904:
473:
452:
3684:, a separate descendant of the Phoenician script, became widespread throughout the region, gradually displacing Paleo-Hebrew. The oldest documents that have been found in the Aramaic Script are fragments of the scrolls of Exodus, Samuel, and Jeremiah found among the Dead Sea scrolls, dating from the late 3rd and early 2nd centuries BCE. It seems that the earlier biblical books were originally written in the Paleo-Hebrew script, while the later books were written directly in the later Assyrian script. Some Qumran texts written in the Assyrian script write the
3171:
2849:
2805:
3499:
3327:
2725:
3249:
3207:
3121:
3049:
3005:
2929:
2761:
3371:
2893:
3421:
9852:: by analogy to the Preterite, a simple future tense verb which takes the וְ prefix as a conjunction, appears at the beginning of a clause when it is connected in a narrative sequence with previous clauses, where the conjunction can be translated as 'and then', 'then', 'but', 'however', sometimes is not translated at all, and can even have a parenthetical function as if suggesting the clause is like a side note to the main focus of the narrative
2969:
11722::8): "The extrabiblical linguistic material from the Iron Age is primarily epigraphic, that is, texts written on hard materials (pottery, stones, walls, etc.). The epigraphic texts from Israelite territory are written in Hebrew in a form of the language which may be called Inscriptional Hebrew; this "dialect" is not strikingly different from the Hebrew preserved in the Masoretic text. Unfortunately, it is meagerly attested."
9158:('into the tent'). There does not seem to be evidence for stress in the Secunda varying from that of the Tiberian tradition. Despite sharing the loss of final vowels with Tiberian Hebrew, Samaritan Hebrew has generally not preserved Proto-Semitic stress, and has predominantly penultimate stress, with occasional ultimate stress. There is evidence that Qumran Hebrew had a similar stress pattern to Samaritan Hebrew.
9752:: simple past tense which takes the וַ prefix as a conjunction, appears at the beginning of a clause when it is connected in a narrative sequence with previous clauses, where the conjunction can be translated as 'and then', 'then', 'but', 'however', sometimes is not translated at all, and can even have a parenthetical function as if suggesting the clause is like a side note to the main focus of the narrative
416:
3291:
3085:
6998:
one after the loss of case endings. Both Hebrew and Arabic had a special form of nunation/mimation that co-occurred with the dual and masculine sound plural endings whenever the noun was not in the construct state. The endings were evidently felt as an inherent part of the ending and, as a result, are still used. Examples are Arabic strong masculine plural
76:
1122:
Israel caused the rapid deterioration of papyrus and parchment documents, in contrast to the dry environment of Egypt, and the survival of the Hebrew Bible may be attributed to scribal determination in preserving the text through copying. No manuscript of the Hebrew Bible dates to before 400 BCE, although two silver rolls (the
7186:). Furthermore, stress at this point appears to have shifted so that it was consistently on the penultimate (next to last) syllable, and was still non-phonemic. The predominant final stress of Biblical Hebrew was a result of loss of final unstressed vowels and a shift away from remaining open syllables (see below).
3669:(which might be considered a dialect of Hebrew). The ancient Hebrew script was in continuous use until the early 6th century BCE, the end of the First Temple period. In the Second Temple Period the Paleo-Hebrew script gradually fell into disuse, and was completely abandoned among the Jews after the failed
6997:
forms in Arabic are declined like singulars, and often take singular agreement as well. Dual and "strong plural" forms use endings with a long vowel or diphthong, declined in only two cases: nominative and objective (combination accusative/genitive), with the objective form often becoming the default
4171:
pronunciation is also used by some to read biblical texts. The modern reading traditions do not stem solely from the
Tiberian system; for instance, the Sephardic tradition's distinction between qamatz gadol and qatan is likely pre-Tiberian. However, the only orthographic system used to mark vowels is
2235:
and modern vocalization are later additions reflecting a later stage of the language. These additions were added after 600 CE; Hebrew had already ceased being used as a spoken language around 200 CE. Biblical Hebrew as reflected in the consonantal text of the Bible and in extra-biblical inscriptions
11338:
The modal forms may be taken to form a single volitional class, as cohortative is used in first person, imperative (or prefixing) in second person positive, jussive (or prefixing) in second person negative, and jussive in third person. They also overlap semantically, for example a jussive form like
9729:
added to certain imperfect forms. While often future tense, it also has uses in the past and present under certain contexts. Biblical Hebrew tense is not necessarily reflected in the verb forms per se, but rather is determined primarily by context. The
Participles also reflect ongoing or continuous
9724:
The
Imperfect portrays the verb as an incomplete action along with the process by which it came about, either as an event that has not begun, an event that has begun but is still in the process, or a habitual or cyclic action that is on an ongoing repetition. The Imperfect can also express modal or
9720:
Biblical Hebrew has two main conjugation types, the suffix conjugation, also called the
Perfect, and the prefix conjugation, also called Imperfect. The Perfect verb form expressed the idea of the verb as a completed action, viewing it from start to finish as a whole, and not focusing on the process
4061:
Presumably, the vowels of
Biblical Hebrew were not indicated in the original text, but various sources attest to them at various stages of development. Greek and Latin transcriptions of words from the biblical text provide early evidence of the nature of Biblical Hebrew vowels. In particular, there
1121:
materials from the area of
Israelite territory are written in a form of Hebrew called Inscriptional Hebrew, although this is meagerly attested. According to Waltke & O'Connor, Inscriptional Hebrew "is not strikingly different from the Hebrew preserved in the Masoretic text." The damp climate of
4138:
At an early stage, in documents written in the paleo-Hebrew script, words were divided by short vertical lines and later by dots, as reflected by the Mesha Stone, the Siloam inscription, the Ophel inscription, and paleo-Hebrew script documents from Qumran. Word division was not used in
Phoenician
9454:
Biblical Hebrew has two genders, masculine and feminine, which are reflected in nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs. Hebrew distinguishes between singular and plural numbers, and plural forms may also be used for collectives and honorifics. Hebrew has a morphological dual form for nouns that
7394:
and the stressed moved one syllable later in the word (usually to the last syllable of the word). Presumably, stress was originally penultimate and loss of final short vowels made many words have final stress. However, in this case, words whose final syllable had a long vowel or ended with a
3660:
alphabet's main differences from the
Phoenician script were "a curving to the left of the downstrokes in the "long-legged" letter-signs... the consistent use of a Waw with a concave top, x-shaped Taw." The oldest inscriptions in Paleo-Hebrew script are dated to around the middle of the 9th
4077:(3rd century CE, likely a copy of a preexisting text from before 100 BCE). In the 7th and 8th centuries CE various systems of vocalic notation were developed to indicate vowels in the biblical text. The most prominent, best preserved, and the only system still in use, is the
8036:
The later Jewish traditions (Tiberian, Babylonian, Palestinian) show similar vowel developments. By the
Tiberian time, all short vowels in stressed syllables and open pretonic lengthened, making vowel length allophonic. Vowels in open or stressed syllables had allophonic length (e.g.
9706:, a construction in which the possessed noun occurs in a phonologically reduced, "construct" form and is followed by the possessor noun in its normal, "absolute" form. Pronominal direct objects are either suffixed to the verb or alternatively expressed on the object-marking pronoun
3707:
The
Phoenician script had dropped five characters by the 12th century BCE, reflecting the language's twenty-two consonantal phonemes. The 22 letters of the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet numbered less than the consonant phonemes of ancient Biblical Hebrew; in particular, the letters
3914:
The Hebrew Bible was presumably originally written in a more defective orthography than found in any of the texts known today. Of the extant textual witnesses of the Hebrew Bible, the Masoretic text is generally the most conservative in its use of matres lectionis, with the
1113:
and Biblical Hebrew forms are sometimes used in Modern Hebrew literature, much as archaic and biblical constructions are used in Modern English literature. Since Modern Hebrew contains many biblical elements, Biblical Hebrew is fairly intelligible to Modern Hebrew speakers.
7232:
The dropping of final short vowels in verb forms tended to erase mood distinctions, but also some gender distinctions; however, unexpected vowel lengthening occurred in many situations to preserve the distinctions. For example, in the suffix conjugation, first-singular
11210:
It is not clear that a reduced vowel should be considered as comprising a whole syllable. Note for example that the rule whereby a word's stress shifts to a preceding open syllable to avoid being adjacent to another stressed syllable skips over ultrashort vowels, e.g.
2369:
Biblical Hebrew from after the Babylonian exile in 587 BCE is known as 'Late Biblical Hebrew'. Late Biblical Hebrew shows Aramaic influence in phonology, morphology, and lexicon, and this trend is also evident in the later-developed Tiberian vocalization system.
7041:, any vestigial forms that may remain have been extended with the strong plural endings. The dual and strong plural endings were likely much like the Arabic forms given above at one point, with only the objective-case forms ultimately surviving. For example, dual
13749:
A new catechetical Hebrew and English grammar: containing all the rules essential to a correct and critical knowledge of the language in a simple and comprehensive form. Also, the first twenty-four psalms, literally translated, the Ten Commandments, etc.
9190:, a sequence of consonants with a general associated meaning. Roots are usually triconsonantal, with biconsonantal roots less common (depending on how some words are analyzed) and rare cases of quadri- and quinquiconsonantal roots. Roots are modified by
2090:. Moabite might be considered a Hebrew dialect, though it possessed distinctive Aramaic features. Although Ugaritic shows a large degree of affinity to Hebrew in poetic structure, vocabulary, and some grammar, it lacks some Canaanite features (like the
9473:'days'). A widespread misconception is that the Hebrew plural denotes three or more objects. In truth, it denotes two or more objects. However adjectives, pronouns, and verbs do not have dual forms, and most nominal dual forms can function as plurals (
665:. These scripts lack letters to represent all of the sounds of Biblical Hebrew, although these sounds are reflected in Greek and Latin transcriptions/translations of the time. They initially indicated only consonants, but certain letters, known by the
9603:
Biblical Hebrew has two sets of personal pronouns: the free-standing independent pronouns have a nominative function, while the pronominal suffixes are genitive or accusative. Only the first person suffix has different possessive and objective forms
9130:
Proto-Hebrew generally had penultimate stress. The ultimate stress of later traditions of Hebrew usually resulted from the loss of final vowels in many words, preserving the location of proto-Semitic stress. Tiberian Hebrew has phonemic stress, e.g.
2334:) is known as 'Biblical Hebrew proper' or 'Standard Biblical Hebrew'. This is dated to the period from the 8th to the 6th century BCE. In contrast to Archaic Hebrew, Standard Biblical Hebrew is more consistent in using the definite article
11339:'May my soul ...' is semantically equivalent to a cohortative like 'May I ...'. However, the three moods stem from different classes in proto-West-Semitic. As preserved in Classical Arabic, there were originally three prefix tenses, indicative
2377:
from ca. 200 BCE to 70 CE, is a continuation of Late Biblical Hebrew. Qumran Hebrew may be considered an intermediate stage between Biblical Hebrew and Mishnaic Hebrew, though Qumran Hebrew shows its own idiosyncratic dialectal features.
3919:
and its forebearers being more full and the Qumran tradition showing the most liberal use of vowel letters. The Masoretic text mostly uses vowel letters for long vowels, showing the tendency to mark all long vowels except for word-internal
1138:. The most well-preserved system that was developed, and the only one still in religious use, is the Tiberian vocalization, but both Babylonian and Palestinian vocalizations are also attested. The Palestinian system was preserved mainly in
7139:"your law", etc. (This is equivalent to the Arabic letter Tāʼ Marbūṭah ة, a modified final form of the letter He ه which indicates this same phoneme shifting, and only its pronunciation varies between construct and absolute state.)
4097:
reading tradition is independent of these systems and was occasionally notated with a separate vocalization system. These systems often record vowels at different stages of historical development; for example, the name of the Judge
8404:
Various more specific conditioned shifts of vowel quality have also occurred. Diphthongs were frequently monophthongized, but the scope and results of this shift varied among dialects. In particular, the Samaria ostraca show
9879:: the completeness of the verb form here expresses an imminent action in the context of promises, threats and the language of contracts and covenants in general, e.g. "I will give you this land", "will I have this pleasure?"
4143:
in his introduction to the Torah. Word division using spaces was commonly used from the beginning of the 7th century BCE for documents in the Aramaic script. In addition to marking vowels, the Tiberian system also uses
4704:
around 1000 BC. It is likely that Canaanite was already dialectally split by that time, and the northern Early Phoenician dialect that the Greeks were in contact with could have preserved the affricate pronunciation until
8461:'outer') beginning in the second half of the second millennium BCE. This was carried through completely in Samaritan Hebrew but met more resistance in other traditions such as the Babylonian and Qumran traditions.
6099:
The vowel system of Hebrew has changed considerably over time. The following vowels are those reconstructed for the earliest stage of Hebrew, those attested by the Secunda, those of the various vocalization traditions
5047:'he said'. However the testimony of Jerome indicates that this was a regionalism and not universal. Confusion of gutturals was also attested in later Mishnaic Hebrew and Aramaic (see Eruvin 53b). In Samaritan Hebrew,
7950:
This sound change shifted many more originally penultimate-stressed words to have final stress. The above changes can be seen to divide words into a number of main classes based on stress and syllable properties:
3692:, A number of regional "book-hand" styles were put into use for the purpose of Torah manuscripts and occasionally other literary works, distinct from the calligraphic styles used mainly for private purposes. The
9820:: an Imperfect verb in the present, one which implies that an action has been going on for some time and is still ongoing in the present, especially used of questions in the present, e.g. "what are you seeking?"
9721:
by which the verb came to be completed, stating it as a simple fact. This is often used in the past tense; however, there are some contexts in which a Perfect verb translates into the present and future tenses.
733:
reading tradition. The vowel system of Biblical Hebrew changed over time and is reflected differently in the ancient Greek and Latin transcriptions, medieval vocalization systems, and modern reading traditions.
3809:
texts show how First Temple period Hebrew would have been written. Phoenician inscriptions from the 10th century BCE do not indicate matres lectiones in the middle or the end of a word, for example
3543:
1048:. Hebrew remained in use in Judah, but the returning exiles brought back Aramaic influence, and Aramaic was used for communicating with other ethnic groups during the Persian period. Alexander the Great
3463:
3580:
474:
8503:'truth'). This is absent in the transcriptions of the Secunda, but there is evidence that the law's onset predates the Secunda. In the Samaritan tradition Philippi's law is applied consistently, e.g.
453:
1134:
marks were added to the older consonantal layer of the Bible between 600 CE and the beginning of the 10th century. The scholars who preserved the pronunciation of the Bibles were known as the
5014:
c. 200 BCE. It is known to have occurred in Hebrew by the 2nd century CE. After a certain point this alternation became contrastive in word-medial and final position (though bearing low
9182:('particle'); other grammarians have included more categories. In particular, adjectives and nouns show more affinity to each other than in most European languages. Biblical Hebrew has a typical
5018:), but in word-initial position they remained allophonic. This is evidenced both by the Tiberian vocalization's consistent use of word-initial spirants after a vowel in sandhi, as well as Rabbi
9109:
reduction occurs in the open syllables two syllables away from the stress and sometimes also in pretonic and stressed open syllables; exact conditions depend on the vowel and reading tradition.
1093:
evolved into Mishnaic Hebrew, which ceased being spoken and developed into a literary language around 200 CE. Hebrew continued to be used as a literary and liturgical language in the form of
11363:
the cohortative. For most roots in Biblical Hebrew, the jussive form is identical to the indicative form. (Differentiation is typical of forms with "long" and "short" forms, e.g. indicative
9549:= Χεσλ (Psalms 49:14). This may reflect dialectal variation or phonetic versus phonemic transcriptions. Both the Palestinian and Babylonian traditions have an anaptyctic vowel in segolates,
4778:
This is observed by noting the preservation of the double phonemes of each letter in one Sephardic reading tradition, and by noting that these phonemes are distinguished consistently in the
2040:
it underwent a number of consonantal mergers parallel with those in other Canaanite languages. There is no evidence that these mergers occurred after the adaptation of the Hebrew alphabet.
9802:: present tense with verbs that depict a state of being rather than an action, including verbs of perception, emotion or mental process, e.g. "I love", "I hate", "I understand", "I know"
6901:: If the penultimate (second last) syllable is light (has a short vowel followed by a single consonant), stress goes on the antepenult (third to last); otherwise, it goes on the penult.
2243:. This stage is also known as Old Hebrew or Paleo-Hebrew, and is the oldest stratum of Biblical Hebrew. The oldest known artifacts of Archaic Biblical Hebrew are various sections of the
10150:
However, for example, when Old Aramaic borrowed the Canaanite alphabet it still had interdentals, but marked them with what they merged with in Canaanite. For instance 'ox' was written
3634:(the old form which predates both the Paleo-Hebrew and Phoenician alphabets). The tablet is written from left to right, suggesting that Hebrew writing was still in the formative stage.
9915:: reflects a non-immediate command, invitation, permission or wishful request, e.g. "let there be light", "you may eat from the tree", "let's go", "O that someone would get me a drink"
9743:: in narrative, reflects a simple completed action, perception, emotion or mental process, and can also be past tense from the perspective of a prior verb which is used in future tense
2611:
may reflect this: given that Amos was addressing the population of the Northern Kingdom, the vocalization *קֵיץ would be more forceful. Other possible Northern features include use of
14542:
10353:
in the 3rd century CE. There is evidence that the text of the Secunda was written before 100 BCE, despite the later date of the Hexapla. For example, by the time of Origen
2664:(d. 420) attested to the existence of contemporaneous Hebrew speakers who still distinguished pharyngeals. Samaritan Hebrew also shows a general attrition of these phonemes, though
14799:
9897:: reflects a future event which has not yet come into completion, or one that has not yet begun, or future tense from the perspective of a prior verb which is used in past tense
11115:
It is evident that this epenthesis must have been a late phenomenon, since a short vowel preceding a guttural is preserved even though it becomes in an open syllable, see
8289:, though this is less strong in post-tonic vowels. Pretonic gemination is also found in Samaritan Hebrew, but not always in the same locations as in Tiberian Hebrew, e.g.
14593:
14488:
2063:
commonly preceding pronominal suffixes. Case endings are found in Northwest Semitic languages in the second millennium BCE, but disappear almost totally afterwards.
5006:
spirantization) developed sometime during the lifetime of Biblical Hebrew under the influence of Aramaic. This probably happened after the original Old Aramaic phonemes
3688:
and some other divine names in Paleo-Hebrew, and this practice is also found in several Jewish-Greek biblical translations. While spoken Hebrew continued to evolve into
7194:
Final unstressed short vowels dropped out in most words, making it possible for long vowels to occur in closed syllables. This appears to have proceeded in two steps:
2558:, shows phonological, lexical, and grammatical differences from southern dialects. The northern dialect spoken around Samaria shows a more frequent simplification of
7312:, which records both pronunciations, although quite often in disagreement with the written form as passed down to us). Ultimately, writing stabilized on the shorter
4712:
at least, unlike the more southern Canaanite dialects (like Hebrew) that the Egyptians were in contact with, so that there is no contradiction within this argument.
14517:
8354:. The reduced vowels of the other traditions appear as full vowels, though there may be evidence that Samaritan Hebrew once had similar vowel reduction. Samaritan
889:), and generally also includes later vocalization traditions for the Hebrew Bible's consonantal text, most commonly the early medieval Tiberian vocalization.
10462:
could coexist even if pronounced identically, since one would be recognized as an alternating allophone (as apparently is the case in Nestorian Syriac). See
7413:
that remains as a rule in the language, automatically affected any new short vowels in open syllables as they appear (but ultra-short vowels are unaffected).
13777:
The singular means but one thing, the plural two or more things, the dual things which are two by nature or art, as eyes, ears, hands, feet, &c. &c.
17626:
877:
may include all pre-medieval dialects of Hebrew, including Mishnaic Hebrew, or it may be limited to Hebrew contemporaneous with the Hebrew Bible. The term
9761:: reflecting not just a past action but also suggesting the process with which it was being done, e.g.: "I brought the horse to a halt", "I began to hear"
10304::86). There are also a number of exceptions to the rule of marking other long vowels, e.g. when the following syllable contains a vowel letters (like in
9104:
lengthening occurs in some open one syllable away from the stress and some stressed syllables; exact conditions depend on the vowel and reading tradition
8259:
Samaritan Hebrew also does not reflect etymological vowel length; however the elision of guttural consonants has created new phonemic vowel length, e.g.
7209:
the two steps, with the result that short vowels at the beginning of a -VCV ending lengthened in nouns but not verbs. This is most noticeable with short
10203:
Such contraction is also found in Ugaritic, the El-Amarna letters, and in Phoenician, while the anaptyctic vowel is found in Old Aramaic and Deir Alla.
9725:
conditional verbs, as well as commands in the Jussive and Cohortative moods. It is conjectured that the imperfect can express modal quality through the
4081:
system, created by scholars known as Masoretes around 850 CE. There are also various extant manuscripts making use of less common vocalization systems (
2239:
The oldest form of Biblical Hebrew, Archaic Hebrew, is found in poetic sections of the Bible and inscriptions dating to around 1000 BCE, the early
13747:
8015:
in the second syllable before the stress, and occasionally reduced rather than lengthened in pretonic position, especially when initial (e.g. σεμω =
11074:
9661:), and two major conjugations (prefixing, suffixing). The meaning of the prefixing and suffixing conjugations are also affected by the conjugation
14241:
15624:
9829:: an Imperfect verb in the present, reflecting a cyclic action in the present, e.g. "it is being said in the city", "a son makes his father glad"
4739:
each represented two possible phonemes, uvular and pharyngeal, with the distinction unmarked in Hebrew orthography. However the uvular phonemes
4151:
While the Babylonian and Palestinian reading traditions are extinct, various other systems of pronunciation have evolved over time, notably the
14283:
8540:('seven'), and differences in Greek and Latin transcriptions demonstrate that it began quite late. Attenuation generally did not occur before
8169:
like the Secunda, though in Palestinian Hebrew it developed the pronunciation . However the Tiberian tradition possesses three reduced vowels
17631:
8589:. This is absent in the Secunda and in Samaritan Hebrew but present in the transcriptions of Jerome. In the Tiberian tradition an ultrashort
11141:('you take in pledge'). This suggests that begadkefat spirantization was no longer automatic by the time that this epenthesis occurred, see
6927:
The morphology of Proto-Central-Semitic shows significant changes compared with Proto-Semitic, especially in its verbs, and is much like in
14548:
11658:
10173:
Recent archaeological research suggests that Aramaic may have started to incluence Biblical Hebrew already during the pre-exilic era. See
8092:) and the first otherwise. In the Tiberian tradition pretonic vowels are reduced more commonly than in the Secunda. It does not occur for
7159:; the conditions of this shift are disputed. This shift had occurred by the 14th century BCE, as demonstrated by its presence in the
15658:
14020:
The Paragogic nun in Rhetorical Perspective, in Biblical Hebrew in Its Northwest Semitic Setting: Typological and Historical Perspectives
9641:. This includes various distinctions of reflexivity, passivity, and causativity. Verbs of all binyanim have three non-finite forms (one
9531:
of the Tiberian tradition in segolates appears in the Septuagint (3rd century BCE) but not the Hexapla (2nd century CE), e.g.
16822:
10454:, or else and would have to be contrastive, which is cross-linguistically rare. However Blau argues that it is possible that lenited
11181:. In Tiberian Hebrew some words have penultimate stress in pause (before a break in reading), but ultimate stress in context, such as
14865:
14820:
3645:
when found in Israel) around the 12th century BCE, which developed into Early Phoenician and Early Paleo-Hebrew as found in the
3519:
931:
The archeological record for the prehistory of Biblical Hebrew is far more complete than the record of Biblical Hebrew itself. Early
3791:
when used in this function. It is thought that this was a product of phonetic development: for instance, *bayt ('house') shifted to
16226:
15579:
11197:
lengthened in pause, while in context it was not lengthened, and then lost the stress and was reduced due to this sound shift. See
7390:
with a short vowel (i.e. syllables consisting of a short vowel followed by a consonant and another vowel) had the vowel reduced to
6885:, and in traditional reconstructions possessed 29 consonants; 6 monophthong vowels, consisting of three qualities and two lengths,
9928:
as appears in the Masoretic text with medieval Tiberian niqqud and cantillation and the Greek transcription of the Secunda of the
16183:
16158:
13349::45, 47–48) (while Ben-Hayyim notates four degrees of vowel length, he concedes that only his "fourth degree" has phonemic value)
10137:
However it is noteworthy that Akkadian shares many of these sound shifts but is less closely related to Hebrew than Aramaic. See
9779:: an active or passive Participle being used in its imperfect verbal sense in the past, e.g. "and the Spirit of God was hovering"
4873:). As a result, three etymologically distinct phonemes can be distinguished through a combination of spelling and pronunciation:
14381:
16997:
16216:
16201:
14605:
14500:
10357:
were pronounced , a merger which had already begun around 100 BCE, while in the Secunda they are used to represent Hebrew
9888:: the completeness of the verb form here expresses an imminent action in the context of prophecy, e.g. "you will go into exile"
8058:). The Babylonian and Palestinian vocalizations systems also do not mark vowel length. In the Tiberian and Babylonian systems,
13932:
702:. Earlier Biblical Hebrew possessed three consonants not distinguished in writing and later merged with other consonants. The
17611:
16972:
16211:
14759:
14740:
14721:
14702:
14683:
14664:
14582:
14527:
14477:
14458:
14435:
14410:
14370:
14308:
14254:
14221:
14198:
14179:
14153:
14134:
14115:
14068:
14028:
12744:
11641:
11425:
11171:
Additionally, short stressed vowels in open syllables were reduced and lost stress, leading to ultimate stress in forms like
10994:
2051:, a similar independent pronoun system to the other Northwest Semitic languages (with third person pronouns never containing
9577:
Jeremiah 22:28). The Qumran tradition sometimes shows some type of back epenthetic vowel when the first vowel is back, e.g.
614:
was transmitted in manuscript form and underwent redaction in the Second Temple period, but its earliest portions (parts of
9149:('in us'); stress is most commonly ultimate, less commonly penultimate, and antipenultimate stress exists marginally, e.g.
8317:. While Proto-Hebrew long vowels usually retain their vowel quality in the later traditions of Hebrew, in Samaritan Hebrew
4450:
4139:
inscriptions; however, there is no direct evidence for biblical texts being written without word division, as suggested by
17:
4148:
marks, which serve to mark word stress, semantic structure, and the musical motifs used in formal recitation of the text.
16987:
16982:
16246:
16241:
14533:
9906:: reflects a potential, theoretical or modal verb, such as in conditional clauses, e.g. "If you go...", "she should stay"
7409:
Loss of final short vowels in verbs, pre-stress lengthening in open syllables. Pre-stress lengthening/lowering becomes a
4975:, possibly under the influence of Aramaic, and this became the rule in Mishnaic Hebrew. In all Jewish reading traditions
4845:, is also not directly indicated by Hebrew orthography but is clearly attested by later developments: It is written with
4605:
4590:
3191:
2949:
2240:
971:
433:
395:
98:
10615:
Parallels to Aramaic syllable structure suggest pretonic lengthening may have occurred in the Second Temple period. See
683:
were developed to mark the vowels in Hebrew manuscripts; of these, only the Tiberian vocalization is still widely used.
14903:
8632:
The following chart summarizes the most regular reflexes of the Proto-Semitic vowels in the various stages of Hebrew:
563:
The Hebrew language is attested in inscriptions from about the 10th century BCE, when it was almost identical to
17533:
14240:
Doron, Edit (2005), "VSO and Left-conjunct Agreement: Biblical Hebrew vs. Modern Hebrew", in Kiss, Katalin É. (ed.),
7359:
First, short vowels lengthened in an open syllable in pretonic position (i.e. directly before the stressed syllable).
6873:
The following sections present the vowel changes that Biblical Hebrew underwent, in approximate chronological order.
9494:
followed by gemination of the initial consonant of the noun. In Tiberian Hebrew the vowel of the article may become
16173:
7096:
in case endings. When the ending was final because of loss or non-presence of the case ending, it is replaced with
4457:
3563:
9793:: a general truth in the present tense which is not referring to a specific event, e.g. "the sun sets in the west"
3622:, dates to the 10th century BCE. The 15 cm x 16.5 cm (5.9 in x 6.5 in) trapezoid pottery
1072:
in 132–135 led to a purge and expulsion of the Jewish population of Judea, the establishment of a new province of
17387:
17047:
16178:
16168:
15651:
14541:
Rendsburg, Gary A. (1999), "Notes on Israelian Hebrew (I)", in Avishur, Yitzhak Avishur; Deutsch, Robert (eds.),
14018:
10446:
According to the generally accepted view, it is unlikely begadkefat spirantization occurred before the merger of
10071:
9990:
6611:
6606:
6471:
6373:
6368:
6287:
6195:
385:
9479:'six wings' from Isaiah 6:2). Finite verbs are marked for subject person, number, and gender. Nouns also have a
8181:
under a non-guttural letter was pronounced as an ultrashort copy of the following vowel before a guttural, e.g.
7977:
Proto-Hebrew words with an open short penult and longer ending: Become final-stressed due to stress shift (e.g.
5022:'s attestation to the use of this alternation in Tiberian Aramaic at the beginning of the 10th century CE.
16815:
16441:
15535:
15530:
14898:
9413:. Construct state nouns lost case vowels at an early period (similar to Akkadian), as shown by the reflexes of
7966:
Proto-Hebrew words with a closed penult and short-vowel ending: Become penultimate due to segholate rule (e.g.
6492:
4596:
4478:
3025:
2231:
is composed of multiple linguistic layers. The consonantal skeleton of the text is the most ancient, while the
1098:
84:
10669:
are preserved as short in syllables closed by two consonants and in the third syllable before the stress. See
6893:. The stress system of Proto-Semitic is unknown but it is commonly described as being much like the system of
2078:
and Aramaic on each extreme. Hebrew is classed with Phoenician in the Canaanite subgroup, which also includes
17572:
16163:
16073:
14858:
14831:
14772:, Ghil'ad (2006). "Complement Clause Types in Israeli". In Dixon, R. M. W.; Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. (eds.).
9194:
to form words. Verbal patterns are more productive and consistent, while noun patterns are less predictable.
8277:('wide'). Samaritan Hebrew vowels are allophonically lengthened (to a lesser degree) in open syllables, e.g.
9870:: takes the וְ prefix as a conjunction to continue the Jussive and Cohortative Moods in a narrative sequence
9838:: an active or passive Participle being used in its imperfect verbal sense in the present, e.g. "I am going"
351:
339:
17621:
17616:
17402:
16992:
16977:
16236:
16221:
15540:
14790:
10946:
10559:
has phonemic value in final stressed position but in other positions it may reflect loss of the opposition
7947:
Many, perhaps most, Hebrew words with a schwa directly before a final stress are due to this stress shift.
6619:
6478:
6385:
6380:
6294:
6203:
4443:
4429:
3700:
book-hand styles were later adapted to printed fonts after the invention of the printing press. The modern
3405:
3311:
11322:
11312:
11308:
11273:
11269:
11265:
11255:
11226:
11217:
11194:
11178:
11138:
11070:
11066:
11043:
11039:
11035:
11031:
11027:
11023:
11019:
11015:
10975:
10971:
10950:
10942:
10938:
10934:
10903:
10891:
10883:
10870:
10861:
10857:
10849:
10840:
10831:
10822:
10813:
10804:
10786:
10782:
10778:
10738:
10734:
10730:
10726:
10722:
10718:
10709:
10705:
10666:
10637:
10629:
10599:
10595:
10587:
10583:
10560:
10556:
10552:
10509:
10505:
10501:
10497:
10493:
10489:
10485:
10476:
10459:
10455:
10451:
10447:
10358:
10297:
10287:
10187:
10157:
9597:
9568:
9564:
9554:
9550:
9546:
9537:
9528:
9517:
9508:
9499:
9495:
9491:
9430:
9414:
9404:
9394:
9385:
9376:
9361:
9353:
9349:
9330:
9322:
9314:
9265:
9255:
9251:
9247:
9243:
9233:
9229:
9225:
9203:
9155:
9146:
9137:
9096:
9092:
9088:
9061:
9057:
9053:
9032:
9027:
9022:
9017:
9013:
9006:
9001:
8996:
8991:
8987:
8980:
8975:
8970:
8965:
8958:
8953:
8948:
8943:
8936:
8931:
8926:
8921:
8917:
8910:
8905:
8900:
8888:
8883:
8871:
8866:
8861:
8856:
8846:
8839:
8834:
8829:
8824:
8812:
8807:
8802:
8790:
8785:
8782:
8777:
8774:
8769:
8759:
8752:
8747:
8742:
8730:
8725:
8720:
8708:
8703:
8698:
8688:
8626:
8617:
8608:
8599:
8586:
8582:
8578:
8574:
8559:
8550:
8541:
8537:
8533:
8524:
8516:
8512:
8508:
8504:
8500:
8491:
8487:
8483:
8474:
8470:
8466:
8434:
8430:
8426:
8422:
8418:
8414:
8410:
8406:
8393:
8385:
8376:
8367:
8363:
8359:
8355:
8351:
8347:
8343:
8339:
8335:
8331:
8322:
8318:
8314:
8310:
8300:
8296:
8269:
8260:
8253:
8244:
8240:
8236:
8232:
8228:
8224:
8208:
8204:
8188:
8178:
8174:
8170:
8166:
8159:
8144:
8140:
8131:
8127:
8123:
8114:
8110:
8106:
8097:
8093:
8083:
8079:
8075:
8071:
8067:
8063:
8059:
8055:
8051:
8047:
8038:
8025:
8021:
8012:
8008:
7993:
7989:
7982:
7978:
7971:
7967:
7960:
7956:
7939:
7934:
7929:
7924:
7919:
7914:
7909:
7893:
7888:
7883:
7878:
7873:
7868:
7864:
7856:
7851:
7823:
7786:
7775:
7771:
7745:
7729:
7715:
7705:
7694:
7689:
7667:
7662:
7657:
7652:
7636:
7622:
7609:
7604:
7599:
7594:
7589:
7584:
7579:
7551:
7541:
7536:
7531:
7526:
7521:
7516:
7511:
7501:
7496:
7491:
7486:
7481:
7476:
7471:
7391:
7375:
7371:
7367:
7352:
7226:
7218:
7210:
7183:
7179:
7156:
7152:
7136:
7127:
7118:
7109:
7105:
7101:
7097:
7093:
7089:
6972:
6964:
6960:
6952:
6940:
6936:
6932:
6890:
6886:
6856:
6852:
6843:
6835:
6826:
6822:
6818:
6814:
6805:
6796:
6792:
6780:
6776:
6772:
6763:
6759:
6750:
6746:
6717:
6709:
6701:
6693:
6685:
6524:
6085:
6075:
6065:
6057:
6038:
6026:
6021:
6009:
6003:
5991:
5981:
5972:
5954:
5948:
5940:
5923:
5911:
5905:
5888:
5876:
5871:
5859:
5853:
5841:
5831:
5822:
5804:
5798:
5790:
5773:
5761:
5755:
5738:
5726:
5721:
5713:
5696:
5690:
5686:
5678:
5665:
5655:
5649:
5641:
5624:
5612:
5606:
5589:
5577:
5572:
5564:
5554:
5548:
5540:
5530:
5524:
5520:
5512:
5502:
5491:
5485:
5477:
5467:
5461:
5451:
5445:
5437:
5427:
5421:
5413:
5403:
5392:
5386:
5378:
5361:
5349:
5343:
5326:
5314:
5309:
5301:
5284:
5272:
5266:
5249:
5237:
5232:
5224:
5207:
5195:
5189:
5172:
5160:
5155:
5102:
5098:
5094:
5090:
5086:
5082:
5072:
5068:
5064:
5060:
5056:
5052:
5048:
5044:
5026:
5011:
5007:
4999:
4988:
4984:
4980:
4976:
4952:
4948:
4924:
4920:
4906:
4902:
4888:
4874:
4860:
4856:
4842:
4767:
4758:
4749:
4740:
4689:
4685:
4673:
The phonetic nature of some Biblical Hebrew consonants is disputed. The so-called "emphatics" were likely
4132:
4128:
4120:
4116:
4107:
3921:
3749:
2955:
2665:
2657:
2594:
2584:
2577:
2573:
2563:
2559:
2548:
2532:
2528:
2521:
2517:
2506:
2502:
2490:
2486:
2461:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2147:
2143:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2099:
2095:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2044:
1987:
1979:
1936:
1927:
1919:
1870:
1862:
1813:
1804:
1796:
1747:
1738:
1730:
1678:
1669:
1661:
1609:
1600:
1591:
1583:
1540:
1531:
1523:
1474:
1465:
1456:
1448:
1420:
1411:
1403:
1369:
1361:
1352:
1344:
1293:
1284:
1276:
1227:
1218:
1209:
1201:
17566:
17087:
16744:
16231:
15940:
15610:
15055:
14320:"A neglected phonetic law: The assimilation of pretonic yod to a following coronal in North-West Semitic"
10764::54–56). There is also possible evidence from the cantillation marks' behavior and Babylonian pataḥ, see
9684:
7399:
position, where the penultimate stress is preserved, and vowel lengthening rather than reduction occurs.
6580:
6575:
6499:
6450:
6347:
6261:
6256:
6168:
6163:
4544:
4485:
4070:
3347:
2913:
2677:
2026:
1155:
975:
932:
784:
738:
603:
176:
108:
15314:
10216:
At times the Moabites, Ammonites, Edomites, and Philistines would also use the Paleo-Hebrew script. See
7366:
In the process of lengthening, the high vowels were lowered. In the Secunda, the lengthened reflexes of
943:(1200–540 BCE), although in its earliest stages Biblical Hebrew was not highly differentiated from
17052:
16957:
16094:
16087:
15644:
14260:
10286:
being used as a vowel letter are theorized to stem from conservative spelling of words which contained
6639:
6634:
6513:
6404:
6399:
6313:
6308:
6222:
6217:
4612:
4471:
4436:
4311:
4304:
3911:
are used to refer to alternative spellings of a word with less or more matres lectionis, respectively.
3608:
3600:
3397:
3105:
3033:
1065:
572:
15799:
9967:
30 הָאֵל֮ תָּמִ֪ים דַּ֫רְכּ֥וֹ אִמְרַֽת־יְהוָ֥ה צְרוּפָ֑ה מָגֵ֥ן ה֝֗וּא לְכֹ֤ל ׀ הַחֹסִ֬ים בּֽוֹ׃
4135:. All of these systems together are used to reconstruct the original vocalization of Biblical Hebrew.
17636:
16951:
16946:
16808:
16660:
16047:
16023:
16010:
15746:
15726:
15691:
6909:
4678:
4515:
4501:
4464:
4164:
3606:
3598:
3561:
3525:
3517:
3481:
3445:
3403:
3395:
3353:
3345:
3309:
3273:
3231:
3189:
3155:
3153:
3145:
3103:
3067:
3031:
3023:
2987:
2947:
2911:
2875:
2867:
2831:
2823:
2789:
2787:
2779:
2743:
2698:
654:
171:
14336:
2150:
to the following coronal consonant in pre-tonic position, shared by Hebrew, Phoenician and Aramaic.
17265:
17233:
16452:
16150:
15574:
15252:
15021:
14851:
14279:
10186:
As a consequence this would leave open the possibility that other proto-Semitic phonemes (such as *
8666:
8256:). Samaritan and Qumran Hebrew have full vowels in place of the reduced vowels of Tiberian Hebrew.
6592:
6587:
6457:
6354:
6273:
6268:
6180:
6175:
6109:
4329:
4156:
4152:
4086:
3642:
3631:
2447:
858:, Ḫabiru, and Ḫapiru found in sources from Egypt and the Near East, and a derivation from the root
796:
17025:
17379:
17280:
17128:
16933:
16494:
16431:
16041:
15696:
15617:
15596:
15559:
15447:
15247:
15029:
14996:
14912:
10124:, while dated manuscripts with vocalization are found in the beginning of the tenth century. See
8671:
6651:
6646:
6105:
4535:
4508:
4361:
4354:
4322:
4082:
3656:). This script developed into the Paleo-Hebrew script in the 10th or 9th centuries BCE. The
3355:
3147:
2877:
2869:
2781:
1049:
898:
762:
237:
15469:
15346:
14981:
10741:
occurred after this lengthening, but before the loss of phonemicity of length (since words like
9702:
normally follow the noun they modify. In Biblical Hebrew, possession is normally expressed with
9455:
naturally occur in pairs and for units of measurement and time which contrasts with the plural (
3801:
but retained its spelling. While no examples of early Hebrew orthography have been found, older
15872:
15709:
15686:
15681:
15257:
14908:
14331:
9861:: takes the וְ prefix as a conjunction to continue the Subjunctive Mood in a narrative sequence
9186:
morphology, characterized by the use of roots. Most words in Biblical Hebrew are formed from a
8659:
8536:('seven'), but exceptions are frequent. It is less common in the Babylonian vocalization, e.g.
5134:
4526:
4206:
2833:
2037:
691:
166:
16132:
15324:
3542:
2299:'gold' which are common in Canaanite and Ugaritic. Grammatical differences include the use of
864:"to pass", alluding to crossing over the Jordan River. Jews also began referring to Hebrew as
847:"Hebrew language". The origin of this term is obscure; suggested origins include the biblical
17576:
17562:
17109:
17062:
17042:
17035:
17020:
17015:
17007:
16839:
16788:
16391:
16116:
15785:
15771:
15482:
15242:
15096:
14794:
14769:
14446:
9699:
9397:('night'), and in the "connective vowels" of some prepositions (originally adverbials), e.g.
9364:
of unclear meaning, was found in early Canaanite, as shown by early Egyptian transcriptions (
8676:
6101:
4636:
4584:
4271:
4264:
4078:
3704:, also known as the Assyrian or Square script, appears a descendant of the Aramaic alphabet.
3638:
3527:
3462:
3275:
3233:
2989:
2688:
2213:(appearing in the first millennium BCE), and third person plural feminine verbal marker
642:
587:
277:
156:
138:
11415:
11158:
are treated as if the stress fell immediately on the first syllable following the word. See
4830:), but this becomes more sporadic in later books and is generally absent in translations of
3579:
17523:
17474:
17306:
16715:
16457:
15850:
15362:
15091:
14210:"Aramaic Influence and Inner Diachronic Development in Hebrew Inscriptions of the Iron Age"
14050:
10399:
In the Babylonian and Palestinian systems only the most important vowels were written. See
9770:: reflecting a habitual or cyclic action over time, e.g. "this is what Job would always do"
7955:
Proto-Hebrew words with an open penult and short-vowel ending: Become final-stressed (e.g.
5010:
disappeared in the 7th century BCE, and most likely occurred after the loss of Hebrew
4932:
4372:
4223:
3916:
3170:
2848:
2825:
1123:
1090:
990:
967:
722:
658:
568:
14557:
6963:) in others. The original meaning of this marker is uncertain. In Classical Arabic, final
2804:
2102:), and its similarities are more likely a result of either contact or preserved archaism.
939:. The Northwest Semitic languages, including Hebrew, differentiated noticeably during the
773:(a matter of debate). The tense or aspect of verbs was also influenced by the conjunction
8:
17513:
17067:
17057:
16729:
16398:
16341:
16269:
16255:
16126:
15921:
15882:
15489:
15395:
15199:
11432:
Interestingly, the term 'Hebrew' (ibrit) is not used of the language in the biblical text
6980:
4416:
4145:
3802:
3364:
2724:
2232:
2075:
2030:
1159:
1131:
1010:
998:
564:
499:
181:
119:
14826:
14544:
Michael: Historical, Epigraphical and Biblical Studies in Honor of Prof. Michael Heltzer
8147:'red' sg.); this pretonic gemination is also found in some forms with other vowels like
3498:
3326:
2326:
Later pre-exilic Biblical Hebrew (such as is found in prose sections of the Pentateuch,
2189:"expel". Morphological Canaanite features in Hebrew include the masculine plural marker
17448:
17440:
17368:
17300:
17175:
17137:
17103:
17030:
15563:
15504:
15499:
15377:
14349:
14168:
14074:
9976:
31 כִּ֤י מִ֣י אֱ֭לוֹהַּ מִבַּלְעֲדֵ֣י יְהוָ֑ה וּמִ֥י צ֝֗וּר זוּלָתִ֥י אֱלֹהֵֽינוּ׃
9703:
9672:
9480:
8520:
6913:
4554:
4387:
4242:
4124:
3879:
3674:
3120:
3048:
3004:
2760:
1053:
986:
955:
886:
881:
refers to pre-Mishnaic dialects (sometimes excluding Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew). The term
824:
788:
766:
750:
746:
695:
687:
582:
The language of the Hebrew Bible reflects various stages of the Hebrew language in its
287:
80:
17340:
16572:
16462:
10576:
In fact, its scope of application is different in Samaritan and Tiberian Hebrew (e.g.
10386:), with various subgroups differing as to their affinity with the Tiberian tradition.
10160:. The same phenomenon also occurred when the Arabs adopted the Nabatean alphabet. See
7343:, with the same split into shorter and longer forms and the same ultimate resolution.
7178:
As a result of the Canaanite shift, the Proto-Hebrew vowel system is reconstructed as
4677:, but possibly velarized. The pharyngealization of emphatic consonants is viewed as a
3248:
3206:
2928:
2438:. As an alternative explanation, it has been suggested that the proto-Semitic phoneme
994:
374:
367:
17543:
17529:
17495:
17354:
16701:
16526:
16405:
16278:
16103:
16061:
15926:
15719:
15667:
15555:
15452:
15385:
15350:
15299:
14755:
14736:
14717:
14698:
14679:
14660:
14640:
14578:
14523:
14473:
14454:
14431:
14427:
14406:
14385:
14366:
14304:
14250:
14217:
14194:
14175:
14149:
14130:
14111:
14078:
14064:
14024:
13761:
12740:
11637:
11421:
10990:
10342:
9687:, though one scholar has argued that this is due to the prevalence of clauses with a
9668:
9254:
is used to denote the action of the verb; it is derived from more common for initial-
9183:
9079:
8651:
8462:
7305:
6921:
6882:
6664:
6541:
6416:
4564:
4396:
4250:
4228:
4201:
4074:
3863:
3673:. The Samaritans retained the ancient Hebrew alphabet, which evolved into the modern
3670:
3483:
3447:
3069:
2892:
2079:
1151:
1127:
1069:
1057:
1034:
1002:
959:
908:
770:
726:
699:
519:
503:
161:
113:
14353:
10416:. However, there are some vocalized Samaritan manuscripts from the Middle Ages. See
10229:
Though some of these translations wrote the tetragrammaton in the square script See
7988:
Proto-Hebrew words with a closed penult and longer ending: Remain penultimate (e.g.
3370:
2113:, perhaps when stressed. Hebrew also shares with the Canaanite languages the shifts
1052:
in 332 BCE, beginning the period of Hellenistic (Greek) domination. During the
391:
17503:
17460:
17455:
17444:
17423:
17412:
17361:
17185:
17150:
17113:
16964:
16941:
16894:
16831:
16781:
16736:
16722:
16555:
16514:
16477:
16382:
16368:
16334:
16304:
16285:
16080:
16054:
16029:
16005:
15979:
15972:
15912:
15895:
15867:
15843:
15735:
15603:
15008:
14971:
14938:
14341:
14056:
10757:
10430:
9650:
9280:('finger'). In the latter case this prefix was added for phonetic reasons, and the
9049:
7395:
consonant were unaffected and still had penultimate stress at this point except in
7280:
for feminine, and in fact both variants of both forms are found in the Bible (with
6968:
6928:
6898:
5147:
4835:
4235:
4218:
4196:
4160:
4094:
3806:
3681:
3666:
2581:
2555:
2374:
2083:
1083:
1073:
1020:
979:
792:
783:
construction. Unlike modern Hebrew, the default word order for biblical Hebrew was
758:
730:
650:
641:. From around the 12th century BCE until the 6th century BCE, writers employed the
631:
607:
602:
variation, including differences between Biblical Hebrew as spoken in the northern
324:
245:
214:
103:
8243:) may still occur, especially after stops (or their spirantized counterparts) and
4046:). Pre-Samaritan and Samaritan texts show full spellings in many categories (e.g.
567:
and other Canaanite languages, and spoken Hebrew persisted through and beyond the
17519:
17509:
17499:
17286:
17204:
17165:
16919:
16914:
16899:
16873:
16868:
16848:
16749:
16655:
16629:
16560:
16472:
16412:
16320:
16313:
16291:
16138:
16034:
15900:
15890:
15550:
15514:
15420:
15356:
15334:
15111:
15013:
15003:
14976:
14950:
14945:
14893:
14888:
14874:
14800:
Brown–Driver–Briggs Hebrew Lexicon – with an appendix containing Biblical Aramaic
14421:
11631:
11155:
10895:
10539:
10535:
9688:
9654:
9638:
9326:
9318:
9166:
Medieval grammarians of Arabic and Hebrew classified words as belonging to three
7148:
6976:
6944:
6894:
6534:
6528:
6465:
6362:
6281:
6188:
5124:
5063:, or by vanishing completely (often creating a long vowel), except that original
5015:
4628:
4213:
3798:
3701:
3689:
3619:
2693:
2660:
merged over time in some dialects. This was found in Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew, but
2418:('ear of corn') The Ephraimites' identity was given away by their pronunciation:
2347:
2256:
2091:
1954:
1891:
1834:
1768:
1702:
1633:
1558:
1495:
1315:
1248:
1094:
1077:
1061:
1029:
1024:
800:
780:
754:
670:
662:
557:
495:
423:
282:
250:
227:
219:
148:
134:
15986:
14547:, Tel Aviv: Archaeological Center Publications, pp. 255–258, archived from
8050:('he will have mercy') < previously short < by Tiberian degemination of
6967:
on nouns indicates indefiniteness and disappears when the noun is preceded by a
4093:
because their vocalization marks are placed above the letters. In addition, the
2067:
is absent in singular nouns, but is often retained in the plural, as in Hebrew.
1027:
said that God sent the exiled Jews to Babylon because " language is akin to the
17592:
17323:
17313:
17274:
17209:
16909:
16904:
16709:
16665:
16635:
16618:
16612:
16519:
16467:
16348:
16188:
16016:
15367:
15086:
15076:
14991:
14986:
11509:
10413:
9338:
9167:
7410:
7160:
6889:, in which the long vowels occurred only in open syllables; and two diphthongs
6486:
4995:
4674:
4291:
3835:
3685:
3646:
3637:
The Israelite tribes who settled in the land of Israel used a late form of the
2260:
2252:
1006:
948:
903:
638:
619:
611:
511:
272:
262:
14816:
14345:
14127:
Introduction to the Semitic Languages: Text Specimens and Grammatical Sketches
11475:
11315:. This is evidenced by Ugaritic orthography, almost purely consonantal, where
9949:
28 כִּֽי־אַ֭תָּה תָּאִ֣יר נֵרִ֑י יְהוָ֥ה אֱ֝לֹהַ֗י יַגִּ֥יהַּ חָשְׁכִּֽי׃
9313:
In proto-Semitic nouns were marked for case: in the singular the markers were
9052:
vowels may be lengthened in the presence of etymological guttural consonants.
7296:). The situation appears to have been quite fluid for several centuries, with
3290:
2968:
2287:'great'. Some have cognates in other Northwest Semitic languages, for example
974:
at the beginning of the first millennium BCE, which later split into the
791:
of their subject. Pronominal suffixes could be appended to verbs (to indicate
17605:
17554:
17470:
17417:
17407:
17397:
17293:
17223:
17196:
17098:
17093:
16878:
16645:
16640:
16564:
16326:
15906:
15219:
14955:
14714:
Palestinian Vocalised Piyyut Manuscripts in the Cambridge Genizah Collections
14594:"Oldest Hebrew Inscription Discovered in Israelite Fort on Philistine Border"
14060:
13757:
9726:
9334:
7387:
7038:
6994:
6905:
5114:
4928:
4168:
3736:
still marked two. The old Babylonian vocalization system wrote a superscript
3536:
2482:
2248:
1451:
1406:
1102:
627:
623:
576:
332:
231:
15820:
14836:
14516:
Rendsburg, Gary A. (1997), "Ancient Hebrew Phonology", in Kaye, Alan (ed.),
13765:
10245:, the Hebrew term for full spelling, has become de rigueur in Modern Hebrew.
7416:
Stress movement from light syllable to following heavy syllable when not in
885:
may or may not include extra-biblical texts, such as inscriptions (e.g. the
17347:
16588:
15494:
15410:
15342:
15184:
15144:
15124:
15071:
14805:
12147:
11272:(because Proto-Semitic did not allow long vowels in closed syllables) >
9658:
9625:
9527:
nouns, nouns stemming from roots with two final consonants. The anaptyctic
9487:
8593:
is sometimes added to clusters where the first element is a guttural, e.g.
8165:
The Babylonian and Palestinian systems have only one reduced vowel phoneme
8086:(Palestinian) – generally becoming the second vowel before geminates (e.g.
5081:
consonants are phonemically contrastive in Biblical Hebrew. In the Secunda
4831:
4338:
3693:
3657:
3242:
3200:
2922:
2754:
2745:
2403:
2228:
1799:
1586:
1526:
989:
and some members of the upper class escaped to Judah. In 586 BCE, the
935:
materials are attested from 2350 BCE to 1200 BCE, the end of the
742:
615:
583:
575:. It eventually developed into Mishnaic Hebrew, which was spoken until the
527:
515:
3084:
2323:, and various differences in verbal and pronominal morphology and syntax.
729:
underwent weakening in some regional dialects, as reflected in the modern
491:
319:
312:
17539:
17333:
17215:
16145:
15965:
15569:
15415:
15139:
15081:
14163:
9698:
forms that use SVO either more often or at least to a comparable degree.
6569:
6557:
6444:
6432:
6341:
6329:
6250:
6238:
6157:
6145:
5019:
4063:
3662:
2886:
2598:
2510:
2399:
2263:
5). Biblical poetry uses a number of distinct lexical items, for example
2133:, widespread reduction of diphthongs, and full assimilation of non-final
591:
553:
429:
14655:
Steiner, Richard C. (1997). "Ancient Hebrew". In Hetzron, Robert (ed.).
10374:
The Palestinian system has two main subtypes and shows great variation.
9375:, but there is no indication of its presence after 1800 BCE. Final
7402:
The previous three changes occurred in a complex, interlocking fashion:
4058:
in Genesis 49:3) but only rarely show full spelling of the Qumran type.
3718:
could each mark two different phonemes. After a sound shift the letters
2446:
in most dialects of Hebrew, may have been retained in the Hebrew of the
17466:
15827:
15778:
15459:
11129:
11009:
The only known case where Philippi's Law does not apply is in the word
9695:
9646:
9642:
9070:
8590:
8134:
is most commonly preserved by geminating the following consonant, e.g.
7999:
Proto-Hebrew words with an open long penult and longer ending: ???
6628:
6562:
6507:
6437:
6393:
6334:
6302:
6243:
6211:
6150:
5928:
5893:
5778:
5743:
5701:
5629:
5594:
5366:
5331:
5289:
5254:
5212:
5177:
5003:
4779:
4258:
4140:
4066:
3925:
3760:
2387:
2327:
1109:. Currently, Classical Hebrew is generally taught in public schools in
936:
646:
507:
9730:
actions, but are also subject to the context determining their tense.
9292:
often occurs in quadriliteral animal names, perhaps as a prefix, e.g.
7112:
again in the construct state and when these words take suffixes, e.g.
3878:; however at this stage they were not yet used word-medially, compare
2386:
Dialect variation in Biblical Hebrew is attested to by the well-known
1664:
1204:
17392:
17241:
17190:
17170:
15792:
15434:
15405:
10987:
Eblaitica: essays on the Ebla archives and Eblaite language, Volume 1
10378::7) The Babylonian vocalization occurred in two main types (simple /
10242:
9274:('deceptive'), and also occurs in nouns with initial sibilants, e.g.
6988:
6600:
4955:
in Late Biblical Hebrew, as indicated by interchange of orthographic
4421:
4297:
3697:
3420:
2363:
1135:
1118:
710:
707:
680:
595:
360:
303:
15636:
15604:
Gesenius' Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures
14214:
Advances in Biblical Hebrew Linguistics: Data, Methods, and Analyses
14209:
11193:('she watched'), because the penultimate vowel in the original form
10534:
In this respect the Palestinian tradition corresponds to the modern
9683:
The default word order in Biblical Hebrew is commonly thought to be
7346:
6971:
or otherwise becomes definite in meaning. In other languages, final
2087:
1165:
Development of the various fricatives in Hebrew, Aramaic and Arabic
1117:
The primary source of Biblical Hebrew material is the Hebrew Bible.
855:
17246:
16800:
16375:
15834:
15806:
15509:
15101:
14917:
14319:
11128:
This is less common when the consonant following the guttural is a
9925:
9524:
9357:
6917:
6912:. The phonemic system was inherited essentially unchanged, but the
5078:
3862:. Matres lectionis were later added word-finally, for instance the
3753:
3627:
2710:
2391:
2071:
2064:
2043:
As a Northwest Semitic language, Hebrew shows the shift of initial
1126:) from the seventh or sixth century BCE show a version of the
944:
940:
852:
817:"the language of Canaan". The Hebrew Bible also calls the language
403:
17083:
16509:
14843:
14403:
Studies in Hebrew historical linguistics based on Origen's Secunda
14017:
W. Randall Carr (2006). Steven Ellis Fassberg, Avi Hurvitz (ed.).
11090:, literally 'stolen pataḥ' and perhaps a mistranslation of Hebrew
10345:
is a transliteration of the Hebrew biblical text contained in the
10047:αηλ θαμμιν (*-μ) δερχω εμαραθ YHWH σερουφα μαγεν ου λαχολ αωσιμ βω
9958:
29 כִּֽי־בְ֭ךָ אָרֻ֣ץ גְּד֑וּד וּ֝בֵֽאלֹהַ֗י אֲדַלֶּג־שֽׁוּר׃
9099:
in closed syllables). /o/ contrasts only stressed final syllables.
8568:('gift'). Attenuation is rarely present in Samaritan Hebrew, e.g.
7304:
forms found in competition both in writing and in speech (cf. the
4180:
The phonology as reconstructed for Biblical Hebrew is as follows:
2070:
The Northwest Semitic languages formed a dialect continuum in the
17318:
17251:
17180:
17146:
16551:
15949:
15813:
13992:
10695:
In fact, first all stressed vowels were lengthened in pause, see
10346:
9929:
7108:
consonant therefore is silent in the absolute state, but becomes
6983:
had mimation, of uncertain meaning, in an occurrence of the word
5129:
5105:, as evidenced by changes in the quality of the preceding vowel.
2580:'wine'), while the southern or Judean dialect instead adds in an
2331:
1045:
1041:
718:
714:
703:
599:
399:
5025:
The Dead Sea scrolls show evidence of confusion of the phonemes
2566:
as attested by the Samaria ostraca (8th century BCE), e.g.
2146:
from *bant. There is also evidence of a rule of assimilation of
753:(singular, plural, and uncommonly, dual). Verbs were marked for
16755:
15755:
15400:
15309:
15304:
15289:
15284:
15234:
15189:
15174:
11533:
10350:
10114:
7325:
7309:
7264:
for masculine and feminine forms. The expected result would be
4807:
4493:
4347:
4099:
3284:
3164:
2842:
2661:
2602:
2536:
2498:
2395:
2244:
1347:
1139:
1110:
1106:
1015:
963:
918:
745:
into patterns to form words. Biblical Hebrew distinguished two
415:
9783:
The verbal forms can be Present Tense in these circumstances:
9286:
prefix is called either "prothetic" or "prosthetic". Prefixed
6931:. Nouns in the singular were usually declined in three cases:
3730:
could only mark one phoneme, but (except in Samaritan Hebrew)
2554:
Hebrew, as spoken in the northern Kingdom of Israel, known as
1009:, and permitted the Judahite exiles to return and rebuild the
17155:
15545:
15390:
15294:
15279:
15274:
15269:
15204:
15149:
15134:
15129:
15119:
13933:
Basic Word Order in the Biblical Hebrew Verbal Clause, Part 3
10682:
The Secunda also has a few cases of pretonic gemination. See
10055:
10045:
10035:
10025:
9842:
The verbal forms can be Future Tense in these circumstances:
9191:
7454:
7417:
7396:
7381:
7022:(dual). (The strong feminine endings in Classical Arabic are
4825:
4801:
4783:
3623:
3414:
2962:
2798:
2718:
2430:. The apparent conclusion is that the Ephraimite dialect had
2059:'we', first person singular pronominal suffix -i or -ya, and
1922:
1733:
1279:
676:
666:
549:
11839:
8562:('opening '), and often was blocked before a geminate, e.g.
15319:
15264:
15214:
15209:
15194:
15169:
15164:
15159:
15154:
14499:(6 (Nov/Dec)). Biblical Archaeology Society. Archived from
14170:
The renaissance of modern Hebrew and modern standard Arabic
10874:
10057:χι μι ελω μεββελαδη YHWH ουμι σουρ ζουλαθι ελωννου (*-ηνου)
9733:
The verbal forms can be Past Tense in these circumstances:
8358:
results from the neutralization of the distinction between
6916:
may have changed their realization in Central Semitic from
6908:
and Proto-Central-Semitic, the language at the root of the
4732:
4720:
4034:
may be used for an a-quality vowel in final position (e.g.
3492:
3456:
3320:
3114:
3078:
3042:
2998:
1982:
1865:
848:
75:
10760:(12th century) and by medieval Arabic transcriptions, see
10594::83–86). Even in Tiberian Hebrew doublets are found, e.g.
10555:
certainly have phonemic status in the Tiberian tradition,
7420:, with newly unstressed light syllable reducing the schwa.
7362:
Later, short vowels lengthened in stressed open syllables.
6904:
Various changes, mostly in morphology, took place between
6821:
stems from a contracted diphthong. In other environments,
2105:
Hebrew underwent the Canaanite shift, where Proto-Semitic
1101:
as a vernacular began in the 19th century, culminating in
402:
characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
15224:
15179:
14405:. Orientalia Gandensia. Vol. 9. Uitgeverij Peeters.
14243:
Universal Grammar in the Reconstruction of Dead Languages
10789:) thus reflect the qamatz gadol-qamatz qatan distinction.
9040:
All Proto-Hebrew short vowels were deleted word-finally.
3573:
811:
The earliest written sources refer to Biblical Hebrew as
10644:. This length distinction is also found in the LXX. See
10512:
generally does not cause compensatory lengthening, e.g.
6947:), nouns also took a final nasal after the case ending:
3756:
to distinguish between the two varieties of the letter.
657:
gradually displaced the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet after the
11154:
For the purposes of vowel quality shifts, words in the
10316:) or when a vowel letter already marks a consonant (so
10190:) may have been preserved regionally at one point. See
9388:, originally meaning 'at night' but in prose replacing
8421:('wine'), and Samaritan Hebrew shows instead the shift
7205:
Vowel lengthening in stressed, open syllables occurred
7198:
Final short mood, etc. markers dropped in verbal forms.
7014:(objective); corresponding construct-state endings are
2587:, added halfway through the first millennium BCE (
1064:
their governor. A revolt against the Romans led to the
787:, and verbs were inflected for the number, gender, and
14324:
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
14129:. München: Max Hueber Verlag München. pp. 50–75.
11633:
History of the Jewish People: From Yavneh to Pumbedisa
11351:, which existed for every person. In Biblical Hebrew,
11295:('to the earth'), occurring also in exclamations like
9451:
show that this was not yet a feature of Proto-Hebrew.
9337:, as evidenced in Akkadian, Ugaritic, and Arabic. The
8197:, but was always pronounced as under gutturals, e.g.
8024:'his name'). Thus the vowel system of the Secunda was
8003:
7906:
Loss of phonemic vowel length; attested Tiberian form
6771:
The Tiberian tradition has the reduced vowel phonemes
4062:
is evidence from the rendering of proper nouns in the
737:
Biblical Hebrew had a typical Semitic morphology with
14303:. Jerusalem, Israel: Ariel United Israel Institutes.
14280:"Most ancient Hebrew biblical inscription deciphered"
13160:
13158:
11382:
11376:
11370:
11364:
11316:
11302:
11296:
11290:
11259:
11249:
11243:
11221:
11212:
11188:
11182:
11172:
11133:
11097:
11091:
11060:
11010:
10979:
10878:
10865:
10844:
10835:
10826:
10817:
10808:
10799:
10742:
10713:
10700:
10577:
10513:
10480:
10323:
10317:
10311:
10305:
10291:
10271:
10265:
10257:
10151:
9662:
9629:
9572:
9558:
9541:
9532:
9512:
9503:
9474:
9468:
9462:
9456:
9446:
9424:
9418:
9398:
9389:
9380:
9305:
9299:
9293:
9287:
9281:
9275:
9269:
9259:
9237:
9219:
9213:
9207:
9150:
9141:
9132:
8621:
8612:
8603:
8594:
8569:
8563:
8554:
8545:
8528:
8519:
in unstressed closed syllables: this is known as the
8495:
8478:
8456:
8450:
8444:
8438:
8388:
8379:
8370:
8326:
8304:
8290:
8284:
8278:
8272:
8263:
8248:
8218:
8212:
8192:
8182:
8154:
8148:
8135:
8118:
8101:
8087:
8042:
8016:
6838:
6830:
6809:
6800:
6112:), and those of the Samaritan tradition, with vowels
6078:
6050:
6043:
6032:
5984:
5957:
5933:
5917:
5898:
5882:
5834:
5807:
5783:
5767:
5748:
5732:
5706:
5671:
5658:
5634:
5618:
5599:
5583:
5557:
5533:
5505:
5494:
5470:
5454:
5430:
5406:
5395:
5371:
5355:
5336:
5320:
5294:
5278:
5259:
5243:
5217:
5201:
5182:
5166:
5039:
5030:
4968:
4958:
4912:
4894:
4880:
4866:
4848:
4770:
4761:
4752:
4743:
4730:
4718:
4111:
3979:
3973:
3967:
3955:
3949:
3888:
3882:
3851:
3845:
3839:
3829:
3823:
3817:
3811:
3792:
3782:
3776:
3770:
3764:
3743:
3737:
3731:
3725:
3719:
3618:
The earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, found at
3585:
3548:
3504:
3468:
3432:
3426:
3382:
3376:
3332:
3296:
3260:
3254:
3218:
3212:
3176:
3132:
3126:
3090:
3054:
3010:
2974:
2934:
2898:
2854:
2810:
2766:
2730:
2648:
2642:
2630:
2624:
2618:
2612:
2606:
2588:
2567:
2470:'s proto-Semitic ancestor has been reconstructed as *
2465:
2451:
2407:
2357:
2351:
2341:
2335:
2318:
2312:
2306:
2300:
2294:
2288:
2282:
2276:
2270:
2264:
2208:
2202:
2196:
2190:
2184:
2178:
2172:
2166:
2160:
2154:
2138:
1060:. Later, the Romans ended their independence, making
922:
912:
865:
859:
842:
836:
818:
812:
774:
13092:
11957:
11955:
11030:
has been extended by analogy to similar forms, e.g.
9341:
show that this was probably still present in Hebrew
8486:'daughter'), or sometimes in the Tiberian tradition
7328:
vowel written under the final letter of such words.
6943:(genitive). In some circumstances (but never in the
6729:
possibly pronounced , as the orthography alternates
4983:
have merged completely; however in Samaritan Hebrew
4069:(3rd–2nd centuries BCE) and the Greek alphabet
1040:
Aramaic became the common language in the north, in
240:
222:
14641:"History of the Ancient and Modern Hebrew Language"
14472:. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.
14212:. In Moshavi, Adina Mosak; Notarius, Tania (eds.).
14124:
14052:
A Guide to Biblical Hebrew Syntax by Bill T. Arnold
13205:
7241:already by Proto-Hebrew on the basis of possessive
6881:Proto-Semitic is the ancestral language of all the
133:attested from the 10th century BCE; developed into
14692:
14167:
14125:Bergstrasser, Gotthelf; Daniels, Peter T. (1995).
13993:"Bible Search and Study Tools – Blue Letter Bible"
13944:
13907:
13892:
13875:
13836:
13824:
13812:
13800:
13733:
13718:
13706:
13643:
13619:
13596:
13584:
13567:
13155:
12636:
11919:
11734:
11719:
11575:
11560:
11388:
10984:has a patah vowel in pause as well as in context.
10747:with allophonically long do not show this shift).
7201:Final short case markers dropped in nominal forms.
7189:
14489:"Shasu or Habiru. Who Were the Early Israelites?"
14110:. Jerusalem: The Hebrew University Magnes Press.
11952:
11539:
10699::58–59). This can be seen by forms like Tiberian
10264:being used medially as a true vowel letter, e.g.
10113:This is known because the final redaction of the
9637:in Hebrew; the binyanim mainly serve to indicate
7434:Possible derivation of some nominal/verbal forms
7347:Short vowel lengthening (esp. pretonic), lowering
6799:only contrast in open post-tonic syllables, e.g.
17603:
14451:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
14235:. Milan: Centro Studi Camito-Semitici di Milano.
11444:
11442:
11440:
11420:. Vol. 2. Taylor & Francis. p. 7.
11307:, may have originally terminated in consonantal
2456:'s Proto-Semitic ancestor had initial consonant
717:, and these sounds eventually became marginally
15625:Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament
14016:
12737:The Semitic Languages An International Handbook
12578:
11242:It has been suggested that the construct forms
10349:, a recension of the Old Testament compiled by
8523:. It is common in the Tiberian tradition, e.g.
7374:; when kept short they generally have reflexes
7088:Feminine nouns at this point ended in a suffix
3759:The original Hebrew alphabet consisted only of
3630:) has five lines of text written in ink in the
2137:to the following consonant if word final, i.e.
1076:, and the rebuilding of Jerusalem as the roman
954:Hebrew developed during the latter half of the
14806:Free resources to study Biblical Hebrew online
14572:
14317:
13415:
13400:
13331:
13265:
13241:
12905:
12822:
12560:
12381:
12221:
12104:
12092:
12080:
12068:
12056:
12044:
12032:
12001:
11973:
11880:
11845:
11675:
11617:
11497:
11276:(loss of mimation and final short vowel), see
10899:
10864:frequently and rarely contrasts with it, e.g.
10756:This is attested to by the testimony of Rabbi
10387:
10204:
10117:, which does not mention these additions, was
9811:: a Present Perfect verb, e.g. "I have walked"
9502:in certain phonetic environments, for example
9483:form which is used in genitive constructions.
8511:('heart'). In some traditions the short vowel
7406:Shift of stress to be universally penultimate.
7316:for both genders, while speech chose feminine
5085:are never geminate. In the Tiberian tradition
3787:, also were used to indicate vowels, known as
526:"Hebrew" was not used for the language in the
16816:
15652:
14859:
14832:Learn to write the Biblical Hebrew characters
11437:
11311:which was later elided, following the suffix
10538:, and the Babylonian tradition to the modern
10479:usually shows compensatory lengthening, e.g.
7423:Tonic lengthening/lowering in open syllables.
7256:Similarly, in the second-singular, inherited
7049:with an extended mimation ending (cf. Arabic
6975:may be present whenever a noun is not in the
6779:, while Palestinian and Babylonian have one,
6131:Tiberian, Babylonian, and Palestinian Hebrew
5927:(syllable-initially, after closed syllables,
5892:(syllable-initially, after closed syllables,
5777:(syllable-initially, after closed syllables,
5742:(syllable-initially, after closed syllables,
5700:(syllable-initially, after closed syllables,
5628:(syllable-initially, after closed syllables,
5593:(syllable-initially, after closed syllables,
5365:(syllable-initially, after closed syllables,
5330:(syllable-initially, after closed syllables,
5288:(syllable-initially, after closed syllables,
5253:(syllable-initially, after closed syllables,
5211:(syllable-initially, after closed syllables,
5176:(syllable-initially, after closed syllables,
4073:of the Hebrew biblical text contained in the
2629:and infinitives of certain verbs of the form
14827:Basic Biblical Hebrew Grammar (introductory)
14774:Complementation: a cross-linguistic typology
14318:Garnier, Romain; Jacques, Guillaume (2012).
14143:
12977:
12975:
12973:
12971:
12969:
12967:
10279:
9973:
9964:
9955:
9946:
9932:along with its reconstructed pronunciation.
9707:
9611:
9605:
9590:
9580:
9440:
9434:
9408:
8396:
8198:
7142:
7131:
7122:
7113:
6783:(pronounced as in later Palestinian Hebrew)
6012:
5994:
5862:
5844:
4935:languages as well as early borrowings (e.g.
4815:
4810:
4791:
4786:
4053:
4047:
4041:
4035:
4027:
4019:
4013:
4007:
4001:
3993:
3985:
3961:
3941:
3931:
3894:
3873:
3867:
3857:
3711:
3661:century BCE, the most famous being the
2636:
2539:) but not others (e.g. Ephraimite), where *s
2419:
2214:
2008:
1996:
1963:
1945:
1903:
1879:
1846:
1822:
1780:
1756:
1714:
1687:
1645:
1618:
1567:
1549:
1507:
1483:
1436:
1429:
1387:
1378:
1328:
1302:
1260:
1236:
634:to the late 8th to early 7th centuries BCE.
540:
531:
466:
445:
64:
58:
52:
46:
17627:Languages attested from the 10th century BC
14230:
14191:Phonology and Morphology of Biblical Hebrew
14162:
12795:
12783:
11892:
10653:
10434:
7339:('your' fem. sing.), and personal pronouns
7331:The exact same process affected possessive
2464:), contradicting this theory; for example,
2153:Typical Canaanite words in Hebrew include:
927:"for the freedom of Jerusalem" on the back.
661:, and it became the source for the current
16823:
16809:
15659:
15645:
14866:
14852:
14791:Resources for the Study of Biblical Hebrew
14768:
14419:
14105:
14048:
13956:
13654:
13652:
13552:
13480:
13451:
13385:
13381:
13379:
13358:
13346:
13300:
13298:
13026:
13011:
12929:
12688:
12686:
12624:
12595:
12584:
12360:
12358:
12356:
12354:
12352:
12236:
11355:developed into the prefixing class, while
11047:
10591:
9091:are nearly in complementary distribution (
7382:Reduction of short open stressed syllables
7245:(likewise first singular personal pronoun
4757:merged with their pharyngeal counterparts
3680:By the end of the First Temple period the
3419:
982:in the south after a disputed succession.
598:. There is also some evidence of regional
74:
14821:Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary
14695:An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax
14638:
14540:
14515:
14335:
13903:
13901:
13729:
13727:
13615:
13613:
13611:
13609:
13607:
13605:
13580:
13578:
13576:
13522:
13342:
13340:
13310:
13283:
13271:
13247:
13193:
12964:
12863:
12859:
12857:
12855:
12759:
12722:
12612:
12305:
12260:
12232:
12230:
12174:
12135:
12020:
11876:
11874:
11833:
11793:
11791:
11659:"Aramaic: the Yiddish of the Middle East"
11594:
11592:
11590:
11588:
11586:
11584:
10412:Almost all vocalized manuscripts use the
10191:
10037:χι βαχ αρους γεδουδ ουβελωαι εδαλλεγ σουρ
9624:Verbal consonantal roots are placed into
7355:tended to lengthen in various positions.
6991:) as given in an Egyptian transcription.
2477:.); or that the Proto-Semitic sibilant *s
679:. In the Middle Ages, various systems of
14558:"Israel Language Policy and Linguistics"
14400:
13973:
13847:
13845:
13540:
13516:
13504:
13464:
13462:
13460:
13439:
13411:
13409:
13396:
13394:
13370:
13327:
13325:
13176:
13137:
13133:
13131:
13122:
13110:
13098:
13022:
13020:
13007:
13005:
12946:
12942:
12940:
12938:
12881:
12834:
12806:
12804:
12435:
12433:
12119:
12117:
12115:
12113:
11930:
11928:
11872:
11870:
11868:
11866:
11864:
11862:
11860:
11858:
11856:
11854:
11571:
11569:
11220:('with those who go down into the pit')
11159:
10761:
10696:
10683:
10670:
10649:
10530:
10528:
10362:
9934:
7324:. This is the reason for the unexpected
7034:nunation in the indefinite state only.)
7030:objective, marked with a singular-style
6876:
6661:
6523:
6511:
6414:
6397:
6306:
6215:
2350:verb forms, and in using particles like
902:
14730:
14711:
14693:Waltke, Bruce K.; O'Connor, M. (1990).
14654:
14632:A Historical Grammar of Biblical Hebrew
14629:
14620:
14447:"Proto-Semitic Phonology and Phonetics"
14420:Jobes, Karen H.; Silva, Moises (2001).
14360:
14277:
14049:Arnold, Bill T.; Choi, John H. (2003).
13979:
13863:
13649:
13590:
13563:
13561:
13376:
13295:
13211:
13189:
13187:
13185:
13170:
13149:
13074:
12996:
12992:
12990:
12917:
12877:
12875:
12873:
12871:
12739:. De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 1.3.1.3.
12734:
12718:
12716:
12703:
12701:
12683:
12608:
12606:
12604:
12463:
12439:
12424:
12412:
12393:
12349:
12343:
12317:
12217:
12215:
12213:
12185:
12183:
11997:
11995:
11993:
11915:
11913:
11815:
11749:
11745:
11743:
11730:
11728:
11715:
11713:
11613:
11611:
11609:
11607:
11598:
11556:
11554:
11448:
11289:The unstressed suffix -ה in words like
11264:because the later stem from forms like
10603:
10217:
9202:The most common nominal prefix used is
9197:
8469:in closed stressed syllables shifts to
5089:cannot be geminate; historically first
5051:have generally all merged, either into
4662:during the lifetime of Biblical Hebrew.
3948:is generally used for both long and (
1019:, Hebrew of this period was similar to
434:question marks, boxes, or other symbols
396:question marks, boxes, or other symbols
273:Proto-Canaanite / Proto-Sinaitic Script
14:
17604:
14749:
14591:
14486:
14453:. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 54–151.
14379:
14044:
14042:
14040:
13898:
13888:
13886:
13884:
13724:
13637:
13602:
13573:
13421:
13364:
13337:
13316:
13277:
12852:
12677:
12649:
12647:
12645:
12541:
12539:
12537:
12497:
12495:
12493:
12491:
12489:
12487:
12474:
12472:
12377:
12375:
12373:
12329:
12282:
12280:
12278:
12276:
12274:
12272:
12270:
12268:
12227:
12016:
12014:
12012:
12010:
11788:
11700:
11698:
11696:
11681:
11629:
11581:
11545:
11464:
11413:
11301:and used ornamentally in poetry, e.g.
10894:is clearly phonemic but bears minimal
10027:χι αθθα θαειρ νηρι YHWH ελωαι αγι οσχι
6749:in the Palestinian tradition and with
4923:as is based on comparative evidence (
4669:during the lifetime of Biblical Hebrew
4131:in closed unstressed syllables became
870:"the Holy Tongue" in Mishnaic Hebrew.
686:Biblical Hebrew possessed a series of
637:Biblical Hebrew has several different
16804:
15666:
15640:
14847:
14697:. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns.
14676:Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible
14555:
14467:
14444:
14301:Grammar for Gemara and Targum Onkelos
14298:
14239:
14207:
14193:. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns.
14148:. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns.
14146:Introduction to the Semitic Languages
13968:
13919:
13842:
13830:
13457:
13406:
13391:
13352:
13322:
13128:
13086:
13032:
13017:
13002:
12935:
12801:
12556:
12554:
12512:
12510:
12430:
12408:
12406:
12404:
12402:
12200:
12198:
12162:
12110:
11925:
11851:
11821:
11809:
11778:
11776:
11774:
11772:
11770:
11636:. Mesorah Publications. p. 115.
11566:
11460:
11458:
11456:
11407:
10777:The Palestinian reflexes of Tiberian
10525:
10475:The vowel before originally geminate
10174:
9868:, Waw Consecutive Jussive/Cohortative
9523:The traditions differ on the form of
9264:('thanksgiving'; < ydy). Prefixed
9206:, used for substantives of location (
8640:
8366:in closed post-tonic syllables, e.g.
8031:
7680:Stress shift / de-stressed reduction
7104:in both Hebrew and Arabic. The final
5654:
5490:
5391:
4193:
1926:
1803:
1142:, which contain biblical quotations.
1056:, Judea became independent under the
991:Neo-Babylonian Empire destroyed Judah
803:for use in possessive constructions.
17632:Languages extinct in the 1st century
16830:
14817:The Handy-Dandy Hebrew Grammar Chart
14752:Introduction to the Tiberian Masorah
14249:, Berlin: Mouton, pp. 239–264,
14188:
14091:
13851:
13818:
13788:
13694:
13682:
13670:
13658:
13631:
13558:
13528:
13510:
13492:
13486:
13468:
13445:
13427:
13304:
13289:
13253:
13229:
13217:
13182:
13164:
13062:
13050:
13038:
12987:
12981:
12958:
12893:
12868:
12846:
12810:
12771:
12713:
12707:
12698:
12692:
12665:
12601:
12516:
12478:
12451:
12339:
12337:
12301:
12299:
12297:
12295:
12286:
12248:
12210:
12204:
12189:
12180:
12152:Semitic Etymological Database Online
12123:
12086:
11990:
11984:
11961:
11946:
11934:
11910:
11904:
11797:
11782:
11740:
11725:
11710:
11704:
11687:
11656:
11604:
11551:
11493:
11491:
11489:
11487:
11485:
11483:
11392:
11383:
11377:
11371:
11365:
11326:
11317:
11303:
11297:
11291:
11277:
11260:
11250:
11244:
11230:
11222:
11213:
11198:
11189:
11183:
11173:
11142:
11134:
11116:
11103:
11098:
11092:
11061:
11011:
10980:
10921:
10887:
10879:
10866:
10853:
10845:
10836:
10827:
10818:
10809:
10800:
10765:
10743:
10714:
10701:
10645:
10616:
10578:
10564:
10519:
10514:
10481:
10463:
10400:
10375:
10329:
10324:
10318:
10312:
10306:
10301:
10292:
10272:
10266:
10258:
10161:
10152:
10138:
10125:
9667:, and their meaning with respect to
9663:
9630:
9573:
9559:
9542:
9533:
9513:
9504:
9475:
9469:
9463:
9457:
9447:
9425:
9419:
9399:
9390:
9381:
9348:In the development of Hebrew, final
9306:
9300:
9294:
9288:
9282:
9276:
9270:
9260:
9238:
9220:
9214:
9208:
9151:
9142:
9133:
8622:
8613:
8604:
8595:
8570:
8564:
8555:
8546:
8529:
8496:
8479:
8457:
8451:
8445:
8439:
8389:
8380:
8371:
8327:
8305:
8291:
8285:
8279:
8273:
8264:
8249:
8219:
8213:
8193:
8183:
8155:
8149:
8136:
8119:
8102:
8088:
8043:
8017:
7426:Loss of final short vowels in nouns.
7147:Hebrew shows certain aspects of the
7037:If Hebrew had at some point had the
6839:
6831:
6810:
6801:
6079:
6070:(word-initially, except in ࠅ- "and")
6051:
6044:
6033:
5985:
5958:
5934:
5918:
5899:
5883:
5835:
5808:
5784:
5768:
5749:
5733:
5707:
5672:
5659:
5635:
5619:
5600:
5584:
5558:
5534:
5506:
5495:
5471:
5455:
5431:
5407:
5396:
5372:
5356:
5337:
5321:
5295:
5279:
5260:
5244:
5218:
5202:
5183:
5167:
5040:
5031:
4969:
4959:
4913:
4895:
4881:
4867:
4849:
4771:
4762:
4753:
4744:
4112:
3980:
3974:
3968:
3956:
3950:
3889:
3883:
3852:
3846:
3840:
3830:
3824:
3818:
3812:
3793:
3783:
3777:
3771:
3765:
3744:
3738:
3732:
3726:
3720:
3586:
3549:
3505:
3469:
3433:
3427:
3383:
3377:
3333:
3297:
3261:
3255:
3219:
3213:
3177:
3133:
3127:
3091:
3055:
3011:
2975:
2935:
2899:
2855:
2811:
2767:
2731:
2649:
2643:
2631:
2625:
2619:
2613:
2607:
2589:
2568:
2485:and traditionally reconstructed as *
2466:
2452:
2408:
2390:incident of Judges 12:6, where
2358:
2352:
2346:, distinguishing between simple and
2342:
2336:
2319:
2313:
2307:
2301:
2295:
2289:
2283:
2277:
2271:
2265:
2227:Biblical Hebrew as preserved in the
2209:
2203:
2197:
2191:
2185:
2179:
2173:
2167:
2161:
2155:
2139:
2036:As Biblical Hebrew evolved from the
1955:
1892:
1835:
1769:
1703:
1634:
1559:
1496:
1316:
1249:
987:Neo-Assyrian Empire destroyed Israel
923:
913:
866:
860:
843:
837:
819:
813:
775:
14873:
14673:
14037:
13881:
13869:
13745:
12653:
12642:
12572:
12545:
12534:
12528:
12501:
12484:
12469:
12418:
12370:
12364:
12265:
12007:
11940:
11761:
11693:
10417:
10280:
10230:
9715:
9708:
9612:
9606:
9591:
9581:
9553:in the Palestinian tradition (e.g.
9441:
9435:
9409:
9119:more common before long consonants.
8397:
8325:in closed stressed syllables, e.g.
8199:
8004:Pre-stress reduction of short vowel
7132:
7123:
7114:
7077:. (Expected plural construct state
6013:
5995:
5863:
5845:
4811:
4787:
4054:
4048:
4042:
4036:
4028:
4020:
4014:
4008:
4002:
3994:
3986:
3962:
3942:
3932:
3895:
3874:
3868:
3858:
3712:
2637:
2501:and traditionally reconstructed as
2420:
2215:
2009:
1997:
1964:
1946:
1904:
1880:
1847:
1823:
1781:
1757:
1715:
1688:
1646:
1619:
1568:
1550:
1508:
1484:
1437:
1430:
1388:
1379:
1329:
1303:
1261:
1237:
675:, became increasingly used to mark
541:
532:
467:
446:
99:Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)
65:
59:
53:
47:
27:Archaic form of the Hebrew language
24:
16787:Languages between parentheses are
14678:. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress.
14174:. University of California Press.
13935:. 2011-05-16. Accessed 2012-06-16.
12551:
12507:
12399:
12195:
11767:
11453:
10733:. The shift in Tiberian Hebrew of
9429:in construct) and the reflexes of
8070:. In unaccented closed syllables,
7237:appears to have been remade into *
3960:), and final is often written as
1105:becoming the official language of
970:says the Israelites established a
610:. The consonantal text called the
25:
17648:
14781:
13760:: Thos. N. Stanford. p. 14.
12334:
12292:
11480:
10989:. Eisenbrauns. 1987. p. 20.
10518:('he will have compassion'). See
8465:is the process by which original
6663:
6650:
6645:
6638:
6633:
6618:
6610:
6605:
6591:
6586:
6579:
6574:
6540:
6533:
6527:
6512:
6498:
6491:
6477:
6470:
6456:
6449:
6415:
6403:
6398:
6384:
6379:
6372:
6367:
6353:
6346:
6312:
6307:
6293:
6286:
6272:
6267:
6260:
6255:
6221:
6216:
6202:
6194:
6179:
6174:
6167:
6162:
5109:Hebrew consonant correspondences
4919:). The specific pronunciation of
4635:
4611:
4604:
4595:
4589:
4563:
4543:
4534:
4525:
4514:
4507:
4500:
4484:
4477:
4470:
4463:
4456:
4449:
4442:
4435:
4428:
4395:
4371:
4360:
4353:
4337:
4328:
4321:
4310:
4303:
4270:
4263:
2450:(however, there is evidence that
1145:
14813:Grammar, vocabulary and writing
14575:A History of the Hebrew Language
14286:from the original on 7 June 2011
14216:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 83–112.
14085:
14010:
13985:
13962:
13950:
13938:
13925:
13913:
13857:
13806:
13794:
13782:
13739:
13712:
13700:
13688:
13676:
13664:
13625:
13546:
13534:
13498:
13474:
13433:
13259:
13235:
13223:
13206:Bergstrasser & Daniels (1995
13199:
13143:
13116:
13104:
13080:
13068:
13056:
13044:
12952:
12923:
12911:
12899:
12887:
12840:
12828:
12816:
12789:
12777:
12765:
12753:
12728:
11332:
11283:
11236:
11204:
11165:
11148:
11122:
11109:
11096:('pataḥ of the stolen '), as if
11080:
11053:
11003:
10964:
10927:
10792:
10771:
10750:
10689:
10676:
10659:
10622:
10609:
10570:
10545:
10469:
10440:
10423:
10276:'fish'. Most cases, however, of
9329:(used also for adverbials), and
9114:mainly in most closed syllables.
6868:
6825:appears in closed syllables and
6116:in some traditions color-coded.
3752:, while the Masoretes added the
3578:
3541:
3497:
3461:
3369:
3325:
3289:
3247:
3205:
3169:
3119:
3083:
3047:
3003:
2967:
2927:
2891:
2847:
2803:
2759:
2723:
2668:are occasionally preserved as .
2641:. The Samaria ostraca also show
2317:as relative particles, negative
2195:, first person singular pronoun
1066:destruction of the Second Temple
414:
14837:The Alphabet of Biblical Hebrew
14659:. Routledge. pp. 145–173.
14625:. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard.
14522:, Eisenbrauns, pp. 65–83,
14468:LaSor, William Sanford (1978).
14099:
12671:
12659:
12630:
12618:
12589:
12566:
12522:
12457:
12445:
12387:
12323:
12311:
12254:
12242:
12168:
12156:
12141:
12129:
12098:
12074:
12062:
12050:
12038:
12026:
11978:
11967:
11898:
11886:
11827:
11803:
11755:
11669:
11650:
11623:
10406:
10393:
10368:
10335:
10248:
10236:
10223:
10210:
10197:
10180:
10167:
10156:but pronounced with an initial
10144:
10131:
10107:
9986:Pronunciation (Tiberian Hebrew)
9924:The following is a sample from
9064:in closed post-tonic syllables.
8130:). In Tiberian Hebrew pretonic
7190:Loss of final unstressed vowels
7173:
6897:or the modern pronunciation of
4715:Originally, the Hebrew letters
4102:is recorded in Greek as Σαμψών
4040:) and in medial position (e.g.
4000:is found finally in forms like
2373:Qumran Hebrew, attested in the
2055:), some archaic forms, such as
835:and in Mishnaic Hebrew we find
827:, Greek writings use the names
806:
436: instead of Hebrew letters.
16791:of the language on their left.
15442:
14577:. Cambridge University Press.
14573:Sáenz-Badillos, Angel (1993).
14519:Phonologies of Asia and Africa
14365:. Cambridge University Press.
11527:
11514:
11503:
11469:
11229:('pierced with a sword'). See
10941:, see above. The Semitic form
9919:
9352:were dropped first, and later
9224:'judgement'). The vowel after
8177:has questionable phonemicity.
7742:Final short vowel loss (noun)
7616:Final short vowel loss (verb)
7006:(objective), and dual endings
6955:) occurred in some languages,
6859:in closed post-tonic syllables
4931:phoneme and still attested in
4775:respectively c. 200 BCE.
3748:to indicate it took the value
2671:
1099:revival of the Hebrew language
1068:in 70 CE, and the second
911:. The Paleo-Hebrew text reads
85:Istanbul Archaeological Museum
13:
1:
17573:Algerian Jewish Sign Language
14623:A Grammar of Masoretic Hebrew
14449:. In Weninger, Stefan (ed.).
14108:A Grammar of Samaritan Hebrew
12148:"*šu(n)bul-at- – ear of corn"
11401:
10118:
9859:, Waw Consecutive Subjunctive
9678:
9365:
9342:
8203:. When reduced, etymological
7441:'killing/killer (masc. sg.)'
7164:
7061:without mimation. Similarly,
7053:above), while dual construct
4706:
4692:), but Egyptian starts using
4183:
3650:
2608:כְּלוּב קַ֫יִץ... בָּא הַקֵּץ
749:(masculine, feminine), three
17612:Language of the Hebrew Bible
15477:
14423:Invitation to the Septuagint
14363:The Grammar of Modern Hebrew
14233:From Proto-Semitic to Hebrew
11974:Garnier & Jacques (2012)
10953:, eventually yielding Latin
10843:('ascend!') (Num 21:17) and
10500:tends to remain short; with
9791:, Proverbial/General Present
9403:('with us'); nouns preserve
9268:is used in adjectives, e.g.
8577:. In the Tiberian tradition
7981:('they killed') < PHeb.
6766:in the Palestinian tradition
6644:
6632:
6616:
6604:
6585:
6573:
6550:
6497:
6490:
6476:
6469:
6455:
6448:
6425:
6378:
6366:
6352:
6345:
6322:
6292:
6285:
6266:
6254:
6201:
6192:
6173:
6161:
6138:
4175:
3654: 10th century BCE
7:
14630:Sperber, Alexander (1966).
14621:Sperber, Alexander (1959).
14598:Biblical Archaeology Review
14493:Biblical Archaeology Review
14470:Handbook of Biblical Hebrew
13945:Waltke & O'Connor (1990
13908:Waltke & O'Connor (1990
13893:Waltke & O'Connor (1990
13876:Waltke & O'Connor (1990
13837:Waltke & O'Connor (1990
13825:Waltke & O'Connor (1990
13813:Waltke & O'Connor (1990
13801:Waltke & O'Connor (1990
13734:Waltke & O'Connor (1990
13719:Waltke & O'Connor (1990
13707:Waltke & O'Connor (1990
13644:Waltke & O'Connor (1990
13620:Waltke & O'Connor (1990
13597:Waltke & O'Connor (1990
13585:Waltke & O'Connor (1990
13568:Waltke & O'Connor (1990
12637:Waltke & O'Connor (1990
11920:Waltke & O'Connor (1990
11735:Waltke & O'Connor (1990
11720:Waltke & O'Connor (1990
11576:Waltke & O'Connor (1990
11561:Waltke & O'Connor (1990
11414:Barton, John, ed. (2004) .
11389:Waltke & O'Connor (1990
10433:, but this is unlikely See
9750:, Waw Consecutive Preterite
9232:, but appears sometimes as
7712:Tonic lengthening/lowering
7018:(strong masculine plural),
6753:in the Babylonian tradition
6042:(word-initially, except in
4816:
4792:
4189:Biblical Hebrew consonants
4172:the Tiberian vocalization.
3928:are usually represented by
3924:. In the Qumran tradition,
2678:Biblical Hebrew orthography
2381:
1156:Northwest Semitic languages
958:between the Jordan and the
823:"Judaean, Judahite" In the
739:nonconcatenative morphology
645:. This was retained by the
530:, which was referred to as
316: – Ancient Hebrew
109:Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)
10:
17653:
16958:Jewish Palestinian Aramaic
14909:Transliteration to English
14787:Biblical Hebrew Resources
14231:Dolgopolsky, Aron (1999).
14106:Ben-Ḥayyim, Ze'ev (2000).
10056:
10046:
10036:
10026:
9218:'key'), and abstractions (
9212:'assembly'), instruments (
9161:
8682:
8620:('he will make glorious')
8223:'he said'), and generally
7959:('he killed') < PHeb.
6675:
4826:
4802:
4731:
4719:
3834:, similarly to the Hebrew
2675:
2236:may be subdivided by era.
2074:(1200–540 BCE), with
2027:Northwest Semitic language
1149:
1001:was destroyed. Later, the
956:second millennium BCE
896:
892:
653:to this day. However, the
573:siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)
17586:
17553:
17488:
17433:
17403:Judaeo-Hamedani–Borujerdi
17378:
17264:
17232:
17145:
17136:
17127:
17076:
17006:
16932:
16887:
16856:
16847:
16838:
16773:
16700:
16601:
16542:
16535:
16502:
16493:
16486:
16439:
16430:
16360:
16268:
16115:
15996:
15957:
15948:
15939:
15881:
15860:
15763:
15754:
15745:
15707:
15674:
15588:
15523:
15468:
15433:
15376:
15333:
15233:
15110:
15064:
15048:
15041:
14964:
14926:
14881:
14733:The Book of Hebrew Script
14639:Steinberg, David (2010).
14604:(2): 51–6. Archived from
14401:Janssens, Gerard (1982).
14346:10.1017/s0041977x11001261
14144:Bergsträsser, G. (1983).
11359:remained the jussive and
11102:were being inserted. See
10918:⟨ֲ ⟩
10911:⟨ְ ⟩
10852:(' pestle'; Prov 27:22).
9974:
9965:
9956:
9947:
9125:
9026:
9012:
9000:
8986:
8974:
8964:
8952:
8942:
8930:
8916:
8904:
8887:
8870:
8865:
8845:
8828:
8806:
8773:
8758:
8746:
8729:
8707:
8702:
8687:
8658:
8655:
8650:
8645:
8227:under non-gutturals, but
7992:('I killed') < PHeb.
7335:('your' masc. sing.) and
7260:competed with lengthened
7143:Potential Canaanite shift
6922:pharyngealized consonants
6910:Central Semitic languages
6094:
5980:
5963:
5953:
5830:
5813:
5803:
5133:
5128:
5123:
5118:
5113:
5093:degeminated, followed by
4863:(normally indicated with
4634:
4627:
4601:
4583:
4562:
4415:
4394:
4359:
4309:
4290:
4269:
4257:
4227:
4222:
4217:
4212:
4205:
4200:
4195:
4091:superlinear vocalizations
3966:in analogy to words like
3838:, which has for instance
3592:
3555:
3511:
3475:
3439:
3389:
3339:
3303:
3267:
3225:
3183:
3139:
3097:
3061:
3017:
2981:
2941:
2905:
2861:
2817:
2773:
2737:
2493:while another sibilant *s
1995:
1990:
1939:
1930:
1873:
1816:
1807:
1750:
1741:
1681:
1672:
1612:
1603:
1594:
1590:
1543:
1534:
1477:
1468:
1459:
1455:
1428:
1423:
1414:
1410:
1377:
1372:
1364:
1355:
1351:
1296:
1287:
1230:
1221:
1212:
1208:
1181:
1178:
1175:
1172:
1169:
972:unified kingdom in Canaan
947:and the Canaanite of the
799:), and nouns had special
765:which may have indicated
655:Imperial Aramaic alphabet
649:, who use the descendent
510:in the area known as the
382:
358:
346:
330:
301:
296:
259:
205:
145:
129:
91:
73:
45:
44:
39:
34:
16784:or historical languages.
15597:Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar
14716:. Cambridge University.
14712:Yahalom, Joseph (1997).
14592:Shanks, Hershel (2010).
14278:Feldman, Rachel (2010).
14061:10.1017/cbo9780511610899
13746:Roy, William L. (1856).
12735:Hetzron, Robert (2011).
12585:Jobes & Silva (2001)
11258:lacking in the absolute
11077:rather than attenuation.
10508:also remains short, and
10254:There are rare-cases of
10101:
9972:
9963:
9954:
9945:
9850:, Waw Consecutive Future
9619:
8096:, but is occasional for
6829:in open syllables, e.g.
4987:has instead merged with
4859:) but later merged with
4782:of the Pentateuch (e.g.
4123:shows the effect of the
4106:with the first vowel as
3632:Proto-Canaanite alphabet
2617:'who, that', forms like
2509:; later on, a push-type
2340:, the accusative marker
2201:, interrogative pronoun
1791:'watermelon-like plant'
933:Northwest Semitic (ENWS)
795:) or nouns (to indicate
539:"language of Canaan" or
17534:Portuguese-based Creole
14750:Yeivin, Israel (1980).
14361:Glinert, Lewis (2004).
14299:Frank, Yitzhak (2003).
10642:⟨α/ε ε ο⟩
10322:'nations' rather than *
10296:('head') from original
10067:Pronunciation (Secunda)
9694:compared to other less
9675:is a matter of debate.
9563:Deuteronomy 26:15) and
7460:'you (masc. sg.) kill'
4700:to represent Canaanite
3938:whether short or long.
3639:Proto-Sinaitic Alphabet
2653:'year', as in Aramaic.
2535:in many dialects (e.g.
2489:, had been originally *
2222:
1005:made Judah a province,
907:Coin issued during the
899:Ancient Hebrew writings
713:under the influence of
590:which was added in the
141:in the first century CE
14819:, Prof. Shawn Madden,
14634:. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
14487:Rainey, Anson (2008).
14445:Kogan, Leonid (2011).
14380:Hanson, K. C. (2011).
10540:Yemenite pronunciation
10536:Sephardi pronunciation
9700:Attributive adjectives
9649:), three modal forms (
8646:Hebrew language stage
8636:Hebrew vowel reflexes
8211:under gutturals (e.g.
8066:become the back vowel
7646:Pre-tonic lengthening
7468:Proto-Central-Semitic
7463:'you (fem. sg.) kill'
5067:sometimes have reflex
3899:). The relative terms
2656:The guttural phonemes
2623:'to know' rather than
2038:Proto-Semitic language
1050:conquered the province
995:Judahite upper classes
928:
552:", but it was used in
514:, roughly west of the
422:This article contains
384:This article contains
17577:village sign language
17563:Israeli Sign Language
16074:Christian Palestinian
15786:Ancient North Arabian
14795:University of Alberta
14731:Yardeni, Ada (1997).
14674:Tov, Emanuel (1992).
14657:The Semitic Languages
14208:Bloch, Yigal (2017).
14189:Blau, Joshua (2010).
11883::36–38, 43–44, 47–50)
11630:Holder, Meir (1986).
11059:Verbal forms such as
10906:is written both with
10634:⟨α η ω⟩
10355:⟨η, αι⟩
10310:'voices' rather than
9913:, Jussive/Cohortative
9445:) However forms like
9346: 1350 BCE.
8642:Hebrew vowel reflexes
8113:), and is common for
7805:Short vowel lowering
7081:was replaced by dual
6877:Proto-Central-Semitic
6817:('his hands'), where
4927:is the corresponding
4079:Tiberian vocalization
2505:, had been initially
2025:Biblical Hebrew is a
985:In 722 BCE, the
978:in the north and the
906:
643:Paleo-Hebrew alphabet
571:, which ended in the
371: Ancient Hebrew
278:Paleo-Hebrew alphabet
17413:Judaeo-Yazdi–Kermani
17053:Judaeo-Tripolitanian
16174:Koy Sanjaq Christian
15851:Pre-classical Arabic
15618:Strong's Concordance
14904:Ancient inscriptions
14793:, Prof. E. Ben Zvi,
14735:. Jerusalem: Carta.
13416:Sáenz-Badillos (1993
13401:Sáenz-Badillos (1993
13332:Sáenz-Badillos (1993
13266:Sáenz-Badillos (1993
13242:Sáenz-Badillos (1993
12906:Sáenz-Badillos (1993
12823:Sáenz-Badillos (1993
12561:Sáenz-Badillos (1993
12382:Sáenz-Badillos (1993
12222:Sáenz-Badillos (1993
12105:Sáenz-Badillos (1993
12093:Sáenz-Badillos (1993
12081:Sáenz-Badillos (1993
12069:Sáenz-Badillos (1993
12057:Sáenz-Badillos (1993
12045:Sáenz-Badillos (1993
12033:Sáenz-Badillos (1993
12002:Sáenz-Badillos (1993
11881:Sáenz-Badillos (1993
11676:Sáenz-Badillos (1993
11618:Sáenz-Badillos (1993
11498:Sáenz-Badillos (1993
11022:('nest'). The shift
10900:Sáenz-Badillos (1993
10388:Sáenz-Badillos (1993
10205:Sáenz-Badillos (1993
9626:derived verbal stems
9567:in Babylonian (e.g.
9486:Nouns are marked as
9369: 1800 BCE
9356:was elided as well.
9236:, or in the case of
9198:Nouns and adjectives
8187:, and as preceding
7225:('word' acc.') >
7168: 1365 BCE
5976:(syllable-initially)
5826:(syllable-initially)
4933:Modern South Arabian
4696:in place of earlier
3917:Samaritan Pentateuch
2635:'to do' rather than
2402:trying to cross the
1124:Ketef Hinnom scrolls
1091:Second Temple period
968:Deuteronomic history
694:is disputed, likely
659:Babylonian captivity
606:and in the southern
584:consonantal skeleton
569:Second Temple period
498:, a language in the
18:Late Biblical Hebrew
17622:Classical languages
17617:Canaanite languages
16017:Ashurian and Hatran
15611:Brown–Driver–Briggs
14608:on 29 February 2012
14382:"The Gezer Almanac"
13997:blueletterbible.com
11846:Sáenz-Badillos 1993
11391::564–565, 566) and
11073:may be examples of
10947:Proto-Indo-European
9818:, Present Condition
9360:, a nominal suffix
9140:('they built') vs.
9095:in open syllables,
8637:
8602:('he will listen')
8515:tended to shift to
8433:tended to shift to
7833:Law of attenuation
7576:Penultimate stress
7435:
7182:(and possibly rare
6914:emphatic consonants
6680:possible allophones
5110:
4951:began merging with
4190:
2497:, transcribed with
2481:, transcribed with
2442:, which shifted to
2406:by making them say
2207:, definite article
2183:"old (person)" and
2109:tended to shift to
1166:
1160:Canaanite languages
1013:. According to the
1011:Temple in Jerusalem
962:, an area known as
921:" on the front and
785:verb–subject–object
779:, in the so-called
688:emphatic consonants
612:Masoretic Text (𝕸)
588:vocalization system
447:עִבְרִית מִקְרָאִית
120:liturgical language
17441:Jewish Koine Greek
17301:Judaeo-Piedmontese
17048:Judaeo-Palestinian
16888:Reading traditions
16088:Jewish Palestinian
15460:Law of attenuation
14965:Reading traditions
14754:. Scholars Press.
14556:Rosén, H. (1969).
13931:Robert Holmstedt.
13113::54, 118–120, 132)
12896::105–106, 115–119)
11417:The Biblical World
11347:, and subjunctive
11227:/măˈtʼoʕăneˈħɔrɛv/
11214:עִם־יוֹ֫רְדֵי בוֹר
10945:was borrowed into
10488:'the father' <
9886:, Prophetic Future
9704:status constructus
9571:'item' = Tiberian
9557:'land' = Tiberian
9511:('the wise man'),
9371:) of Jerusalem as
9071:law of attenuation
9056:results from both
8684:Proto-Hebrew vowel
8635:
8521:law of attenuation
8338:may become either
8126:'open place' <
8032:Later developments
7433:
7217:('he wrote') >
6851:results from both
5108:
4188:
4125:law of attenuation
3880:Siloam inscription
3763:, but the letters
3675:Samaritan alphabet
2031:Canaanite subgroup
1164:
1054:Hellenistic period
929:
887:Siloam inscription
825:Hellenistic period
727:glottal consonants
468:לְשׁוֹן הַמִּקְרָא
288:Samaritan alphabet
81:Siloam Inscription
60:(לָשׁוֹן) עִבְרִית
17599:
17598:
17593:extinct languages
17530:Judaeo-Papiamento
17484:
17483:
17424:Judaeo-Golpaygani
17355:Judaeo-Portuguese
17260:
17259:
17123:
17122:
16928:
16927:
16798:
16797:
16769:
16768:
16765:
16764:
16696:
16695:
16692:
16691:
16426:
16425:
16422:
16421:
16264:
16263:
16227:Koy Sanjaq Jewish
16024:Jewish Babylonian
15935:
15934:
15668:Semitic languages
15634:
15633:
15490:Verbal morphology
15429:
15428:
14942:
14761:978-0-89130-373-2
14742:978-965-220-369-4
14723:978-0-521-58399-2
14704:978-0-931464-31-7
14685:978-0-8006-3429-2
14666:978-0-415-05767-7
14584:978-0-521-55634-7
14529:978-1-57506-019-4
14479:978-0-8028-0444-0
14460:978-3-11-025158-6
14437:978-1-84227-061-5
14428:Paternoster Press
14412:978-2-8017-0189-8
14372:978-0-521-61188-6
14310:978-1-58330-606-2
14256:978-3-11-018550-8
14223:978-1-57506-481-9
14200:978-1-57506-129-0
14181:978-0-520-09548-9
14155:978-0-931464-10-2
14136:978-0-931464-10-2
14117:978-1-57506-047-7
14070:978-0-511-61089-9
14030:978-1-57506-116-0
13089:, Part 2, §14.11)
12796:Dolgopolsky (1999
12784:Dolgopolsky (1999
12746:978-3-11-018613-0
11893:Dolgopolsky (1999
11657:Rozovsky, Lorne.
11643:978-0-89906-499-4
11427:978-0-415-35091-4
11223:מְטֹ֫עֲנֵי חָ֫רֶב
11086:This is known as
10996:978-0-931464-34-8
10654:Dolgopolsky (1999
10602:('zealous'). See
10551:While the vowels
10435:Dolgopolsky (1999
10099:
10098:
9809:, Present Perfect
9800:, Stative Present
9639:grammatical voice
9246:(contracted from
9038:
9037:
8897:
8880:
8853:
8821:
8799:
8766:
8739:
8717:
8695:
8611:('his work') but
8143:('red' pl.) (cf.
8082:(Babylonian), or
7945:
7944:
7351:The short vowels
7306:Secunda (Hexapla)
7292:marking the long
7284:marking the long
7155:often shifted to
7045:is probably from
6883:Semitic languages
6866:
6865:
6735:⟨ε⟩
6731:⟨α⟩
6672:
6671:
6548:
6547:
6423:
6422:
6320:
6319:
6229:
6228:
6134:Samaritan Hebrew
6104:and varieties of
6092:
6091:
6071:
6062:
6049:
6031:
5977:
5969:
5932:
5916:
5897:
5881:
5827:
5819:
5782:
5766:
5747:
5731:
5705:
5670:
5633:
5617:
5598:
5582:
5370:
5354:
5335:
5319:
5293:
5277:
5258:
5242:
5216:
5200:
5181:
5165:
5150:
5143:
4688:were affricated (
4655:
4654:
4557:
4496:
4424:
4390:
4350:
4300:
4253:
4245:
4238:
4110:, while Tiberian
3864:Mesha inscription
3671:Bar Kochba revolt
3616:
3615:
2023:
2022:
1152:Semitic languages
1128:Priestly Blessing
1089:Hebrew after the
1070:Bar Kokhba revolt
1058:Hasmonean dynasty
1033:" in the Talmud (
1003:Achaemenid Empire
976:kingdom of Israel
960:Mediterranean Sea
909:Bar Kokhba revolt
604:Kingdom of Israel
520:Mediterranean Sea
504:Semitic languages
430:rendering support
410:
409:
392:rendering support
388:phonetic symbols.
177:Northwest Semitic
139:Jewish–Roman wars
114:Hasmonean dynasty
66:לְשׁוֹן הַקֹּדֶשׁ
16:(Redirected from
17644:
17637:Sacred languages
17510:Judaeo-Malayalam
17362:Judaeo-Aragonese
17341:Judaeo-Provençal
17287:Judaeo-Livornese
17143:
17142:
17134:
17133:
16854:
16853:
16845:
16844:
16832:Jewish languages
16825:
16818:
16811:
16802:
16801:
16540:
16539:
16500:
16499:
16491:
16490:
16437:
16436:
16305:northern dialect
15980:Biblical Aramaic
15973:Imperial Aramaic
15955:
15954:
15946:
15945:
15844:Nabataean Arabic
15761:
15760:
15752:
15751:
15727:Canaano-Akkadian
15661:
15654:
15647:
15638:
15637:
15580:Unicode and HTML
15046:
15045:
15034:
15026:
15018:
14999:
14939:northern dialect
14936:
14868:
14861:
14854:
14845:
14844:
14777:
14765:
14746:
14727:
14708:
14689:
14670:
14651:
14649:
14647:
14635:
14626:
14617:
14615:
14613:
14588:
14569:
14552:
14537:
14532:, archived from
14512:
14510:
14508:
14483:
14464:
14441:
14416:
14397:
14395:
14393:
14384:. Archived from
14376:
14357:
14339:
14314:
14295:
14293:
14291:
14274:
14273:
14271:
14265:
14259:, archived from
14248:
14236:
14227:
14204:
14185:
14173:
14159:
14140:
14121:
14094:
14089:
14083:
14082:
14046:
14035:
14034:
14014:
14008:
14007:
14005:
14003:
13989:
13983:
13977:
13971:
13966:
13960:
13957:Zuckermann (2006
13954:
13948:
13942:
13936:
13929:
13923:
13917:
13911:
13905:
13896:
13890:
13879:
13873:
13867:
13861:
13855:
13849:
13840:
13834:
13828:
13822:
13816:
13810:
13804:
13798:
13792:
13786:
13780:
13779:
13774:
13772:
13756:(2nd ed.).
13755:
13743:
13737:
13731:
13722:
13716:
13710:
13704:
13698:
13692:
13686:
13680:
13674:
13668:
13662:
13656:
13647:
13641:
13635:
13629:
13623:
13617:
13600:
13594:
13588:
13582:
13571:
13565:
13556:
13553:Ben-Ḥayyim (2000
13550:
13544:
13538:
13532:
13526:
13520:
13514:
13508:
13502:
13496:
13490:
13484:
13481:Ben-Ḥayyim (2000
13478:
13472:
13466:
13455:
13452:Ben-Ḥayyim (2000
13449:
13443:
13437:
13431:
13425:
13419:
13413:
13404:
13398:
13389:
13386:Ben-Ḥayyim (2000
13383:
13374:
13368:
13362:
13359:Ben-Ḥayyim (2000
13356:
13350:
13347:Ben-Ḥayyim (2000
13344:
13335:
13329:
13320:
13314:
13308:
13302:
13293:
13287:
13281:
13275:
13269:
13263:
13257:
13251:
13245:
13239:
13233:
13227:
13221:
13215:
13209:
13203:
13197:
13191:
13180:
13174:
13168:
13162:
13153:
13147:
13141:
13135:
13126:
13120:
13114:
13108:
13102:
13096:
13090:
13084:
13078:
13072:
13066:
13060:
13054:
13048:
13042:
13036:
13030:
13027:Ben-Ḥayyim (2000
13024:
13015:
13012:Ben-Ḥayyim (2000
13009:
13000:
12994:
12985:
12979:
12962:
12956:
12950:
12944:
12933:
12930:Ben-Ḥayyim (2000
12927:
12921:
12915:
12909:
12908::88–89, 97, 110)
12903:
12897:
12891:
12885:
12879:
12866:
12864:Steinberg (2010)
12861:
12850:
12844:
12838:
12832:
12826:
12820:
12814:
12808:
12799:
12793:
12787:
12781:
12775:
12769:
12763:
12757:
12751:
12750:
12732:
12726:
12720:
12711:
12705:
12696:
12690:
12681:
12675:
12669:
12663:
12657:
12651:
12640:
12634:
12628:
12625:Ben-Ḥayyim (2000
12622:
12616:
12610:
12599:
12596:Ben-Ḥayyim (2000
12593:
12587:
12582:
12576:
12570:
12564:
12558:
12549:
12543:
12532:
12526:
12520:
12514:
12505:
12499:
12482:
12476:
12467:
12461:
12455:
12449:
12443:
12437:
12428:
12422:
12416:
12410:
12397:
12391:
12385:
12379:
12368:
12362:
12347:
12341:
12332:
12327:
12321:
12315:
12309:
12303:
12290:
12284:
12263:
12261:Rendsburg (1997)
12258:
12252:
12246:
12240:
12237:Ben-Ḥayyim (2000
12234:
12225:
12219:
12208:
12202:
12193:
12187:
12178:
12172:
12166:
12160:
12154:
12145:
12139:
12133:
12127:
12121:
12108:
12102:
12096:
12090:
12084:
12078:
12072:
12066:
12060:
12054:
12048:
12042:
12036:
12030:
12024:
12018:
12005:
11999:
11988:
11982:
11976:
11971:
11965:
11959:
11950:
11944:
11938:
11932:
11923:
11917:
11908:
11902:
11896:
11890:
11884:
11878:
11849:
11843:
11837:
11831:
11825:
11819:
11813:
11807:
11801:
11795:
11786:
11780:
11765:
11759:
11753:
11747:
11738:
11732:
11723:
11717:
11708:
11702:
11691:
11685:
11679:
11673:
11667:
11666:
11654:
11648:
11647:
11627:
11621:
11615:
11602:
11596:
11579:
11573:
11564:
11558:
11549:
11543:
11537:
11531:
11525:
11518:
11512:
11510:2 Kings 18:26–28
11507:
11501:
11495:
11478:
11473:
11467:
11462:
11451:
11446:
11435:
11434:
11411:
11396:
11386:
11385:
11380:
11379:
11374:
11373:
11368:
11367:
11336:
11330:
11324:
11320:
11319:
11314:
11310:
11306:
11305:
11300:
11299:
11294:
11293:
11287:
11281:
11275:
11271:
11267:
11263:
11262:
11257:
11253:
11252:
11247:
11246:
11240:
11234:
11228:
11225:
11224:
11219:
11218:/ʕim-ˈjorădevor/
11216:
11215:
11208:
11202:
11196:
11192:
11191:
11186:
11185:
11180:
11176:
11175:
11169:
11163:
11152:
11146:
11140:
11137:
11136:
11126:
11120:
11113:
11107:
11101:
11100:
11095:
11094:
11084:
11078:
11072:
11068:
11064:
11063:
11057:
11051:
11048:Ben-Ḥayyim (2000
11046:'reputation'!).
11045:
11041:
11037:
11033:
11029:
11025:
11021:
11017:
11014:
11013:
11007:
11001:
11000:
10983:
10982:
10977:
10974:does not become
10973:
10968:
10962:
10952:
10944:
10940:
10936:
10931:
10925:
10919:
10912:
10905:
10893:
10885:
10882:
10881:
10872:
10869:
10868:
10863:
10860:alternates with
10859:
10851:
10848:
10847:
10842:
10839:
10838:
10833:
10830:
10829:
10824:
10821:
10820:
10815:
10812:
10811:
10806:
10803:
10802:
10796:
10790:
10788:
10784:
10780:
10775:
10769:
10754:
10748:
10746:
10745:
10740:
10736:
10732:
10728:
10724:
10720:
10717:
10716:
10711:
10707:
10704:
10703:
10693:
10687:
10680:
10674:
10668:
10663:
10657:
10643:
10639:
10635:
10632:were written as
10631:
10626:
10620:
10613:
10607:
10601:
10597:
10592:Ben-Ḥayyim (2000
10589:
10585:
10582:'here' Tiberian
10581:
10580:
10574:
10568:
10562:
10558:
10554:
10549:
10543:
10532:
10523:
10517:
10516:
10511:
10507:
10503:
10499:
10495:
10491:
10487:
10484:
10483:
10478:
10473:
10467:
10461:
10457:
10453:
10449:
10444:
10438:
10427:
10421:
10410:
10404:
10397:
10391:
10372:
10366:
10360:
10356:
10339:
10333:
10327:
10326:
10321:
10320:
10315:
10314:
10309:
10308:
10299:
10295:
10294:
10289:
10285:
10283:
10282:
10275:
10274:
10269:
10268:
10263:
10261:
10260:
10252:
10246:
10240:
10234:
10227:
10221:
10214:
10208:
10201:
10195:
10189:
10184:
10178:
10171:
10165:
10159:
10155:
10154:
10148:
10142:
10135:
10129:
10123:
10120:
10111:
10094:
10089:
10084:
10079:
10060:
10059:
10058:
10050:
10049:
10048:
10040:
10039:
10038:
10030:
10029:
10028:
10013:
10008:
10003:
9998:
9979:
9978:
9977:
9970:
9969:
9968:
9961:
9960:
9959:
9952:
9951:
9950:
9935:
9877:, Promise Future
9836:in Present Tense
9827:, Cyclic Present
9716:Tense and aspect
9711:
9710:
9666:
9665:
9633:
9632:
9615:
9614:
9609:
9608:
9599:
9596:
9594:
9593:
9586:
9584:
9583:
9576:
9575:
9570:
9566:
9562:
9561:
9556:
9552:
9548:
9545:
9544:
9539:
9536:
9535:
9530:
9519:
9516:
9515:
9510:
9507:
9506:
9501:
9497:
9493:
9490:with the prefix
9478:
9477:
9476:שֵׁשׁ כְּנָפַיִם
9472:
9471:
9466:
9465:
9460:
9459:
9450:
9449:
9444:
9443:
9438:
9437:
9432:
9428:
9427:
9423:in absolute but
9422:
9421:
9416:
9412:
9411:
9406:
9402:
9401:
9396:
9393:
9392:
9387:
9384:
9383:
9379:is preserved in
9378:
9370:
9367:
9363:
9355:
9351:
9347:
9344:
9332:
9324:
9316:
9309:
9308:
9303:
9302:
9297:
9296:
9291:
9290:
9285:
9284:
9279:
9278:
9273:
9272:
9267:
9263:
9262:
9257:
9253:
9249:
9245:
9241:
9240:
9235:
9231:
9227:
9223:
9222:
9217:
9216:
9211:
9210:
9205:
9157:
9154:
9153:
9148:
9145:
9144:
9139:
9136:
9135:
9098:
9094:
9090:
9063:
9059:
9055:
9050:Samaritan Hebrew
9034:
9029:
9024:
9019:
9015:
9008:
9003:
8998:
8993:
8989:
8982:
8977:
8972:
8967:
8960:
8955:
8950:
8945:
8938:
8933:
8928:
8923:
8919:
8912:
8907:
8902:
8895:
8890:
8885:
8878:
8873:
8868:
8863:
8858:
8851:
8848:
8841:
8836:
8831:
8826:
8819:
8814:
8809:
8804:
8797:
8792:
8787:
8784:
8779:
8776:
8771:
8764:
8761:
8754:
8749:
8744:
8737:
8732:
8727:
8722:
8715:
8710:
8705:
8700:
8693:
8690:
8638:
8634:
8628:
8625:
8624:
8619:
8616:
8615:
8610:
8607:
8606:
8601:
8598:
8597:
8588:
8584:
8580:
8576:
8573:
8572:
8567:
8566:
8561:
8558:
8557:
8552:
8549:
8548:
8544:, e.g. Tiberian
8543:
8539:
8535:
8532:
8531:
8526:
8518:
8514:
8510:
8506:
8502:
8499:
8498:
8493:
8489:
8485:
8482:
8481:
8476:
8472:
8468:
8460:
8459:
8454:
8453:
8448:
8447:
8442:
8441:
8436:
8432:
8428:
8424:
8420:
8416:
8412:
8408:
8400:
8399:
8395:
8392:
8391:
8387:
8383:
8382:
8378:
8374:
8373:
8369:
8365:
8361:
8357:
8353:
8349:
8345:
8341:
8337:
8333:
8330:
8329:
8324:
8321:may have reflex
8320:
8316:
8312:
8308:
8307:
8302:
8298:
8294:
8293:
8288:
8287:
8282:
8281:
8276:
8275:
8271:
8267:
8266:
8262:
8255:
8252:
8251:
8246:
8242:
8238:
8234:
8230:
8226:
8222:
8221:
8217:'you said' cf.
8216:
8215:
8210:
8206:
8202:
8201:
8196:
8195:
8190:
8186:
8185:
8180:
8176:
8172:
8168:
8161:
8160:/ɔˈsir/⁓/asˈsir/
8158:
8157:
8152:
8151:
8146:
8142:
8139:
8138:
8133:
8129:
8125:
8122:
8121:
8116:
8112:
8108:
8105:
8104:
8099:
8095:
8091:
8090:
8085:
8081:
8077:
8073:
8069:
8065:
8061:
8057:
8053:
8049:
8046:
8045:
8040:
8027:
8023:
8020:
8019:
8014:
8011:were reduced to
8010:
7995:
7991:
7984:
7980:
7973:
7969:
7962:
7958:
7941:
7936:
7931:
7926:
7921:
7916:
7911:
7895:
7890:
7885:
7880:
7875:
7870:
7866:
7858:
7853:
7825:
7788:
7777:
7773:
7747:
7731:
7717:
7707:
7696:
7691:
7669:
7664:
7659:
7654:
7638:
7624:
7611:
7606:
7601:
7596:
7591:
7586:
7581:
7553:
7548:Canaanite shift
7543:
7538:
7533:
7528:
7523:
7518:
7513:
7503:
7498:
7493:
7488:
7483:
7478:
7473:
7436:
7432:
7393:
7377:
7373:
7369:
7354:
7228:
7220:
7212:
7185:
7181:
7169:
7166:
7158:
7154:
7138:
7135:
7134:
7129:
7126:
7125:
7120:
7117:
7116:
7111:
7107:
7103:
7099:
7095:
7091:
6974:
6969:definite article
6966:
6962:
6954:
6942:
6939:(accusative) or
6938:
6934:
6929:Classical Arabic
6899:Classical Arabic
6892:
6888:
6860:
6858:
6854:
6847:
6845:
6842:
6841:
6837:
6834:
6833:
6828:
6824:
6820:
6816:
6813:
6812:
6807:
6804:
6803:
6798:
6794:
6784:
6782:
6778:
6774:
6767:
6765:
6761:
6754:
6752:
6748:
6737:
6736:
6732:
6721:
6719:
6713:
6711:
6705:
6703:
6697:
6695:
6689:
6687:
6681:
6667:
6654:
6649:
6642:
6637:
6622:
6614:
6609:
6595:
6590:
6583:
6578:
6552:
6551:
6544:
6537:
6531:
6526:
6516:
6502:
6495:
6481:
6474:
6460:
6453:
6427:
6426:
6419:
6407:
6402:
6388:
6383:
6376:
6371:
6357:
6350:
6324:
6323:
6316:
6311:
6297:
6290:
6276:
6271:
6264:
6259:
6233:
6232:
6225:
6220:
6206:
6198:
6183:
6178:
6171:
6166:
6140:
6139:
6125:Biblical Hebrew
6119:
6118:
6115:
6087:
6082:
6081:
6077:
6069:
6067:
6060:
6059:
6054:
6053:
6047:
6046:
6041:
6040:
6036:
6035:
6029:
6028:
6023:
6016:
6015:
6011:
6005:
5998:
5997:
5993:
5988:
5987:
5983:
5975:
5974:
5967:
5961:
5960:
5956:
5950:
5942:
5937:
5936:
5926:
5925:
5921:
5920:
5914:
5913:
5907:
5902:
5901:
5891:
5890:
5886:
5885:
5879:
5878:
5873:
5866:
5865:
5861:
5855:
5848:
5847:
5843:
5838:
5837:
5833:
5825:
5824:
5817:
5811:
5810:
5806:
5800:
5792:
5787:
5786:
5776:
5775:
5771:
5770:
5764:
5763:
5757:
5752:
5751:
5741:
5740:
5736:
5735:
5729:
5728:
5723:
5715:
5710:
5709:
5699:
5698:
5692:
5688:
5680:
5675:
5674:
5668:
5667:
5662:
5661:
5657:
5651:
5643:
5638:
5637:
5627:
5626:
5622:
5621:
5615:
5614:
5608:
5603:
5602:
5592:
5591:
5587:
5586:
5580:
5579:
5574:
5566:
5561:
5560:
5556:
5550:
5542:
5537:
5536:
5532:
5526:
5522:
5514:
5509:
5508:
5504:
5498:
5497:
5493:
5487:
5479:
5474:
5473:
5469:
5463:
5458:
5457:
5453:
5447:
5439:
5434:
5433:
5429:
5423:
5415:
5410:
5409:
5405:
5399:
5398:
5394:
5388:
5380:
5375:
5374:
5364:
5363:
5359:
5358:
5352:
5351:
5345:
5340:
5339:
5329:
5328:
5324:
5323:
5317:
5316:
5311:
5303:
5298:
5297:
5287:
5286:
5282:
5281:
5275:
5274:
5268:
5263:
5262:
5252:
5251:
5247:
5246:
5240:
5239:
5234:
5226:
5221:
5220:
5210:
5209:
5205:
5204:
5198:
5197:
5191:
5186:
5185:
5175:
5174:
5170:
5169:
5163:
5162:
5157:
5146:
5141:
5111:
5107:
5104:
5100:
5096:
5092:
5088:
5084:
5074:
5070:
5066:
5062:
5058:
5054:
5050:
5046:
5043:
5042:
5034:
5033:
5028:
5013:
5009:
5001:
4990:
4986:
4982:
4978:
4974:
4972:
4971:
4964:
4962:
4961:
4954:
4950:
4926:
4922:
4918:
4916:
4915:
4908:
4904:
4900:
4898:
4897:
4890:
4886:
4884:
4883:
4876:
4872:
4870:
4869:
4862:
4858:
4854:
4852:
4851:
4844:
4829:
4828:
4823:
4814:
4813:
4805:
4804:
4799:
4790:
4789:
4774:
4773:
4769:
4765:
4764:
4760:
4756:
4755:
4751:
4747:
4746:
4742:
4738:
4736:
4735:
4726:
4724:
4723:
4711:
4708:
4691:
4687:
4684:Some argue that
4639:
4615:
4608:
4599:
4593:
4567:
4555:
4547:
4538:
4529:
4518:
4511:
4504:
4494:
4488:
4481:
4474:
4467:
4460:
4453:
4446:
4439:
4432:
4422:
4399:
4386:
4375:
4364:
4357:
4346:
4341:
4332:
4325:
4314:
4307:
4296:
4274:
4267:
4249:
4243:
4236:
4191:
4187:
4134:
4130:
4122:
4118:
4115:
4114:
4109:
4057:
4056:
4051:
4050:
4045:
4044:
4039:
4038:
4033:
4031:
4030:
4023:
4022:
4017:
4016:
4011:
4010:
4005:
4004:
3999:
3997:
3996:
3989:
3988:
3983:
3982:
3977:
3976:
3971:
3970:
3965:
3964:
3959:
3958:
3953:
3952:
3947:
3945:
3944:
3937:
3935:
3934:
3923:
3898:
3897:
3892:
3891:
3886:
3885:
3877:
3876:
3871:
3870:
3861:
3860:
3855:
3854:
3849:
3848:
3843:
3842:
3833:
3832:
3827:
3826:
3821:
3820:
3815:
3814:
3796:
3795:
3789:matres lectionis
3786:
3785:
3780:
3779:
3774:
3773:
3768:
3767:
3751:
3747:
3746:
3741:
3740:
3735:
3734:
3729:
3728:
3723:
3722:
3717:
3715:
3714:
3667:Moabite language
3655:
3652:
3612:
3604:
3594:
3589:
3588:
3582:
3567:
3557:
3552:
3551:
3545:
3531:
3523:
3513:
3508:
3507:
3501:
3487:
3477:
3472:
3471:
3465:
3451:
3441:
3436:
3435:
3430:
3429:
3423:
3409:
3401:
3391:
3386:
3385:
3380:
3379:
3373:
3359:
3351:
3341:
3336:
3335:
3329:
3315:
3305:
3300:
3299:
3293:
3279:
3269:
3264:
3263:
3258:
3257:
3251:
3237:
3227:
3222:
3221:
3216:
3215:
3209:
3195:
3185:
3180:
3179:
3173:
3159:
3151:
3141:
3136:
3135:
3130:
3129:
3123:
3109:
3099:
3094:
3093:
3087:
3073:
3063:
3058:
3057:
3051:
3037:
3029:
3019:
3014:
3013:
3007:
2993:
2983:
2978:
2977:
2971:
2957:
2953:
2943:
2938:
2937:
2931:
2917:
2907:
2902:
2901:
2895:
2881:
2873:
2863:
2858:
2857:
2851:
2837:
2829:
2819:
2814:
2813:
2807:
2793:
2785:
2775:
2770:
2769:
2763:
2749:
2739:
2734:
2733:
2727:
2682:
2681:
2667:
2659:
2652:
2651:
2646:
2645:
2640:
2639:
2634:
2633:
2628:
2627:
2622:
2621:
2616:
2615:
2610:
2609:
2596:
2592:
2591:
2586:
2582:epenthetic vowel
2579:
2575:
2571:
2570:
2565:
2561:
2556:Israelian Hebrew
2550:
2534:
2530:
2523:
2519:
2508:
2504:
2492:
2488:
2469:
2468:
2463:
2455:
2454:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2423:
2422:
2411:
2410:
2375:Dead Sea Scrolls
2361:
2360:
2355:
2354:
2345:
2344:
2339:
2338:
2322:
2321:
2316:
2315:
2310:
2309:
2304:
2303:
2298:
2297:
2292:
2291:
2286:
2285:
2280:
2279:
2274:
2273:
2268:
2267:
2247:, including the
2241:Monarchic Period
2218:
2217:
2212:
2211:
2206:
2205:
2200:
2199:
2194:
2193:
2188:
2187:
2182:
2181:
2176:
2175:
2170:
2169:
2164:
2163:
2158:
2157:
2149:
2145:
2142:
2141:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2101:
2097:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2014:
2013:
2005:
2004:
1992:
1989:
1981:
1969:
1968:
1960:
1959:
1951:
1950:
1941:
1938:
1932:
1929:
1921:
1909:
1908:
1900:
1899:
1888:
1887:
1875:
1872:
1864:
1852:
1851:
1843:
1842:
1831:
1830:
1818:
1815:
1809:
1806:
1798:
1786:
1785:
1777:
1776:
1765:
1764:
1752:
1749:
1743:
1740:
1732:
1720:
1719:
1711:
1710:
1699:
1698:
1683:
1680:
1674:
1671:
1663:
1651:
1650:
1642:
1641:
1630:
1629:
1614:
1611:
1605:
1602:
1596:
1593:
1585:
1573:
1572:
1564:
1563:
1555:
1554:
1545:
1542:
1536:
1533:
1525:
1513:
1512:
1504:
1503:
1492:
1491:
1479:
1476:
1470:
1467:
1461:
1458:
1450:
1440:
1439:
1433:
1432:
1425:
1422:
1416:
1413:
1405:
1393:
1392:
1384:
1383:
1374:
1371:
1366:
1363:
1357:
1354:
1346:
1334:
1333:
1325:
1324:
1312:
1311:
1298:
1295:
1289:
1286:
1278:
1266:
1265:
1257:
1256:
1245:
1244:
1232:
1229:
1223:
1220:
1214:
1211:
1203:
1167:
1163:
1084:Aelia Capitolina
1074:Syria Palaestina
1021:Imperial Aramaic
999:Solomon's Temple
997:were exiled and
980:kingdom of Judah
926:
925:
916:
915:
875:Classical Hebrew
869:
868:
863:
862:
846:
845:
840:
839:
822:
821:
816:
815:
801:construct states
778:
777:
731:Samaritan Hebrew
672:matres lectionis
651:Samaritan script
608:Kingdom of Judah
544:
543:
535:
534:
518:and east of the
488:Classical Hebrew
485:
484:
483:
481:
470:
469:
464:
463:
462:
460:
449:
448:
418:
378: Samaritan
377:
370:
354:
342:
325:Samaritan Hebrew
322:
315:
306:
265:
242:
224:
151:
104:Kingdom of Judah
78:
69:
68:
67:
62:
61:
56:
55:
50:
49:
40:Classical Hebrew
32:
31:
21:
17652:
17651:
17647:
17646:
17645:
17643:
17642:
17641:
17602:
17601:
17600:
17595:
17582:
17549:
17520:Judaeo-Georgian
17480:
17429:
17374:
17256:
17228:
17210:Judaeo-Alsatian
17119:
17072:
17063:Judaeo-Tunisian
17043:Judaeo-Moroccan
17036:Judaeo-Baghdadi
17021:Judaeo-Egyptian
17016:Judaeo-Algerian
17002:
16993:Lishanid Noshan
16924:
16883:
16834:
16829:
16799:
16794:
16761:
16688:
16597:
16544:
16531:
16482:
16443:
16418:
16356:
16260:
16202:Urmia Christian
16118:
16111:
15998:
15992:
15931:
15891:Egyptian Arabic
15877:
15873:Modern Standard
15856:
15741:
15703:
15670:
15665:
15635:
15630:
15589:Reference works
15584:
15519:
15515:Vav-consecutive
15464:
15443:Biblical Hebrew
15425:
15372:
15357:Mater lectionis
15329:
15229:
15106:
15060:
15037:
15032:
15024:
15016:
14995:
14960:
14922:
14877:
14875:Hebrew language
14872:
14784:
14762:
14743:
14724:
14705:
14686:
14667:
14645:
14643:
14611:
14609:
14585:
14551:on 20 July 2011
14536:on 20 July 2011
14530:
14506:
14504:
14480:
14461:
14438:
14413:
14391:
14389:
14373:
14337:10.1.1.395.1033
14311:
14289:
14287:
14269:
14267:
14266:on 10 June 2011
14263:
14257:
14246:
14224:
14201:
14182:
14156:
14137:
14118:
14102:
14097:
14090:
14086:
14071:
14047:
14038:
14031:
14023:. Eisenbrauns.
14015:
14011:
14001:
13999:
13991:
13990:
13986:
13978:
13974:
13967:
13963:
13955:
13951:
13943:
13939:
13930:
13926:
13918:
13914:
13906:
13899:
13891:
13882:
13874:
13870:
13862:
13858:
13850:
13843:
13835:
13831:
13823:
13819:
13811:
13807:
13799:
13795:
13787:
13783:
13770:
13768:
13753:
13744:
13740:
13732:
13725:
13717:
13713:
13705:
13701:
13693:
13689:
13681:
13677:
13669:
13665:
13657:
13650:
13642:
13638:
13630:
13626:
13618:
13603:
13595:
13591:
13583:
13574:
13566:
13559:
13551:
13547:
13539:
13535:
13527:
13523:
13515:
13511:
13503:
13499:
13491:
13487:
13479:
13475:
13467:
13458:
13450:
13446:
13438:
13434:
13426:
13422:
13414:
13407:
13399:
13392:
13384:
13377:
13369:
13365:
13357:
13353:
13345:
13338:
13330:
13323:
13315:
13311:
13303:
13296:
13288:
13284:
13276:
13272:
13264:
13260:
13252:
13248:
13240:
13236:
13228:
13224:
13216:
13212:
13204:
13200:
13194:Rendsburg (1997
13192:
13183:
13175:
13171:
13163:
13156:
13148:
13144:
13136:
13129:
13121:
13117:
13109:
13105:
13097:
13093:
13085:
13081:
13073:
13069:
13061:
13057:
13049:
13045:
13037:
13033:
13025:
13018:
13010:
13003:
12995:
12988:
12980:
12965:
12957:
12953:
12945:
12936:
12928:
12924:
12916:
12912:
12904:
12900:
12892:
12888:
12880:
12869:
12862:
12853:
12845:
12841:
12833:
12829:
12821:
12817:
12809:
12802:
12794:
12790:
12782:
12778:
12770:
12766:
12760:Rendsburg (1997
12758:
12754:
12747:
12733:
12729:
12723:Rendsburg (1997
12721:
12714:
12706:
12699:
12691:
12684:
12676:
12672:
12664:
12660:
12652:
12643:
12635:
12631:
12623:
12619:
12613:Rendsburg (1997
12611:
12602:
12594:
12590:
12583:
12579:
12571:
12567:
12559:
12552:
12544:
12535:
12527:
12523:
12515:
12508:
12500:
12485:
12477:
12470:
12462:
12458:
12450:
12446:
12438:
12431:
12427::42, 45, 47–50)
12423:
12419:
12411:
12400:
12392:
12388:
12380:
12371:
12363:
12350:
12342:
12335:
12328:
12324:
12316:
12312:
12306:Rendsburg (1997
12304:
12293:
12285:
12266:
12259:
12255:
12247:
12243:
12235:
12228:
12220:
12211:
12203:
12196:
12188:
12181:
12175:Rendsburg (1999
12173:
12169:
12161:
12157:
12146:
12142:
12136:Rendsburg (1997
12134:
12130:
12122:
12111:
12103:
12099:
12091:
12087:
12079:
12075:
12067:
12063:
12055:
12051:
12043:
12039:
12031:
12027:
12021:Rendsburg (1997
12019:
12008:
12000:
11991:
11983:
11979:
11972:
11968:
11960:
11953:
11945:
11941:
11933:
11926:
11918:
11911:
11903:
11899:
11891:
11887:
11879:
11852:
11844:
11840:
11834:Rendsburg (1997
11832:
11828:
11820:
11816:
11808:
11804:
11796:
11789:
11781:
11768:
11760:
11756:
11748:
11741:
11733:
11726:
11718:
11711:
11703:
11694:
11686:
11682:
11674:
11670:
11655:
11651:
11644:
11628:
11624:
11616:
11605:
11597:
11582:
11574:
11567:
11559:
11552:
11544:
11540:
11532:
11528:
11519:
11515:
11508:
11504:
11496:
11481:
11474:
11470:
11463:
11454:
11447:
11438:
11428:
11412:
11408:
11404:
11399:
11337:
11333:
11288:
11284:
11241:
11237:
11209:
11205:
11170:
11166:
11156:construct state
11153:
11149:
11127:
11123:
11114:
11110:
11085:
11081:
11058:
11054:
11008:
11004:
10997:
10985:
10978:in pause, thus
10969:
10965:
10932:
10928:
10917:
10910:
10896:functional load
10797:
10793:
10776:
10772:
10755:
10751:
10694:
10690:
10681:
10677:
10665:In the Secunda
10664:
10660:
10641:
10633:
10627:
10623:
10614:
10610:
10575:
10571:
10550:
10546:
10533:
10526:
10474:
10470:
10445:
10441:
10428:
10424:
10411:
10407:
10398:
10394:
10373:
10369:
10354:
10340:
10336:
10277:
10255:
10253:
10249:
10241:
10237:
10228:
10224:
10215:
10211:
10202:
10198:
10192:Rendsburg (1997
10185:
10181:
10172:
10168:
10149:
10145:
10136:
10132:
10121:
10112:
10108:
10104:
10092:
10087:
10082:
10077:
10075:
10053:
10043:
10033:
10023:
10021:
10011:
10006:
10001:
9996:
9994:
9980:
9975:
9971:
9966:
9962:
9957:
9953:
9948:
9944:
9941:Tiberian Hebrew
9922:
9718:
9681:
9622:
9588:
9578:
9540:= Γαθερ versus
9368:
9345:
9200:
9168:parts of speech
9164:
9128:
9123:
9120:
9115:
9110:
9105:
9100:
9083:
9074:
9065:
8629:'its breadth'.
8553:('key') versus
8062:and lengthened
8034:
8006:
7453:'they killed' (
7384:
7349:
7272:for masculine,
7192:
7176:
7167:
7149:Canaanite shift
7145:
6977:construct state
6945:construct state
6895:Classical Latin
6879:
6871:
6850:
6791:
6770:
6757:
6744:
6734:
6730:
6728:
6716:
6708:
6700:
6692:
6684:
6679:
6539:
6128:Secunda Hebrew
6113:
6097:
6064:
6037:
5971:
5922:
5887:
5821:
5772:
5737:
5623:
5588:
5360:
5325:
5283:
5248:
5206:
5171:
5016:functional load
4966:
4956:
4910:
4892:
4878:
4864:
4855:(also used for
4846:
4728:
4716:
4709:
4679:Central Semitic
4208:
4186:
4178:
4025:
3991:
3939:
3929:
3799:construct state
3709:
3702:Hebrew alphabet
3690:Mishnaic Hebrew
3653:
3643:Proto-Canaanite
3620:Khirbet Qeiyafa
2708:
2706:
2704:
2680:
2674:
2546:
2542:
2527:
2516:
2496:
2480:
2460:(whence Hebrew
2394:'s forces from
2384:
2348:waw-consecutive
2257:Song of Deborah
2225:
2092:Canaanite shift
2018:
2011:
2002:
1973:
1966:
1957:
1948:
1913:
1906:
1897:
1885:
1856:
1849:
1837:
1825:
1790:
1783:
1774:
1762:
1724:
1717:
1705:
1693:
1655:
1648:
1639:
1624:
1577:
1570:
1561:
1552:
1517:
1510:
1501:
1489:
1397:
1390:
1381:
1368:
1338:
1331:
1322:
1309:
1270:
1263:
1254:
1242:
1162:
1148:
1095:Medieval Hebrew
1062:Herod the Great
1030:Leshon Hakodesh
1025:Hanina bar Hama
901:
895:
883:Biblical Hebrew
879:Biblical Hebrew
809:
781:waw-consecutive
704:stop consonants
663:Hebrew alphabet
639:writing systems
586:, as well as a
558:Mishnaic Hebrew
533:שְֹפַת כְּנַעַן
496:Hebrew language
486:), also called
478:Leshon ha-Miqra
475:
472:
471:
454:
451:
450:
442:Biblical Hebrew
439:
438:
437:
428:Without proper
419:
390:Without proper
373:
372:
366:
350:
338:
335:
318:
317:
311:
310:
302:
292:
283:Hebrew alphabet
266:
261:
255:
228:Medieval Hebrew
220:Mishnaic Hebrew
208:
201:
187:Biblical Hebrew
172:Central Semitic
152:
149:Language family
147:
135:Mishnaic Hebrew
125:
87:
48:שְֹפַת כְּנַעַן
35:Biblical Hebrew
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
17650:
17640:
17639:
17634:
17629:
17624:
17619:
17614:
17597:
17596:
17587:
17584:
17583:
17581:
17580:
17570:
17559:
17557:
17555:Sign languages
17551:
17550:
17548:
17547:
17537:
17527:
17517:
17507:
17492:
17490:
17486:
17485:
17482:
17481:
17479:
17478:
17471:Judaeo-Marathi
17464:
17452:
17437:
17435:
17431:
17430:
17428:
17427:
17420:
17418:Judaeo-Kashani
17415:
17410:
17408:Judaeo-Shirazi
17405:
17400:
17398:Judaeo-Persian
17395:
17390:
17384:
17382:
17380:Judaeo-Iranian
17376:
17375:
17373:
17372:
17365:
17358:
17351:
17344:
17337:
17330:
17329:
17328:
17327:
17326:
17314:Judaeo-Spanish
17311:
17310:
17309:
17304:
17297:
17294:Judaeo-Mantuan
17290:
17281:Judaeo-Italian
17278:
17275:Judaeo-Catalan
17270:
17268:
17266:Judaeo-Romance
17262:
17261:
17258:
17257:
17255:
17254:
17249:
17244:
17238:
17236:
17234:Jewish English
17230:
17229:
17227:
17226:
17221:
17220:
17219:
17212:
17202:
17201:
17200:
17193:
17188:
17183:
17178:
17173:
17162:
17160:
17140:
17131:
17125:
17124:
17121:
17120:
17118:
17117:
17107:
17091:
17080:
17078:
17074:
17073:
17071:
17070:
17065:
17060:
17055:
17050:
17045:
17040:
17039:
17038:
17028:
17023:
17018:
17012:
17010:
17004:
17003:
17001:
17000:
16995:
16990:
16985:
16980:
16975:
16970:
16969:
16968:
16954:
16949:
16944:
16938:
16936:
16934:Judaeo-Aramaic
16930:
16929:
16926:
16925:
16923:
16922:
16917:
16912:
16907:
16902:
16897:
16891:
16889:
16885:
16884:
16882:
16881:
16876:
16871:
16866:
16860:
16858:
16851:
16842:
16836:
16835:
16828:
16827:
16820:
16813:
16805:
16796:
16795:
16793:
16792:
16785:
16774:
16771:
16770:
16767:
16766:
16763:
16762:
16760:
16759:
16752:
16747:
16742:
16741:
16740:
16726:
16719:
16712:
16706:
16704:
16698:
16697:
16694:
16693:
16690:
16689:
16687:
16686:
16685:
16684:
16683:
16682:
16681:
16680:
16677:
16674:
16671:
16668:
16658:
16653:
16652:
16651:
16638:
16633:
16623:
16622:
16621:
16616:
16605:
16603:
16599:
16598:
16596:
16595:
16594:
16593:
16592:
16591:
16586:
16585:
16584:
16581:
16578:
16558:
16548:
16546:
16537:
16533:
16532:
16530:
16529:
16524:
16523:
16522:
16517:
16506:
16504:
16497:
16488:
16484:
16483:
16481:
16480:
16475:
16470:
16465:
16460:
16455:
16449:
16447:
16434:
16428:
16427:
16424:
16423:
16420:
16419:
16417:
16416:
16409:
16402:
16395:
16388:
16387:
16386:
16379:
16364:
16362:
16358:
16357:
16355:
16354:
16353:
16352:
16338:
16331:
16330:
16329:
16324:
16317:
16310:
16309:
16308:
16289:
16282:
16274:
16272:
16266:
16265:
16262:
16261:
16259:
16258:
16253:
16252:
16251:
16250:
16249:
16244:
16239:
16234:
16229:
16224:
16219:
16214:
16206:
16205:
16204:
16199:
16198:
16197:
16194:
16186:
16181:
16176:
16171:
16166:
16161:
16148:
16143:
16142:
16141:
16136:
16123:
16121:
16113:
16112:
16110:
16109:
16108:
16107:
16100:
16099:
16098:
16091:
16084:
16077:
16065:
16058:
16044:
16039:
16038:
16037:
16032:
16027:
16020:
16008:
16002:
16000:
15994:
15993:
15991:
15990:
15987:Middle Aramaic
15983:
15976:
15969:
15961:
15959:
15952:
15943:
15937:
15936:
15933:
15932:
15930:
15929:
15924:
15919:
15918:
15917:
15916:
15915:
15898:
15893:
15887:
15885:
15883:Dialect groups
15879:
15878:
15876:
15875:
15870:
15864:
15862:
15858:
15857:
15855:
15854:
15847:
15840:
15839:
15838:
15831:
15824:
15817:
15810:
15803:
15796:
15782:
15775:
15767:
15765:
15758:
15749:
15743:
15742:
15740:
15739:
15732:
15731:
15730:
15715:
15713:
15705:
15704:
15702:
15701:
15700:
15699:
15694:
15684:
15678:
15676:
15672:
15671:
15664:
15663:
15656:
15649:
15641:
15632:
15631:
15629:
15628:
15621:
15614:
15607:
15600:
15592:
15590:
15586:
15585:
15583:
15582:
15577:
15572:
15567:
15564:modern Israeli
15553:
15548:
15543:
15538:
15533:
15527:
15525:
15521:
15520:
15518:
15517:
15512:
15507:
15502:
15497:
15492:
15486:
15485:
15480:
15474:
15472:
15466:
15465:
15463:
15462:
15457:
15455:
15453:Philippi's law
15450:
15445:
15439:
15437:
15431:
15430:
15427:
15426:
15424:
15423:
15418:
15413:
15408:
15403:
15398:
15393:
15388:
15382:
15380:
15374:
15373:
15371:
15370:
15368:Plene scriptum
15365:
15360:
15353:
15339:
15337:
15331:
15330:
15328:
15327:
15322:
15317:
15312:
15307:
15302:
15297:
15292:
15287:
15282:
15277:
15272:
15267:
15261:
15260:
15255:
15250:
15245:
15239:
15237:
15231:
15230:
15228:
15227:
15222:
15217:
15212:
15207:
15202:
15197:
15192:
15187:
15182:
15177:
15172:
15167:
15162:
15157:
15152:
15147:
15142:
15137:
15132:
15127:
15122:
15116:
15114:
15108:
15107:
15105:
15104:
15099:
15094:
15089:
15084:
15079:
15074:
15068:
15066:
15062:
15061:
15059:
15058:
15052:
15050:
15043:
15039:
15038:
15036:
15035:
15027:
15019:
15011:
15006:
15001:
14989:
14984:
14979:
14974:
14968:
14966:
14962:
14961:
14959:
14958:
14953:
14948:
14943:
14930:
14928:
14924:
14923:
14921:
14920:
14915:
14906:
14901:
14896:
14891:
14885:
14883:
14879:
14878:
14871:
14870:
14863:
14856:
14848:
14842:
14841:
14840:
14839:
14834:
14829:
14824:
14811:
14810:
14809:
14803:
14797:
14783:
14782:External links
14780:
14779:
14778:
14766:
14760:
14747:
14741:
14728:
14722:
14709:
14703:
14690:
14684:
14671:
14665:
14652:
14636:
14627:
14618:
14589:
14583:
14570:
14553:
14538:
14528:
14513:
14503:on 31 May 2012
14484:
14478:
14465:
14459:
14442:
14436:
14417:
14411:
14398:
14388:on 8 June 2011
14377:
14371:
14358:
14330:(1): 135–145.
14315:
14309:
14296:
14275:
14255:
14237:
14228:
14222:
14205:
14199:
14186:
14180:
14160:
14154:
14141:
14135:
14122:
14116:
14101:
14098:
14096:
14095:
14084:
14069:
14036:
14029:
14009:
13984:
13972:
13961:
13949:
13937:
13924:
13912:
13897:
13880:
13868:
13856:
13841:
13829:
13817:
13805:
13793:
13781:
13754:(Google eBook)
13738:
13723:
13711:
13699:
13687:
13685::119–120, 268)
13675:
13673::122, 268–269)
13663:
13648:
13636:
13624:
13601:
13589:
13572:
13557:
13545:
13541:Janssens (1982
13533:
13521:
13517:Janssens (1982
13509:
13505:Janssens (1982
13497:
13485:
13473:
13456:
13444:
13440:Janssens (1982
13432:
13420:
13405:
13390:
13375:
13371:Janssens (1982
13363:
13351:
13336:
13321:
13309:
13294:
13282:
13270:
13258:
13246:
13234:
13222:
13210:
13198:
13181:
13177:Janssens (1982
13169:
13154:
13142:
13138:Janssens (1982
13127:
13123:Janssens (1982
13115:
13111:Janssens (1982
13103:
13099:Janssens (1982
13091:
13079:
13067:
13055:
13043:
13031:
13016:
13001:
12986:
12963:
12951:
12947:Janssens (1982
12934:
12922:
12910:
12898:
12886:
12882:Janssens (1982
12867:
12851:
12839:
12835:Janssens (1982
12827:
12815:
12800:
12788:
12776:
12764:
12752:
12745:
12727:
12712:
12697:
12682:
12670:
12658:
12641:
12629:
12617:
12600:
12588:
12577:
12565:
12550:
12533:
12531::96, 108, 222)
12521:
12506:
12483:
12468:
12456:
12444:
12429:
12417:
12398:
12386:
12369:
12348:
12333:
12322:
12310:
12291:
12264:
12253:
12241:
12226:
12209:
12194:
12179:
12167:
12155:
12140:
12128:
12109:
12097:
12085:
12073:
12061:
12049:
12037:
12025:
12006:
11989:
11977:
11966:
11951:
11939:
11924:
11909:
11897:
11885:
11850:
11838:
11826:
11814:
11802:
11787:
11766:
11754:
11739:
11724:
11709:
11692:
11680:
11668:
11649:
11642:
11622:
11603:
11580:
11565:
11550:
11538:
11534:Mishnah Gittin
11526:
11513:
11502:
11479:
11468:
11452:
11449:Feldman (2010)
11436:
11426:
11405:
11403:
11400:
11398:
11397:
11331:
11282:
11235:
11203:
11201::146–148, 154)
11164:
11160:Janssens (1982
11147:
11121:
11108:
11088:pataḥ furtivum
11079:
11052:
11002:
10995:
10963:
10926:
10834:('ornament'),
10791:
10770:
10762:Janssens (1982
10749:
10697:Janssens (1982
10688:
10684:Janssens (1982
10675:
10671:Janssens (1982
10658:
10650:Janssens (1982
10636:, while short
10621:
10608:
10586:vs. Samaritan
10569:
10544:
10524:
10468:
10439:
10422:
10414:Masoretic Text
10405:
10392:
10382:and complex /
10367:
10363:Janssens (1982
10334:
10270:for the usual
10247:
10235:
10222:
10209:
10196:
10179:
10166:
10143:
10130:
10105:
10103:
10100:
10097:
10096:
10064:
10062:
10017:
10015:
9983:
9981:
9938:
9921:
9918:
9917:
9916:
9907:
9898:
9889:
9880:
9871:
9862:
9853:
9840:
9839:
9830:
9821:
9812:
9803:
9794:
9781:
9780:
9771:
9762:
9753:
9744:
9717:
9714:
9680:
9677:
9621:
9618:
9407:in forms like
9339:Amarna letters
9310:('scorpion').
9250:). The prefix
9199:
9196:
9178:('verb'), and
9163:
9160:
9127:
9124:
9122:
9121:
9118:
9116:
9113:
9111:
9108:
9106:
9103:
9101:
9086:
9084:
9080:Philippi's law
9077:
9075:
9068:
9066:
9048:
9045:
9036:
9035:
9030:
9025:
9020:
9010:
9009:
9004:
8999:
8994:
8984:
8983:
8978:
8973:
8968:
8962:
8961:
8956:
8951:
8946:
8940:
8939:
8934:
8929:
8924:
8914:
8913:
8908:
8903:
8898:
8892:
8891:
8886:
8881:
8875:
8874:
8869:
8864:
8859:
8854:
8849:
8843:
8842:
8837:
8832:
8827:
8822:
8816:
8815:
8810:
8805:
8800:
8794:
8793:
8788:
8780:
8772:
8767:
8762:
8756:
8755:
8750:
8745:
8740:
8734:
8733:
8728:
8723:
8718:
8712:
8711:
8706:
8701:
8696:
8691:
8686:
8680:
8679:
8674:
8669:
8663:
8662:
8657:
8654:
8648:
8647:
8644:
8581:take offglide
8527:> Tiberian
8463:Philippi's law
8455:'outside' and
8384:('the house')
8268:('great') vs.
8194:תְדֵמְּיוּ֫נִי
8162:('prisoner').
8033:
8030:
8026:/aeeːiːooːuːə/
8005:
8002:
8001:
8000:
7997:
7986:
7975:
7970:('king') <
7964:
7943:
7942:
7937:
7932:
7927:
7922:
7917:
7912:
7907:
7903:
7902:
7899:
7896:
7891:
7886:
7881:
7876:
7871:
7860:
7859:
7854:
7849:
7846:
7843:
7840:
7837:
7834:
7830:
7829:
7826:
7821:
7818:
7815:
7812:
7809:
7806:
7802:
7801:
7798:
7795:
7792:
7789:
7784:
7781:
7778:
7767:
7766:
7763:
7760:
7757:
7754:
7751:
7748:
7743:
7739:
7738:
7735:
7732:
7727:
7724:
7721:
7718:
7713:
7709:
7708:
7703:
7700:
7697:
7692:
7687:
7684:
7681:
7677:
7676:
7673:
7670:
7665:
7660:
7655:
7650:
7647:
7643:
7642:
7639:
7634:
7631:
7628:
7625:
7620:
7617:
7613:
7612:
7607:
7602:
7597:
7592:
7587:
7582:
7577:
7573:
7572:
7569:
7566:
7563:
7560:
7557:
7554:
7549:
7545:
7544:
7539:
7534:
7529:
7524:
7519:
7514:
7509:
7505:
7504:
7502:*taqṭuˈliː(na)
7499:
7494:
7489:
7484:
7479:
7474:
7469:
7465:
7464:
7461:
7458:
7451:
7450:'they killed'
7448:
7445:
7442:
7439:
7428:
7427:
7424:
7421:
7414:
7411:surface filter
7407:
7388:open syllables
7383:
7380:
7364:
7363:
7360:
7348:
7345:
7341:*ʔanta, *ʔanti
7320:but masculine
7203:
7202:
7199:
7191:
7188:
7180:*/aaːoːiiːuuː/
7175:
7172:
7161:Amarna letters
7144:
7141:
7130:"law of", and
7121:"law" becomes
7010:(nominative),
7002:(nominative),
6935:(nominative),
6878:
6875:
6870:
6867:
6864:
6863:
6862:
6861:
6848:
6787:
6786:
6785:
6768:
6755:
6740:
6739:
6738:
6724:
6723:
6722:
6714:
6706:
6698:
6690:
6677:
6674:
6673:
6670:
6669:
6660:
6656:
6655:
6643:
6631:
6625:
6624:
6615:
6603:
6597:
6596:
6584:
6572:
6566:
6565:
6560:
6555:
6549:
6546:
6545:
6522:
6518:
6517:
6510:
6504:
6503:
6496:
6489:
6483:
6482:
6475:
6468:
6462:
6461:
6454:
6447:
6441:
6440:
6435:
6430:
6424:
6421:
6420:
6413:
6409:
6408:
6396:
6390:
6389:
6377:
6365:
6359:
6358:
6351:
6344:
6338:
6337:
6332:
6327:
6321:
6318:
6317:
6305:
6299:
6298:
6291:
6284:
6278:
6277:
6265:
6253:
6247:
6246:
6241:
6236:
6230:
6227:
6226:
6214:
6208:
6207:
6200:
6191:
6185:
6184:
6172:
6160:
6154:
6153:
6148:
6143:
6136:
6135:
6132:
6129:
6126:
6123:
6096:
6093:
6090:
6089:
6083:
6073:
6055:
6024:
6018:
6017:
6007:
6000:
5999:
5989:
5979:
5962:
5952:
5945:
5944:
5938:
5909:
5903:
5874:
5868:
5867:
5857:
5850:
5849:
5839:
5829:
5812:
5802:
5795:
5794:
5788:
5759:
5753:
5724:
5718:
5717:
5711:
5694:
5683:
5682:
5676:
5663:
5653:
5646:
5645:
5639:
5610:
5604:
5575:
5569:
5568:
5562:
5552:
5545:
5544:
5538:
5528:
5517:
5516:
5510:
5500:
5489:
5482:
5481:
5475:
5465:
5459:
5449:
5442:
5441:
5435:
5425:
5418:
5417:
5411:
5401:
5390:
5383:
5382:
5376:
5347:
5341:
5312:
5306:
5305:
5299:
5270:
5264:
5235:
5229:
5228:
5222:
5193:
5187:
5158:
5152:
5151:
5144:
5138:
5137:
5132:
5127:
5121:
5120:
5117:
5101:, and finally
5038:for Masoretic
5002:to (known as
4996:spirantization
4675:pharyngealized
4671:
4670:
4663:
4653:
4652:
4650:
4648:
4646:
4644:
4642:
4640:
4633:
4631:
4625:
4624:
4622:
4620:
4618:
4616:
4609:
4602:
4600:
4587:
4581:
4580:
4578:
4576:
4574:
4572:
4570:
4568:
4561:
4559:
4551:
4550:
4548:
4541:
4532:
4523:
4521:
4519:
4512:
4505:
4498:
4490:
4489:
4482:
4475:
4468:
4461:
4454:
4447:
4440:
4433:
4426:
4419:
4413:
4412:
4410:
4408:
4406:
4404:
4402:
4400:
4393:
4391:
4383:
4382:
4380:
4378:
4376:
4369:
4367:
4365:
4358:
4351:
4343:
4342:
4335:
4333:
4326:
4319:
4317:
4315:
4308:
4301:
4294:
4288:
4287:
4285:
4283:
4281:
4279:
4277:
4275:
4268:
4261:
4255:
4254:
4247:
4240:
4232:
4231:
4226:
4221:
4216:
4211:
4204:
4199:
4194:
4185:
4182:
4177:
4174:
4052:vs. Masoretic
3836:Gezer Calendar
3686:tetragrammaton
3682:Aramaic script
3647:Gezer calendar
3614:
3613:
3596:
3590:
3583:
3576:
3570:
3569:
3559:
3553:
3546:
3539:
3533:
3532:
3515:
3509:
3502:
3495:
3489:
3488:
3479:
3473:
3466:
3459:
3453:
3452:
3443:
3437:
3424:
3417:
3411:
3410:
3393:
3387:
3374:
3367:
3361:
3360:
3343:
3337:
3330:
3323:
3317:
3316:
3307:
3301:
3294:
3287:
3281:
3280:
3271:
3265:
3252:
3245:
3239:
3238:
3229:
3223:
3210:
3203:
3197:
3196:
3187:
3181:
3174:
3167:
3161:
3160:
3143:
3137:
3124:
3117:
3111:
3110:
3101:
3095:
3088:
3081:
3075:
3074:
3065:
3059:
3052:
3045:
3039:
3038:
3021:
3015:
3008:
3001:
2995:
2994:
2985:
2979:
2972:
2965:
2959:
2958:
2945:
2939:
2932:
2925:
2919:
2918:
2909:
2903:
2896:
2889:
2883:
2882:
2865:
2859:
2852:
2845:
2839:
2838:
2821:
2815:
2808:
2801:
2795:
2794:
2777:
2771:
2764:
2757:
2751:
2750:
2741:
2735:
2728:
2721:
2715:
2714:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2676:Main article:
2673:
2670:
2544:
2540:
2525:
2514:
2494:
2478:
2383:
2380:
2224:
2221:
2177:"old (thing)"
2094:and the shift
2021:
2020:
2015:
2006:
1994:
1985:
1976:
1975:
1970:
1961:
1952:
1943:
1934:
1925:
1916:
1915:
1910:
1901:
1889:
1877:
1868:
1859:
1858:
1853:
1844:
1832:
1820:
1811:
1802:
1793:
1792:
1787:
1778:
1766:
1754:
1745:
1736:
1727:
1726:
1721:
1712:
1700:
1685:
1676:
1667:
1658:
1657:
1652:
1643:
1631:
1616:
1607:
1598:
1589:
1580:
1579:
1574:
1565:
1556:
1547:
1538:
1529:
1520:
1519:
1514:
1505:
1493:
1481:
1472:
1463:
1454:
1445:
1444:
1441:
1434:
1427:
1418:
1409:
1400:
1399:
1394:
1385:
1376:
1359:
1350:
1341:
1340:
1335:
1326:
1313:
1300:
1291:
1282:
1273:
1272:
1267:
1258:
1246:
1234:
1225:
1216:
1207:
1198:
1197:
1194:
1191:
1188:
1184:
1183:
1180:
1177:
1174:
1171:
1170:Proto-Semitic
1147:
1146:Classification
1144:
1007:Yehud Medinata
949:Amarna letters
894:
891:
808:
805:
761:, and had two
700:pharyngealized
690:whose precise
537:śəp̄aṯ kənaʿan
512:Land of Israel
506:spoken by the
502:branch of the
457:Ivrit Miqra'it
432:, you may see
420:
413:
412:
411:
408:
407:
394:, you may see
380:
379:
364:
356:
355:
348:
344:
343:
336:
331:
328:
327:
307:
299:
298:
297:Language codes
294:
293:
291:
290:
285:
280:
275:
269:
267:
263:Writing system
260:
257:
256:
254:
253:
248:
243:
235:
225:
217:
211:
209:
207:Standard forms
206:
203:
202:
200:
199:
198:
197:
196:
195:
194:
193:
192:
191:
190:
189:
155:
153:
146:
143:
142:
131:
127:
126:
124:
123:
116:
111:
106:
101:
95:
93:
89:
88:
79:
71:
70:
42:
41:
37:
36:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
17649:
17638:
17635:
17633:
17630:
17628:
17625:
17623:
17620:
17618:
17615:
17613:
17610:
17609:
17607:
17594:
17590:
17585:
17578:
17574:
17571:
17568:
17564:
17561:
17560:
17558:
17556:
17552:
17545:
17541:
17538:
17535:
17531:
17528:
17525:
17521:
17518:
17515:
17511:
17508:
17505:
17501:
17497:
17494:
17493:
17491:
17487:
17476:
17472:
17468:
17465:
17462:
17458:
17457:
17453:
17450:
17446:
17442:
17439:
17438:
17436:
17432:
17426:
17425:
17421:
17419:
17416:
17414:
17411:
17409:
17406:
17404:
17401:
17399:
17396:
17394:
17391:
17389:
17386:
17385:
17383:
17381:
17377:
17371:
17370:
17366:
17364:
17363:
17359:
17357:
17356:
17352:
17350:
17349:
17348:Judaeo-Gascon
17345:
17343:
17342:
17338:
17336:
17335:
17331:
17325:
17322:
17321:
17320:
17317:
17316:
17315:
17312:
17308:
17305:
17303:
17302:
17298:
17296:
17295:
17291:
17289:
17288:
17284:
17283:
17282:
17279:
17277:
17276:
17272:
17271:
17269:
17267:
17263:
17253:
17250:
17248:
17245:
17243:
17240:
17239:
17237:
17235:
17231:
17225:
17224:Scots-Yiddish
17222:
17218:
17217:
17213:
17211:
17208:
17207:
17206:
17203:
17199:
17198:
17197:Klezmer-loshn
17194:
17192:
17189:
17187:
17184:
17182:
17179:
17177:
17174:
17172:
17169:
17168:
17167:
17164:
17163:
17161:
17158:
17157:
17152:
17148:
17144:
17141:
17139:
17135:
17132:
17130:
17129:Indo-European
17126:
17115:
17111:
17110:Judaeo-Berber
17108:
17105:
17101:
17100:
17095:
17092:
17089:
17085:
17082:
17081:
17079:
17075:
17069:
17068:Judaeo-Yemeni
17066:
17064:
17061:
17059:
17058:Judaeo-Syrian
17056:
17054:
17051:
17049:
17046:
17044:
17041:
17037:
17034:
17033:
17032:
17029:
17027:
17024:
17022:
17019:
17017:
17014:
17013:
17011:
17009:
17008:Judaeo-Arabic
17005:
16999:
16996:
16994:
16991:
16989:
16986:
16984:
16981:
16979:
16976:
16974:
16971:
16967:
16966:
16962:
16961:
16960:
16959:
16955:
16953:
16950:
16948:
16945:
16943:
16940:
16939:
16937:
16935:
16931:
16921:
16918:
16916:
16913:
16911:
16908:
16906:
16903:
16901:
16898:
16896:
16893:
16892:
16890:
16886:
16880:
16877:
16875:
16872:
16870:
16867:
16865:
16862:
16861:
16859:
16855:
16852:
16850:
16846:
16843:
16841:
16837:
16833:
16826:
16821:
16819:
16814:
16812:
16807:
16806:
16803:
16790:
16786:
16783:
16779:
16776:
16775:
16772:
16758:
16757:
16753:
16751:
16748:
16746:
16743:
16739:
16738:
16734:
16733:
16732:
16731:
16727:
16725:
16724:
16720:
16718:
16717:
16713:
16711:
16708:
16707:
16705:
16703:
16699:
16678:
16675:
16672:
16669:
16667:
16664:
16663:
16662:
16659:
16657:
16654:
16649:
16648:
16647:
16644:
16643:
16642:
16639:
16637:
16634:
16632:
16631:
16627:
16626:
16624:
16620:
16617:
16615:
16614:
16610:
16609:
16607:
16606:
16604:
16600:
16590:
16587:
16582:
16579:
16576:
16575:
16574:
16571:
16570:
16568:
16567:
16566:
16562:
16559:
16557:
16553:
16550:
16549:
16547:
16541:
16538:
16534:
16528:
16525:
16521:
16518:
16516:
16513:
16512:
16511:
16508:
16507:
16505:
16501:
16498:
16496:
16495:Ethio-Semitic
16492:
16489:
16485:
16479:
16476:
16474:
16471:
16469:
16466:
16464:
16461:
16459:
16456:
16454:
16451:
16450:
16448:
16445:
16438:
16435:
16433:
16429:
16415:
16414:
16410:
16408:
16407:
16403:
16401:
16400:
16396:
16394:
16393:
16389:
16385:
16384:
16380:
16378:
16377:
16373:
16372:
16371:
16370:
16366:
16365:
16363:
16359:
16351:
16350:
16346:
16345:
16344:
16343:
16339:
16337:
16336:
16332:
16328:
16325:
16323:
16322:
16318:
16316:
16315:
16311:
16307:
16306:
16302:
16301:
16300:
16299:
16295:
16294:
16293:
16290:
16288:
16287:
16283:
16281:
16280:
16276:
16275:
16273:
16271:
16267:
16257:
16254:
16248:
16245:
16243:
16240:
16238:
16235:
16233:
16230:
16228:
16225:
16223:
16220:
16218:
16215:
16213:
16210:
16209:
16207:
16203:
16200:
16195:
16192:
16191:
16190:
16187:
16185:
16182:
16180:
16177:
16175:
16172:
16170:
16167:
16165:
16162:
16160:
16157:
16156:
16154:
16153:
16152:
16149:
16147:
16144:
16140:
16137:
16135:
16134:
16130:
16129:
16128:
16125:
16124:
16122:
16120:
16114:
16106:
16105:
16101:
16097:
16096:
16092:
16090:
16089:
16085:
16083:
16082:
16078:
16076:
16075:
16071:
16070:
16069:
16066:
16064:
16063:
16059:
16057:
16056:
16052:
16051:
16050:
16049:
16045:
16043:
16042:Judeo-Aramaic
16040:
16036:
16033:
16031:
16028:
16026:
16025:
16021:
16019:
16018:
16014:
16013:
16012:
16009:
16007:
16004:
16003:
16001:
15995:
15989:
15988:
15984:
15982:
15981:
15977:
15975:
15974:
15970:
15968:
15967:
15963:
15962:
15960:
15956:
15953:
15951:
15947:
15944:
15942:
15938:
15928:
15925:
15923:
15920:
15914:
15911:
15910:
15909:
15908:
15907:Siculo-Arabic
15904:
15903:
15902:
15899:
15897:
15894:
15892:
15889:
15888:
15886:
15884:
15880:
15874:
15871:
15869:
15866:
15865:
15863:
15859:
15853:
15852:
15848:
15846:
15845:
15841:
15837:
15836:
15832:
15830:
15829:
15825:
15823:
15822:
15818:
15816:
15815:
15811:
15809:
15808:
15804:
15802:
15801:
15797:
15795:
15794:
15790:
15789:
15788:
15787:
15783:
15781:
15780:
15776:
15774:
15773:
15769:
15768:
15766:
15762:
15759:
15757:
15753:
15750:
15748:
15744:
15738:
15737:
15733:
15729:
15728:
15724:
15723:
15722:
15721:
15717:
15716:
15714:
15712:
15711:
15706:
15698:
15695:
15693:
15690:
15689:
15688:
15685:
15683:
15680:
15679:
15677:
15673:
15669:
15662:
15657:
15655:
15650:
15648:
15643:
15642:
15639:
15627:
15626:
15622:
15620:
15619:
15615:
15613:
15612:
15608:
15606:
15605:
15601:
15599:
15598:
15594:
15593:
15591:
15587:
15581:
15578:
15576:
15573:
15571:
15568:
15565:
15561:
15557:
15554:
15552:
15549:
15547:
15544:
15542:
15539:
15537:
15534:
15532:
15529:
15528:
15526:
15522:
15516:
15513:
15511:
15508:
15506:
15503:
15501:
15498:
15496:
15495:Semitic roots
15493:
15491:
15488:
15487:
15484:
15481:
15479:
15476:
15475:
15473:
15471:
15467:
15461:
15458:
15456:
15454:
15451:
15449:
15448:Modern Hebrew
15446:
15444:
15441:
15440:
15438:
15436:
15432:
15422:
15419:
15417:
15414:
15412:
15409:
15407:
15404:
15402:
15399:
15397:
15394:
15392:
15389:
15387:
15384:
15383:
15381:
15379:
15375:
15369:
15366:
15364:
15363:Abbreviations
15361:
15359:
15358:
15354:
15352:
15348:
15344:
15341:
15340:
15338:
15336:
15332:
15326:
15323:
15321:
15318:
15316:
15313:
15311:
15308:
15306:
15303:
15301:
15300:Kubutz/shuruk
15298:
15296:
15293:
15291:
15288:
15286:
15283:
15281:
15278:
15276:
15273:
15271:
15268:
15266:
15263:
15262:
15259:
15256:
15254:
15251:
15249:
15246:
15244:
15241:
15240:
15238:
15236:
15232:
15226:
15223:
15221:
15218:
15216:
15213:
15211:
15208:
15206:
15203:
15201:
15198:
15196:
15193:
15191:
15188:
15186:
15183:
15181:
15178:
15176:
15173:
15171:
15168:
15166:
15163:
15161:
15158:
15156:
15153:
15151:
15148:
15146:
15143:
15141:
15138:
15136:
15133:
15131:
15128:
15126:
15123:
15121:
15118:
15117:
15115:
15113:
15109:
15103:
15100:
15098:
15095:
15093:
15090:
15088:
15085:
15083:
15080:
15078:
15075:
15073:
15070:
15069:
15067:
15063:
15057:
15054:
15053:
15051:
15047:
15044:
15040:
15031:
15028:
15023:
15020:
15015:
15012:
15010:
15007:
15005:
15002:
14998:
14993:
14990:
14988:
14985:
14983:
14980:
14978:
14975:
14973:
14970:
14969:
14967:
14963:
14957:
14954:
14952:
14949:
14947:
14944:
14940:
14935:
14932:
14931:
14929:
14925:
14919:
14916:
14914:
14910:
14907:
14905:
14902:
14900:
14897:
14895:
14892:
14890:
14887:
14886:
14884:
14880:
14876:
14869:
14864:
14862:
14857:
14855:
14850:
14849:
14846:
14838:
14835:
14833:
14830:
14828:
14825:
14822:
14818:
14815:
14814:
14812:
14808:, eHebrew.net
14807:
14804:
14801:
14798:
14796:
14792:
14789:
14788:
14786:
14785:
14775:
14771:
14767:
14763:
14757:
14753:
14748:
14744:
14738:
14734:
14729:
14725:
14719:
14715:
14710:
14706:
14700:
14696:
14691:
14687:
14681:
14677:
14672:
14668:
14662:
14658:
14653:
14642:
14637:
14633:
14628:
14624:
14619:
14607:
14603:
14599:
14595:
14590:
14586:
14580:
14576:
14571:
14567:
14563:
14559:
14554:
14550:
14546:
14545:
14539:
14535:
14531:
14525:
14521:
14520:
14514:
14502:
14498:
14494:
14490:
14485:
14481:
14475:
14471:
14466:
14462:
14456:
14452:
14448:
14443:
14439:
14433:
14429:
14425:
14424:
14418:
14414:
14408:
14404:
14399:
14387:
14383:
14378:
14374:
14368:
14364:
14359:
14355:
14351:
14347:
14343:
14338:
14333:
14329:
14325:
14321:
14316:
14312:
14306:
14302:
14297:
14285:
14281:
14276:
14262:
14258:
14252:
14245:
14244:
14238:
14234:
14229:
14225:
14219:
14215:
14211:
14206:
14202:
14196:
14192:
14187:
14183:
14177:
14172:
14171:
14165:
14161:
14157:
14151:
14147:
14142:
14138:
14132:
14128:
14123:
14119:
14113:
14109:
14104:
14103:
14093:
14088:
14080:
14076:
14072:
14066:
14062:
14058:
14054:
14053:
14045:
14043:
14041:
14032:
14026:
14022:
14021:
14013:
13998:
13994:
13988:
13981:
13980:Glinert (2004
13976:
13970:
13965:
13958:
13953:
13946:
13941:
13934:
13928:
13921:
13916:
13909:
13904:
13902:
13894:
13889:
13887:
13885:
13877:
13872:
13865:
13864:Sperber (1966
13860:
13853:
13848:
13846:
13838:
13833:
13826:
13821:
13814:
13809:
13802:
13797:
13790:
13785:
13778:
13767:
13763:
13759:
13752:
13751:
13742:
13735:
13730:
13728:
13720:
13715:
13708:
13703:
13696:
13691:
13684:
13679:
13672:
13667:
13660:
13655:
13653:
13645:
13640:
13633:
13628:
13621:
13616:
13614:
13612:
13610:
13608:
13606:
13598:
13593:
13586:
13581:
13579:
13577:
13569:
13564:
13562:
13554:
13549:
13542:
13537:
13530:
13525:
13518:
13513:
13506:
13501:
13494:
13489:
13482:
13477:
13470:
13465:
13463:
13461:
13453:
13448:
13441:
13436:
13429:
13424:
13417:
13412:
13410:
13402:
13397:
13395:
13387:
13382:
13380:
13373::54, 123–127)
13372:
13367:
13360:
13355:
13348:
13343:
13341:
13333:
13328:
13326:
13318:
13313:
13306:
13301:
13299:
13291:
13286:
13279:
13274:
13267:
13262:
13255:
13250:
13243:
13238:
13231:
13226:
13219:
13214:
13207:
13202:
13195:
13190:
13188:
13186:
13178:
13173:
13166:
13161:
13159:
13151:
13150:Steiner (1997
13146:
13139:
13134:
13132:
13124:
13119:
13112:
13107:
13100:
13095:
13088:
13083:
13076:
13075:Steiner (1997
13071:
13064:
13059:
13052:
13047:
13040:
13035:
13028:
13023:
13021:
13013:
13008:
13006:
12998:
12997:Yahalom (1997
12993:
12991:
12983:
12978:
12976:
12974:
12972:
12970:
12968:
12960:
12955:
12948:
12943:
12941:
12939:
12931:
12926:
12919:
12918:Sperber (1959
12914:
12907:
12902:
12895:
12890:
12883:
12878:
12876:
12874:
12872:
12865:
12860:
12858:
12856:
12848:
12843:
12836:
12831:
12824:
12819:
12812:
12807:
12805:
12797:
12792:
12785:
12780:
12773:
12768:
12761:
12756:
12748:
12742:
12738:
12731:
12724:
12719:
12717:
12709:
12704:
12702:
12694:
12689:
12687:
12679:
12674:
12667:
12662:
12655:
12650:
12648:
12646:
12638:
12633:
12626:
12621:
12614:
12609:
12607:
12605:
12597:
12592:
12586:
12581:
12574:
12569:
12562:
12557:
12555:
12547:
12542:
12540:
12538:
12530:
12525:
12518:
12513:
12511:
12503:
12498:
12496:
12494:
12492:
12490:
12488:
12480:
12475:
12473:
12465:
12464:Sperber (1959
12460:
12453:
12448:
12441:
12440:Yardeni (1997
12436:
12434:
12426:
12425:Yardeni (1997
12421:
12414:
12413:Yardeni (1997
12409:
12407:
12405:
12403:
12395:
12394:Yardeni (1997
12390:
12383:
12378:
12376:
12374:
12366:
12361:
12359:
12357:
12355:
12353:
12345:
12344:Yardeni (1997
12340:
12338:
12331:
12330:Hanson (2011)
12326:
12319:
12318:Yardeni (1997
12314:
12307:
12302:
12300:
12298:
12296:
12288:
12283:
12281:
12279:
12277:
12275:
12273:
12271:
12269:
12262:
12257:
12250:
12245:
12238:
12233:
12231:
12224::83, 137–138)
12223:
12218:
12216:
12214:
12206:
12201:
12199:
12191:
12186:
12184:
12176:
12171:
12164:
12159:
12153:
12149:
12144:
12137:
12132:
12125:
12120:
12118:
12116:
12114:
12106:
12101:
12094:
12089:
12082:
12077:
12070:
12065:
12058:
12053:
12046:
12041:
12034:
12029:
12022:
12017:
12015:
12013:
12011:
12003:
11998:
11996:
11994:
11986:
11981:
11975:
11970:
11963:
11958:
11956:
11948:
11943:
11936:
11931:
11929:
11921:
11916:
11914:
11906:
11901:
11894:
11889:
11882:
11877:
11875:
11873:
11871:
11869:
11867:
11865:
11863:
11861:
11859:
11857:
11855:
11848:, p. 29.
