134: 3096: 2979: 2885: 2620: 2580: 2576: 2568: 2528: 2479: 2440: 2436: 2420: 2400: 2384: 2326: 2314: 2282: 2243: 2231: 2207: 2193: 2155: 2147: 2135: 2121: 2040: 1956: 1952: 1936: 1928: 1878: 1836: 1806: 1703: 1667: 1550:

The EU initially argued for only three GHGs to be included – CO

1450:

Views on the Kyoto Protocol § Commentaries on negotiations

1383: 1345: 1340: 1307: 1277: 1267: 1234: 597: 514: 498: 356: 47: Annex B parties with binding targets in the second period 8844:, Bonn, Germany: UN Climate Change Secretariat, archived from 8806:"UN climate talks extend Kyoto Protocol, promise compensation" 8602: 8600: 8415: 8375: 5013: 3973:

Flexible Mechanisms § Views on the flexibility mechanisms

2719:

has a powerful lobby with the administration and conservative

899:

However, such schemes are usually not harmonized with defined

754:

The economic basis for providing this flexibility is that the

716:

Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing an

10800:

Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement

9883: 8834: 8634:

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (November 2012),

7687: 7685: 7649: 7054:"ParlInfo - GRIEVANCE DEBATE: Environment: Greenhouse Policy" 5734: 5610: 5608: 5606: 5563: 5553: 5551: 5549: 5520: 5493: 5463:. The Hague: PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. 4982: 4980: 4044: 3520: 3229: 3210: 2616: 2556: 2536: 2520: 2456: 2428: 2396: 2368: 2354: 2350: 2298: 2259: 2215: 2197: 2175: 2159: 2131: 2117: 2075: 1998: 1932: 1802: 1798: 1458:

At the first UNFCCC Conference of the Parties in Berlin, the

1378: 1302: 1297: 1197:

that it wishes to become an Annex I Party to the convention.

1018: 866: 747:(JI). IET allows Annex I Parties to "trade" their emissions ( 620: 384: 257: 8607:

King, D.; et al. (July 2011), "Copenhagen and Cancun",

8194: 7179: 6834:"An Introduction to the Kyoto Protocol Compliance Mechanism" 6640:

King, D.; et al. (July 2011), "Copenhagen and Cancun",

6314:. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. n.d 6192: 4039:

Post–Kyoto Protocol negotiations on greenhouse gas emissions

1183:

Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

16:

1997 international treaty to reduce greenhouse gas emissions

9225: 9167: 9123: 9072: 8597: 6478: 5937: 4858: 4856: 4519:

Shishlov, Igor; Morel, Romain; Bellassen, Valentin (2016).

3755:

was the largest proportion of emissions (63%), followed by

3736: 2658:

The US signed the Protocol on 12 November 1998, during the

2552: 2412: 2388: 2376: 2294: 2239: 2187: 2183: 2107: 2036: 1994: 1695: 1650: 1170: 1088: 951: 253: 12091:

Treaties of the Transitional Federal Government of Somalia

8317:"VI. Financing the development response to climate change" 8048: 8046: 7682: 7611: 7609: 6214: 6212: 6053:"Kyoto Protocol - Targets for the first commitment period" 5603: 5546: 4977: 3957: 1440:

from other operators which have excess emissions credits.

704:

Some of the principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:

10976:

Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change

8929:, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 7846:

Royal Flemish Academy of Belgium for Science and the Arts

7546:"What does Canada's withdrawal from Kyoto protocol mean?" 7425:, Geneva (Switzerland): United Nations Office at Geneva, 7335: 7333: 6055:. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. 4894:

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

4601:. United Nations Environment Programme. 2012. p. 2. 4321:. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. 4051:, and initially hoped that it would be in place by 2009. 3946:

by tens of percents in the early 1990s. In addition, the

1716:

was held from 29 October 2001 through 9 November 2001 in

641:

In order to stabilize the atmospheric concentration of CO

87: 8627: 8378:"5 - Carbon accounting and carbon auditing for business" 6411: 6409: 6379: 6377: 6375: 6373: 6371: 5823: 5433:. Berlin: International Carbon Action Partnership (ICAP) 4853: 4055:

to Kyoto that would bring about meaningful carbon cuts.

3913:) and Australia (initially, under former Prime Minister 3677: 2827: 2799:

List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita

876:

fewer emissions. This can reduce the competitiveness of

71: Signatories to the Protocol that have not ratified 9132:, Contribution of Working Groups I, II, and III to the 8242:

Sec 1.3.3 How Has Global Climate Policy Treated Equity?

8043: 7732:

5. Integrating development into a global climate regime

7694:

5. Integrating development into a global climate regime

7606: 6209: 6129:. European Environment Agency (EEA). 12 November 2009. 5944:-eq) when computing overall sources and sinks. Source: 4688:"United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change" 1788: 966: 166:

Arabic, Mandarin, English, French, Russian, and Spanish

9234:, Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the 8643:, Nairobi, Kenya: UNEP, pp. 14–18, archived from 7330: 7306:

Ljunggren, David; Palmer, Randall (13 December 2011).

6778:"Compliance with the Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change" 5811: 4518: 3966: 3828: 937: 12191: