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students were all sure they were mostly correct, even when they were not, and some were hesitant when they were in fact correct. He could not figure out specifically why each student had inaccurate testimonies. Cattell suggested that "an unscrupulous attorney" could discredit a witness who is being truthful by asking "cunningly selected questions". Although a jury, or the judge, should know how normal errors are in eyewitness testimonies given different conditions. However, even
Cattell was shocked by the level of incorrectness displayed by his students. Cattell's research has been depicted as the foundation of forensic psychology in the United States. His research is still widely considered a prevailing research interest in legal psychology. It has been thought that in America psychologists have been used as expert witnesses in court testimonies since the early 1920s. Consultation within civil courts was most common, during this time criminal courts rarely consulted with psychologists. Psychologists were not considered medical experts, those who were like, physicians and psychiatrists, in the past were the ones consulted for criminal testimonies. This could be because in criminal cases, the defendant's mental state almost never mattered "As a general rule, only medical men—that is, persons licensed by law to practice the profession of medicine—can testify as experts on the question of insanity; and the propriety of this general limitation is too patent to permit discussion".
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775:; as well as providing education to psychologists in legal issues and providing education to legal personnel on psychological issues. Further, its mandate is to inform the psychological and legal communities, along with the general public, about current research, education, and services in the field of psychology and law. There are similar societies in Britain and Europe.
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994:. No special training nor certification is needed to be a trial consultant, though an advanced degree is generally welcomed by those who would hire the trial consultant. The American Society of Trial Consultants does have a code of ethics for members, but there are no legally binding ethical rules for consultants.
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Some psychologists who work in academics are hired as trial consultants when their expertise can be useful to a particular case. Other psychologists/consultants work for or with established trial consultant firms. The practice of law firms hiring "in-house" trial consultants is becoming more popular,
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Trial consultants perform a variety of services for lawyers, such as picking jurors (usually relying on in-house or published statistical studies) or performing "mock trials" with focus groups. Trial consultants work on all stages of a case from helping to organize testimony, preparing witnesses to
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Legal psychologists may hold advisory roles in court systems. They may advise legal decision makers, particularly judges, on psychological findings pertaining to issues in a case. The psychologist who acts as a court adviser provides similar input to one acting as an expert witness, but acts out of
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or Master of Legal
Studies degree) can be beneficial, most legal psychologists hold only the PhD. In fact, some argue that specialized legal training dilutes the psychological empiricism of the researcher. For instance, to understand how eyewitness memory "works", a psychologist should be concerned
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in university psychology departments, criminal justice departments or law schools. Like other professors, legal psychologists generally conduct and publish empirical research, teach various classes, and mentor graduate and undergraduate students. Many legal psychologists also conduct research in a
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In March 1893 J. McKeen
Cattell posted questions to fifty-six of his students at Columbia University. The questions he asked his students were comparable to those asked in a court of justice. What he found was that it was reasonable to conclude eyewitness accounts of events were unreliable. His
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once called a reliance on statistics "numerology" and discounted results of several empirical studies. Judges who have no formal scientific training also may critique experimental methods, and some feel that judges only cite an amicus brief when the brief supports the judge's personal beliefs.
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Psychologists employed at public policy centers may attempt to influence legislative policy or may be called upon by state (or national) lawmakers to address some policy issue through empirical research. A psychologist working in public policy might suggest laws or help to evaluate a new legal
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with memory processes as a whole, instead of only the aspects relevant to the law (e.g., lineups, accuracy of testimony). To understand false confessions, a psychologist should be familiar with research on decision making, compliance, obedience, persuasion, and other forms of social influence.
1006:, and even arranging "shadow jurors" to watch the trial unfold and provide input on the trial. There is some debate on whether the work of a trial consultant is protected under attorney-client privilege, especially when the consultant is hired by a party in the case and not by an attorney.
846:. In addition, research by legal psychologists is regularly published in more general journals that cover both basic and applied research areas. The Online Jury Research Update (OJRU) regularly summarizes legal psychology research about legal persuasion, jury research and trial advocacy.
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form the field more generally recognized as "psychology and law". Following earlier efforts by psychologists to address legal issues, psychology and law became a field of study in the 1960s, though that originating concern has lessened over time. The multidisciplinary
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has provided briefs concerning mental illness, retardation and other factors. The amicus brief usually contains an opinion backed by scientific citations and statistics. The impact of an amicus brief by a psychological association is questionable. For instance,
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to also be "pro-guilt", etc. Psychologists who focus on clinical issues often testify specifically about a defendant's competence, intelligence, etc. More general testimony about perceptual issues (e.g., adequacy of police sirens) may also come up in trial.
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Psychologists specifically trained in legal issues, as well as those with no formal training, are often called by legal parties to testify as expert witnesses. In criminal trials, an expert witness may be called to testify about eyewitness memory,
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principles within the legal system and its interactions with individuals. Professionals in this area are involved in understanding, assessing, and questioning suspects, evaluating potential jurors, investigating
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more general area of psychology (e.g., social, clinical, cognitive) with only a tangential legal focus. Those legal psychologists who work in law schools almost always hold a
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investigations, and handling other legal contexts. The term "legal psychology" distinguishes this practical branch of psychology from the more theory-oriented field of
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Experts, particularly psychology experts, are often accused of being "hired guns" or "stating the obvious". Eyewitness memory experts, such as
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An overview of the trial consulting process is provided by the
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1109:(1986). The Law Does Not Live on Eyewitness Testimony Alone.
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1065:Dennis R. Fox
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964:Amicus briefs
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728:psychological
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638:Psychologists
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628:Organizations
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556:Consciousness
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63:
60: –
59:
55:
54:Find sources:
48:
44:
38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
2082:Larry Squire
2077:Bruce McEwen
2072:Amos Tversky
2042:Jerome Kagan
2032:Noam Chomsky
1972:Hans Eysenck
1942:Harry Harlow
1922:Erik Erikson
1821:Intelligence
1718:Neuroimaging
1579:
1461:Quantitative
1426:Mathematical
1421:Intelligence
1411:Experimental
1406:Evolutionary
1396:Differential
1305:Psychologist
1228:ASTC Website
1218:
1207:
1184:
1159:
1149:
1130:
1121:
1110:
1102:
1091:. Retrieved
1082:
1071:
1060:
1000:
996:
989:
970:amicus brief
967:
954:
945:
933:
920:
894:
881:
857:
848:
835:
831:
825:
821:
820:, including
815:
808:
782:
745:
723:
722:
581:Intelligence
314:Quantitative
279:Mathematical
274:Intelligence
264:Experimental
259:Evolutionary
249:Differential
105:
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
2154:Disciplines
2127:Susan Fiske
2017:Roger Brown
1917:Carl Rogers
1902:Jean Piaget
1867:Ivan Pavlov
1723:Observation
1703:Experiments
1650:Suicidology
1545:Educational
1500:Anomalistic
1471:Theoretical
1446:Personality
1376:Comparative
1359:Cognitivism
1350:Behaviorism
1188:See, e.g.,
840:criminology
623:Disciplines
496:Suicidology
393:Educational
348:Anomalistic
324:Theoretical
299:Personality
229:Comparative
212:Cognitivism
203:Behaviorism
2252:Categories
2217:Wikisource
2062:Paul Ekman
1897:Kurt Lewin
1791:Competence
1713:Interviews
1693:Case study
1570:Humanistic
1550:Ergonomics
1535:Counseling
1510:Assessment
1492:psychology
1441:Perception
1401:Ecological
1317:psychology
1295:Philosophy
1279:Psychology
1116:, 279-280.
1093:2007-09-12
1052:References
897:professors
842:, and the
789:competency
761:psychology
551:Competence
418:Humanistic
398:Ergonomics
383:Counseling
358:Assessment
294:Perception
254:Ecological
130:Psychology
69:newspapers
2237:Wikibooks
2227:Wikiquote
2097:Ed Diener
1882:Carl Jung
1786:Cognition
1615:Political
1525:Community
1355:Cognitive
1002:testify,
546:Cognition
461:Political
373:Community
208:Cognitive
158:Subfields
99:July 2019
2232:Wikinews
2189:Timeline
1811:Feelings
1806:Emotions
1766:Behavior
1757:Concepts
1635:Religion
1620:Positive
1610:Pastoral
1595:Military
1560:Forensic
1555:Feminist
1540:Critical
1530:Consumer
1520:Coaching
1515:Clinical
1490:Applied
1386:Cultural
1325:Abnormal
1193:Archived
1067:(1999).
1010:See also
818:journals
773:research
771:through
737:forensic
658:Timeline
571:Feelings
566:Emotions
526:Behavior
520:Concepts
481:Religion
466:Positive
456:Pastoral
441:Military
408:Forensic
403:Feminist
388:Critical
378:Consumer
368:Coaching
363:Clinical
239:Cultural
178:Abnormal
2164:Outline
1660:Traffic
1655:Systems
1590:Medical
1416:Gestalt
1290:History
1177:Website
1169:Website
633:Outline
506:Traffic
501:Systems
436:Medical
269:Gestalt
153:History
148:Outline
83:scholar
2194:Topics
1640:School
1565:Health
1466:Social
1369:Social
1315:Basic
1300:Portal
1171:) and
834:, and
733:crimes
663:Topics
486:School
413:Health
319:Social
222:Social
85:
78:
71:
64:
56:
2141:Lists
1600:Music
1585:Media
1580:Legal
1431:Moral
1077:9-30.
1075:, 23,
609:Lists
446:Music
431:Media
427:Legal
284:Moral
90:JSTOR
76:books
1826:Mind
1114:, 10
767:and
586:Mind
62:news
906:PhD
860:PhD
765:law
45:by
2254::
1226:,
1199:,
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