11847:
11842:
11835:
11830:
11823:
11818:
11811:
11806:
11799:
11794:
11792:
11784:
11779:
11777:
11775:
11773:
11771:
11763:
11758:
11751:
11750:Yardeni (1997
11746:
11744:
11736:
11731:
11729:
11721:
11716:
11714:
11706:
11701:
11699:
11697:
11689:
11684:
11677:
11672:
11664:
11660:
11653:
11645:
11639:
11635:
11634:
11626:
11619:
11614:
11612:
11610:
11608:
11600:
11599:Steiner (1997
11595:
11593:
11591:
11589:
11587:
11585:
11577:
11572:
11570:
11562:
11557:
11555:
11547:
11542:
11535:
11530:
11523:
11517:
11511:
11506:
11499:
11494:
11492:
11490:
11488:
11486:
11484:
11477:
11472:
11466:
11465:Shanks (2010)
11461:
11459:
11457:
11450:
11445:
11443:
11441:
11433:
11429:
11423:
11419:
11418:
11410:
11406:
11394:
11390:
11375:; indicative
11362:
11358:
11354:
11350:
11346:
11342:
11335:
11328:
11321:appears with
11286:
11279:
11239:
11232:
11207:
11200:
11168:
11161:
11157:
11151:
11144:
11132:letter, e.g.
11131:
11125:
11118:
11112:
11105:
11089:
11083:
11076:
11056:
11049:
11038:('name'; but
11006:
10998:
10992:
10988:
10967:
10960:
10956:
10948:
10930:
10923:
10916:
10909:
10901:
10897:
10889:
10886:('Edomite').
10876:
10855:
10825:('sickness')
10795:
10774:
10767:
10763:
10759:
10753:
10698:
10692:
10685:
10679:
10672:
10662:
10655:
10651:
10647:
10640:were written
10625:
10618:
10612:
10605:
10604:Steiner (1997
10593:
10573:
10566:
10548:
10541:
10537:
10531:
10529:
10521:
10472:
10465:
10443:
10436:
10432:
10426:
10419:
10415:
10409:
10402:
10396:
10389:
10385:
10381:
10377:
10371:
10364:
10352:
10348:
10344:
10338:
10331:
10303:
10251:
10244:
10239:
10232:
10226:
10219:
10218:Yardeni (1997
10213:
10206:
10200:
10193:
10183:
10176:
10170:
10163:
10147:
10140:
10134:
10127:
10122: 600 CE
10116:
10110:
10106:
10095:
10090:
10085:
10080:
10073:
10069:
10068:
10063:
10061:
10051:
10041:
10031:
10020:
10016:
10014:
10009:
10004:
9999:
9992:
9988:
9987:
9982:
9943:
9942:
9937:
9936:
9933:
9931:
9927:
9914:
9912:
9908:
9905:
9904:, Subjunctive
9903:
9899:
9896:
9894:
9890:
9887:
9885:
9881:
9878:
9876:
9872:
9869:
9867:
9863:
9860:
9858:
9854:
9851:
9849:
9845:
9844:
9843:
9837:
9835:
9831:
9828:
9826:
9822:
9819:
9817:
9813:
9810:
9808:
9804:
9801:
9799:
9795:
9792:
9790:
9786:
9785:
9784:
9778:
9777:in Past Tense
9776:
9772:
9769:
9768:, Cyclic Past
9767:
9763:
9760:
9758:
9754:
9751:
9749:
9745:
9742:
9741:, Simple Past
9740:
9736:
9735:
9734:
9731:
9728:
9727:paragogic nun
9722:
9713:
9705:
9701:
9697:
9693:
9691:
9686:
9676:
9674:
9670:
9660:
9656:
9652:
9648:
9644:
9640:
9636:
9627:
9617:
9601:
9587:for Tiberian
9526:
9521:
9520:('the man').
9489:
9484:
9482:
9452:
9374:
9359:
9340:
9336:
9328:
9320:
9311:
9195:
9193:
9189:
9185:
9181:
9177:
9173:
9169:
9159:
9117:
9112:
9107:
9102:
9085:
9081:
9076:
9072:
9067:
9051:
9047:
9046:
9044:
9041:
9031:
9021:
9011:
9005:
8995:
8985:
8979:
8969:
8963:
8957:
8947:
8941:
8935:
8925:
8915:
8909:
8899:
8894:
8893:
8882:
8877:
8876:
8860:
8855:
8850:
8844:
8838:
8833:
8823:
8818:
8817:
8811:
8801:
8796:
8795:
8789:
8781:
8768:
8763:
8757:
8751:
8741:
8736:
8735:
8724:
8719:
8714:
8713:
8697:
8692:
8685:
8681:
8678:
8675:
8673:
8670:
8668:
8665:
8664:
8661:
8653:
8649:
8643:
8639:
8633:
8630:
8592:
8522:
8464:
8417:for Southern
8402:
8257:
8200:שָחֲחו, חֲיִי
8163:
8109:'nails' <
8056:*/juraħˈħimu/
8029:
7998:
7987:
7976:
7965:
7954:
7953:
7952:
7948:
7938:
7933:
7928:
7923:
7918:
7913:
7908:
7905:
7904:
7900:
7897:
7892:
7887:
7882:
7877:
7872:
7862:
7861:
7855:
7850:
7847:
7844:
7841:
7838:
7835:
7832:
7831:
7827:
7822:
7819:
7816:
7813:
7810:
7807:
7804:
7803:
7799:
7796:
7793:
7790:
7785:
7782:
7779:
7769:
7768:
7764:
7761:
7758:
7755:
7752:
7749:
7744:
7741:
7740:
7736:
7733:
7728:
7725:
7722:
7719:
7714:
7711:
7710:
7704:
7701:
7698:
7693:
7688:
7685:
7682:
7679:
7678:
7674:
7671:
7666:
7661:
7656:
7651:
7648:
7645:
7644:
7640:
7635:
7632:
7629:
7626:
7621:
7618:
7615:
7614:
7608:
7603:
7598:
7593:
7588:
7583:
7578:
7575:
7574:
7570:
7567:
7564:
7561:
7558:
7555:
7550:
7547:
7546:
7540:
7535:
7530:
7525:
7520:
7515:
7510:
7507:
7506:
7500:
7495:
7490:
7485:
7480:
7475:
7470:
7467:
7466:
7462:
7459:
7456:
7452:
7449:
7447:'she killed'
7446:
7443:
7440:
7438:
7437:
7431:
7425:
7422:
7419:
7415:
7412:
7408:
7405:
7404:
7403:
7400:
7398:
7389:
7379:
7361:
7358:
7357:
7356:
7344:
7342:
7338:
7334:
7329:
7327:
7323:
7319:
7315:
7311:
7307:
7303:
7299:
7295:
7291:
7287:
7283:
7279:
7275:
7271:
7267:
7263:
7259:
7254:
7252:
7248:
7244:
7240:
7236:
7230:
7224:
7216:
7208:
7200:
7197:
7196:
7195:
7187:
7171:
7162:
7150:
7140:
7137:/toːraːtəxaː/
7086:
7084:
7080:
7076:
7072:
7068:
7064:
7060:
7056:
7052:
7048:
7044:
7040:
7039:broken plural
7035:
7033:
7029:
7025:
7021:
7017:
7013:
7009:
7005:
7001:
6996:
6995:Broken plural
6992:
6990:
6986:
6982:
6981:Old Canaanite
6978:
6970:
6958:
6950:
6946:
6930:
6925:
6923:
6919:
6915:
6911:
6907:
6906:Proto-Semitic
6902:
6900:
6896:
6884:
6874:
6869:Sound changes
6849:
6808:('his hand')
6790:
6789:
6788:
6775:and marginal
6769:
6756:
6743:
6742:
6741:
6727:
6726:
6725:
6715:
6707:
6699:
6691:
6683:
6682:
6678:
6676:
6666:
6658:
6657:
6653:
6648:
6641:
6636:
6630:
6627:
6626:
6621:
6613:
6608:
6602:
6599:
6598:
6594:
6589:
6582:
6577:
6571:
6568:
6567:
6564:
6561:
6559:
6556:
6554:
6553:
6543:
6536:
6530:
6520:
6519:
6515:
6509:
6506:
6505:
6501:
6494:
6488:
6485:
6484:
6480:
6473:
6467:
6464:
6463:
6459:
6452:
6446:
6443:
6442:
6439:
6436:
6434:
6431:
6429:
6428:
6418:
6411:
6410:
6406:
6401:
6395:
6392:
6391:
6387:
6382:
6375:
6370:
6364:
6361:
6360:
6356:
6349:
6343:
6340:
6339:
6336:
6333:
6331:
6328:
6326:
6325:
6315:
6310:
6304:
6301:
6300:
6296:
6289:
6283:
6280:
6279:
6275:
6270:
6263:
6258:
6252:
6249:
6248:
6245:
6242:
6240:
6237:
6235:
6234:
6231:
6224:
6219:
6213:
6210:
6209:
6205:
6197:
6190:
6187:
6186:
6182:
6177:
6170:
6165:
6159:
6156:
6155:
6152:
6149:
6147:
6144:
6142:
6141:
6137:
6133:
6130:
6127:
6124:
6122:Proto-Hebrew
6121:
6120:
6117:
6111:
6107:
6103:
6084:
6074:
6056:
6025:
6020:
6019:
6008:
6002:
6001:
5990:
5966:
5947:
5946:
5939:
5930:
5910:
5904:
5895:
5875:
5870:
5869:
5858:
5852:
5851:
5840:
5816:
5797:
5796:
5789:
5780:
5760:
5754:
5745:
5725:
5720:
5719:
5712:
5703:
5695:
5685:
5684:
5677:
5664:
5648:
5647:
5640:
5631:
5611:
5605:
5596:
5576:
5571:
5570:
5563:
5553:
5547:
5546:
5539:
5529:
5519:
5518:
5511:
5501:
5484:
5483:
5476:
5466:
5460:
5450:
5444:
5443:
5436:
5426:
5420:
5419:
5412:
5402:
5385:
5384:
5377:
5368:
5348:
5342:
5333:
5313:
5308:
5307:
5300:
5291:
5271:
5265:
5256:
5236:
5231:
5230:
5223:
5214:
5194:
5188:
5179:
5159:
5154:
5153:
5149:
5145:
5140:
5139:
5136:
5131:
5126:
5122:
5116:
5115:Proto-Semitic
5112:
5106:
5080:
5076:
5037:
5023:
5021:
5017:
5005:
4997:
4992:
4946:
4942:
4938:
4934:
4930:
4929:Proto-Semitic
4839:
4837:
4833:
4822:
4820:
4809:
4798:
4796:
4785:
4781:
4776:
4734:
4722:
4713:
4710: 800 BC
4703:
4699:
4695:
4682:
4680:
4676:
4668:
4664:
4661:
4657:
4656:
4651:
4649:
4647:
4645:
4643:
4641:
4638:
4632:
4630:
4626:
4623:
4621:
4619:
4617:
4614:
4610:
4607:
4603:
4598:
4592:
4588:
4586:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4575:
4573:
4571:
4569:
4566:
4560:
4558:
4553:
4552:
4549:
4546:
4542:
4540:
4537:
4533:
4531:
4528:
4524:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4513:
4510:
4506:
4503:
4499:
4497:
4492:
4491:
4487:
4483:
4480:
4476:
4473:
4469:
4466:
4462:
4459:
4455:
4452:
4448:
4445:
4441:
4438:
4434:
4431:
4427:
4425:
4420:
4418:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4407:
4405:
4403:
4401:
4398:
4392:
4389:
4385:
4384:
4381:
4379:
4377:
4374:
4370:
4368:
4366:
4363:
4356:
4352:
4349:
4345:
4344:
4340:
4336:
4334:
4331:
4327:
4324:
4320:
4318:
4316:
4313:
4306:
4302:
4299:
4295:
4293:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4282:
4280:
4278:
4276:
4273:
4266:
4262:
4260:
4256:
4252:
4248:
4246:
4241:
4239:
4234:
4233:
4230:
4225:
4220:
4215:
4210:
4203:
4198:
4192:
4181:
4173:
4170:
4169:Modern Hebrew
4166:
4162:
4158:
4154:
4149:
4147:
4142:
4136:
4126:
4105:
4101:
4096:
4092:
4088:
4084:
4080:
4076:
4072:
4071:transcription
4068:
4065:
4059:
3927:
3918:
3912:
3910:
3906:
3902:
3881:
3865:
3850:and possibly
3837:
3808:
3804:
3800:
3790:
3762:
3757:
3755:
3705:
3703:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3683:
3678:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3659:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3635:
3633:
3629:
3625:
3621:
3610:
3602:
3597:
3591:
3584:
3581:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3571:
3565:
3560:
3554:
3547:
3544:
3540:
3538:
3535:
3534:
3529:
3521:
3516:
3510:
3503:
3500:
3496:
3494:
3491:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3474:
3467:
3464:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3438:
3425:
3422:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3412:
3407:
3399:
3394:
3388:
3375:
3372:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3362:
3357:
3349:
3344:
3338:
3331:
3328:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3318:
3313:
3308:
3302:
3295:
3292:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3266:
3253:
3250:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3224:
3211:
3208:
3204:
3202:
3199:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3182:
3175:
3172:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3162:
3157:
3149:
3144:
3138:
3125:
3122:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3096:
3089:
3086:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3060:
3053:
3050:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3040:
3035:
3027:
3022:
3016:
3009:
3006:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2980:
2973:
2970:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2960:
2951:
2946:
2940:
2933:
2930:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2904:
2897:
2894:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2884:
2879:
2871:
2866:
2860:
2853:
2850:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2840:
2835:
2827:
2822:
2816:
2809:
2806:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2796:
2791:
2783:
2778:
2772:
2765:
2762:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2736:
2729:
2726:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2716:
2712:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2684:
2683:
2679:
2669:
2663:
2654:
2647:for standard
2604:
2600:
2583:
2557:
2552:
2538:
2512:
2500:
2484:
2476:
2474:
2459:
2449:
2434:for standard
2429:
2427:
2417:
2415:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2379:
2376:
2371:
2367:
2365:
2349:
2333:
2329:
2324:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2249:Song of Moses
2246:
2242:
2237:
2234:
2230:
2220:
2151:
2103:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2068:
2066:
2041:
2039:
2034:
2032:
2028:
2016:
2007:
2000:
1986:
1984:
1978:
1977:
1971:
1962:
1953:
1944:
1935:
1924:
1918:
1917:
1911:
1902:
1896:
1890:
1884:
1878:
1869:
1867:
1861:
1860:
1854:
1845:
1841:
1833:
1829:
1821:
1812:
1801:
1795:
1794:
1788:
1779:
1772:
1767:
1760:
1755:
1746:
1737:
1735:
1729:
1728:
1722:
1713:
1708:
1701:
1696:
1692:
1686:
1677:
1668:
1666:
1660:
1659:
1653:
1644:
1637:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1617:
1608:
1599:
1588:
1582:
1581:
1575:
1566:
1557:
1548:
1539:
1530:
1528:
1522:
1521:
1515:
1506:
1499:
1494:
1487:
1482:
1473:
1464:
1453:
1447:
1446:
1442:
1435:
1419:
1408:
1402:
1401:
1398:'moon/month'
1395:
1386:
1360:
1349:
1343:
1342:
1336:
1327:
1320:
1314:
1307:
1301:
1292:
1283:
1281:
1275:
1274:
1268:
1259:
1252:
1247:
1240:
1235:
1226:
1217:
1206:
1200:
1199:
1195:
1192:
1189:
1186:
1185:
1168:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1143:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1120:
1115:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1103:Modern Hebrew
1100:
1096:
1092:
1087:
1085:
1081:
1080:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1038:
1036:
1032:
1031:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1017:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
983:
981:
977:
973:
969:
965:
961:
957:
952:
950:
946:
942:
938:
934:
920:
910:
905:
900:
890:
888:
884:
880:
876:
871:
857:
854:
850:
841:'Hebrew' and
834:
830:
826:
804:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
743:Semitic roots
740:
735:
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
684:
682:
678:
674:
673:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
640:
635:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
601:
597:
593:
589:
585:
580:
578:
577:fifth century
574:
570:
566:
561:
559:
555:
551:
547:
538:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
482:
479:
461:
458:
443:
435:
431:
427:
425:
417:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
387:
381:
376:
369:
365:
363:
362:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
334:
333:Linguist List
329:
326:
323: –
321:
314:
308:
305:
300:
295:
289:
286:
284:
281:
279:
276:
274:
271:
270:
268:
264:
258:
252:
249:
247:
244:
239:
236:
233:
232:Modern Hebrew
229:
226:
221:
218:
216:
213:
212:
210:
204:
188:
185:
184:
183:
180:
179:
178:
175:
174:
173:
170:
169:
168:
165:
164:
163:
160:
159:
158:
154:
150:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
121:
118:Global (as a
117:
115:
112:
110:
107:
105:
102:
100:
97:
96:
94:
90:
86:
82:
77:
72:
43:
38:
33:
30:
19:
17588:
17540:Judaeo-Malay
17454:
17422:
17367:
17360:
17353:
17346:
17339:
17334:Judaeo-Latin
17332:
17307:Judaeo-Roman
17299:
17292:
17285:
17273:
17214:
17195:
17154:
17097:
17088:Ethiosemitic
17031:Judaeo-Iraqi
17026:Judaeo-Fessi
16988:Lishán Didán
16983:Lishana Deni
16963:
16956:
16863:
16777:
16754:
16735:
16728:
16721:
16714:
16628:
16611:
16569:East Gurage
16411:
16404:
16397:
16390:
16381:
16374:
16367:
16347:
16340:
16333:
16319:
16312:
16303:
16297:
16296:
16284:
16277:
16242:Urmia Jewish
16151:Northeastern
16131:
16102:
16093:
16086:
16079:
16072:
16067:
16060:
16053:
16046:
16022:
16015:
15985:
15978:
15971:
15964:
15922:Mesopotamian
15905:
15849:
15842:
15833:
15826:
15819:
15812:
15805:
15798:
15791:
15784:
15777:
15772:Proto-Arabic
15770:
15734:
15725:
15718:
15708:
15623:
15616:
15609:
15602:
15595:
15411:Inverted nun
15396:Cantillation
15355:
15325:Sin/Shin dot
15097:Paleo-Hebrew
14933:
14913:from English
14802:(Wikisource)
14773:
14751:
14732:
14713:
14694:
14675:
14656:
14644:. Retrieved
14631:
14622:
14610:. Retrieved
14606:the original
14601:
14597:
14574:
14565:
14561:
14549:the original
14543:
14534:the original
14518:
14505:. Retrieved
14501:the original
14496:
14492:
14469:
14450:
14422:
14402:
14390:. Retrieved
14386:the original
14362:
14327:
14323:
14300:
14288:. Retrieved
14268:, retrieved
14261:the original
14242:
14232:
14213:
14190:
14169:
14145:
14126:
14107:
14100:Bibliography
14087:
14051:
14019:
14012:
14000:. Retrieved
13996:
13987:
13975:
13969:Rosén (1969)
13964:
13952:
13940:
13927:
13915:
13871:
13859:
13832:
13820:
13808:
13796:
13784:
13776:
13769:. Retrieved
13748:
13741:
13714:
13702:
13690:
13678:
13666:
13639:
13627:
13592:
13548:
13536:
13524:
13512:
13500:
13488:
13476:
13447:
13435:
13423:
13366:
13354:
13317:Yeivin (1980
13312:
13285:
13278:Yeivin (1980
13273:
13261:
13249:
13237:
13225:
13213:
13201:
13172:
13145:
13118:
13106:
13094:
13082:
13070:
13058:
13046:
13034:
12954:
12925:
12913:
12901:
12889:
12842:
12830:
12818:
12791:
12779:
12767:
12755:
12736:
12730:
12678:Yeivin (1980
12673:
12661:
12632:
12620:
12591:
12580:
12568:
12524:
12459:
12447:
12420:
12389:
12346::13, 15, 17)
12325:
12313:
12256:
12244:
12170:
12158:
12151:
12143:
12131:
12100:
12088:
12076:
12064:
12052:
12040:
12028:
11980:
11969:
11942:
11900:
11888:
11841:
11829:
11817:
11805:
11757:
11683:
11671:
11662:
11652:
11632:
11625:
11541:
11529:
11524:I, 1:2, etc.
11521:
11516:
11505:
11476:Isaiah 19:18
11471:
11431:
11416:
11409:
11360:
11356:
11352:
11348:
11344:
11340:
11334:
11329::91–92, 268)
11304:יְשׁוּעָתָהּ
11285:
11238:
11206:
11179:*/qaˈtʼaluː/
11167:
11150:
11124:
11111:
11087:
11082:
11065:= Samaritan
11055:
11005:
10986:
10966:
10958:
10957:and English
10954:
10929:
10914:
10907:
10794:
10773:
10758:Joseph Qimḥi
10752:
10691:
10678:
10661:
10624:
10611:
10600:/kʼanːɔ(ʔ?)/
10596:/kʼanːo(ʔ?)/
10572:
10547:
10471:
10442:
10425:
10408:
10395:
10383:
10379:
10370:
10337:
10250:
10238:
10225:
10212:
10199:
10182:
10169:
10146:
10133:
10109:
10091:
10086:
10081:
10076:
10066:
10065:
10052:
10042:
10032:
10022:
10018:
10010:
10005:
10000:
9995:
9985:
9984:
9940:
9939:
9923:
9910:
9909:
9901:
9900:
9892:
9891:
9883:
9882:
9874:
9873:
9865:
9864:
9856:
9855:
9847:
9846:
9841:
9833:
9832:
9824:
9823:
9815:
9814:
9806:
9805:
9797:
9796:
9788:
9787:
9782:
9774:
9773:
9765:
9764:
9756:
9755:
9747:
9746:
9738:
9737:
9732:
9723:
9719:
9689:
9682:
9634:
9623:
9602:
9522:
9485:
9453:
9372:
9312:
9258:verbs, e.g.
9228:is normally
9201:
9187:
9179:
9175:
9171:
9165:
9156:/hɔˈʔohɛ̆lɔ/
9129:
9042:
9039:
8683:
8641:
8631:
8403:
8258:
8235:(and rarely
8164:
8111:*/masmiriːm/
8078:(Tiberian),
8035:
8007:
7949:
7946:
7444:'he killed'
7429:
7401:
7385:
7365:
7350:
7340:
7336:
7332:
7330:
7321:
7317:
7313:
7301:
7297:
7293:
7289:
7285:
7281:
7277:
7273:
7269:
7265:
7261:
7257:
7255:
7250:
7246:
7242:
7238:
7234:
7231:
7222:
7214:
7206:
7204:
7193:
7177:
7174:Proto-Hebrew
7146:
7087:
7082:
7078:
7074:
7070:
7066:
7062:
7058:
7054:
7050:
7046:
7042:
7036:
7031:
7027:
7026:nominative,
7023:
7019:
7015:
7011:
7007:
7003:
6999:
6993:
6984:
6956:
6948:
6926:
6903:
6887:*/aaːiiːuuː/
6880:
6872:
6758:merges with
6745:merges with
6098:
5964:
5814:
5077:
5035:
5024:
4993:
4944:
4943:< Hebrew
4940:
4936:
4909:but written
4905:(pronounced
4841:The phoneme
4840:
4818:
4794:
4777:
4714:
4701:
4697:
4693:
4683:
4681:innovation.
4672:
4666:
4659:
4585:Approximants
4539:
4530:
4179:
4167:traditions.
4150:
4146:cantillation
4137:
4103:
4090:
4089:), known as
4060:
3984:, sometimes
3913:
3908:
3904:
3900:
3875:בלילה, בניתי
3788:
3758:
3706:
3679:
3658:Paleo-Hebrew
3636:
3617:
2707:(Pre-Exilic)
2689:Paleo-Hebrew
2655:
2553:
2547:merged into
2524:and pushed s
2472:
2471:
2457:
2425:
2424:
2413:
2412:
2404:Jordan River
2385:
2372:
2368:
2362:rather than
2325:
2255:15) and the
2238:
2233:cantillation
2229:Hebrew Bible
2226:
2152:
2104:
2069:
2042:
2035:
2024:
1998:
1894:
1882:
1839:
1827:
1770:
1758:
1706:
1694:
1690:
1635:
1625:
1620:
1497:
1485:
1318:
1305:
1250:
1238:
1132:cantillation
1130:. Vowel and
1116:
1088:
1078:
1039:
1028:
1014:
984:
953:
930:
924:לחרות ירושלם
882:
878:
874:
872:
832:
828:
810:
807:Nomenclature
763:conjugations
741:, arranging
736:
692:articulation
685:
671:
636:
632:can be dated
581:
562:
545:
536:
528:Hebrew Bible
523:
516:Jordan River
494:form of the
487:
477:
456:
441:
440:
421:
383:
359:
186:
167:West Semitic
157:Afro-Asiatic
122:for Judaism)
29:
17567:German Sign
17467:Judaeo-Urdu
17216:Lachoudisch
16840:Afroasiatic
16716:Hadramautic
16702:Old Arabian
16641:West Gurage
16565:East Gurage
16444:ern Arabian
16146:Neo-Mandaic
16068:Palestinian
15966:Old Aramaic
15416:Shekel sign
15378:Punctuation
15343:with Niqqud
15253:Palestinian
15042:Orthography
15022:Palestinian
14164:Joshua Blau
14092:Blau (2010)
13920:Doron (2005
13087:LaSor (1978
13014::44, 48–49)
12932::43–44, 48)
12774::56, 75–76)
12454::74–75, 77)
12442::65, 84–91)
12415::18, 24–25)
12163:Kogan (2011
11822:Kogan (2011
11810:Frank (2003
11546:Rainey 2008
11522:Antiquities
11075:Barth's law
10915:hataf patah
10673::54, 58–59)
10648::110–111),
10429:Or perhaps
10384:kompliziert
10175:Bloch (2017
9920:Sample text
9651:cohortative
9647:infinitives
9631:בִּנְיָנִים
9628:, known as
9467:'two days'
9304:('mouse'),
8667:Palestinian
8429:. Original
8107:/masməˈrim/
7994:/qaˈṭaltiː/
7894:*qɔːˈṭɔːluː
7730:*qaːˈṭaːluː
7508:Pre-Hebrew
6110:Palestinian
5020:Saadia Gaon
4994:Allophonic
4939:< Greek
4690:/ts,dz,tsˤ/
4665:Consonants
4658:Consonants
4087:Palestinian
4064:Koine Greek
3926:back vowels
3893:(for later
3663:Mesha Stele
2672:Orthography
2511:chain shift
2475:u(n)bul-at-
2448:Transjordan
2400:Ephraimites
2330:, and some
1330:مَوَازَيْن
1035:Pesahim 87b
592:Middle Ages
554:Koine Greek
522:. The term
424:Hebrew text
398:instead of
17606:Categories
17524:Kartvelian
17475:Indo-Aryan
17393:Judaeo-Tat
16745:Rijal Alma
16730:Qatabanian
16399:Himyaritic
16342:Phoenician
16155:Christian
15958:Historical
15927:Peninsular
15828:Taymanitic
15779:Old Arabic
15764:Historical
15566:literature
15386:Diacritics
15248:Babylonian
15030:Babylonian
14770:Zuckermann
13852:Blau (2010
13789:Blau (2010
13695:Blau (2010
13683:Blau (2010
13671:Blau (2010
13659:Blau (2010
13632:Blau (2010
13529:Blau (2010
13493:Blau (2010
13469:Blau (2010
13428:Blau (2010
13305:Blau (2010
13290:Blau (2010
13254:Blau (2010
13232::124, 136)
13230:Blau (2010
13220::129, 136)
13218:Blau (2010
13165:Blau (2010
13063:Blau (2010
13051:Blau (2010
13039:Blau (2010
12982:Blau (2010
12959:Blau (2010
12894:Blau (2010
12847:Blau (2010
12811:Blau (2010
12772:Blau (2010
12708:Blau (2010
12693:Blau (2010
12666:Blau (2010
12517:Blau (2010
12479:Blau (2010
12452:Blau (2010
12287:Blau (2010
12249:Blau (2010
12205:Blau (2010
12192::8, 96–97)
12190:Blau (2010
12126::8, 40–41)
12124:Blau (2010
11985:Blau (2010
11962:Blau (2010
11947:Blau (2010
11935:Blau (2010
11905:Blau (2010
11798:Blau (2010
11783:Blau (2010
11705:Blau (2010
11688:Blau (2010
11678::166, 171)
11663:chabad.org
11520:Josephus,
11402:References
11393:Blau (2010
11381:, jussive
11369:, jussive
11343:, jussive
11327:Blau (2010
11278:Blau (2010
11254:have long
11231:Blau (2010
11199:Blau (2010
11195:*/ʃaˈmaru/
11143:Blau (2010
11130:begadkefat
11117:Blau (2010
11104:Blau (2010
10951:*/wojn-om/
10922:Blau (2010
10908:mobile šwa
10890::117–118)
10888:Blau (2010
10877:') versus
10856::117–118)
10854:Blau (2010
10850:/baʕɛ̆ˈli/
10807:('ships')
10766:Blau (2010
10652::54), and
10646:Blau (2010
10617:Blau (2010
10565:Blau (2010
10520:Blau (2010
10496:preceding
10464:Blau (2010
10401:Blau (2010
10376:Blau (2010
10330:Blau (2010
10302:Blau (2010
10162:Blau (2010
10139:Blau (2010
10126:Blau (2010
9834:Participle
9775:Participle
9679:Word order
9655:imperative
9643:participle
9600:('tent').
9509:/hɛħɔˈxɔm/
9373:Urušalimim
9327:accusative
9319:nominative
9215:מַפְתֵּֽחַ
9192:affixation
9174:('noun'),
9152:הָאֹ֫הֱלָה
9087:Samaritan
8879:lengthened
8798:lengthened
8716:lengthened
8672:Babylonian
8591:echo vowel
8375:('house')
8315:/ʃelamːəm/
8297:/ɡămalːim/
8141:/ăðumˈmim/
8054:< PSem
8048:/jəraˈħem/
7990:/qɔˈṭalti/
7983:/qaˈṭaluː/
7889:*qɔːṭəˈluː
7884:*qɔːṭəˈlɔː
7857:*tiqṭəˈliː
7787:*qaːṭəˈlaː
7716:*qoːˈṭeːlu
7706:*taqṭəˈliː
7695:*qaːṭəˈluː
7690:*qaːṭəˈlat
7668:*qaːˈṭaluː
7663:*qaːˈṭaluː
7658:*qaːˈṭalat
7610:*taqˈṭuliː
7542:*ˈtaqṭuliː
7430:Examples:
6985:urušalemim
6106:Babylonian
6061:(normally)
6030:(normally)
5968:(normally)
5915:(normally)
5880:(normally)
5818:(normally)
5765:(normally)
5730:(normally)
5669:(normally)
5616:(normally)
5581:(normally)
5353:(normally)
5318:(normally)
5276:(normally)
5241:(normally)
5199:(normally)
5164:(normally)
5148:Samaritanּ
5055:, a glide
5004:begadkefat
4780:Septuagint
4417:Fricatives
4224:Pharyngeal
4184:Consonants
4141:Nahmanides
4083:Babylonian
4067:Septuagint
4018:(Tiberian
4006:(Tiberian
3872:for later
3869:בללה, בנתי
3822:for later
3803:Phoenician
3761:consonants
3742:above the
3641:(known as
2513:changed *s
2467:שִׁבֹּ֤לֶת
2453:שִׁבֹּ֤לֶת
2409:שִׁבֹּ֤לֶת
2388:shibboleth
2269:for prose
2076:Phoenician
1725:'laughed'
1150:See also:
1119:Epigraphic
937:Bronze Age
897:See also:
844:לשון עברית
797:possession
723:pharyngeal
711:allophones
706:developed
681:diacritics
647:Samaritans
565:Phoenician
508:Israelites
500:Canaanitic
238:Babylonian
137:after the
17591:indicate
17514:Dravidian
17369:Zarphatic
17242:Yeshivish
17191:Udmurtish
17186:Ukrainish
17171:Galitzish
16895:Ashkenazi
16789:varieties
16780:indicate
16661:Sebat Bet
16625:Tt-group
16440:Eastern (
16392:Deir Alla
16270:Canaanite
16237:Trans-Zab
16222:Inter-Zab
16104:Palmyrene
16095:Samaritan
16062:Nabataean
15941:Northwest
15896:Levantine
15868:Classical
15793:Dadanitic
15435:Phonology
15406:Gershayim
15258:Samaritan
15033:(extinct)
15025:(extinct)
15017:(extinct)
15009:Samaritan
14982:Romaniote
14972:Ashkenazi
14882:Overviews
14332:CiteSeerX
14079:169824867
13910::455–456)
13854::274–275)
13736::117–118)
13661::267–268)
13531::143–144)
13507::43, 133)
13430::133–136)
13418::138–139)
13319::282–283)
13292::105–106)
13280::281–282)
13256::117–118)
13167::82, 110)
12984::118–119)
12825::137–138)
12695::110–111)
12680::157–158)
12656::208–209)
12654:Tov (1992
12573:Tov (1992
12548::108–109)
12546:Tov (1992
12529:Tov (1992
12504::221–223)
12502:Tov (1992
12367::218–220)
12365:Tov (1992
11964::136–137)
11762:Tov (1992
11620::112–113)
11536:9:8, etc.
11266:*/ʔabuːm/
11233::143–144)
11135:תֵּחְבֹּל
11093:פתח גנובה
11071:*/jafqud/
11020:*/qinn-u/
10884:/ʔăðoˈmi/
10871:/ʔɛ̆ˈðom/
10712:, pausal
10619::128–129)
10567::111–112)
10504:original
10490:/*haʔːab/
10418:Tov (1992
10243:Ktiv male
10231:Tov (1992
9911:Imperfect
9902:Imperfect
9893:Imperfect
9825:Imperfect
9816:Imperfect
9766:Imperfect
9757:Imperfect
9748:Imperfect
9692:verb form
9690:wayyiqtol
9481:construct
9415:*/ɬadaju/
9400:עִמָּ֫נוּ
9298:('bat'),
9221:מִשְׁפָּט
9170:: Arabic
9069:with the
8660:Samaritan
8614:יַאְדִּיר
8609:/pɔʕɔ̆lo/
8600:/jaʔăzin/
8560:/mifˈtaħ/
8551:/mafˈteħ/
8547:מַפְתֵּחַ
8525:*/ʃabʕat/
8505:*/libː-u/
8492:/*ʔamint/
8311:/ʃălɔmim/
8301:/ɡɒmɒləm/
8209:/ăɛ̆⁓ăɔ̆/
8184:וּבָקְעָה
8173:of which
8128:*/ruħaːb/
7979:/qɔṭəˈlu/
7961:/qaˈṭala/
7874:*qoːˈṭeːl
7863:Tiberian
7770:Feminine
7746:*qoːˈṭeːl
7605:*taqˈṭulu
7600:*qaˈṭaluː
7595:*qaˈṭaluː
7590:*qaˈṭalat
7580:*qoːˈṭilu
7552:*ˈqoːṭilu
7537:*ˈtaqṭulu
7532:*ˈqaṭaluː
7527:*ˈqaṭaluː
7522:*ˈqaṭalat
7512:*ˈqaːṭilu
7497:*ˈtaqṭulu
7492:*ˈqaṭaluː
7487:*ˈqaṭaluː
7482:*ˈqaṭalat
7472:*ˈqaːṭilu
7386:Stressed
7133:תֹורָתְךָ
7100:and then
6989:Jerusalem
6918:ejectives
6466:Close-mid
6363:Close-mid
6282:Close-mid
6189:Close-mid
5929:geminated
5894:geminated
5779:geminated
5744:geminated
5702:geminated
5630:geminated
5595:geminated
5367:geminated
5332:geminated
5290:geminated
5255:geminated
5213:geminated
5178:geminated
5119:Language
4423:voiceless
4298:voiceless
4176:Phonology
4165:Samaritan
4161:Ashkenazi
4095:Samaritan
3901:defective
3698:Ashkenazi
2699:Samaritan
2599:word play
2537:Gileadite
2421:סִבֹּ֤לֶת
2364:asyndeton
2293:'do' and
2171:"window"
2029:from the
1824:חֲמִשָּׁה
1654:'shadow'
1553:שְׁתָּיִם
1182:Examples
1136:Masoretes
873:The term
867:לשון הקדש
853:ethnonyms
833:Hebraïsti
708:fricative
600:dialectal
596:Masoretes
542:יְהוּדִית
361:Glottolog
304:ISO 639-3
246:Ashkenazi
215:Samaritan
182:Canaanite
54:יְהוּדִית
17496:Krymchak
17449:Hellenic
17247:Yinglish
17151:dialects
17138:Germanic
17104:Cushitic
16998:Betanure
16965:Galilean
16952:Talmudic
16942:Biblical
16920:Tiberian
16915:Yemenite
16900:Sephardi
16874:Medieval
16869:Mishnaic
16864:Biblical
16737:Awsanian
16608:N-group
16527:Tigrinya
16406:Samalian
16383:Galilean
16376:Ugaritic
16321:Medieval
16314:Mishnaic
16298:Biblical
16279:Ammonite
16232:Sanandaj
16217:Betanure
16196:Chaldean
16193:Assyrian
16179:Qaraqosh
16169:Hértevin
16081:Galilean
16055:Lebanese
15901:Maghrebi
15861:Literary
15835:Thamudic
15821:Safaitic
15807:Hasaitic
15800:Dumaitic
15720:Akkadian
15675:Branches
15575:Surnames
15551:Keyboard
15524:Academic
15510:Segolate
15505:Suffixes
15500:Prefixes
15478:Biblical
15421:Numerals
15335:Spelling
15243:Tiberian
15112:Alphabet
15102:Solitreo
15092:Crowning
15056:Biblical
15014:Tiberian
15004:Yemenite
14977:Sephardi
14951:Medieval
14946:Mishnaic
14934:Biblical
14918:Gematria
14894:Alphabet
14889:Language
14568:: 48–63.
14354:16649580
14284:Archived
14270:23 March
14166:(1981).
13766:11717769
13758:New York
13125::56–57).
12920::77, 81)
12668::7, 143)
11824::54–150)
11270:*/ʔabum/
11184:שָמָ֫רָה
11139:/taħbol/
11067:/jifqɒd/
11050::76, 79)
11040:*/ʃim-u/
11032:*/ʃim-u/
10943:*/wajn-/
10846:בַּעֱלִי
10823:/ħɔ̆ˈli/
10667:/*a*i*u/
10630:/aːeːoː/
10553:/aeiɔou/
10486:/hɔˈʔɔv/
10325:גּוֹיִים
10284:⟩
10278:⟨
10262:⟩
10256:⟨
10164::74–75).
9926:Psalm 18
9895:, Future
9635:binyanim
9598:/ˈʔohɛl/
9595:⟩
9589:⟨
9585:⟩
9579:⟨
9569:/ħepasʼ/
9555:/ʔeresʼ/
9547:/ˈkesɛl/
9538:/ˈɡɛθɛr/
9525:segolate
9518:/hɔˈʔiʃ/
9488:definite
9464:יוֹמַיִם
9448:יָדֵ֫נוּ
9410:יָדֵ֫נוּ
9395:/ˈlajil/
9386:/ˈlajlɔ/
9382:לַ֫יְלָה
9358:Mimation
9350:*/-u,-i/
9335:genitive
9301:עַכְבָּר
9295:עֲטַלֵּף
9277:אֶצְבַּע
8677:Tiberian
8623:רָחְבּוֹ
8618:/jaʔdir/
8605:פָּעֳלוֹ
8596:יַאֲזִין
8575:/maqdaʃ/
8556:מִפְתַּח
8534:/ʃivˈʕɔ/
8449:'word';
8254:/dɔ̆ˈmi/
8084:/e⁓io⁓u/
8076:/ɛ⁓iɔ⁓u/
7972:*/malku/
7968:/ˈmɛlɛx/
7957:/qɔˈṭal/
7940:tiqṭəˈli
7879:*qɔːˈṭal
7852:*tiqˈṭol
7824:*taqˈṭol
7653:*qaːˈṭal
7637:*taqˈṭul
7585:*qaˈṭala
7517:*ˈqaṭala
7477:*ˈqaṭala
7372:/aːeːoː/
7262:*-tā -tī
7258:*-ta -ti
7227:/dɔˈvɔr/
7219:/kɔˈθav/
7151:whereby
7128:/toːrat/
7119:/toːraː/
7057:is from
6957:mimation
6949:nunation
6659:Reduced
6521:Reduced
6487:Open-mid
6412:Reduced
6102:Tiberian
5079:Geminate
5045:/ʔɔˈmar/
5000:/bɡdkpt/
4973:⟩
4967:⟨
4963:⟩
4957:⟨
4941:balsamon
4917:⟩
4911:⟨
4899:⟩
4893:⟨
4891:written
4885:⟩
4879:⟨
4877:written
4871:⟩
4865:⟨
4853:⟩
4847:⟨
4836:Nehemiah
4737:⟩
4729:⟨
4725:⟩
4717:⟨
4686:/s,z,sˤ/
4556:emphatic
4388:emphatic
4244:Alveolar
4209:alveolar
4157:Sephardi
4153:Yemenite
4127:whereby
4117:/ʃimʃon/
4113:שִמְשוֹן
4032:⟩
4026:⟨
4024:) while
3998:⟩
3992:⟨
3946:⟩
3940:⟨
3936:⟩
3930:⟨
3754:shin dot
3716:⟩
3710:⟨
3628:ostracon
3595:
3558:
3514:
3478:
3442:
3392:
3342:
3306:
3270:
3228:
3186:
3142:
3100:
3064:
3020:
2984:
2944:
2908:
2864:
2820:
2776:
2740:
2703:Phonetic
2595:/ˈjajin/
2392:Jephthah
2382:Dialects
2165:"table"
2080:Ammonite
2072:Iron Age
2065:Mimation
2019:'seven'
2017:'slave'
1993:
1972:'raven'
1942:
1933:
1914:'dream'
1876:
1857:'shout'
1836:חַמְשָׁה
1819:
1810:
1789:'shout'
1753:
1744:
1684:
1675:
1615:
1606:
1597:
1576:'three'
1551:שָׁלוֹשׁ
1546:
1537:
1518:'peace'
1480:
1471:
1462:
1426:
1417:
1396:'knife'
1389:سِكِّين
1375:
1358:
1337:'scale'
1299:
1290:
1233:
1224:
1215:
1196:meaning
1190:Aramaic
1176:Aramaic
1140:piyyutim
945:Ugaritic
941:Iron Age
829:Hebraios
814:שפת כנען
719:phonemic
696:ejective
490:, is an
404:Help:IPA
375:sama1313
368:anci1244
251:Sephardi
230:(Became
17589:Italics
17544:Malayic
17456:Knaanic
17445:Yevanic
17388:Bukhori
17324:Tetuani
17319:Haketia
17252:Heblish
17205:Western
17181:Poylish
17176:Litvish
17166:Eastern
17147:Yiddish
16978:Hulaulá
16973:Barzani
16910:Italian
16905:Mizrahi
16782:extinct
16778:Italics
16723:Minaean
16650:Endegen
16577:Inneqor
16556:Argobba
16552:Amharic
16515:Dahalik
16487:Western
16478:Soqotri
16458:Ḥarsusi
16453:Baṭḥari
16369:Amorite
16335:Moabite
16286:Edomite
16256:Western
16212:Barzani
16208:Jewish
16127:Central
16119:Aramaic
16048:Western
16030:Mandaic
16011:Eastern
16006:Armazic
15997:Dialect
15950:Aramaic
15913:Maltese
15814:Hismaic
15747:Central
15736:Eblaite
15692:Central
15560:ancient
15536:Academy
15531:Revival
15470:Grammar
15347:missing
15087:Cursive
15077:Braille
15065:Scripts
14992:Mizrahi
14987:Italian
14899:History
14646:15 June
14612:15 June
14392:15 June
14290:15 June
14002:17 July
13771:11 June
13622::90–92)
13570::66–67)
13307::84–85)
13179::54–56)
13101::56–57)
12849::82–83)
12813::78–81)
12762::73–74)
12615::68–69)
12575::96–97)
12384::16–18)
12308::70–73)
12251::6, 69)
12239::38–39)
12071::57–60)
11987::7, 11)
11895::57–59)
11800::25–40)
11752::17–25)
11690::11–12)
11361:yaqtula
11353:yaqtulu
11349:yaqtula
11341:yaqtulu
11190:שָמְרָה
10880:אֲדֹמִי
10841:/ʕăˈli/
10832:/ħăˈli/
10816:('I'),
10805:/ɔ̆ˈni/
10727:*/kaːf/
10723:*/kɔːf/
10590:), see
10522::81–83)
10515:יְרַחֵם
10492:; with
10437::72–3).
10431:Hurrian
10390::97–99)
10380:einfach
10347:Hexapla
10343:Secunda
10328:). See
10319:גּוֹיִם
10313:קוֹלוֹת
10307:קֹלֹוֹת
10298:*/raʔʃ/
10290:, e.g.
10019:Secunda
9930:Hexapla
9884:Perfect
9875:Perfect
9866:Perfect
9857:Perfect
9848:Perfect
9807:Perfect
9798:Perfect
9789:Perfect
9739:Perfect
9659:jussive
9514:הָאִישׁ
9505:הֶחָכָם
9431:*/jadu/
9333:in the
9325:in the
9317:in the
9307:עַקְרָב
9271:אַכְזָב
9261:תּוֹדָה
9239:מוֹשָׁב
9209:מוֹשָׁב
9184:Semitic
9162:Grammar
9147:/ˈbɔnu/
9143:בָּ֫נוּ
9138:/bɔˈnu/
9134:בָּנוּ֫
8896:reduced
8820:reduced
8738:reduced
8656:Jewish
8652:Secunda
8627:/ʀɔħbo/
8585:before
8538:/ʃabʕɔ/
8530:שִבְעָה
8501:/ɛ̆mɛt/
8475:/*bint/
8446:אִמְרָה
8419:/jajin/
8415:*/wajn/
8411:*/jajn/
8394:/aɡɡər/
8377:/abbət/
8207:become
8191:, e.g.
8171:/ăɔ̆ɛ̆/
8150:אַסִּיר
8145:/ăˈðom/
8137:אדֻמּים
8124:/rəˈħoβ
8103:מסמְרים
8074:become
8044:יְרַחֵם
8022:/ʃəˈmo/
7935:tiqˈṭol
7930:qɔˈṭɔlu
7925:qɔṭəˈlu
7920:qɔṭəˈlɔ
7623:*qaˈṭal
7249:became
7223:*dabara
7215:*kataba
7213:: e.g.
7207:between
7020:-ā, -ay
6959:(final
6951:(final
6891:*/ajaw/
6844:/durot/
5525:*/t͡sʼ/
5130:Aramaic
5087:/ħʕhʔr/
5071:before
5029:, e.g.
4806:versus
4251:Lateral
4229:Glottal
4202:Coronal
4104:Sampsōn
4075:Secunda
3978:, e.g.
3887:versus
3807:Moabite
3713:ח, ע, ש
3694:Mizrahi
3665:in the
2597:). The
2578:*/jajn/
2428:ibboleṯ
2416:ibboleṯ
2398:caught
2332:Ketuvim
2328:Nevi'im
2275:'see',
2159:"roof"
2088:Moabite
2084:Edomite
2057:/naħnu/
1974:'west'
1965:غُرَاب
1958:מַעֲרָב
1949:מַעֲרָב
1912:'salt'
1855:'five'
1848:خَمْسة
1782:صَرَخَ
1723:'land'
1656:'noon'
1628:הֳרָיִם
1571:اِثْنان
1562:תְּרֵין
1516:'year'
1490:שָׁלוֹם
1380:סַכִּין
1367:
1339:'time'
1271:'male'
1269:'gold'
1193:Arabic
1187:Hebrew
1179:Arabic
1173:Hebrew
1079:colonia
1046:Samaria
1042:Galilee
893:History
769:and/or
751:numbers
747:genders
715:Aramaic
594:by the
560:texts.
546:Yəhûḏîṯ
492:archaic
400:Unicode
309:Either:
162:Semitic
17504:Turkic
17500:Karaim
17489:Others
17461:Slavic
17434:Others
17156:argots
17114:Berber
17077:Others
16947:Targum
16879:Modern
16849:Hebrew
16756:Sabaic
16750:Razihi
16656:Mesqan
16630:Mesmes
16583:Wolane
16580:Ulbare
16573:Siltʼe
16561:Harari
16545:versal
16543:Trans-
16473:Shehri
16463:Hobyot
16413:Sutean
16361:Others
16327:Modern
16292:Hebrew
16184:Senaya
16164:Bohtan
16159:Barwar
16139:Turoyo
16133:Mlaḥsô
16035:Syriac
15999:groups
15756:Arabic
15556:Hebrew
15483:Modern
15401:Geresh
15310:Mappiq
15305:Dagesh
15290:Kamatz
15235:Niqqud
15190:Samech
15082:Ashuri
14997:Syrian
14956:Modern
14758:
14739:
14720:
14701:
14682:
14663:
14581:
14526:
14507:5 June
14476:
14457:
14434:
14409:
14369:
14352:
14334:
14307:
14253:
14220:
14197:
14178:
14152:
14133:
14114:
14077:
14067:
14027:
13764:
12743:
11640:
11424:
11395::206).
11387:) See
11366:יכרִית
11357:yaqtul
11345:yaqtul
11325:, see
11274:*/ʔab/
10993:
10902::110)
10867:אֱדוֹם
10814:/ăˈni/
10731:*/kaf/
10710:*/kaf/
10686::119).
10563:. See
10361:. See
10359:/eːaj/
10351:Origen
10300:. See
10115:Talmud
9759:, Past
9696:marked
9673:aspect
9645:, two
9543:כֵּסֶל
9534:גֶּתֶר
9470:יָמִים
9461:'day'
9426:שְׂדֵה
9420:שָֹדֶה
9391:לַ֫יִל
9126:Stress
9043:Notes:
8579:/eiou/
8490:(e.g.
8473:(e.g.
8437:(e.g.
8407:/jeːn/
8346:, and
8270:/rɒːb/
8250:דֳּמִי
8247:(e.g.
8214:אֲמרתם
8205:*/aiu/
8156:אָסִיר
8120:רְחוֹב
8117:(e.g.
8100:(e.g.
8089:לִבִּי
8080:/a⁓iu/
8009:*/aiu/
7915:qɔˈṭal
7910:qoˈṭel
7397:pausal
7353:*/aiu/
7326:qamatz
7310:Origen
7302:-tā/tī
7124:תֹורַת
7115:תֹורָה
7090:/-at-/
7047:*-aymi
7016:-ū, -ī
6815:/jedo/
6806:/jedu/
6114:absent
6095:Vowels
6048:"and")
6027:*/w~ʋ/
5973:*/ʔ~ʕ/
5965:silent
5941:*/d͡ʒ/
5823:*/ʔ~ʕ/
5815:silent
5691:*/d͡z/
5142:Jewish
5135:Arabic
5125:Hebrew
5049:/ʔħhʕ/
5027:/ħʕhʔ/
4937:balsam
4901:, and
4808:Rachel
4667:gained
4495:voiced
4348:voiced
4259:Nasals
4237:Dental
4219:Uvular
4197:Labial
4163:, and
4100:Samson
3951:אבילים
3847:שעורים
3285:Samekh
3165:Lamedh
2843:Daleth
2662:Jerome
2658:/ħʕhʔ/
2638:עֲשוֹת
2603:Amos 8
2574:/jeːn/
2543:and *s
2396:Gilead
2311:, and
2296:חָרוּץ
2261:Judges
2253:Exodus
2245:Tanakh
2086:, and
2003:שֶׁבַע
1956:עוֹרָב
1947:עוֹרֵב
1937:*/ɣ~ʁ/
1886:חָלוֹם
1850:صَرَخَ
1814:*/x~χ/
1775:צַבָּר
1763:צַבָּר
1718:ضَحِكَ
1716:أَرْض
1578:'two'
1569:ثَلاث
1560:תְּלָת
1502:שְׁלָם
1443:'ten'
1431:עָשָׂר
1262:ذَهَب
1255:דְּכָר
1158:, and
1111:Israel
1107:Israel
1097:. The
1016:Gemara
993:. The
966:. The
964:Canaan
919:Simeon
856:ʿApiru
851:, the
820:יהודית
793:object
789:person
767:aspect
721:. The
677:vowels
620:Isaiah
550:Judean
524:ʿiḇrîṯ
347:
92:Region
17099:Qwara
17094:Kayla
17084:Geʽez
16710:Faifi
16679:Gyeto
16673:Gumer
16666:Chaha
16636:Muher
16619:Soddo
16613:Gafat
16602:Outer
16536:South
16520:Tigre
16510:Geʽez
16503:North
16468:Mehri
16432:South
16349:Punic
16247:Zakho
16189:Suret
15697:South
15570:Names
15546:Ulpan
15541:Study
15391:Meteg
15315:Maqaf
15295:Holam
15285:Pataḥ
15280:Segol
15275:Tzere
15270:Hiriq
15205:Tsadi
15175:Lamed
15150:Zayin
15135:Dalet
15130:Gimel
15072:Rashi
14562:Ariel
14350:S2CID
14264:(PDF)
14247:(PDF)
14075:S2CID
13947::258)
13895::302)
13878::291)
13866::445)
13839::238)
13827::237)
13815::138)
13803::346)
13791::164)
13721::118)
13697::268)
13634::266)
13471::132)
13403::156)
13334::160)
13268::110)
13152::149)
13140::120)
13077::147)
13065::267)
13053::151)
13041::111)
12961::112)
12949::173)
12563::136)
12177::255)
12107::132)
11764::118)
11601::145)
11578::8–9)
11563::6–7)
11500::1–2)
11384:יֵרֶא
11372:יכרֵת
11313:*/-a/
11309:*/-h/
11280::267)
11268:>
11261:אב אח
11177:<
11119::85).
11069:<
11044:/ʃem/
11042:>
11036:/ʃam/
11034:>
11026:>
11018:<
11016:/qen/
10970:This
10955:vīnum
10937:>
10924::117)
10837:עֲלִי
10828:חֲלִי
10819:חֳלִי
10810:אֲנִי
10801:אֳנִי
10768::82).
10739:*/ɔː/
10737:>
10735:*/aː/
10729:<
10725:<
10721:<
10719:/kɔf/
10708:<
10706:/kaf/
10638:/aeo/
10628:Long
10606::147)
10561:/aːi/
10482:הָאָב
10466::56).
10452:/ħ,ʕ/
10448:/χ,ʁ/
10403::118)
10293:רֹאשׁ
10267:דָּאג
10233::220)
10177::105)
10102:Notes
9669:tense
9620:Verbs
9592:אֹהֶל
9582:אוהול
9574:חֵפֶץ
9560:אֶרֶץ
9492:/ha-/
9405:*/-i/
9377:*/-a/
9362:*/-m/
9354:*/-a/
9331:*/-i/
9323:*/-a/
9315:*/-u/
9248:*/aw/
9078:with
8872:a,ɒ,i
8852:usual
8840:e,i,a
8791:e,i,a
8765:usual
8694:usual
8587:/hħʕ/
8542:/i⁓e/
8509:/lab/
8507:>
8497:אֱמֶת
8494:>
8484:/bat/
8477:>
8458:חיצון
8440:אֹמֶר
8425:>
8423:*/aj/
8413:<
8409:<
8386:/ɡer/
8368:/bit/
8350:>
8348:*/oː/
8336:*/aː/
8332:/den/
8319:*/iː/
8306:שלמים
8292:גמלים
8280:המצרי
8261:/rɒb/
8245:/sʼʃ/
8239:>
8231:>
8072:*/iu/
8060:*/aː/
7867:>
7774:>
7772:/-at/
7455:pausa
7418:pausa
7376:/aeo/
7368:/aiu/
7251:*ʔanī
7247:*ʔana
7184:*/eː/
7153:*/aː/
7102:/-aː/
7098:/-ah/
7094:/-t-/
7075:*-āti
7073:<
7067:*-īma
7065:<
7051:-ayni
7043:-ayim
7012:-ayni
6840:דורות
6836:/dor/
6773:/ăɔ̆/
6570:Close
6558:Front
6445:Close
6433:Front
6342:Close
6330:Front
6251:Close
6239:Front
6158:Close
6146:Front
5565:*/dˤ/
5549:*/ɬʼ/
5541:*/sˤ/
5531:*/sˤ/
5521:*/sʼ/
5513:*/ðˤ/
5503:*/tˤ/
5492:*/sˤ/
5486:*/θʼ/
5083:/wjz/
5041:אָמַר
5012:/χ,ʁ/
5008:/θ,ð/
4945:baśam
4827:Ῥαχήλ
4803:Ἰσαάκ
4784:Isaac
4629:Trill
4292:Stops
4214:Velar
4207:Post-
4119:with
4043:יאתום
4037:עליהא
3909:plene
3794:בֵּית
3624:sherd
3611:]
3607:[
3603:]
3599:[
3566:]
3562:[
3530:]
3526:[
3522:]
3518:[
3486:]
3482:[
3450:]
3446:[
3415:Tsade
3408:]
3404:[
3400:]
3396:[
3358:]
3354:[
3350:]
3346:[
3314:]
3310:[
3278:]
3274:[
3236:]
3232:[
3194:]
3190:[
3158:]
3154:[
3150:]
3146:[
3108:]
3104:[
3072:]
3068:[
3036:]
3032:[
3028:]
3024:[
2992:]
2988:[
2963:Zayin
2952:]
2948:[
2916:]
2912:[
2880:]
2876:[
2872:]
2868:[
2836:]
2832:[
2828:]
2824:[
2799:Gimel
2792:]
2788:[
2784:]
2780:[
2748:]
2744:[
2719:Aleph
2705:value
2694:Block
2685:Name
2632:עֲשוֹ
2626:דַעַת
2620:דֵעָה
2605::1–2
2576:<
2562:into
2499:sameḵ
2144:/bat/
2129:>
2127:*/ɬʼ/
2123:*/θʼ/
2117:>
2098:>
2012:سَبْع
2010:عَبْد
1967:غَرْب
1907:حُلْم
1905:مِلْح
1898:חֲלָם
1784:صَبْر
1748:*/sˤ/
1739:*/sˤ/
1731:*/sʼ/
1704:אֶרַע
1679:*/dˤ/
1662:*/ɬʼ/
1649:ظُهْر
1647:ظِلّ
1640:טֹהֶר
1610:*/ðˤ/
1601:*/tˤ/
1592:*/sˤ/
1584:*/θʼ/
1511:سَلام
1509:سَنة
1438:عَشْر
1391:شَهْر
1382:סַהַר
1332:زَمَن
1323:זְמָן
1321:נָיִן
1310:זְמָן
1308:נָיִם
1264:ذَكَر
1243:זָכָר
914:שמעון
838:עברית
771:tense
755:voice
669:term
667:Latin
628:Micah
624:Hosea
16857:Eras
16676:Gura
16670:Ezha
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